![agation is slower and the value of ⑀ relative to a vacuum is higher. Teflon, for exam-
ple, can be made with values from about 2 to 11.
Equation (1-1) is more commonly expressed in the forms of Eqs. (1-2) and
(1-3):
(1-2)
and
(1-3)
[All terms are as defined for Eq. (1-1).]
Microwave letter bands
During World War II, the U.S. military began using microwaves in radar and
other applications. For security reasons, alphabetic letter designations were adopted
for each band in the microwave region. Because the letter designations became in-
grained, they are still used throughout industry and the defense establishment. Un-
fortunately, some confusion exists because there are at least three systems currently
in use: pre-1970 military (Table 1-5), post-1970 military (Table 1-6), and the IEEE
and industry standard (Table 1-7). Additional confusion is created because the mili-
tary and defense industry use both pre- and post-1970 designations simultaneously
and industry often uses military rather than IEEE designations. The old military des-
ignations (Table 1-5) persist as a matter of habit.
Skin effect
There are three reasons why ordinary lumped constant electronic components
do not work well at microwave frequencies. The first, mentioned earlier in this chap-
ter, is that component size and lead lengths approximate microwave wavelengths.
F ⫽
c
l2⑀
.
l ⫽
c
F 2⑀
⑀
Microwave letter bands 5
Table 1-5. Old U.S. military
microwave frequency bands
(WWII–1970)
Band designation Frequency range
P 225–390 MHz
L 390–1550 MHz
S 1550–3900 MHz
C 3900–6200 MHz
X 6.2–10.9 GHz
K 10.9–36 GHz
Q 36–46 GHz
V 46–56 GHz
Q 56–100 GHz
Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
Introduction to RF electronics](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-11-320.jpg)
![RF construction (e.g., layout, grounding, and shielding) and found that by following
the rules, one can be as successful building RF stuff as at lower frequencies.
One problem that has always been something of a hassle, however, is the shield-
ing that is required. You could learn layout and grounding, but shielding usually re-
quired a better box than I had. Most of the low-cost aluminum electronic hobbyist
boxes on the market are alright for dc to the AM broadcast band, but as frequency
climbs into the HF and VHF region, problems begin to surface. What you thought
was shielded “t’ain’t.” If you’ve read my columns or feature articles over the years,
you will recall that I caution RF constructors to use the kind of aluminum box with
an overlapping flange of at least 0.25⬙, and a good tight fit. Many hobbyist-grade
boxes on the market just simply are not good enough.
Enter SESCOM, Inc. [Dept. JJC, 2100 Ward Drive, Henderson, NV, 89015-4249;
(702) 565-3400 and (for voice orders only) 1-800-634-3457 and (for FAX orders
only) 1-800-551-2749]. SESCOM makes a line of cabinets, 19⬙ racks, rack mount
boxes, and RF shielded boxes. Their catalog has a lot of interesting items for radio
and electronic hobbyist constructors. I was particularly taken by their line of RF
shielded boxes. Why? Because it seems that RF projects are the main things I’ve
built for the past 10 years.
Figure 1-9 shows one of the SESCOM RF shielded steel boxes in their SB-x line.
Notice that it uses the “finger” construction in order to get a good RF-tight fit be-
tween the lid and the body of the box. Also notice that the box comes with some
snap-in partitions for internal shielding between sections. The box body is punched
to accept the tabs on these internal partitions, which can then be soldered in place
for even better stability and shielding.
At first, I was a little concerned about the material; the boxes are made of hot
tin-plated steel rather than aluminum. The tin plating makes soldering easy, but steel
12 Introduction to RF electronics
A
1-8 Shielded RF construction: (A) closed box showing dc connections
made via coaxial capacitors; (B) box opened.
B
Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com)
Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved.
Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
Introduction to RF electronics](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-18-320.jpg)
![the establishment of a court which seems to have been standing
rather than special.[2444]
In his second tribunate, 100, supported by Marius, consul a sixth
time, and by Servilius, Appuleius proposed and carried a law for the
founding of settlements of the Marian veterans in Sicily, Corsica,
Achaia, and Macedonia.[2445] Marius was to be a commissioner for
conducting these colonies, and was to have the right to enroll as
citizens in each settlement a specified number of aliens.[2446] The
object of the latter clause was doubtless to provide for the Italian
veterans in his army. He proposed further that certain Transpadane
lands which the Cimbri had taken from the Gauls and which Marius
had recovered should be distributed among the citizens and the
Italians.[2447] Another proposal was for the monthly sale of a
specified number of modii of grain to every citizen resident of Rome
who desired it at five-sixths of an as to the modius—a merely
nominal price.[2448] It is not known whether the colonial, agrarian,
and frumentarian measures were separate enactments or articles of
one statute; or the colonial and agrarian provisions may alone have
been combined. However that may be, we are informed by
Appian[2449] that attached to the agrarian measure—whether to the
others also is nowhere stated—was an article which provided that if
the bill should become a law, the senators within five days should
swear to uphold it, or if any senator refused to take the oath, he
should be expelled from the senate and should be liable to a fine of
twenty talents, the Greek equivalent of about five hundred thousand
sesterces.[2450] The rural plebs, including many discharged soldiers
of Marius, swarmed into the comitia at the call of the tribune and
violently passed the law. Marius, who as a consul and a knight
disapproved of such illegality, set for the senators the example of
swearing to the law, “in so far as it was a law,” which left them a
loophole of escape from its provisions should they afterward so
determine. Metellus, who alone of the senators refused the oath,
was forced into exile and an interdict from fire and water was passed
against him by the tribes on the motion of Saturninus.[2451] Soon
afterward an election riot gave the senate a pretext for martial law.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-27-320.jpg)
![Placed under custody, Saturninus and some fellow officials were
stoned to death by a mob. His measures were then annulled by the
senate on the ground that they had been violently passed;[2452]
nevertheless Mariana was founded by Marius in Corsica, apparently
under the colonial provision.[2453] The import of the agrarian law of
Sex. Titius, tribune of the plebs in 99, is unknown.[2454] It may have
been merely a reënactment of the Appuleian measure. At all events
before it could be put into force it was annulled by the senate on the
ground that it had been passed by violence and against the
intercession of colleagues.[2455]
The optimates, having again triumphed over the democracy,
adopted a policy of moderation. Their consuls of 98, Q. Caecilius
Metellus and T. Didius, attempted by a mild statute to check the most
flagrant abuses of tribunician legislation, (1) the combination of
various dissimilar provisions in one bill (lex satura) for the purpose of
drawing the votes of all parties, (2) the passing of bills through the
assembly by surprise. Their law accordingly, reviving usages once in
force but recently neglected, forbade such combinations[2456] and
ordered that the promulgation should precede the voting by at least a
trinum nundinum—an interval which included three market days.
