Running head Background and Significance2Background and Sig.docx
- 1. Running head: Background and Significance 2 Background and Significance 2 Effects of ADHD and Executive Functioning on Brain Development #7 PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior Jennifer Weniger July 30, 2018 Background
- 2. Techniques for maintaining and enhancing executive function in children with ADHD is great potential benefit to children and to society. Improved executive function improves daily performance in children and adults suffering from ADHD. There is more and more research for brain deficits associated with ADHD. ADHD symptoms can include inattention and/or hyperactivity and acting impulsively. This disorder affects more than one in 20 under the age of 18, and two-thirds of those diagnosed continue to deal with symptoms as adults. Further research on the effects of ADHD and executive functioning would be beneficial for those suffering from the disorder. Symptoms of ADHD create significate impairment in social, academic, occupational functioning, and relationships (Bressert, 2018). Higher executive functioning would lead to the ability to perform task of daily living and the improvement of quality of life. There are more and more studies of normal and abnormal brain development in children and adolescents. Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to study ADHD. The ones who will be helped by further studies and an increased understanding of ADHD and executive function deficit are the children and their families. Students who have these challenges need coaching from professionals who specialize in executive functioning problems. Students need to be taught the skills necessary to overcome their deficits. Executive function skills are not a guarantee to school success but without these skills the child will have difficulty at a certain point, which can be followed by a loss of self-esteem. Further knowledge will help children suffering from ADHD and executive disorder succeed in school and in life (Eckerd, Ruden, 2011). There are seven skills associated with executive function, 1) self-awareness, 2) inhibition, 3) non-verbal working memory, 4) verbal working memory, 5) emotional self- regulation, 6) self-motivation, 7) planning and problem solving. Anyone exhibiting ADHD symptoms will have problems with all or most
- 3. of these seven executive functions. These seven functions develop over time in chronological order. Starting with self- awareness at age 2 and ending with planning and problem- solving at age 30 in a neurotypical individual. An individual with ADHD id generally 30 to 40 percent behind in transitioning from one executive function to the next (Barkley, 2018). There is need for more research in the significance of executive functioning deficits on ADHD. In the article, Interventions to improve executive functioning and working memory in school-aged children with AD(HD): a randomized controlled trail and stepped-care approach, the researchers investigated one executive function, working memory which plays an important part in academic performance. School- oriented interventions possibly help working memory problems and academic performance, but according to the authors, van der Dork, et al. (2013) that this hypothesis has not been studied systematically. The study in this article was conducted in two parts, the first part used randomized controlled trail with school-aged children (8-12 yrs.) with ADHD. Using two groups that were randomly assigned. One part was a computerized working memory training or to a paying attention in class intervention. The second part of study determined specific characteristics that are related to non-response of the paying attention class intervention. The academic performance and neurocognitive functioning assessed before and after training. Then they are assessed 6 months after training (van der Donk, et al., 2013). The article states that there is limited research but very promising results on working memory and executive function. This study has helped to expand our knowledge, especially when it comes to the effects of intervention in a classroom setting. This study shows promise and the need for further research around executive functioning and its effects on ADHD. It also showed that there is possible intervention to help children’s academic performance through working memory
- 4. training. Significance The purpose of this research is to understand the effects of executive functioning deficit on a child with ADHD. Research done by Karl Pribram in the 1970’s showed that executive functions originates primarily from the prefrontal cortex. With more research in this area can help expand this research into broader fields such as general psychology and even education. In the prefrontal cortex there are four known circuits that relate to executive functioning and by studying these circuits to see how they work or do not work in children with ADHD. These circuits can tell us in what area a child need smore help in. These circuits regulate memory, time management, emotion, self-awareness. Looking at ADHD in relation to the function of these circuits we can understand where symptoms originate. To understand how impaired a circuit is we can start to explain ADHD symptoms. Some children may have only a deficit in working memory, or emotion or regulation problems. While some children may only have difficulties in one area but less in other areas. By researching executive functioning deficit can help in the development treatment plans tailored to a child’s specific needs (Barkley, 2018). Using MRI to measure brain size in this research can contribute important information and evidence to support the fact that ADHD is a brain disorder. The MRIs can also help show if cognitive therapy and/or medications effect the brains development. Understanding the brain activity of ADHD patients can help develop appropriate treatment for each individual patient. This research will be done with the assistance of Chesapeake Regional Neuroscience Institute. Through the institute our participants will be selected, and their facility also will provide MRI studies for our research. References Barkley, R. (2018). 7 Executive Function Deficits Tied to ADHD. ADDITUDE Inside the ADHD Mind. Retrieved from: https://www.additudemag.com/7-executive-function-deficits- linked-to-adhd/
