Research Methods For Business A Skill Building Approach 7th Edition Sekaran Test Bank

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DESCRIPTION
Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach is a concise and straightforward
introduction for students to the world of business research. The skill-building approach
provides students with practical perspectives on how research can be applied in real
business situations. Maintaining Uma Sekaran’ s popular and accessible style of writing,
Roger Bougie draws upon his extensive experience in the field to present an up-to-date
guide on business research which is ideal for aspiring managers.
The seventh edition has been fully revised and updated to include cutting-edge examples
and enriched pedagogical features designed to improve student learning outcomes. There
is now an increased emphasis on the relationship between the scientific and the pragmatic
approaches to research, while the key concepts are explored and applied to real-life
research throughout the book.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
About the Authors xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxiii
1 Introduction to research 1
Introduction 1
Types of business research: applied and basic 5
Managers and research 8
Internal versus external consultants/researchers 10
Knowledge about research and managerial effectiveness 12
Ethics and business research 13
Summary 13
Discussion questions 14
Case: The Laroche Candy Company 15
2 the scientific approach and alternative approaches to investigation 18

Introduction 18
The hallmarks of scientific research 19
The hypothetico-deductive method 23
Alternative approaches to research 28
Summary 30
3 Defining and refining the problem 33
Introduction 33
The broad problem area 33
Preliminary research 37
Defining the problem statement 39
The research proposal 45
Managerial implications 47
Ethical issues in the preliminary stages of investigation 47
Summary 48
4 the critical literature review 51
Introduction 51
How to approach the literature review 54
Ethical issues 59
Summary 60
Practice project 62
Appendix 63
Some online resources useful for business research 63

Bibliographical databases 66
Apa format for referencing relevant articles 66
Referencing and quotation in the literature review section 69
5 theoretical framework and hypothesis development 71
Introduction 71
The need for a theoretical framework 72
Variables 72
How theory is generated 81
Hypothesis development 83
Directional and nondirectional hypotheses 84
Null and alternate hypotheses 85
Summary 91
Practice project 94
6 elements of research design 95
Introduction 95
The research design 95
Elements of research design 96
Extent of researcher interference with the study 99
Study setting: contrived and noncontrived 100
Unit of analysis: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures 102
Time horizon: cross-sectional versus longitudinal studies 104
Mixed methods 106
Trade-offs and compromises 107

Summary 108
7 Interviews 111
Introduction 111
Primary data collection methods 111
Interviews 113
Training interviewers 116
Some tips to follow when interviewing 117
Advantages and disadvantages of interviews 123
Summary 123
8 Data collection methods: observation 126
Introduction 126
Definition and purpose of observation 127
Four key dimensions that characterize the type of observation 127
Two important approaches to observation 130
Advantages and disadvantages of observation 137
Summary 139
9 Administering questionnaires 142
Introduction 142
Types of questionnaires 142
Guidelines for questionnaire design 145
International dimensions of surveys 155

Review of the advantages and disadvantages of different Data collection methods and when to
use each 157
Multimethods of data collection 158
Ethics in data collection 159
Summary 160
10 experimental designs 165
Introduction 165
The lab experiment 167
The field experiment 172
External and internal validity in experiments 172
Types of experimental design and validity 179
Simulation 184
Ethical issues in experimental design research 185
Summary 187
Appendix: Further experimental designs 190
11 Measurement of variables: operational definition 193
Introduction 193
How variables are measured 193
Operational definition (operationalization) 195
International dimensions of operationalization 204
Summary 204

12 Measurement: scaling, reliability and validity 206
Introduction 206
Four types of scales 207
Rating scales 213
Ranking scales 218
International dimensions of scaling 219
Goodness of measures 220
Reflective versus formative measurement scales 225
Summary 226
Appendix: Examples of some measures 229
13 sampling 235
Introduction 235
Sample data and population values 237
The sampling process 239
Probability sampling 242
Nonprobability sampling 247
Intermezzo: examples of when certain sampling designs would be appropriate 252
Issues of precision and confidence in determining sample size 257
Sample data and hypothesis testing 260
The sample size 261
Sampling as related to qualitative studies 265
Summary 266

14 Quantitative data analysis 271
Introduction 271
Getting the data ready for analysis 273
Getting a feel for the data 278
Excelsior enterprises: descriptive statistics part 1 287
Testing the goodness of measures 289
Excelsior enterprises: descriptive statistics part 2 293
Summary 296
15 Quantitative data analysis: Hypothesis testing 300
Introduction 300
Type i errors, type ii errors, and statistical power 301
Choosing the appropriate statistical technique 302
Excelsior enterprises: hypothesis testing 323
Data warehousing, data mining, and operations research 326
Some software packages useful for data analysis 327
Summary 328
16 Qualitative data analysis 332
Introduction 332
Three important steps in qualitative data analysis 332
Reliability and validity in qualitative research 348
Some other methods of gathering and analyzing qualitative data 350
Big data 351
Summary 351

17 The research report 353
Introduction 353
The written report 354
Contents of the research report 357
Oral presentation 363
Summary 366
Appendix: Examples 368
Report 1: sample of a report involving a descriptive study 368
Report 2: sample of a report offering alternative solutions and explaining the pros and cons of
each alternative 371
Report 3: example of an abridged basic research report 373
A Final Note to Students 377
Statistical Tables 379
Glossary 389
Bibliography 399
Index 407