[2457] Similarly in 95 their consuls, L. Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius
Scaevola, aimed by an equally moderate law to check the usurpation
of the citizenship on the part of aliens. It forbade peregrini to perform
the functions of citizens, though it did not order the innocent among
them to leave Rome.[2458] It provided for the appointment of a
special commission to discover and punish usurpers of the
citizenship.[2459] Those found guilty were sent back to their
communities.[2460] Though the authors were eminent in justice and
cherished the best intentions, their law proved to be not merely
useless but most pernicious to the state,[2461] as it helped drive the
Italians to revolt.[2462]
The next attempt at reform proceeded from the inmost circle of the
aristocracy.[2463] M. Livius Drusus, tribune of the plebs in 91, was a
man of the highest nobility, wealthy, eloquent, and upright at heart,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-28-320.jpg)
![the son of that Livius who had opposed C. Gracchus.[2464]
Regarding his aims and the quality of his statesmanship conflicting
opinions have been expressed by modern scholars. The sources
intimate that he wished primarily to strengthen the senate by
breaking away from its hide-bound conservatism and undertaking
various pressing reforms. His agrarian measure was conceived in
the Gracchan spirit but was more radical.[2465] Appian[2466] states
that it proposed the founding of colonies voted long ago but not yet
established. Reference must be to the twelve colonies planned by
his father.[2467] It probably abolished the statute of 111 and ordered
the division not only of the Campanian lands,[2468] but also of those
public domains which were held by the allied communities—in brief,
of all the public land remaining in Italy and Sicily;[2469] and it
established a board of ten for making the assignments.[2470]
Livy[2471] attributes to the author a frumentarian proposal, though we
are not informed of its character. The aim must have been to win the
support of the populace for his other measures.[2472]
He further proposed to mix with the silver coinage an eighth part of
copper,[2473] the proceeds of this gain to be applied perhaps to the
execution of his frumentarian project.[2474] There is much
controversy as to the intent of his judiciary reform. Appian[2475]
supposes that he wished to add three hundred knights to the senate
and to draw the jurors from that body thus enlarged. Velleius[2476] is
of the opinion that his aim was to transfer the iudicia to the senate;
whereas the epitomator of Livy[2477] directly states that he provided
for making up the iudicia of senators and knights in equal numbers.
We may partially reconcile these conflicting statements by supposing
that he planned to compose the jurors’ album of six hundred
senators and knights in equal numbers, by which expedient he
hoped to bring these two hostile orders back to their former harmony,
[2478] while serving the interests of the senate and ridding the state
of the corrupt and tyrannical rule of the knights.[2479] By a special
article of the rogation a quaestio, probably perpetua, was to be
appointed to inquire into the cases of bribery of jurors and to punish](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-29-320.jpg)
![the guilty.[2480] His most radical measure, introduced after opposition
to his other reforms began to develop,[2481] was for extending the
citizenship to the Latins[2482] and to all the Italians.[2483] This group
of proposals, designed for the benefit of all parties, proved distasteful
to all. The senators found a ground for complaint in the circumstance
that the knights would have equal power with them in the courts; the
knights were unwilling to surrender their judicial control or to grant
the franchise to the Italians; the wealthy Italians feared they might
lose the public lands which they still held. Only the poor among the
Romans and allies supported the proposal in the hope of profiting by
the distribution of lands.[2484] The agrarian, frumentarian, monetary,
and judiciary measures were combined in one statute, and passed
with violence[2485] and contrary to the omens.[2486] On these
grounds and furthermore because they violated the article of the
Caecilian-Didian statute forbidding the passing of a lex satura, they
were annulled by the senate.[2487] Although Drusus might have
interposed his veto against this decree, he preferred rather to
disregard it, most probably on the theory that the senatorial authority
did not avail against the sovereign will of the people.[2488] Aware that
his intercession would but postpone the annulment to another year,
he contented himself with informing his opponents that his measures
were absolutely necessary for the security of the state, and that
those who offended against them did it at their peril. He proceeded
to carry his statute into immediate effect.[2489] A plebiscite of
Saufeius, a colleague, established a commission of five in addition to
the ten provided for by the Livian statute; and Livius was elected a
member of both commissions.[2490] After his murder the Livian and
Saufeian statutes were both considered null and void.[2491]
The lex Remmia de calumniatoribus, which was enacted before
80, may belong to the year of the Livian attempt at reform, 91;[2492]
and in that case it would be most natural to regard it as a piece of
counter legislation to offset the proposal for establishing a court for
the trial of jurors accused of bribery. The complainant who was
proved malicious it rendered liable to trial and punishment with the
loss of citizenship and the branding of his forehead with the letter K](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-30-320.jpg)
![(for Kalumniator).[2493] This we may believe was the defiance offered
by the knights to those who were attempting to bring them to account
for their conduct as judges. Exulting in their victory over Drusus, they
expressed their antipathy to the Italian movement in a lex de
maiestate of Q. Varius, tribune of the plebs in 90. They stood round
the Rostra with drawn daggers and forced it through the comitia in
spite of tribunician intercession. It supplanted the Appuleian law on
the subject by a severe provision against those who encouraged the
Italians to demand the citizenship or in any way to conspire or to
revolt against the Roman people. It must have contained an article,
too, concerning seditions.[2494] The court which it established was to
sit on all ordinary dies fasti, undisturbed by iustitia,[2495] and was to
be a quaestio perpetua.[2496] Now that two attempts, the Appuleian
and the Livian, to substitute more popular measures for the
Sempronian frumentarian law had failed, the optimates found
themselves strong enough to supersede the Sempronian act by one
less popular. This was the Octavian law,[2497] the contents of which
are unknown, but which received the praise of Cicero for its
moderation.[2498]
The Social War, following close upon the murder of Livius Drusus,
compelled the Romans to grant the citizenship to the Italians. This
result was brought about by a succession of statutes. A law of the
consul L. Julius Caesar, 90, bestowed the citizenship upon the
Latins[2499] and on all the Italians who had not taken arms against
Rome[2500] and who were willing to accept the gift.[2501] The same
statute probably regulated the assignment of these new citizens to
the tribes.[2502] In the following year a law of L. Calpurnius Piso,
probably a tribune, granted the commanding general power,
apparently absolute, to bestow the right of the city upon the soldiers
under his orders.[2503] Another statute of 89, carried by M. Plautius
Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo, tribunes of the plebs, granted the
citizenship to all members of allied communities who were domiciled
in Italy at the time the statute was passed and who within sixty days
should signify to the praetor at Rome their willingness to accept the
offer.[2504] The object of this measure was not only to expedite the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-31-320.jpg)
![reconciliation, but also to make the work of the next censors
practicable. The citizenship thus granted involved the right of
suffrage, though in new tribes which voted after the others. Many
Italians, especially the Lucanians and the Samnites, took no notice
of the offer.[2505] In the same year Cn. Pompeius Strabo, a consul,
proposed and carried a law which seems to have empowered
himself at his discretion to invest with full citizenship those
Transpadani who already enjoyed the Latin rights, and to confer
upon the rest the ius Latii.[2506]
The question as to the composition of the courts, still left unsettled,
was taken up by M. Plautius Silvanus, the tribune referred to above.
His statute transferred the filling of the album from the urban praetor
to the tribes, which were to elect each fifteen members. The law
made the qualifications of the iudices independent of the social
classes. Under it accordingly senators and a few common plebeians
in addition to equites served as jurors, so that the equestrian control
of the courts was partially checked.[2507]
Mommsen[2508] supposes that these jurors were for the quaestio
de maiestate only. For this opinion he depends upon the assertion of
Cicero[2509] that the equites remained till Sulla’s legislation in
uninterrupted possession of the courts. The authority of Cicero,
however, would allow us to assume that while the equites lost the
legal monopoly they retained practical control. However that may be,
it is hardly possible that this reactionary measure survived the
proletarian uprising under Marius and Cinna. The lex agraria of the
same Plautius seems to have been intended for supplying the
veterans of the Social War with farms.[2510] The lex Papiria, which
introduced the semiuncial as, is doubtless to be assigned to C.
Papirius Carbo, the colleague of Plautius above mentioned. If so, the
object was to relieve slightly the financial embarrassment caused by
the war, and more particularly to bring the small coins of Rome into
correspondence with those of Italy.[2511]
IV. The Political Equalization of Italy
88-83](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-32-320.jpg)
![With many Italians still in revolt and the others smarting under the
inferior citizenship eked out to them, and with Mithridates threatening
the existence of the empire, Rome should have adopted a policy of
domestic conciliation. Under these circumstances Sulla, consul in
88, showed a lamentable want of tact in expressing the sentiment
that there could be no peace in Italy as long as a single Samnite
lived[2512]—a curiously antiquated frame of mind for a statesman of
his shrewdness. The cause of the new citizens was taken up by P.
