Rock Physics: Slides
5 likes2,233 views
This document discusses the rock physics of shales and source rocks. It begins by defining shale as a rock composed of mud-sized particles. Shale can have a wide range of compositions and properties depending on factors like porosity, effective stress, and organic content. The permeability of shale is very low due to its small grain size. Shale often exhibits seismic anisotropy due to thin layering of particles or organics. Organic-rich shales in particular can display large anisotropy that varies with thermal maturity. Predicting the properties of shale, especially anisotropic behavior, remains challenging due to complexity and limited data.
Rock Physics: Slides
- 1. 1 Rock Physics of Shales and Source Rocks Gary Mavko Professor of Geophysics Director, Stanford Rock Physics Project
- 2. 2 First Question: What is Shale? Shale -- a rock composed of mud-sized particles, such as silt and clay (Boggs, 2001). This most general classification is based on particle size, not composition. Variations in usage: • Shale is sometimes used to refer only to fissile rocks made of mud-sized particles, while • Mudstone is sometimes used to refer to non-fissile rocks made of mud-sized particles, and • Siltstone is sometimes used for rock with mud-sized particles, but low clay fractions. Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko
- 3. 3 What is Shale? Wentworth Scale of grain size Mud € φ € d < 30 µm( ) Grain size (mm) φ = −log2 d
- 5. Permeability: Kozeny-Carman Relation Kozeny-Carman model for permeability in a porous rock. : where: porosity tortuosity d typical grain diameter B geometric factor κ = Bφ3 d2 τ Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko € φ € τ Strong dependence on grain size
- 6. H.1 Permeability κ = Bφ3 d 2 τ Small particle size leads to very small permeabililty Schematic porosity/permeability relationship in rocks from Bourbié, Coussy, Zinszner, 1987, Acoustics of Porous Media, Gulf Publishing Co.
- 7. Issue: What is shale permeability? How does gas move through shale? • As a gas phase through connected pores? • Does it diffuse molecule-by molecule? • Role of maceral porosity/permeability? • Role of silty layers?
- 9. Predicting/measuring Brittleness Brittleness increases the chances of naturally occurring fractures, as well as success of hydrofracs. Brittle materials accommodate strain (deformation) by breaking. In constrast ductile materials accommodate strain by “flowing.” Not only are ductile materials less likely to create permeable fractures, ductile materials will also allow man-made fractures to close or “heal.” Important practical issue is how to determine geomechanical properties from geophysical measurements.
- 10. Bri$leness: Examples Porosity .05 Clay .63 Porosity .05 Clay .31 Porosity .01 Clay .12 Low Clay (tight sandstone) High Clay Fraction Brittleness is a complex function of lithology, composition, TOC, effective stress, temperature, diagenesis, thermal maturity, porosity, …
- 11. Quantifying Brittleness Because material failure is important in many technologies, there are many attempts to define or quantify a Brittleness Index, e.g. € B1 = σc σt € B2 = σc − σt σc + σt € B2 = qσc Kahraman, 2003, Engineering Geology € σc € σt € q = Uniaxial compressive strength = Tensile strength = Amount of fines in impact test where
- 12. Quantifying Brittleness € B = σc( )OC σc( )NC = OCRb € OCR = σV max σV € σV Vertical stress Nygard et al., 2006, Marine and Petroleum Geology In terms of overconsolidation ratio € σV max Vertical stress at max burial (only valid for layered rocks and max principal stress is vertical) Brittleness:
- 13. Composition: There is anecdotal evidence that (1) silica (siltiness) and (2) calcite content increase brittleness. One index that is sometimes quoted: Brittleness: Composition € B %( ) = Q Q + Carbon + Clay € B %( ) = Q + Calcite Q + Calcite + Carbon + Clay An intuitive extension to calcite:
- 14. Brittleness: Composition Increasing Vp/ Vs VP VS sand ≤ VP VS shale ≤ VP VS limestone Increasing porosity Increasing stiffness Increasing gas Issue: How to measure brittleness from logs? Calcite and quartz each have distinctly different Vp/Vs than shale. However when added, they might cancel changes in Vp/Vs.