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deal. Far from being light work, however, this is actually equal to the
work of raising a weight of 1 ton a foot high. Let us prove the fact.
Suppose the tube or cylinder to be square instead of round, and that
its surface is exactly 1 square inch, how can we give 1700 times the
room which is occupied by the water? It is plain that the piston must
rise 1700 inches in the 1-inch cylinder or tube, carrying with it, as
before, its weight of 15 lbs.—that is, it has raised 15 lbs. 1700
inches, or about 142 feet. But this is the same as 15 times 142 feet
raised 1 foot, which is 2130 lbs. raised 1 foot, very nearly a ton, the
latter being 2240 lbs. So, after all, you see that our little cubic inch
of water is a very good labourer, doing a great deal of work if we
supply him with sufficient warmth.
Now this is exactly the principle of the ordinary steam-engine: we
have a cylinder in which a piston is very nicely fitted, and we put this
cylinder in connection with a boiler, the steam from which drives the
piston from one end of the cylinder to the other. In the first engine
that was made, the cylinder actually occupied the very position it
does in our sketch; it was made to stand upon the top of the boiler,
a tap being added in the short pipe below the cylinder, so that the
steam could be admitted or shut off at pleasure. But it is plain that
although our little engine has done some work, it has stopped at a
certain point; there is the piston at the top, and it cannot go any
farther; we must get it down again before it can repeat its labour.
How would you do this, boys? Push it down, eh? If you did, you
would find it spring up again when you removed your hand, just as if
there were underneath it a coiled steel spring; by which, however,
you would learn practically what is meant by the elasticity of steam.
Besides this, if you push it down, you become the workman, and the
engine is only the passive recipient of your own labour. Try another
plan; remove the lamp, and see the result—gradually, very gradually,
the piston begins to descend.
Take a squirt or syringe, and squirt cold water against the
apparatus. Presto! down it goes, now very quickly indeed, and is
soon at the bottom of the cylinder. But we may as well try to get

useful work done by the descent of the piston as well as by its
ascent.
Set it up like Fig. 56, E. Here is a rod or beam, b a c, the middle of
which is supported like that of a pair of scales. From one end we
hang a scale, and place in it 15 lbs.; and as the piston sinks the
weight is raised, and exactly the same work is done as before. Thus
was the first engine constructed; but instead of the scale-pan and
weight, a pump-rod was attached, and as the piston descended in
the cylinder this rod was raised, and the water drawn from the well.
This, however, was not called a steam-engine, because the work is
not really the effect of the steam, which is only used to produce
what is called a vacuum (i.e., an empty space, devoid of air) under
the piston. In fact, the up-stroke of the piston was only partly
caused by steam, and the rod of the pump was weighted, which
helped to draw it up.
I must get you to understand this clearly, so that the principle may
become plain—“clear as mud,” as Paddy would say. I told you that
the air pressed on every square inch of surface with a force of about
15 lbs. We do not feel it, because we are equally pressed on all sides
—from within as well as from without—so that atmospheric pressure
is balanced. Sometimes this is a very good thing. We should, I think,
hardly like to carry about the huge weight pressing upon our
shoulders, if something did not counteract it for us, so that we
cannot feel it. Indeed, if it were otherwise, we should become flat as
pancakes in no time—“totally chawed up.”
But sometimes we should prefer to get rid of the air altogether—
and I can tell you it is not easy to do so, unless we put something
into its place; and we want perhaps simply to get rid of it, and make
use of the room it occupied. We require to do this in the present
instance, and in fact we have just done it. If the whole space below
the piston, when we begin to work, is filled with water, it is plain
there can be no air below it; and when the steam has raised it, there
is still no air below it, but only steam. We then apply cold to the
cylinder by removing the lamp and squirting cold water against it,

which has the effect of reducing the steam to water again, which will
occupy 1 inch of space only. We, therefore, now have a space of
1600 cubic inches with neither air nor water in it; and so, if the
piston is 1 inch in size, there will be the 15 lb. pressure of the
atmosphere upon it, and nothing below to balance it, for we have
formed a vacuum below it, and of course this 15 lb. weight will press
it rapidly down. It did so; and we therefore were enabled to raise 15
lb. in the scale-pan. You will know, therefore, henceforth, exactly
what I mean by a vacuum and atmospheric pressure. It is, you see,
the latter which does the work when a vacuum is formed as above;
but you can easily understand that it might be possible to use both
the atmospheric pressure and the pressure of steam as well, which
is done in the condensing steam-engine.
In the earliest engine, called the Atmospheric for the reason above
stated, the top of the cylinder was left entirely open, as in our
sketch; but the condensing water was not applied outside the
cylinder, but descended from a cistern above, and formed a little jet
or fountain in the bottom of the cylinder at the very moment that
the piston reached its highest point. Down it, therefore, came,
drawing up the pump-rod. When at the bottom the jet of water
ceased. Steam was again formed below the piston, which raised it as
before; and the process being repeated, the required work was
done. A boy, to turn a couple of taps, to let on or off the water or
steam, was all the attendance required.
For some time the atmospheric engine, the invention of
Newcomen, was the only one in general use; and even this was, in
those days (1705-1720), so difficult to construct that its great power
was comparatively seldom resorted to, even for pumping, for which
it was nevertheless admirably suited. The huge cylinder required to
be accurately bored, while there were no adequate means of doing
such work; and although the piston was “packed,” by being wound
round with hemp, it was difficult to keep it sufficiently tight, yet at
the same time to give it adequate “play.” Then, another drawback
appeared, which, though of less importance in some districts,
absolutely prevented the introduction of this engine into many parts