Sulpicius Rufus, a patrician who had forsaken his rank to qualify
himself for the plebeian tribunate.[2513] A man of marvellous
eloquence, he had been an adherent of Drusus, though more
inclined to the equestrian interests. As tribune of the plebs, 88, he
seems to have tried to win the support of the senate and of the
equestrian order to his policy; but failing in the attempt, he looked for
aid to the commons and to a small band of knights who were faithful
to him. His rogation contained the following articles: (1) that the new
citizens and the libertini should be distributed among all the tribes,
[2514] with a view to completing the plan of Livius Drusus for the
political equalization of Italy; (2) that those who had been driven from
the state by violence should be recalled.[2515] This article was
probably for the benefit of those knights against whom the Varian law
had been turned.[2516] His rogation provided further, (3) that no one
who owed more than two thousand denarii should be a senator.[2517]
Money was scarce because of the war;[2518] and Sulpicius must
have felt that if the senators, most of whom were abundantly able,
should pay their debts, it would go far toward relieving the
stringency, and that if any were ejected because of failure to pay, an
opportunity would be afforded of promoting equites to the vacant
places. The consuls of the year, L. Cornelius Sulla and Q. Pompeius
Rufus, attempted to prevent a vote on these radical measures by
interposing a cessation of business for many days through the
proclamation of a festival.[2519] With his armed followers Sulpicius
forced the consuls to recall the proclamation, whereupon Sulla fled
for safety to his army at Nola. Sulpicius then added to his statute a
fourth article to the effect that the imperium of Sulla should be
abrogated and that the province of Asia, involving the conduct of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-33-320.jpg)
![war against Mithridates, should be given to Marius as proconsul,
[2520] although the latter was now but a private citizen. Doubtless
Sulpicius understood that there could be no guarantee for the
execution of his statute as long as Sulla remained in power, and
furthermore that the advancement of Marius would be a great gain
for the knights. The bill was passed by the comitia of tribes; but
Sulla, far from delivering up his command, marched his army into
Rome to settle the question in his own interest by the sword. On his
initiative Sulpicius, Marius, and ten of their associates were declared
public enemies by a decree of the senate ratified by a popular vote.
[2521] There is no need of assuming that the supporters of the tribune
turned against him; the optimates were as clever as their opponents
at packing assemblies. The absurdity of continuing the worn-out
comitial machinery as a factor of government is nowhere more
apparent than on this page of history, which records that the comitia
a few days after adopting the measures of Sulpicius, voted to outlaw
him and his friends. Marius fled; Sulpicius and several adherents
were killed. Thereupon the senate annulled the entire Sulpician
statute on the ground that it had been violently passed.[2522]
No statesman, however opposed to popular government, could
think of abolishing the comitia or even of putting an end to their
legislative function. But the democracy could be effectually checked
by reducing the legislative power of the assemblies to the harmless
function of ratifying decrees of the senate. This result Sulla and
Pompeius aimed to reach by renewing an ancient law[2523] that no
measure should ever again be brought before the people which had
not been previously considered and agreed to by the senate.[2524] A
closely related law of the same consuls ordered that “the voting
should not be by tribes but by centuries, as King Tullius had
ordained.”[2525] This statement has often been interpreted to signify
the restoration of the earlier form of comitia centuriata. But it seems
most improbable that, on the point of setting out for a long, distant
war, Sulla should think of restoring an organization which had been
obsolete for more than a century and a half, and which could have
been known to none but antiquarians. With his clear, practical
intelligence he could not have failed to see the insuperable difficulty](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-34-320.jpg)
![of restoring the ancient definitions of the classes in terms of iugera or
even on the later basis of the libral as.[2526] Furthermore no censors
were then at hand to undertake the work, and it was altogether
unlikely that during his absence any could be elected who would be
willing to apply themselves to the revitalization of the antique
mummy. Such a measure, too, as Meyer[2527] has pointed out, would
place the control of the assembly in the hands, not of the senate, but
of the knights, his mortal enemies. It is far more reasonable to
suppose that this act transferred the function of ratifying laws from
the tribal to the centuriate comitia, to restore the arrangement
supposed to have been introduced by Servius Tullius.[2528] If this
reasoning is correct, the act under consideration totally abolished the
legislative initiative of the tribunes.[2529] The other Cornelian-
Pompeian law mentioned by Appian must have applied, accordingly,
not to the tribunate but to the other magistracies.[2530] The current
interpretation, which involves the theory of a return to the original
centuriate system, requires further examination. Its chief basis is the
statement of Appian that no law should be brought before the
πλῆθος which had not been previously considered in the senate. It is
commonly assumed that he uses δῆμος to designate the whole
citizen body, and πλῆθος the exclusively plebeian assembly under
tribunician presidency. A study of his usage, however, proves that he
makes no such discrimination. Δῆμος is ordinarily the people in
general, especially as distinguished from the βουλή,[2531] parallel to
Livy’s common distinction between plebs and senatus. It is the
technical term for the plebs in their tribal comitia under tribunician
presidency.[2532] Rarely it signifies the state[2533] with reference to
the interest of the people. Πλῆθος, on the other hand, ordinarily
denotes the masses, multitude, rabble,[2534] including the crowd
gathered not only in a tribunician assembly[2535] but also in the
ἐκκλησία (here meaning contio) under the presidency of a patrician
magistrate.[2536] But πλῆθος is never technically or officially used to
denote any assembly either of the populus or of the plebs. In the
passage under discussion Appian’s statement of the Cornelian-
Pompeian law is εἰσηγοῦντό τε μηδὲν ἔτι ἀπροβούλευτον ἐς τὸν](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-35-320.jpg)
![δῆμον ἐσφέρεσθαι, in which he uses δῆμος according to his custom
to designate the popular assembly without specifying whether it is of
the populus or of the plebs. In commenting on it he substitutes
πλῆθος for δῆμος for the purpose, not of defining the assembly as
tribunician, but of contrasting the masses in the assembly with the
nobles in the senate: ἐσ τὸ πλῆθος is substantially equivalent to ἐν
τοῖς πένησι καὶ θρασυτάτοις used just below; Sulla wished nothing to
be submitted to the masses in the comitia centuriata before it had
been considered by the senate.
Appian[2537] attributes to Sulla for this early date an attempt to
increase the number of senators. “They (the consuls) enrolled three
hundred nobles in the senate, which had been reduced in numbers
and for that reason had come to be despised.” He does not state,
however, by what authority the consuls made this extraordinary
adlectio; and it is in fact improbable that the senate had so dwindled.
However that may be, the increase did not take permanent effect at
this time.[2538] Two other laws of these consuls are briefly
mentioned: (1) for planting colonies,[2539] of which nothing is known;
(2) a lex unciaria.[2540] The latter may have been a reduction of
existing debts by one-twelfth of the principle, or a lowering of the
maximal rate of interest to 8⅓ per cent;[2541] or it may have been a
general insolvency law, providing for the payment of debts in
instalments.[2542] The chief value of these measures, even if we
knew them in detail, would be to reveal the idea of their authors; for
they were all repealed in the following year on the initiative of the
consul L. Cornelius Cinna, probably by a comitial vote.[2543]
Cinna then proposed (1) a renewal of the Sulpician plebiscite for
the enrolment of the new citizens and the libertini among all the
tribes,[2544] (2) a recall of Marius and the other exiles.[2545] Before
these measures could be carried, the consul was driven from Rome
and deposed from office by an act of the senate on the motion of Cn.