- 5. Bressert, S. (2018). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Symptoms. PsychCentral. Retrieved from: https://psychcentral.com/disorders/adhd/attention-deficit- hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-symptoms/ Eckerd, M., Rudin, S. (2018). The Testing Ground for Executive Functions? ADDITUDE Inside the ADHD Mind. Retrieved from: https://www.additudemag.com/executive-function-skills- adhd-symptoms-middle-school/ van der Donk, M. A., Hiemstra-Beernink, A., Tjeenk-Kalff, A. C., van der Leij, A. V., & Lindauer, R. L. (2013). Interventions to improve executive functioning and working memory in school-aged children with AD(H)D: a randomised controlled trial and stepped-care approach. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 1-7. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-13-23 Running Head: IMPACT OF TRAUMA ON CHILDHOOD NEURODEVELOPMENT 6 IMPACT OF TRAUMA Impact of Trauma on Childhood Neurodevelopment #8
- 6. PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior Dr. Jennifer Weniger July 23, 2018 Impact of Trauma on Childhood Neurodevelopment Specific Aims Neurological development is the process in which the brain assembles important patterns surrounding behavioral and emotional functioning. This developmental process is the blueprint for continued development throughout adulthood. There are many factors which can influence brain development during childhood. Specifically, early life trauma or stressors such as, Child Protective Services involvement, emotional or physical abuse/neglect, prenatal drug use (maternal/paternal drug use during pregnancy), death, and/or toxic environments can be detrimental to early neurodevelopment. Although stress is a common aspect of life; early and prolonged exposure to severe stressors may negatively affect psychosocial and neuropsychological development. Cognitive development can be stunted as a result of early traumatic experiences as explained by Nooner, Hooper, and De Bellis (2018). Their research proves that the performance of maltreated boys and girls was poorer in areas of cognitive functioning than their non-maltreated counterparts. Similarly, Researchers Kindsvatter and Geroski (2014) explore the influence of early life stress on one’s stress response system, explaining how one’s neurodevelopment can be altered as a result. De Bellis (2018) understood the critical influence that trauma and traumatic experiences alike held on the neurological development of a child. However, there is limited research on the specific relationship between childhood trauma and brain development. Therefore, the specific aim of this proposal is to compile and produce reliable research surrounding the impact
- 7. trauma and traumatic experiences during childhood has on neurological development. In understanding the link between trauma and neurological development, strides for preventative care through education and mental health screening will assist clinicians in providing appropriate diagnosis and aftercare. Background Brain development is at its most vulnerable state during childhood. During this time, the brain begins to arrange essential networks to facilitate emotional and behavioral responses. Research shows that majority of these neurological networks are built during childhood years which can allow external influences to impair normal brain functioning. Specifically, exposure to trauma at a young age can cause mild to severe impairment to the brain and the systems that control both emotional and behavioral responses. As such, research should prove that children who experience trauma at an early age are at more of a risk for neurological impairments. For the purposes of this study, trauma will be researched from both a psychological and medical point of view. Trauma can be defined as (1) a deeply distressing or disturbing experience or (2) pertaining to a physical injury. Both definitions fit safely into the research surrounding how neurological development is impacted by various forms of trauma and stress. As such, many researchers including Kindsvatter and Geroski (2014), Clarkson Freeman (2014), and Augusti and Melinder (2013) categorize trauma within the framework of physical or emotional abuse or neglect, maltreatment, or prolonged exposure to any negative event. Stress can be useful if received in episodic pattern. This assists in preparing one’s self-regulation skills. It elicits the stress response in which fight-or-flight is initiated and activated (Carlson, 2017). These physiological responses energize our bodies to react to a stressful situation, thus staying to fight or retreating (flight). As Carlson (2017) explains, stress is
- 8. beneficial when received in episodes rather than on a continual basis. This will create a constant stress response, which can be seen in children who have been abused, neglected or exposed to a traumatic event. Clarkson freeman (2014) report that children who experience three or more adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are likelier to have long-term behavioral issues, explaining how trauma alters normal brain functioning and development in children and later adults. By the time a child is born, the brain should have grown to 25 percent of its adult size and by age three (3) 80 percent of its adult size (Adam & Mila, 2018). However, neurological development begins prior to natural birth, actually occurring upon conception. A network of cells is communicating to produce vital organs such as the brain, heart and lungs to name a few. The brain is by far one of the most powerful organs within the body. It is composed of five (5) specific parts which work together to interpret information and produce a response. The frontal lobe deals with executive