of the country. The consumption of coal was enormous in proportion
to the power gained. We can easily understand the reason of this,
when we consider the means used for producing a vacuum in the
cylinder below the piston. The water introduced for the purpose,
chilled, not only the steam, but cylinder and piston also; and
therefore, before a second stroke could be made, these had to be
again heated to the temperature of boiling water. The coal required
for the latter purpose was therefore wasted, causing a dead loss to
the proprietor.
So matters continued for some time, until a mathematical
instrument-maker of Glasgow, named Watt, about the year 1760,
began to turn his attention to the subject; and having to repair a
model of Newcomen’s engine belonging to the University of
Glasgow, the idea seems to have first struck him of condensing the
steam in a separate vessel, so as to avoid cooling the cylinder after
each upward stroke of the piston. This was the grand secret which
gave the first impetus to the use of steam-engines; and from that
day to this these mighty workmen, whose muscles and sinews never
become weary, have been gradually attaining perfection. Yet it may
be fairly stated that the most modern form of condensing engine in
use is but an improvement upon Watt’s in details of construction and
accuracy of workmanship. For Watt did not stand still in his work;
but after having devised a separate condenser, he further suggested
the idea of closing the top of the cylinder, which had hitherto been
left open to the influence of the atmosphere; and rejecting the latter
as the means of giving motion to the piston, he made use of the
expansive power of steam on each side of the piston alternately,
while a vacuum was also alternately produced on either side of it by
the condensation of the steam.
The atmospheric engine was thus wholly displaced. The saving of
fuel in the working of the machine was so great, that the stipulation
of the inventor, that one-third of the money so saved should be his,
raised him from comparative poverty to affluence in a very short
time. Watt, however, had still to contend with great difficulties in the
actual construction of his engines. He was in the same “fix” as some

of my young readers, who are very desirous to make some small
model, but have little else than a pocket-knife and gimblet to do it
with. For there were no large steam-lathes, slide-rests, planing and
boring machines, procurable in those days, and even the heaviest
work had to be done by hand, if indeed those can be called hand-
tools which had frequently to be sat upon to keep them up to cut. It
was therefore impossible for Watt to carry out his designs with
anything like accuracy of workmanship, else it is probable that he
would have advanced the steam-engine even further towards
perfection than he did. In spite of these drawbacks, however, this
great inventor lived to see his merits universally acknowledged, and
to witness the actual working of very many of these wonderful and
useful machines.
The first necessity which occurred from closing the cylinder at
both ends was the devising some means to allow the piston-rod to
pass and repass through one end without permitting the steam to
escape. This was effected by a stuffing-box, which is represented in
Fig. 57, A, B,—the first being a sectional drawing, which you must
learn to understand, as it is the only way to show the working details
of any piece of machinery. We have here a cylinder cover, a, which
bolts firmly to the top of the cylinder, there being a similar one
(generally without any stuffing-box) at the other end or bottom of
the same. On the top of this you will observe another piece, which is
marked b, and which is indeed part of the first and cast in one piece
with it. Through the cylinder cover, a, is bored a hole of the exact
size of the rod attached to the piston, which has to pass through it,
but which hole, however well made, would allow the steam to leak
considerably during the working of the piston-rod.

Fig. 57.
To obviate this, the part b is bored out larger, and has a cup-
shaped cavity formed in it, as you will see by inspecting the
drawings. Into this cavity fits the gland, c, which also has a hole in
it, to allow of the passage of the piston-rod. This gland is made to fit
into the cavity in b as accurately as possible; and it can be held by
bolts as in the fig. A, or be screwed on the surface as shown at B, in
which latter case the greater part of the interior of b is screwed with
a similar thread. The piston-rod being in place, hemp is wound
round it (or india-rubber packing-rings are fitted over it), and the
gland is then fitted in upon it, and screwed down, thus squeezing
the hemp or rubber tightly, and compelling it to embrace the piston-
rod so closely, that leakage of steam is wholly prevented. Whenever
you have, therefore, to prevent steam or water escaping round a
similar moving-rod in modelling pumps or engines, you will have to
effect it in this way. The piston was also packed with hemp or tow,
either loosely-plaited or simply wound round the metal in a groove

formed for the purpose. In Fig. 57, C and D, I have added drawings
of a piston, so made, partly for the purpose of again explaining the
nature of sectional drawings. In this one, C, you are shown the end
of the piston-rod passing through the piston, and fastened by a
screwed nut below, a shoulder preventing the rod from being drawn
through by the action of this nut. The hemp packing is also shown in
section, but in the drawing D the groove is left for the sake of
clearness.
In all your smaller models you will have to pack your piston in this
way, except in those where you entirely give up all idea of power.
The little engines, for example, sold at $1 and upwards, with
oscillating cylinders, have neither packed pistons nor stuffing-boxes;
the friction of those would stop them, and escape of steam is of no
great consequence. It will, however, be found advantageous to turn
a few shallow grooves round these unpacked pistons after they have
been made to fit their cylinders as accurately as possible, like fig. C.
These fill with water from the condensation of steam, which always
occurs at first until the engine gets hot; and thus a kind of packing is
made which is fairly effectual.
In Fig. 58 I have given a drawing of Newcomen’s engine, in case
you would like to make a model of one; but I do not think it will
repay you as well for your labour as some others. There is the
difficulty of the cistern of cold water and the waste-well; and the
condensation of the steam is a troublesome affair in a small model,
so that, on the whole, I should not recommend you to begin your
attempts at model-making with the construction of one of these. I
shall, however, add a few directions for this work, because what I
have to say about boring, screwing, and so forth, will apply to all
other models you may desire to construct.
The cylinder, in this case, will be more easily made by obtaining a
piece of brass tubing, which can be had of any size, from 3 or 4
inches diameter to the size of a small quill. The first you will often
use for boilers, the latter for steam or water pipes. You can also
obtain at the model makers—Bateman, for instance, of High Holborn