Octavius, the other consul.[2546] This is the only certain instance of
the abrogation of the civil imperium known to the history of the
republic. Cinna returned at the head of an army; and after taking
forcible possession of the city, he carried his law concerning the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-36-320.jpg)
![exiles through the assembly either on his own motion or that of a
tribune.[2547] As the senate, reversing its earlier action,[2548] had
already legalized the Sulpician provision concerning the distribution
of the libertini and the new citizens among the thirty-five tribes,[2549]
it was without reënactment carried into effect in 84.[2550] The
execution of this measure completed the political unification of Italy.
Meantime L. Valerius Flaccus, consul suffectus in 86, to relieve the
financial distress, passed a law which compelled creditors to satisfy
themselves with one-fourth of the amount due.[2551] In 83 M. Junius
Brutus, tribune of the plebs, proposed and carried, as a milder
measure of relief, a law for the colonization of Capua.[2552]
Schulze, C. F., Volksversammlungen der Römer, 110-26; Peter, C., Epochen der
Verfassungsgesch. der röm. Republik, 141-65; Geschichte Roms, bks. VI, VII. chs.
i-iv; Ihne, W., History of Rome, bk. VII. chs. ii-xix; Researches into the History of
the Roman Constitution, 161 ff.; Long, G., Decline of the Roman Republic, I. ch. x-
II. ch. xxiv; Lange, Röm. Altertümer, iii. 1-146, and see indices s. the various laws;
Die promulgatio trinum nundinum, die lex Caecilia Didia und nochmals die lex
Pupia, in Kleine Schriften, ii. 214-70; Mommsen, Th., History of Rome, bk. iv; Röm.
Staatsr. see index s. the various laws; Ueber das thorische Ackergesetz, in Ber.
sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. i (1849). 89-101; Neumann, C., Geschichte Roms, I.
chs. ii-v; Ferrero, Greatness and Decline of Rome, I. chs. ii-v; Greenidge, A. H. J.,
History of Rome, i; The Lex Sempronia and the Banishment of Cicero, in Class.
Rev. vii (1893). 347 f.; Greenidge and Clay, Sources for Roman History, 133-70
B.C.; Strachan-Davidson, J. L., ed. Appian, Civil Wars, bk. i, with notes; Weber, M.,
Röm. Agrargeschichte, 151 ff.; Dreyfus, Lois agr. sous la république Rom. 77-196;
Voigt, M., Ueber die staatsrechtliche Possessio und den Ager compascuus, in
Abhdl. sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. x (1880). 221-72; Ueber das röm. System der
Wege im alten Italien, in Ber. sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. xxiv (1872). 29-90;
Babeion, E., Monnaies de la république Rom. i. 69-79; Billeter, G., Geschichte des
Zinsfusses im griechisch-röm. Altertum, 155 ff.; Fowler, W. W., Notes on Gaius
Gracchus, in Eng. Hist. Rev. xx (1905). 209-27, 417-33; Gaius Gracchus and the
Senate, in Class. Rev. x (1896). 278-80; Pöhlmann, R., Zur Geschichte der
Gracchen, in Sitzb. d. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss. 1907. 443-93; Oman, C., Seven
Roman Statesmen, i-iv; Huschke, Ph. E., Die lex Sempronia und ihr Verhältniss
zur lex Acilia repetundarum, in Zeitschr. f. Rechtsgesch. v. (1866). 46-84; Rudorff,
A. E., Ad legem Aciliam de pecuniis repentundis latam anno ab urbe condita 631
vel 632, in Philol. u. hist. Abhdl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, 1861. 411-553;
Krüger-Brissaud, Hist. d. sources d. droit Rom. 94 f.; Hegewisch, D. H.,
Geschichte der gracchischen Unruhen; Ahren, E. A. J., Die drei Volkstribunen Ti.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-37-320.jpg)
![CHAPTER XVII
COMITIAL LEGISLATION
From Sulla to the End of the Republic, 82 to about 30
I. The Cornelian Reaction
82-70
In November, 82, after destroying his political enemies by war and
proscription, Sulla was ready to begin the work of restoring the
aristocratic constitution. As both consuls, Cn. Papirius Carbo and C.
Marius the younger,[2553] were dead, and as Sulla desired above all
things to give his legislation a constitutional basis, he advised the
senate to appoint an interrex. The choice fell on L. Valerius Flaccus,
princeps senatus, a moderate in politics. Thereupon Sulla withdrew
from Rome, leaving the civil authorities free in appearance to act at
their discretion. In reality he had determined to retain control of
affairs; and accordingly he wrote to Valerius advising the
appointment of a dictator, not for a fixed time but till the general
unrest should be quieted. He suggested himself as a suitable person
for the place. Valerius obediently proposed and carried a law through
the comitia centuriata, (1) which made Sulla dictator rei publicae
constituendae for an indefinite time with absolute power over the
lives and property of the citizens,[2554] (2) which legalized all his past
acts, both as consul and as proconsul,[2555] including his
arrangements in Asia as well as his proscriptions and confiscations.
[2556] He returned to the city, appointed Valerius his magister
equitum,[2557] and took to himself twenty-four lictors in addition to a
less formal guard of servants and friends.[2558] Without delay he
began the promulgation of laws, which undoubtedly he had long
been planning. They are here grouped according to subject, with an
occasional reference to their chronological relation.
First he applied himself to curbing the power of the tribunate, an
institution in which centred the strength of the democracy. A statute](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-39-320.jpg)
![for that purpose he must have felt compelled to draw up and pass
before the next tribunician election. Instead of renewing his earlier
law, however, for absolutely depriving the tribunes of initiative in
legislation,[2559] he enacted simply that the previous consent of the
senate should be necessary to bills brought by them before the
tribes.[2560] By another article of this law he limited the right of
tribunes to address the people in contiones.[2561] The range of their
intercession was also greatly limited.[2562] Their function of bringing
prosecutions before the people underwent restriction not only
through the laws affecting the quaestiones but also by special
enactment;[2563] for had they retained their unlimited right to
prosecute, they could at once have regained all their other power.
[2564] Little was left them but their original auxilii latio adversus
imperium.[2565] Finally the office was made unattractive to the
ambitious by the provision that those who held it were thereby
disqualified for other magistracies.[2566] By these measures the most
vital and powerful institution in the state was reduced to a shadow
without substance.[2567] The return to conditions preceding the
Hortensian legislation, in some respects even the Decemviral
legislation, was, as Fröhlich[2568] remarks, a backward step such as
finds few parallels in history.