functioning such as thinking, reasoning, organizing, and problem solving. The parietal lobe interprets sensory information such as taste, touch and smell. The occipital lobe processes visual information. The temporal lobe controls behaviors such as speech, emotions, working memory, stress responses and auditory processes. Lastly, the cerebellum is the control center for both fine and gross motor skills. All of these skills which are beginning to develop during childhood years. Brian development is at a crucial stage during childhood given new neurons are being formed and communicating essential information via many new synapses. Myelination is the coating covering the axon to allow neurons to travel quickly transmitting important information quickly. This process of myelination is at a peak during childhood to allow children to receive and transmit information faster. As discussed earlier, specific physiological stress responses are produced during stressful situations. Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and epinephrine and hormones such as cortisol are released
- 9. during stressful or dangerous situations. These chemicals are responsible for releasing adrenaline in the body during those stressful times. Neurologically, children who are continuously in toxic, high stress, traumatic situations experience excessive production of stress response chemicals within the brain. As a result, these children are likelier to disorders associated with anxiety, depression, hyper-vigilance, migraines, and sleeplessness (Augusti & Melinder, 2013). Also, these children are likelier to perform poorer educationally than peers who have not experienced toxic stress. Through this research proposal, reliable research will be conducted surrounding the impact of trauma and stress on the neurological development of children. In such, the research will provide a baseline for multi disciplined approach to understanding childhood behavior issues from the framework of underlying trauma and stress, and illicit effective and appropriate treatment options. Significance As discussed, this importance of this research is based in child welfare. Specifically, understanding the ways in which toxic stress and trauma can influence and alter neurological development. The focus of this project is to promote preventative measures surrounding childhood neurological development. Understanding the connection between toxic stress, trauma and development will help close the disparity and disproportionality gap of minority children within many agencies. Areas surrounding child welfare, medical practice, education, clinical psychology, etc. can be improved on local, state and federal levels if the aims of this proposal project are met. All of the mentioned areas encounter the effects of treatment, specifically medicinal treatment resulting from misdiagnosis of underprivileged and traumatized youth. Commonly, youth who are exposed to traumatic and high toxic stress are often diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and/or
- 10. Conduct Disorder. They may exhibit symptoms attributed to exposure to trauma which are very similar (Bricker, Davis, & Squires, 2004). Shared symptoms include anger, defiance, hyperactivity, restlessness, outbursts, hypervigilance, excessive worrying, fidgety, and difficulty focusing. Understanding the impact of trauma on development will help clinicians, educational professionals, child welfare staff and medical professionals appropriately help children and their families shifting from a reactionary approach to a preventative one. References Adam and Mila. (2018). How the Brain Learns. Adam & Mila. Retrieved from https://www.adam-mila.com/brain-development-children-0-6- years/ Amat, T., Grienenberger, J., Kaminer, T., & Schechter, D. (2003). Fits and starts: A mother infant case-study involving intergenerational violent trauma and pseudoseizures across three generations. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(5), 510. Augusti, E., & Melinder, A. (2013). Maltreatment Is Associated With Specific Impairments in Executive Functions: A Pilot Study. Journal Of Traumatic Stress, 26(6), 780. doi:10.1002/jts.21860. Bernard, K., Kuzava, S., Simons, R., & Dozier, M. (2018). CPS- referred mothers’ psychophysiological responses to own versus other child predict sensitivity to child distress. Developmental Psychology, 54(7), 1255-1264. doi:10.1037/dev0000508. Bricker, D., Davis, M. S., & Squires, J. (2004). Mental Health Screening in Young Children. Infants & Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal Of
- 11. Early Childhood Intervention, 17(2), 129. Carlson, N. R. (2017). Physiology of behavior (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Clarkson Freeman, P. A. (2014). PREVALENCE AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AND CHILD BEHAVIOR AMONG YOUNG CHILDREN. Infant Mental Health Journal, 35(6), 544. doi:10.1002/imhj.21460. Doretto, V., & Scivoletto, S. (2018). Effects of Early Neglect Experience on Recognition and Processing of Facial Expressions: A Systematic Review. Brain Sciences (2076-3425), 8(1), 1. doi:10.3390/brainsci8010010. Fine, J. G., & Sung, C. (2014). Neuroscience of child and adolescent health development. Journal Of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 521-527. doi:10.1037/cou0000033. Forkey, H. C. (2018). Children Exposed to Abuse and Neglect: The Effects of Trauma on the Body and Brain. Journal Of The American Academy Of Matrimonial Lawyers, 30(2), 307. Kindsvatter, A., & Geroski, A. (2014). The Impact of Early Life Stress on the Neurodevelopment of the Stress Response System. Journal Of Counseling & Development, 92(4), 472-480. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00173.x. Nooner, K. B., Hooper, S. R., & De Bellis, M. D. (2018). An examination of sex differences on neurocognitive functioning and behavior problems in maltreated youth. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, And Policy, 10(4), 435- 443. doi:10.1037/tra0000356.
- 12. PSY625: Biological Bases of Behavior Ashford University