—small taps and screws, and cocks for the admission of water and
steam, and all kinds of little requisites which you would find great
difficulty in making, and which would cost you more in spoiling and
muddling than you would spend in buying them ready made.
Fig. 58.
The drawing is given on purpose to show the best and easiest
arrangement for a model. It has all parts, therefore, arranged with a
view to simplicity. A is the boiler made of a piece of 3-inch brass
tubing, as far as a, b, c, d, the bottom being either of brass or

copper at the level of a, b; the upper domed part may be made by
hammering a piece of sheet brass, copper, or even tin, with a round-
ended boxwood mallet upon a hollowed boxwood block, of which T,
T is a section. You should make one of these if it is your intention to
make models your hobby, as it will enable you to do several jobs of
the same kind as the present. Probably you will not be able to make
the dome semicircular, or rather hemispherical; but at all events,
make it as deeply cupped as you can—after which, turn down the
extreme edge one-sixteenth of an inch all round to fit the cupped
part exactly. This requires a good deal of care and some skill. If you
find that you cannot manage it, make your boiler with a flat top
instead. Whichever way you make it, a very good joint to connect
the parts is that shown in section at V.[2] The edge of the lower part
is turned outwards all round; that of the upper part is also turned
outwards, first of all to double the width of the other, and is then
bent over again, first with a pair of pliers and afterwards with a
hammer, a block or support being placed underneath it. All this is
done by the manufacturer with a stamping machine on purpose, and
would be completed by the Birmingham brass-workers before I could
write the description. It can, however, be done without any more
tools than shown.
You will often need a tinman’s boxwood mallet with one rounded
end and one flat one, which, of course, you can now turn for
yourself, as it is an easy bit of work. With the rounded end you can
cup any round piece of tin; but it requires gentle work; do it
gradually by hammering the centre more than the edges. I will show
you presently how to do similar work by spinning in the lathe, which
is a curious but tolerably easy method of making hollow articles of
many kinds from round discs of metal without any seam.
After you have hammered the joint of the upper and middle parts
together, you must solder them all round with tinman’s solder. For
this purpose you require a soldering-iron represented at W. This is a
rod of iron, flattened and split at the end, holding between the
forked part a piece of copper, which is secured to the iron by rivets. I

should not recommend a heavy one, not so heavy nearly as what
you may see at any blacksmith’s or tinman’s shop, because your
work will be generally light, and such irons are all top heavy to use.
The end, which may be curved over as shown, will require to be
tinned, for without this it will not work at all well. File the end bright,
and heat it in the fire nearly red hot. Get a common brick, and with
an old knife or anything else, make a hollow place in it—a kind of
long-cupped recess like a mussel shell, if you know what that is, and
put a little rosin into it. Take your iron from the fire, and holding it
down close to the brick, touch it with a strip of solder, which will
melt and run into the cavity. Now rub the iron well in the solder and
rosin, rub it pretty hard upon the brick, and presently you will see it
covered with bright solder, from which wipe what remains in drops
with a piece of tow. The iron is now fit for immediate use; but
remember, the first time you heat it red-hot, you will burn off the
tinning, and you must file it bright again, and repeat the process. So
when you want to solder, heat the iron in a clean fire, until, when
you hold it a foot from your nose, you find it pretty warm; and avoid
a red heat. You will now find, that when the soldering-iron is hot, it
will not only melt but pick up the drop of solder; and as you draw it
slowly along a joint (previously sprinkled with powdered rosin, or
wetted with chloride of zinc, or with Baker’s soldering fluid), the
solder will gradually leave the iron, and attach itself to the work in a
thinly-spread, even coat.
The secret of soldering is to have the iron well-heated, and wiped
clean with a bit of tow, and to apply it along the joint so slowly and
steadily that the tin or other metal will become hot enough just to
melt solder. Try to solder, for instance, a thick lump of brass; file it
bright if at all tarnished—for this must invariably be done with all
metals. You will be unable to do it at first, for the moment the solder
touches it, it will be chilled, and rest in lumps, which you can knock
off directly when cold. Now place the brass on the fire for a few
seconds until hot, and try again; the solder will flow readily as the
iron passes along it, for it is kept up to the melting-point until it has
fairly adhered. This is why in heavy work a large iron is required; it

retains heat longer, and imparts more of it to the metal to be
soldered. But you will find it often better to use a light soldering-
iron, and to place the brass-casting upon the bar of the grate for a
short time. You may, indeed, often work without any soldering-iron
as follows:—
Heat the pieces to be soldered (suppose them castings and not
thin sheets of metal) until they will melt solder. Take a stick of the
latter, and just dip it in one of the soldering solutions named, and
rub it upon the work previously brightened. The solder will adhere to
both such pieces. Now, while still hot, put them together and screw
in a vice, or keep them pinched in any way for a few minutes, and
you will find them perfectly secured. In making chucks for the lathe,
and in forming many parts of your models, you will find it
advantageous to work in this way; but, notwithstanding, you will
often require a light soldering-iron, and sometimes also a blowpipe,
which I shall likewise teach you to use, as also how to make a neat
little fireplace or furnace to stand on your bench by which to heat
the iron.
I must now suppose that you have carefully soldered the dome to
the middle of your boiler; and as the solder will be underneath, the
joint will be concealed even if (as is likely) you should not have
made a very neat piece of work. Before you put on the bottom of
the boiler, you will have to make two holes in the top—one for the
steam-pipe three-eighths of an inch in diameter, the other for the
safety-valve also three-eighths—because this will require a plug of
brass to be soldered in, which plug will have a hole drilled through it
of a quarter of an inch diameter. These may be punched through
from the inside, or drilled; they are easily made, but should be as
round and even as possible.
Take a piece of three-eighths-inch tubing, with a stop-cock
soldered into the middle of it. I shall suppose you have bought this.
It need not be over an inch in length altogether; and you must put it
through the hole in the top of the boiler, and solder it round on the
inside of the same. The nearer you can get the stop-cock to the