About a year[2569] after limiting the power of the tribunes Sulla
proceeded to regulate the other offices through his lex de
magistratibus, 81. This statute, making use of the principle contained
in the lex Villia annalis,[2570] prescribed (1) that no one could be
consul before he had been praetor or praetor before he had been
quaestor,[2571] (2) that a space of two years should intervene
between the holding of consecutive offices.[2572] (3) The minimal
age of the quaestor it fixed at thirty-seven.[2573] The fortieth year
was therefore the age for the praetorship and the forty-third for the
office of consul. The aedileship, while bringing the holder a positive
advantage for his future career, was never an essential step to a
higher place. But in case this office was taken, the biennial interval
had to be observed.[2574] The quaestorship Sulla made the sole](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-40-320.jpg)
![avenue to the senate, so as to dispense with the revision of the list
by the censors.[2575] The statute of 151, forbidding reëlection to the
consulship,[2576] he repealed, and substituted for it the article of the
Genucian plebiscite of 442[2577] which fixed an interval of ten years
between the expiration of any office and reëlection to the same.[2578]
He increased the number of quaestors, at this time certainly more
than eight,[2579] to twenty, with the object not only of supplying an
administrative need but also of creating the required number of
senators.[2580] It was necessary also to raise the number of praetors
from six to eight in order to provide presidents for the new
quaestiones perpetuae.[2581]
The reforms above mentioned, together with the doubling of the
number of senators to be considered below, naturally led to the
enlargement of the chief sacerdotal colleges. The augurs and
pontiffs were increased from nine to fifteen and the decemviri sacris
faciundis were made quindecemviri.[2582] Another measure, which
seems to have been an article of the same act, repealed the
Domitian lex de sacerdotiis,[2583] and thus restored to these
colleges, and at the same time to the epulones, their right of filling
vacancies by coöptation,[2584] leaving to the people the function only
of electing the head of the pontifical college from among the
members.[2585] As the object of the first article was evidently to
provide places for some of the new magistrates and senators,[2586]
the coöptation doubtless immediately followed the enactment of the
law.
In increasing the number of praetors to eight[2587] Sulla provided
that during their year of office they were to remain in the city and
devote their whole time to the administration of justice. After the
expiration of their term they were to take upon themselves as
propraetors the command of provinces. In like manner the consuls
were to remain in Italy during their term, in the ordinary course of
events to give their entire attention to the affairs of peace; only after
they had retired from office were they expected as proconsuls to
govern provinces. In brief, Sulla by law established an absolute](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-41-320.jpg)
![distinction between the civil magistrate and the military
promagistrate.[2588] The lex de provinciis ordinandis[2589] recognized
the right of the senate to determine which provinces should be
consular and which pretorian in the way provided for by the
Sempronian law on this subject.[2590] The Cornelian statute did not,
however, any more than the Sempronian, forbid the assignment of a
province to a promagistrate by popular vote; and it recognized the
right of the senate to create promagistracies.[2591] But it established
the rule (1) that the two consuls should receive for a year of
promagisterial imperium the provinces declared to be consular; and
that they should either agree as to which each should take or cast
lots for them;[2592] (2) that the senate should annually assign the
eight retiring praetors to the remaining provinces, also for a year of
promagistracy.[2593] The same law directed that the promagistrate,
who had received the imperium in legal form, should retain it till his
return to the city and the celebration of his triumph,[2594] provided he
merited one. To avoid conflicts between retiring and incoming
governors it ordained that the former should leave the province
within thirty days after the latter had entered it.[2595] The law further
contained the definite regulation of the supplies and honors granted
the legati by the provincials.[2596] The tendency of Sulla’s legislation
thus far considered was to weaken the civil functionaries (1) by
restricting the tribunician initiative. (2) by increasing the number of
quaestors and praetors. (3) by depriving the higher civil magistrates
of the military imperium. The last-mentioned loss was in some
measure an advantage to the senate but in a far higher degree to the
promagistrates, who from this time began to overshadow the
republic.
The power taken from the tribunes necessarily went to the senate,
to restore to it the full control of legislation which it had possessed
before the enactment of the Hortensian statute. Under the reformed
constitution it was to be supreme. As it had dwindled during the
recent civil war and proscription,[2597] and as the performance of jury
service, which Sulla was restoring to its members, required a large
number of men, he added three hundred, mostly from the equestrian](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-42-320.jpg)
![rank, but including some centurions and other insignificant persons
who were likely to do his bidding.[2598] Appian[2599] states that these
new senators were elected by the tribes, possibly meaning the tribal
comitia.[2600] But as that process of selection would have required
an enormous length of time, it is far more probable that each tribe
had the privilege of choosing a definite number, perhaps nine, after
the precedent of the lex Plautia iudiciaria.[2601] This addition would
raise the number to about four hundred and fifty. As the normal
membership from Sulla to Caesar was about six hundred,[2602] we
may assume either that, independently of the extraordinary adlectio
by the tribes, he made the usual censorial enrolment of the recently
retired magistrates, or that he left it to time to fill up the senate to the
desired number by the annual admission of retired quaestors.[2603]
Henceforth it was to be recruited automatically by this process,
without any action on the part of the censors, who were thus
deprived of the only important function remaining to them.[2604]
Closely connected with the increase in membership is the lex
iudiciaria,[2605] which restored the quaestiones to the senators.[2606]
It was enacted near the end of 81, but prior to the increase in the
number of quaestors.[2607] Before this act the courts had remained
under the control of the knights in spite of the lex Plautia of 89, which
seems not to have continued long in force.[2608]
In the reorganization of the criminal courts (year 81) Sulla passed
criminal laws, in which he regulated the procedure of the existing
courts and created new quaestiones perpetuae.[2609] His reform
increased the number to seven, four of which were concerned
almost wholly with maladministration of office: (1) quaestio
repetundarum, extortion,[2610] (2) quaestio ambitus, bribery in
elections,[2611] (3) quaestio peculatus, misappropriation of public
funds[2612] and sacrilege,[2613] (4) quaestio maiestatis, injury to the
majesty of the Roman name, of which a private person as well as a
magistrate might be guilty.[2614] The three following were concerned
with common crimes: (5) quaestio inter sicarios et veneficos,
assassination, poisoning, and arson,[2615] (6) quaestio de falsis,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-43-320.jpg)
![counterfeiting and falsification of testaments and other forgery,[2616]
(7) quaestio iniuriarum, acute personal violence, housebreaking, and
probably defamation of character.[2617] These laws concerning
quaestiones contained provisions for granting the accused the
privilege of deciding whether the vote should be oral or by ballot,
[2618] and they directed that the order of voting should be determined
by lot.[2619] The first of these two articles aimed to make the jurors
individually responsible, and the second to prevent influential men
from prejudicing the case by giving their opinions first.[2620]
While the praetor urbanus and praetor peregrinus still busied
themselves with civil jurisdiction, the six other praetors presided over
these courts; but as the number was insufficient, past aediles were
appointed to preside as iudices quaestionis. This arrangement was
especially necessary for the quaestio inter sicarios, overburdened as
it was with a variety of crimes.
As these courts were vested with the function of trying without
appeal all crimes, including those formerly brought before the
comitia, the result was that the people were practically, though not
constitutionally, deprived of their judicial power. The tendency of the
Cornelian legislation in this as in other respects was oligarchic.
Among the statutes passed in the winter or early spring of 81 we
must place the lex de proscriptione,[2621] which added certain
regulations to those of the Valerian law for the creation of the
Cornelian dictatorship,[2622] and which Sulla considered essential to
the execution of his policy and the maintenance of its results. The
Cornelian statute concerning proscription forbade the giving of relief
or aid to a proscribed person;[2623] it legalized the previous slayings
and confiscations of property,[2624] and provided also that the
estates not only of the proscribed but also of enemies who had fallen
in battle should be sold for the benefit of the treasury.[2625] It
excepted from the sale ten thousand of the youngest and strongest
slaves, who were given their freedom; and it debarred from the ius
honorum the sons, grandsons, and other descendants of the
proscribed,[2626] with a view to keeping from them the means of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-44-320.jpg)
![vengeance; and lastly, it fixed the date for closing the proscriptions at
June 1, 81.[2627]
During the winter of 82-81 Sulla gave his attention not only to law-
making but also to the sale of confiscated property and to the
regulation of Italy. The latter work was carried out by the
administrative power of the dictator through the destruction of the
fortifications of rebellious communities, their punishment by fines and
extraordinary taxes, and the confiscation of some of their lands, to
be assigned to his discharged veterans.[2628] The Cornelian agrarian
laws,[2629] which brought about these confiscations and
assignments, seem to have been not acts of the comitia but
dictatorial orders.[2630] They must have been issued from time to
time as occasion demanded, probably through the entire year 81.