- 17. A. shale Wet sand Oil sand shale Wet sand Oil sand Coal GR rho Vp Sw GR
- 19. Seismic Anisotropy Due to Rock Fabric Virtually any rock that has a visual layering or fabric at a scale finer than the seismic wavelength will be elastically and seismically anisotropic. Sources can include elongated and aligned grains and pores, cracks, and fine scale layering. Velocities are usually faster for propagation along the layering. Isotropic mixture slight alignment layered Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko
- 20. Anisotropic velocities vs. pressure. (a) and (b) Jones (1983), (c) Tosaya (1982). Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko Seismic Anisotropy Due to Rock Fabric
- 21. Velocity Anisotropy Resulting From Thinly Layered Kerogen P-wave anisotropy in shales (from Vernik, 1990): (1) Bakken black shales, (2) Bakken dolomitic siltstone, (3) Bakken shaly dolomite, (4) Chicopee shale (Lo, et al, 1985). Vernik found that kerogen-bearing shales can have very large anisotropy, easily 50%. F.23 Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko
- 22. Velocities in kerogen-rich Bakken shales (Vernik, 1990) and other low porosity argillaceous rocks (Lo et al., 1985; Tosaya, 1982; Vernik et al., 1987). Compiled by Vernik, 1990. F.24 Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko Velocity Anisotropy Resulting From Thinly Layered Kerogen
- 23. Vp Vs Vp/Vs P- and S-wave phase velocities depend on their direction of propagation and polarization. Hence, sonics measured on deviated wells do not measure the vertical velocities, as we often assume. Shear logs can be especially challenging if not oriented.
- 24. Organic-Rich Shales Courtesy of Tiziana Vanorio Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory
- 25. An Intrinsically Heterogeneous and Complex Rock Scanning Electron Microscopy Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy Mixture of inorganic and organic matter. The inorganic is clay, silt, carbonate, pyrite, etc. The organic (kerogen) appears as nano-particles (macerals) and hydrocarbons. In some cases organics appear as inclusions in the inorganic background, and other times, the inverse. Tiziana Vanorio – Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory
- 26. What parameters are we interested in? Pay Type Maceral Composition Van Krevelen Diagram Graphite Zone Hydrogen Index (HI) Tiziana Vanorio – Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory 1) Quantity; 2) Quality; 3) Maturity
- 27. C11 C33 C44 C66 C13 ε γ δ δ’ ε 0.65 0.27 0.32 Pressure-Velocity Sensitivity and Anisotropy vs. Maturity Vernik et al., 1992 Vanorio et al., 2008 Tiziana Vanorio – Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory
- 28. 636 µm 636 µm Direction Perpendicular to the Plane Bedding 100 µm 100 µm Tiziana Vanorio – Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory
- 29. Summary Tiziana Vanorio – Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory • Shale is defined by particle size. • Shale can have a very large range of compositions. • Shale can have a large range of P- and S-wave velocities - Composition - Porosity - Effective stress - Compaction • Shale Vp/Vs depends on composition, especially relative amounts of clay, silt, organics, and carbonate • Shale can have a large range of anisotropies - Small if bioturbated - Large if a pronounced fabric - Silt and cementation can reduce anisotropy • In kerogen-rich shales, properties depend on composition, TOC, and maturity.
- 30. Issues Tiziana Vanorio – Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory • Shale lab data are sparse, compared with sandstone and carbonate. • Logs are also more common in reservoirs than shales. • Other than models like soft-sediment and Raymer, we don’t have any comprehensive shale models. • Shale anisotropy depends on many factors and is difficult to predict. • Organic shales (oil shale and gas shale) can have a range of properties, depending on composition, TOC, maturity. • For gas and oil shales, it is not clear what the geophysical questions are: - TOC? - Maturity? - Geomechanical?