bottom of the cylinder the better the engine will work, because the
steam will have to rise through whatever water is left in this pipe
from the jet used to cool the steam. You will see that it cannot run
off by the pipe C into the pump well, like that which collects in the
cylinder itself. In a real engine the steam-tap was a flat plate which
slid to and fro sideways, level with the bottom of the cylinder; but
this you would not make easily at present.
The plug for the safety-valve you must turn out of a little lump of
brass. It must be about three-eighths of an inch long; and you must
drill a quarter-inch hole through it, and countersink one end of the
hole (that is, make it wider and conical by turning a rosebit or larger
drill round in it a few times), to make a nice seat, as it is called, for
the valve itself, which need not be now attended to. Remember you
can buy at Bateman’s, or any model-maker’s in London, beautiful
safety-valves ready-made, as well as any part of a model engine that
you cannot make yourself; and indeed it is so far a good plan at first
that it saves you from becoming tired and disgusted with your work,
owing to repeated failures. If you buy them, therefore, you must do
so before you make the holes above alluded to, but in some respects
it will be more to your advantage to try and make all the details for
yourself. I cannot call it making an engine, if, like many, you buy all
the parts and have little left to do but screw them, or solder them,
together. Don’t do this, or you will never become a modeller.
Your boiler from c to a is, in height, maybe 2 inches, the dome 1½
or thereabout. This will slip inside the part that you see in the
drawing, and which I here sketch again separately.[3]

Fig. 59.
A is the boiler lifted out of B, the outer case or stand, which you
can make out of tin, and paint to imitate bricks. It is almost a pity to
waste sheet-brass upon it, because it is not very important, its
object being only to carry the boiler. It is like D before being folded
round and fastened (not with solder, which would soon melt, but) by
a double fold of the joint, similar to that which you made round the
boiler itself, but turned over once more and hammered down. The
holes are punched with any round or square punch with a flat end,

and are intended to give more air to the lamp C, which should have
three wicks, or two at the least, to keep up a good supply of steam.
I have shown the flat piece of tin with three legs only, which is as
well as if it were made with four; but you can please yourself in this
matter.
The lamp I need hardly tell you how to make, for it is easier than
the boiler, being merely a round tin box, in the top of which are
soldered three little bits of brass tube for the wicks, and a fourth for
the oil to be poured in—the latter being stopped with a cork.
You should remember that no soldered work, like the inside of the
boiler, must come in contact with the heat of the lamp, unless it has
water about it, because if the water should at any time entirely boil
away, the boiler will leak and be spoiled. A little care in this respect
will insure the preservation of a model engine for a long time; but
boys generally destroy them quickly by careless treatment.
Let us now turn our attention to the cylinder. Cut off a piece of
three-quarter-inch brass tube, 2½ inches in length—you can do this
with a three-square file—mount it in the lathe by making a chuck
like Fig. 59, E, of wood, the flange of which is just able to go tightly
into one end of the tube. The other end will probably centre upon
the conical point of the back poppit, over which it will go for only a
certain distance. If your back centre will not answer on account of
its small size, you must make a similar flange to go into the other
end; but take care that when the back centre is placed against it, it
runs truly. If the chuck is well made, it will do so. You can now with
any pointed tool turn off the ends of the tube quite squarely to the
side; but you should only waste one-quarter of an inch altogether,
leaving it 2¼ inches long. When this is done, take it out of the lathe,
and in place of it, mount a disc of brass rather more than one-eighth
of an inch thick, or if you have none at hand, take an old half-penny
or penny piece, which is of copper, and lay it upon the flat face of a
wooden chuck, driving four nails round its edge to hold it, and with a
point-tool cut out neatly the centre, of a size to fit inside your tube.
You will scarcely, however, effect this perfectly without further

turning; so take care to cut it too large; but before you cut it
completely through, make the hole for the tube which you soldered
into the top of the boiler, which is three-eighths diameter. This you
can do beautifully in the lathe with a pointed tool, or with a drill,
centred against the point of the back poppit, as I showed you
before.
Cut the disc quite out (too large, mind) and then turn a spindle
like G, mount the disc upon it as shown, by its central hole, and turn
the edge with a graver or flat tool, such as is used for brass, until it
will exactly fit the brass tube. You can cut out round discs of one-
eighth or one-fourth sheet-brass by mounting any square piece on a
wooden face chuck, keeping it down by four nails or screws, and
then with a point-tool cutting a circle in it until the disc falls out. You
will often save time by so doing. You now have a disc of brass or
copper with a hole three-eighths of an inch wide in it; and as the
disc is three-fourths of an inch in diameter (i.e., six-eighths), you will
have three-eighths remaining, or three-sixteenths, each way on the
diameter between the edge of the hole and that of the disc. This will
just give room for the two small holes required, one on each side of
the central one, for the pipes from the cold-water cistern and to the
well below the pump. These must both be of brass; and the first
should be turned up and end in a jet, like a blowpipe, so as to make
the water rise in a spray under the piston; the other should be as
long as can be conveniently arranged.
The bottom of the cold-water cistern is drawn a little above the
top of the cylinder, which is 2¼ inches high. A jet would theoretically
rise in the cylinder to nearly the height of the level of water in the
cistern; but with a small pipe, and other drawbacks inseparable from
a model, you must not reckon on more than about half that height,
which should be sufficient to condense the steam. The piston had
better be nicely fitted, but not packed. You cut a disc of brass as
before, drill the hole for the piston, make a spindle, or put in the
piston-rod, and centre this as a spindle, which is the best plan, and
then with a flat brass tool turn the piston accurately to fit the tube.
Or, if you think it easier, or wish to fasten the piston with a nut, as