[2631] The legions were kept together till after the triumph (January
27, 28 of the year 81)[2632] and then disbanded, to be led off
gradually to their lands. Some of the municipia to which soldiers
were assigned, most obstinately Volaterrae and Nola, resisted their
admission by force of arms. To punish these rebels Sulla carried
through the comitia centuriata his lex de civitate Volaterranis
adimenda,[2633] which disfranchised not only Volaterrae but also
other rebellious municipia.[2634] Those who by this act were deprived
of the citizenship received the so-called Latin rights of Ariminum.
[2635]
Among the regulations for the improvement of the finances, which
he found in bad condition,[2636] was his abolition of the distributions
of grain.[2637] Whether it was effected by a lex frumentaria or a
dictatorial order cannot be determined.[2638] The levy of taxes on
Italian and transmarine communities[2639] could be brought about by
senatus consulta,[2640] as the people had nothing to do with such
matters. Credit had been shattered by the law of L. Valerius Flaccus
concerning debts, 86,[2641] which Sulla repealed by one of his own
on the same subject, 81.[2642]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-45-320.jpg)
![In connection with the Circensian games which he celebrated in
the autumn of 81, and which in honor of Victoria were thereafter
repeated annually from October 26 to November 1,[2643] Sulla must
have passed a lex de ludis Victoriae instituendis.[2644] Lastly came
the sumptuary law, through which he attempted to regulate the
manners and morals of the citizens.[2645] It was the restoration, in a
revised form, of the lex Licinia of 104,[2646] which had been repealed
by M. Duronius in 97.[2647] The Cornelian statute permitted the
expenditure of no more than three hundred sesterces for meals on
the calends, nones, ides, ludi, and certain other holidays, and only
thirty for ordinary meals; and it fixed the prices of various luxuries.
[2648] Another article of the same statute limited funeral expenses.
[2649] The author’s object seems to have been to restore the morals
and manners as well as the constitution and laws of the good old
time before they were corrupted by the demagogues.
Sulla’s legislation was substantially complete on January 1, 80,
when he entered upon his second consulship with Q. Caecilius
Metellus Pius as colleague.[2650] Retiring into private life early in 79,
he left the constitution to its fate. No better comment on its value
could be offered than the history of its decline and overthrow in a
single decade. Opposition began to manifest itself from the time of
his abdication; and he was hardly in his grave when M. Aemilius
Lepidus, consul in 78, promulgated bills for the abolition of some of
the Cornelian statutes; but the opposition of his colleague, Q.
Lutatius Catulus, and of the senate prevented their ratification.[2651]
The right of retired tribunes to sue for other offices,[2652] however,
was restored by a statute of the consul C. Aurelius Cotta, 75.[2653]
Before coming to the restoration of the tribunician power it is
necessary to mention the statutes passed under the Cornelian
constitution. To 78 or 77 probably belongs the lex Plautia de vi,
generally regarded as tribunician, which established a quaestio
perpetua for the trial of persons charged with violence. It also
forbade the acquisition by long use of things stolen or violently
seized.[2654] As no censors were elected, an order of the people of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/70086-250312091410-a1fe5661/85/Secrets-of-RF-Circuit-Design-3rd-ed-Edition-Joseph-Carr-46-320.jpg)
Secrets of RF Circuit Design 3rd ed Edition Joseph Carr
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- 5. Secrets of RF Circuit Design 3rd ed Edition Joseph Carr Digital Instant Download Author(s): Joseph Carr ISBN(s): 9780071370677, 0071370676 Edition: 3rd ed File Details: PDF, 5.81 MB Year: 2001 Language: english
- 7. 1 CHAPTER Introduction to RF electronics Radio-frequency (RF) electronics differ from other electronics because the higher frequencies make some circuit operation a little hard to understand. Stray capacitance and stray inductance afflict these circuits. Stray capacitance is the capacitance that exists between conductors of the circuit, between conductors or components and ground, or between components. Stray inductance is the normal in- ductance of the conductors that connect components, as well as internal component inductances. These stray parameters are not usually important at dc and low ac frequencies, but as the frequency increases, they become a much larger proportion of the total. In some older very high frequency (VHF) TV tuners and VHF communi- cations receiver front ends, the stray capacitances were sufficiently large to tune the circuits, so no actual discrete tuning capacitors were needed. Also, skin effect exists at RF. The term skin effect refers to the fact that ac flows only on the outside portion of the conductor, while dc flows through the entire con- ductor. As frequency increases, skin effect produces a smaller zone of conduction and a correspondingly higher value of ac resistance compared with dc resistance. Another problem with RF circuits is that the signals find it easier to radiate both from the circuit and within the circuit. Thus, coupling effects between elements of the circuit, between the circuit and its environment, and from the environment to the circuit become a lot more critical at RF. Interference and other strange effects are found at RF that are missing in dc circuits and are negligible in most low- frequency ac circuits. The electromagnetic spectrum When an RF electrical signal radiates, it becomes an electromagnetic wave that includes not only radio signals, but also infrared, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, gamma rays, and others. Before proceeding with RF electronic circuits, therefore, take a look at the electromagnetic spectrum. 1 Source: Secrets of RF Circuit Design Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
- 8. The electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 1-1) is broken into bands for the sake of convenience and identification. The spectrum extends from the very lowest ac fre- quencies and continues well past visible light frequencies into the X-ray and gamma- ray region. The extremely low frequency (ELF) range includes ac power-line frequencies as well as other low frequencies in the 25- to 100-hertz (Hz) region. The U.S. Navy uses these frequencies for submarine communications. The very low frequency (VLF) region extends from just above the ELF region, although most authorities peg it to frequencies of 10 to 100 kilohertz (kHz). The low- frequency (LF) region runs from 100 to 1000 kHz—or 1 megahertz (MHz). The medium-wave (MW) or medium-frequency (MF) region runs from 1 to 3 MHz. The amplitude-modulated (AM) broadcast band (540 to 1630 kHz) spans portions of the LF and MF bands. The high-frequency (HF) region, also called the shortwave bands (SW), runs from 3 to 30 MHz. The VHF band starts at 30 MHz and runs to 300 MHz. This region includes the frequency-modulated (FM) broadcast band, public utilities, some tele- vision stations, aviation, and amateur radio bands. The ultrahigh frequencies (UHF) run from 300 to 900 MHz and include many of the same services as VHF. The mi- crowave region begins above the UHF region, at 900 or 1000 MHz, depending on source authority. You might well ask how microwaves differ from other electromagnetic waves. Microwaves almost become a separate topic in the study of RF circuits because at these frequencies the wavelength approximates the physical size of ordinary elec- tronic components. Thus, components behave differently at microwave frequencies than they do at lower frequencies. At microwave frequencies, a 0.5-W metal film re- sistor, for example, looks like a complex RLC network with distributed L and C val- ues—and a surprisingly different R value. These tiniest of distributed components have immense significance at microwave frequencies, even though they can be ig- nored as negligible at lower RFs. Before examining RF theory, first review some background and fundamentals. Units and physical constants In accordance with standard engineering and scientific practice, all units in this book will be in either the CGS (centimeter-gram-second) or MKS (meter- kilogram-second) system unless otherwise specified. Because the metric system de- 2 Introduction to RF electronics 1-1 The electromagnetic spectrum from VLF to X-ray. The RF region covers from less than 100 kHz to 300 GHz. