data analysis and report wring in research (Section d)
- 1. Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives). The Data Processing operations are: 1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. 2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved a) Classification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the basis of common characteristics which can either be : descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or numerical such as weight, height, income etc.
- 2. Such classification can be either: 1. Simple classification: where we consider only one attribute, and divide the universe into two classes—one class consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute. Eg. Hotel Employees with MBA Degree Yes No Total MBA Degree 21 9 30 2. Manifold classification: Here we consider two or more attributes simultaneously, and divide the data into a number of classes. Eg.Educational Qualification of Hotel Employees Yes No Total M F M F M F MBA Degree 12 9 3 6 15 15 B.Sc. H&HA 15 15 0 0 15 15
- 3. b) Classification according to class –intervals: is done with data relating to income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such quantitative data are known as the statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class –intervals. e.g. persons whose income are within Rs 2001 to Rs 4000 can form one group or class, those with income within Rs 4001 t0 Rs 6000 can form another group or class and so on. The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class. Pocket Money Received by IHM Students Income Range Frequency % Rs.1001-2000 10 50 Rs.2001-3000 8 40 Rs.3001-4000 2 10 Total 20 100
- 4. 3. Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because: a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum. b) It facilitates the process of comparison. c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions. d) It provides the basis for various statistical computations. Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data only. Complex tabulation usually results on two-way tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data), three – way tables or still higher order tables, also known as manifold tables.
- 5. Qualitative Data Analysis: Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For this purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called Content Analysis. Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main themes that emerge from the responses given by the respondents .This process involves a number of steps: Step 1. Identify the main themes. Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes. Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes. Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report.
- 6. Quantitative Data Analysis This method is most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys using properly constructed and worded questionnaire. Data can be analysed either manually or with the help of a computer . 1. Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small, and there are not many variables to analyse. However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies and for simple cross tabulations. Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question numbers can be written on each column to code information about the question.
- 7. To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and then decode them. In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated manually. However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire/need to communicate the findings in a certain way. 2. Data Analysis Using a Computer: If you want to analyze data using computer, you should be familiar with the appropriate program. In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an important role. The most common software is SPSS for windows. However, data input can be long and laborious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.
- 8. Beginning researchers may find the writing style used for research reports awkward or unaesthetic, but there is a definite purpose behind the rules governing scientific writing: clarity. Every effort must be made to avoid ambiguity. Most research reports, however, include only five basic sections or chapters: introduction literature review methods results discussion.
- 9. The introduction should alert the reader to what is to follow. Most introductions usually contain the following: 1. Statement of the problem. The first job of the report writer is to provide some information about the background and the nature of the problem under investigation. If the research topic has a long history, then a short summary is in order. This section should also discuss any relevant theoretical background that pertains to the research topic. 2. Justification. Another important area to be covered in this initial section is the rationale and justification for the project. This section should address the question of why it is important for us to spend time and energy researching this particular problem. Research can be important because it deals with a crucial theoretical issue, because it has practical value, or because it has methodological value. 3. Aims of the current study. Most introductory sections conclude with an unequivocal statement of the hypothesis or research question to be answered by the study.
- 10. The second major section is the review of the literature. In some formats, the literature review is incorporated into the introduction. As the name suggests, the literature review section briefly recapitulates the work done in the field. This review need not be exhaustive; the writer should summarize only those studies most relevant to the current project. All literature reviews should be accurate and relevant. 1. Accuracy A concise and accurate distillation of each study in your review is a prerequisite for any literature review. The main points of each study— hypotheses that were tested, sample, method, findings, and implications— should be briefly summarized. The review should be selective but thorough. 2. Relevance A literature review should be more than a rote recitation of research studies. It must also contain analysis and synthesis. The writer is obligated to discuss the relevance of the past work to the current study. What theoretic development can be seen in past work? What major conclusions have recurred? What were some common problems? How do the answers to these questions relate to the current study? The ultimate aim of the review is to show how your study evolved out of past efforts and how the prior research provides a justification for your study.
- 11. The methods section describes the approach used to confront the research problem. Some of the topics that are usually mentioned in this section are as follows. 1. Variables used in the analysis : This includes a description of both independent and dependent variables, explaining how the variables were selected for the study, what marker variables, if any, were included, and how extraneous variables were controlled. Each variable also requires some justification for its use — variables cannot be added without reason. The mean and the standard deviation for each variable should be reported when necessary. 2. Sample size The researcher should state the number of subjects or units of study and also explain how these entities were selected. Additionally, any departure from normal randomization must be described in detail. 3. Sample characteristics The sample should also be described in terms of its demographic, lifestyle, or other descriptor characteristics. When human subjects are used, at least their age and sex should be indicated.
- 12. 4. Methodology Every research report requires a description of the methods used to collect and analyze data. The amount of methodological description to be included depends on the audience; articles written for journals, for instance, must contain more detailed information than reports prepared in private sector research. 5. Data manipulation Often the collected data are not normally distributed, and researchers must use data transformation to achieve an approximation of normality. If such a procedure is used, a full explanation should be given.
- 13. The results section contains the findings of the research. It typically contains the following: 1. Description of the analysis The statistical techniques used to analyze the data should be mentioned. If the analysis used common or easily recognized statistics, a one-sentence description might be all that is needed, such as "Chi-square analyses were performed on the data" or "Analysis of variance was performed….."If appropriate, the particular statistical program used by the researcher should be identified. Finally, this part should include an overview of what is to follow: "This section is divided into two parts. We will first report the results of the analysis of variance and then the results of the regression analysis."
- 14. 2. Description of findings The findings should be tied to the statement of the hypotheses or research questions mentioned in the introduction. The author should clearly state whether the results supported the hypotheses or whether the research questions were answered. Next, any peripheral findings can be reported. Many researchers and journal editors suggest that interpretation and discussion of findings be omitted from this section and that the writer should stick solely to the bare facts. Others think that this section should contain more than numbers, suggesting the implications of the findings as well. In fact, for some short research articles, this section is sometimes called "Findings and Discussion." The choice of what model to follow depends upon the purpose of the report and the avenue of publication. 3. Tables Tables, charts, graphs, and other data displays should be presented parsimoniously and, if the article is being submitted to a journal, in the proper format. Remember that many readers turn first to the tables and may not read the accompanying text; consequently, tables should be explicit and easily understood by themselves.
- 15. The last section of a research report is the discussion. The contents of this section are highly variable but the following elements are common. 1. Summary A synopsis of the main findings of the study often leads off this section. 2. Implications/discussion/interpretations This is the part of the report that discusses the meaning of the findings. If the findings are in line with current theory and research, the writer should include a statement of how they correspond with what was done in the past. If the findings contradict or do not support current theory, then some explanation for the current pattern of results is provided.
- 16. 3. Limitations The conclusions of the study should be tempered by a report of some of its constraints. Perhaps the sample was limited or the response rate was low or the experimental manipulation was not as clean as it could have been. In any case, the researcher should list some of the potential weaknesses of the research. 4. Suggestions for future research In addition to answering questions, most research projects uncover new questions to be investigated. The suggestions for research should be relevant and practical.