drawn, you can, if you like, turn it on a separate spindle; and thirdly,
you may tap the hole in the piston, and screw the end of the piston-
rod. The great thing to attend to is, to turn the edge of the piston
square to the sides.
For the piston-rod, a steel knitting needle or piece of straight iron
wire will do very well; but it will have to be flattened at the upper
end, or screwed into a little piece of brass, which must be sawn
across to make a fork by which the chain can be attached which
goes over the beam. Do not solder the cistern pipes in just yet, but
go on to other parts.
The cistern itself can be made out of any tin box. A seidlitz-
powder box will answer well, or you can make one about that size,
say 4 inches long, 2½ wide, and 2 deep. The cistern for the pump
will, of course, require to be the same size or a little larger; it may
stand on legs or be fastened to the bed-plate direct.
This bed-plate is shown below the picture of the engine. It is
merely an oblong plate of iron one-sixteenth inch thick, or in this
particular engine may be of tin neatly fastened to a half-inch
mahogany board, which will keep all firm. The white places show the
position of the boiler and of the pump cistern, the inner rounds
indicating the lamp, and pump, and cylinder. The square is merely
made to show a boiler of that shape, which some prefer;—it is not
so good as a cylindrical one.
Whenever you have to make an engine, you should draw upon the
bed-plate the position of each part, as I have done here, because it
will serve you as a guide for measurement of the several pieces. The
four small circles at S S show the positions of the legs of the support
C, which carries the beam. In the drawing only two are given, but
there would be a similar triangular frame upon this side. This may be
made very well of stout brass wire, but in a bought engine it would
be a casting of brass, painted or filed bright.
The beam itself should be of mahogany, 6 inches long, half an
inch wide (on the side), and a quarter of an inch thick. The curved

pieces you will turn as a ring 3 inches diameter with a square groove
cut in the edge for the chain. You can then saw into four, and use
two of these, morticing the strip of mahogany neatly into them.
Then finish with four brass wires, as shown, which will keep the
curved ends stiff and give a finished appearance. The pin in the
centre should be also of brass, as a few bright bars and studs of this
metal upon the mahogany give a handsome look to the engine.
The pump will be of brass tube, made like the cylinder, but the
bucket may be of boxwood, and so may the lower valve, each being
merely a disc with a hole in it, and a leather flap to rise upwards.
The bucket, however, should have a groove turned in its edge, to
receive a ring of india-rubber, or a light packing of tow. The end of
the pump-rod must be split to make a fork like Y, to allow the valve
to rise. You can get just such a fork ready to hand out of an
umbrella, if you can find an old one; if not, and you cannot split the
wire, make the rod rather stouter, and bend it, as shown, so as to
form only one side of a fork, which will probably answer the same
purpose in so light a pump.
The valve in both of these may be made of a flap of leather—
bookbinder’s calf, or something not too thick—and it may be
fastened at one edge by any cement that will not be affected by
water, or by a small pin,—cut off the head of a pin with half an inch
of its shank, and point it up to form a small tack. If the valve-box is
of boxwood, you must drill a hole;—you may make it, if preferred, of
softer wood.
There is no support shown in the drawing for the cold-water
cistern; but you must stand it on four stout wires, or on a wooden
(mahogany) frame, which can be attached to the bed-plate. As this
last is always of some importance, I shall add it again in this place
(Fig. 60), to a scale of three-quarters of an inch to the foot, showing
the position of each part.

Fig. 60.
Always begin with a centre line and take each measure from it,
and draw another across for the same purpose, at right angles to
the first. You will quickly see the use of this. We draw two lines as
described A, B, C, D, crossing in o. The longest is the centre line of
beam, cylinder, and pump. The beam is to be 6 inches long to the
outside of the middle of each arc, whence the chain is to hang. We,
therefore, from the centre point, set off 3 inches each way. At the
exact 3 inches will be the centres of the cylinder and pump;—set
these off, therefore, on the plan. The end of the tank we must have
near the cylinder, because we have to bring a pipe from it into the
bottom of the cylinder. Set off, therefore, the end of the tank 2½
inches—i.e., 1¼ on each side of the central line, and draw it 4
inches in length. N shows the position of the pipe close to the end
and on the line. The centre of the boiler is the same as that of the
cylinder, so we draw a circle round it with a radius of 1½ inches,
which gives us the 3-inch circle of the boiler. Then we may set off
equal distances, N, N, for the extremities of the legs of the frame
which is to support the beam, and we complete our plan. M is the
waste pipe, and K is the opening for the water to flow into the tank.
We now find, therefore, that the bed-plate must be 13 inches long

and 6 inches wide to take the engine of the proposed size, and we
may, of course, extend this a little, if thought desirable. Mark off on
the bed all the lines of the plan as here given, and always start any
measurement from one of the two foundation lines, or else, if you
make one false measure, you will carry it on, probably increasing the
amount of error at every fresh measurement. Let this be with you a
rule without exception. It is plain that if you work all parts of your
engine to size, you can set it up on the marked bed-plate with
perfect accuracy.
The description I have given will not only enable you to make a
Newcomen engine with very little difficulty, but will give you an
insight generally into this kind of work; and you will learn, too, a
practical lesson in soldering, turning, and fitting. I must,
nevertheless, help you a little in putting your work together.
You had better begin by soldering into the bottom of the cylinder
the end of the steam-pipe, which you have already fixed upright in
the middle of the dome of the boiler, taking care that it stands
squarely across the pipe, or your cylinder will not be upright. Then
place the boiler in position, and you may fix it by turning out slightly
the ends of the legs, and putting a tack through, or screwing, if the
bed-plate is of iron,—or with help of Baker’s fluid you can solder; but
this is hardly safe work, and you had better have a wooden plate,
covered with tin, and tack down the legs. I have drawn you a
circular lamp, and given three and four legs to the boiler-stand; but
take care that you so arrange size of lamp and openings of the stand
as to enable you to withdraw the former for trimming and filling.
Now fit in the two small pipes, previously bent as required. To bend
them, if hard soldered or brazed, fill with melted lead, and then
bend; after which melt out the lead again. If soft soldered, you must
fill with a more fusible metal. There is a composition called “fusible
metal,” very convenient for this work, and well worth making,
because you will often need to bend small pipes into various forms.
Melt zinc, 1 oz.; bismuth and lead, of each the same quantity—this
will melt in hot water; 8 parts bismuth, 5 lead, and 3 tin, will melt in
boiling water. You can buy these at any operative chemist’s, either

mixed, ready for use, or separately. Rosin and sand are also used for
bending tin pipes, the sole object being so to fill them that they will
become like a solid strip of metal, and thus bend slowly and equally,
with rounded and not sharp angles.
Pass the two pipes through from beneath the bottom of the
cylinder, and solder them on the upper side of it, so that when the
cylinder itself is added these two joints will not be visible. Then set
up the cold-water cistern; block it up with anything you like so as to
keep it in position, and, inserting the pipe from below, solder this
also from above, i.e., on the inside of the cistern. Now, arrange the
frame that is to support it, either stout wire or wood, and set it up
so as finally to secure it in its place. Now, you had better set up the
pump cistern, so as to secure the other small pipe in position, and
prevent it from becoming displaced by any accidental blow. Fix this
cistern therefore also, but leave the cover off for the present, that
you may be able to solder the small pipe inside it.
You will now, at all events, have secured the position of the most
important parts, and you may drop the cylinder into place, and
solder this also round the bottom. This would be facilitated by
turning a slight rebate, Fig. 60, S, round the disc which forms the
bottom of the cylinder, so that the smaller part of it will just fit inside
it; but you will be able to manage it without. Let the cylinder project
a very little beyond the bottom, just to allow a kind of corner for the
solder to run in; it will not show when all is fixed. Do this as quickly
as you can, so as not to melt off the solder round the small pipes.
Now, make the pair of A-shaped supports for the beam. Measure the
height of your cylinder top, above the bed-plate, and allow about
another inch, and you will get the perpendicular height to the axis of
the beam. Allow 3 inches more for each side, that is, in all for each
side, 3 inches longer than if it was to be perpendicular instead of
spreading. Take enough brass wire, about as thick as a small quill, to
make two such legs. Bend it in the middle, like T, Fig. 60, and flatten
the bent part by hammering, so as to allow you to drill a hole to take
the pivot on which the beam is to oscillate. If you like to flatten all of
it, and then touch it up with a file, so as to get quite straight edges,

it will look much more handsome. Make two such pieces exactly
alike, and, at distances alike in each, put cross-bars. File a little way
into each, making square, flat notches, which will just take two
flattened bars of the same wire; heat them, and solder very neatly,
so that no solder appears on the outside; file all flat and true. In this
way you can make almost as neat supports as if they were of cast
brass, and you are saved all the trouble of making patterns. By and
by, nevertheless, you must do better.
As I have directed you in this instance to put a wooden bed-plate
to your engine, you may point the ends of the wires, and, making
holes sloping at the same angle in the wooden stand, drive the wires
into them. You have an advantage here, inasmuch as you can raise
or lower your stand until the position of the beam comes exactly
right, and you find the ends drop over the centre of the cylinder and
pump-barrel as it ought to do. When this is the case, you can cut off
any wire that projects below the stand and file it level, for it will not
be likely to need more secure fixing. The pump may now be
soldered into the cover of the cistern (before the cover itself is
fastened on), and a hole must be then cut to receive the water that
will flow from the spout, and then the cover can be fitted on. There
is no need to solder it, if it is made to fit over-tightly; and you may
wish, perhaps, to get at the lower valve of the pump now and then.
The only thing left to do is to arrange the safety-valve of the
boiler, which is in many cases the place through which the water is
poured to charge it. In this engine it is, however, plain that you can
fill the boiler by turning both the taps at the same time. A little will
run off by the waste-pipe, but not enough to signify, because the
tube below the cylinder is so much the larger of the two. The safety-
valve is a little bit of brass turned conical to fit the “seat,” made by
counter-sinking the hole. It is shown at K, Fig. 59, N being the seat,
O P the dome of the boiler, and close to O is the gauge-tap for
ascertaining the height of water in the boiler. L M is a lever of
flattened wire, pivoted to turn on a pin at L,—L O being an upright
wire soldered to the boiler. A notch is filed across the top of the
valve, on which the lever, L M, rests. The weight is at M. One, as

large as a big pea, hung at the end of a lever 2 inches long, the
valve at half an inch from the other end, will probably suffice for this
engine.

Chapter XIII.
WATT’S ENGINE.
have already told you that Watt suggested the use of
steam alternately on each side of the piston; and carried
it out by closing the top of the cylinder, and allowing the
rod of the piston to pass through a stuffing-box or
gland. I now have to explain to you how this alternate
admission of the steam may be effected.
You evidently require first an opening at the top and bottom of the
cylinder, communicating with the boiler, one only being open at a
time; but in this case, where is the steam to escape that was on one
side of the piston when the opposite side was being acted upon? It
must go somewhere, but evidently must not return to the boiler.
Hence, some method has to be contrived by which, when one end of
the cylinder is open to the boiler, the other may be open to the air or
to the condenser (in which the steam is cooled under Watt’s plan).
Fig. 61 will, I think, render clear one or two of these arrangements.

Fig. 61.
The first is the four-way cock, a very simple contrivance, easily
and frequently used in models. You must first understand how a
common water or beer tap is made. Fig. 61, A, represents one in
section, turned so as to open the passage along the pipe to which it
is attached; C is the pipe in which is the tap, a conical tube of brass
set upright, and with a hole right and left made through it, fixed into
a short horizontal tube (generally cast with it in one piece). Into this
fits very exactly the conical plug B, also with a hole through it

sideways. When this is put into place, no water or other liquid can
pass, unless the hole in the plug is in the same direction with the
hollow tube forming an open passage. If a key is put on the square
part of the plug, and it is turned half round, the passage through the
pipe will be closed. A steam tap would be made in a similar manner,
if its only office were to open and close a passage in a tube. But we
now want two passages closed and two opened, and then the
alternate pair closed and opened. This is cleverly effected by a four-
way cock.
At D is shown a section of the steam cylinder and piston, with the
stuffing-box and all complete. A pipe enters this at the top and
bottom, and another crosses it in the middle, making four passages.
Shaded black is the four-way cock, the white places showing the
open channels through the plug. When this plug stands as at D,
steam can pass from the boiler to the top of the cylinder only, above
the piston, which it drives downward; the steam below the piston
escapes through the other open-curved channel into the air, or to
the condenser. Just as the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder,
the tap is turned, and the passage stands as seen at E. Steam now
passes to the bottom below the piston, driving it upward, and the
steam above it, which has done its work, passes outward through
the other open channel of the tap.
You must understand that when Newcomen first set up his engine,
a man had to turn the taps at the proper moment; and it is said that
one Humphrey Potter, a boy, being left in charge, and getting tired of
this work, first devised means to make the engine itself do this, by
connecting strings tied to the handles of the taps to the beam that
moved up and down above his head. Beighton and others improved
on this, and very soon it became unnecessary for the attendant to
do anything but keep up a good fire, and attend to the quantity of
water in the boiler, and the pressure of the steam.
In the model I gave you of Newcomen’s engine, I purposely left
the taps to be moved by hand; but F of the present figure shows
how, by bringing them near together, and adding cogged wheels or

pulleys, you would make one handle answer for both; and I shall
leave you to devise an easy method of making the engine work this
one handle for itself. When Watt made his first engine, therefore,
this work had been already done, and he only had to improve upon
it, and to make it work more accurately to suit the engine designed
by himself.
If you should chance to pay a visit to the Museum at South
Kensington, you may see, I believe, Watt’s original engine, if not
Newcomen’s. The cylinders are so large and cumbrous, that the
wonder is they were ever bored by the inefficient means then in use;
and the beam is a most unwieldy mass of timber and iron, that looks
as if no power of steam could ever have made it oscillate. Yet it was
in its day a successful engine, the wonder of the age; and did good
work for its inventor and purchaser. I strongly advise my readers to
try and visit Kensington, for there are many interesting models
there, besides engines and appliances of older days. They will thus
learn what rapid progress has been made since the days of Savery,
Newcomen, and Watt; not only in the improvement of the
arrangement of the parts, but in the workmanship, which last is
mainly due to the invention of the slide-rest and planing-machine.
We must now return to the double-acting or real steam engine,
and consider a second means whereby the steam can be alternately
admitted and exhausted.
The four-way cock, already explained, was found to wear very
considerably in practice, and hence work loose, and a new
contrivance, called the slide-valve, soon took its place. Of this there
are two patterns, the long D-valve and the short one, which latter is
used for locomotives. There is also a form called a tappet-valve,
often used for large stationary engines, but which is noisy and
subject to rapid wear. I shall describe the long D first, in the form in
which it would be most easily made for a model engine.
The two ports by which steam passes to the cylinder are shown at
d, e, of H, Fig. 61. C is the passage to the boiler, K is that to the
condenser. These are openings in a tube smoothly bored within, and

having at the top a stuffing-box like that on the cylinder. Within this
tube works an inner one, b, having rings or projections at the ends
fitting perfectly, and which are packed with india-rubber, hemp (or, in
modern days, with metal), to make a close fit. In a model, two
bosses of brass, K, soldered on the tube and then turned, make the
best packing. These packed portions of the inner tube form the
stoppers to the steam ports, e e, alternately, at the top and bottom.
The upper part of the inner tube has a cross arm, 3, affixed, from
the centre of which rises the valve-rod by which it is moved up and
down. In the position 1, the steam can pass from c round the tube
to d, and thence to the top of the cylinder to which d is attached.
The exhaust steam passes from e below the piston by k to the
condenser. In the second position, 2, the steam is evidently shut off
from d, but can pass out at e e below the cylinder, while the
communication is still open to the condenser from d, through the
middle of the tube to K. This is a very good form of valve, because
the exhaust is always open, and the motion is smooth and equal.

Fig. 62.
There are many modifications of the long D-valve, but the
principle of all is the same; I shall therefore describe the short slide-
valve which is nearly always used in the models which are purchased
at the shops. This, too, is the usual form of valve in locomotives,
traction-engines, and the majority of those in use for agricultural and
similar purposes. A, Fig. 62, is the cylinder as before in section with
piston. A thick piece is cast with the cylinder, on one side of it,
having steam ports also cast in it, which are here left white. The two

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