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 9. pends on using multiplying prefixes on the basic units, a table of common metric prefixes (Table 1-1) is provided. Table 1-2 gives the standard physical units. Table 1-3 gives physical constants of interest in this and other chapters. Table 1-4 gives some common conversion factors. Units and physical constants 3 Table 1-1. Metric prefixes Metric prefix Multiplying factor Symbol tera 1012 T giga 109 G mega 106 M kilo 103 K hecto 102 h deka 10 da deci 10⫺1 d centi 10⫺2 c milli 10⫺3 m micro 10⫺6 u nano 10⫺9 n pico 10⫺12 p femto 10⫺15 f atto 10⫺18 a Table 1-2. Units of measure Quantity Unit Symbol Capacitance farad F Electric charge coulomb Q Conductance mhos Conductivity mhos/meter ⍀/m Current ampere A Energy joule (watt-second) j Field volts/meter E Flux linkage weber (volt/second) Frequency hertz Hz Inductance henry H Length meter m Mass gram g Power watt W Resistance ohm ⍀ Time second s Velocity meter/second m/s Electric potential volt V Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 10. Wavelength and frequency For all wave forms, the velocity, wavelength, and frequency are related so that the product of frequency and wavelength is equal to the velocity. For radiowaves, this relationship can be expressed in the following form: (1-1) where ⫽ wavelength in meters (m) F ⫽ frequency in hertz (Hz) ⫽ dielectric constant of the propagation medium c ⫽ velocity of light (300,000,000 m/s). The dielectric constant ( ) is a property of the medium in which the wave prop- agates. The value of is defined as 1.000 for a perfect vacuum and very nearly 1.0 for dry air (typically 1.006). In most practical applications, the value of in dry air is taken to be 1.000. For media other than air or vacuum, however, the velocity of prop- ⑀ ⑀ ⑀ ⑀ lF2⑀ ⫽ c, 4 Introduction to RF electronics Table 1-3. Physical constants Constant Value Symbol Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 ⫻ 10⫺23 J/K K Electric chart (e⫺ ) 1.6 ⫻ 10⫺19 C q Electron (volt) 1.6 ⫻ 10⫺19 J eV Electron (mass) 9.12 ⫻ 10⫺31 kg m Permeability of free space 4 ⫻ 10⫺7 H/m U0 Permitivity of free space 8.85 ⫻ 10⫺12 F/m 0 Planck’s constant 6.626 ⫻ 10⫺34 J-s h Velocity of electromagnetic waves 3 ⫻ 108 m/s c Pi () 3.1416 ...... ⑀ Table 1-4. Conversion factors 1 inch ⫽ 2.54 cm 1 inch ⫽ 25.4 mm 1 foot ⫽ 0.305 m 1 statute mile ⫽ 1.61 km 1 nautical mile ⫽ 6,080 feet (6,000 feet)a 1 statute mile ⫽ 5,280 feet 1 mile ⫽ 0.001 in ⫽ 2.54 ⫻ 10⫺5 m 1 kg ⫽ 2.2 lb 1 neper ⫽ 8.686 dB 1 gauss ⫽ 10,000 teslas a Some navigators use 6,000 feet for ease of calculation. The nautical mile is 1/360 of the Earth’s circumference at the equator, more or less. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 11. agation is slower and the value of ⑀ relative to a vacuum is higher. Teflon, for exam- ple, can be made with values from about 2 to 11. Equation (1-1) is more commonly expressed in the forms of Eqs. (1-2) and (1-3): (1-2) and (1-3) [All terms are as defined for Eq. (1-1).] Microwave letter bands During World War II, the U.S. military began using microwaves in radar and other applications. For security reasons, alphabetic letter designations were adopted for each band in the microwave region. Because the letter designations became in- grained, they are still used throughout industry and the defense establishment. Un- fortunately, some confusion exists because there are at least three systems currently in use: pre-1970 military (Table 1-5), post-1970 military (Table 1-6), and the IEEE and industry standard (Table 1-7). Additional confusion is created because the mili- tary and defense industry use both pre- and post-1970 designations simultaneously and industry often uses military rather than IEEE designations. The old military des- ignations (Table 1-5) persist as a matter of habit. Skin effect There are three reasons why ordinary lumped constant electronic components do not work well at microwave frequencies. The first, mentioned earlier in this chap- ter, is that component size and lead lengths approximate microwave wavelengths. F ⫽ c l2⑀ . l ⫽ c F 2⑀ ⑀ Microwave letter bands 5 Table 1-5. Old U.S. military microwave frequency bands (WWII–1970) Band designation Frequency range P 225–390 MHz L 390–1550 MHz S 1550–3900 MHz C 3900–6200 MHz X 6.2–10.9 GHz K 10.9–36 GHz Q 36–46 GHz V 46–56 GHz Q 56–100 GHz Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 12. The second is that distributed values of inductance and capacitance become signifi- cant at these frequencies. The third is the phenomenon of skin effect. While dc cur- rent flows in the entire cross section of the conductor, ac flows in a narrow band near the surface. Current density falls off exponentially from the surface of the conductor toward the center (Fig. 1-2). At the critical depth (␦, also called the depth of pene- tration), the current density is 1/e ⫽ 1/2.718 ⫽ 0.368 of the surface current density. 6 Introduction to RF electronics Table 1-7. IEEE/Industry standard frequency bands Band designation Frequency range HF 3–30 MHz VHF 0–300 MHz UHF 300–1000 MHz L 1000–2000 MHz S 2000–4000 MHz C 4000–8000 MHz X 8000–12000 MHz Ku 12–18 GHz K 18–27 GHz Ka 27–40 GHz Millimeter 40–300 GHz Submillimeter ⬎300 GHz Table 1-6. New U.S. military microwave frequency bands (Post-1970) Band designation Frequency range A 100–250 MHz B 250–500 MHz C 500–1000 MHz D 1000–2000 MHz E 2000–3000 MHz F 3000–4000 MHz G 4000–6000 MHz H 6000–8000 MHz I 8000–10000 MHz J 10–20 GHz K 20–40 GHz L 40–60 GHz M 60–100 GHz Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 13. The value of ␦ is a function of operating frequency, the permeability () of the con- ductor, and the conductivity (). Equation (1-4) gives the relationship. (1-4) where ␦ ⫽ critical depth F ⫽ frequency in hertz ⫽ permeability in henrys per meter ⫽ conductivity in mhos per meter. RF components, layout, and construction Radio-frequency components and circuits differ from those of other frequencies principally because the unaccounted for “stray” inductance and capacitance forms a significant portion of the entire inductance and capacitance in the circuit. Consider a tuning circuit consisting of a 100-pF capacitor and a 1-H inductor. According to an equation that you will learn in a subsequent chapter, this combination should res- onate at an RF frequency of about 15.92 MHz. But suppose the circuit is poorly laid out and there is 25 pF of stray capacitance in the circuit. This capacitance could come from the interaction of the capacitor and inductor leads with the chassis or with other components in the circuit. Alternatively, the input capacitance of a tran- sistor or integrated circuit (IC) amplifier can contribute to the total value of the “strays” in the circuit (one popular RF IC lists 7 pF of input capacitance). So, what does this extra 25 pF do to our circuit? It is in parallel with the 100-pF discrete ␦ ⫽ B 1 2F RF components, layout, and construction 7 1-2 In ac circuits, the current flows only in the outer region of the conductor. This effect is frequency-sensitive and it becomes a serious consideration at higher RF frequencies. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 14. capacitor so it produces a total of 125 pF. Reworking the resonance equation with 125 pF instead of 100 pF reduces the resonant frequency to 14.24 MHz. A similar situation is seen with stray inductance. All current-carrying conduc- tors exhibit a small inductance. In low-frequency circuits, this inductance is not suf- ficiently large to cause anyone concern (even in some lower HF band circuits), but as frequencies pass from upper HF to the VHF region, strays become terribly impor- tant. At those frequencies, the stray inductance becomes a significant portion of to- tal circuit inductance. Layout is important in RF circuits because it can reduce the effects of stray ca- pacitance and inductance. A good strategy is to use broad printed circuit tracks at RF, rather than wires, for interconnection. I’ve seen circuits that worked poorly when wired with #28 Kovar-covered “wire-wrap” wire become quite acceptable when redone on a printed circuit board using broad (which means low-inductance) tracks. Figure 1-3 shows a sample printed circuit board layout for a simple RF amplifier circuit. The key feature in this circuit is the wide printed circuit tracks and short distances. These tactics reduce stray inductance and will make the circuit more predictable. Although not shown in Fig. 1-3, the top (components) side of the printed circuit board will be all copper, except for space to allow the components to interface with the bottom-side printed tracks. This layer is called the “ground plane” side of the board. Impedance matching in RF circuits In low-frequency circuits, most of the amplifiers are voltage amplifiers. The re- quirement for these circuits is that the source impedance must be very low com- pared with the load impedance. A sensor or signal source might have an output impedance of, for example, 25 ⍀. As long as the input impedance of the amplifier re- ceiving that signal is very large relative to 25 ⍀, the circuit will function. “Very large” typically means greater than 10 times, although in some cases greater than 100 times is preferred. For the 25-⍀ signal source, therefore, even the most stringent case is met by an input impedance of 2500 ⍀, which is very far below the typical input im- pedance of real amplifiers. RF circuits are a little different. The amplifiers are usually specified in terms of power parameters, even when the power level is very tiny. In most cases, the RF cir- cuit will have some fixed system impedance (50, 75, 300, and 600 ⍀ being common, with 50 ⍀ being nearly universal), and all elements of the circuit are expected to 8 Introduction to RF electronics 1-3 Typical RF printed circuit layout. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 15. match the system impedance. Although a low-frequency amplifier typically has a very high input impedance and very low output impedance, most RF amplifiers will have the same impedance (usually 50 ⍀) for both input and output. Mismatching the system impedance causes problems, including loss of signal— especially where power transfer is the issue (remember, for maximum power trans- fer, the source and load impedances must be equal). Radio-frequency circuits very often use transformers or impedance-matching networks to affect the match be- tween source and load impedances. Wiring boards Radio-frequency projects are best constructed on printed circuit boards that are specially designed for RF circuits. But that ideal is not always possible. Indeed, for many hobbyists or students, it might be impossible, except for the occasional project built from a magazine article or from this book. This section presents a couple of al- ternatives to the use of printed circuit boards. Figure 1-4 shows the use of perforated circuit wiring board (commonly called perfboard). Electronic parts distributors, RadioShack, and other outlets sell various versions of this material. Most commonly available perfboard offers 0.042⬙ holes spaced on 0.100⬙ centers, although other hole sizes and spacings are available. Some perfboard is completely blank, and other stock material is printed with any of several different patterns. The offerings of RadioShack are interesting because several dif- ferent patterns are available. Some are designed for digital IC applications and oth- ers are printed with a pattern of circles, one each around the 0.042⬙ holes. In Fig. 1-4, the components are mounted on the top side of an unprinted board. The wiring underneath is “point-to-point” style. Although not ideal for RF circuits, it will work throughout the HF region of the spectrum and possibly into the low VHF (especially if lead lengths are kept short). RF components, layout, and construction 9 1-4 Perfboard layout. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 16. Notice the shielded inductors on the board in Fig. 1-4. These inductors are slug- tuned through a small hole in the top of the inductor. The standard pin pattern for these components does not match the 0.100-hole pattern that is common to perf- board. However, if the coils are canted about half a turn from the hole matrix, the pins will fit on the diagonal. The grounding tabs for the shields can be handled in ei- ther of two ways. First, bend them 90⬚ from the shield body and let them lay on the top side of the perfboard. Small wires can then be soldered to the tabs and passed through a nearby hole to the underside circuitry. Second, drill a pair of 1 ⁄16⬙ holes (be- tween two of the premade holes) to accommodate the tabs. Place the coil on the board at the desired location to find the exact location of these holes. Figure 1-5 shows another variant on the perfboard theme. In this circuit, pressure-sensitive (adhesive-backed) copper foil is pressed onto the surface of the perfboard to form a ground plane. This is not optimum, but it works for “one-off” homebrew projects up to HF and low-VHF frequencies. The perfboard RF project in Fig. 1-6 is a frequency translator. It takes two fre- quencies (F1 and F2), each generated in a voltage-tuned variable-frequency oscilla- tor (VFO) circuit, and mixes them together in a double-balanced mixer (DBM) device. A low-pass filter (the toroidal inductors seen in Fig. 1-6) selects the differ- ence frequency (F2-F1). It is important to keep the three sections (osc1, osc2, and the low-pass filter) isolated from each other. To accomplish this goal, a shield parti- tion is provided. In the center of Fig. 1-6, the metal package of the mixer is soldered to the shield partition. This shield can be made from either 0.75⬙ or 1.00⬙ brass strip stock of the sort that is available from hobby and model shops. Figure 1-7 shows a small variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) that is tuned by an air variable capacitor. The capacitor is a 365-pF “broadcast band” variable. I built this circuit as the local oscillator for a high-performance AM broadcast band receiver project. The shielded, slug-tuned inductor, along with the capacitor, tunes the 985- to 2055-kHz range of the LO. The perfboard used for this project was a preprinted RadioShack. The printed foil pattern on the underside of the perfboard is a matrix of small circles of copper, one copper pad per 0.042⬙ hole. The perfboard is held off the chassis by nylon spacers and 4-40 ⫻ 0.75⬙ machine screws and hex nuts. 10 Introduction to RF electronics 1-5 Perfboard layout with RF ground plane. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 17. Chassis and cabinets It is probably wise to build RF projects inside shielded metal packages wherever possible. This approach to construction will prevent external interference from harming the operation of the circuit and prevent radiation from the circuit from in- terfering with external devices. Figure 1-8 shows two views of an RF project built in- side an aluminum chassis box; Fig. 1-8A shows the assembled box and Fig. 1-8B shows an internal view. These boxes have flanged edges on the top portion that over- lap the metal side/bottom panel. This overlap is important for interference reduc- tion. Shun those cheaper chassis boxes that use a butt fit, with only a couple of nipples and dimples to join the boxes together. Those boxes do not shield well. The input and output terminals of the circuit in Fig. 1-8 are SO-239 “UHF” coax- ial connectors. Such connectors are commonly used as the antenna terminal on shortwave radio receivers. Alternatives include “RCA phono jacks” and “BNC” coax- ial connectors. Select the connector that is most appropriate to your application. RF shielded boxes At one time, more than 2 decades ago, I loathed small RF electronic projects above about 40-m as “too hard.” As I grew in confidence, I learned a few things about RF components, layout, and construction 11 1-6 The use of shielding on perfboard. 1-7 VFO circuit build on perfboard. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 18. RF construction (e.g., layout, grounding, and shielding) and found that by following the rules, one can be as successful building RF stuff as at lower frequencies. One problem that has always been something of a hassle, however, is the shield- ing that is required. You could learn layout and grounding, but shielding usually re- quired a better box than I had. Most of the low-cost aluminum electronic hobbyist boxes on the market are alright for dc to the AM broadcast band, but as frequency climbs into the HF and VHF region, problems begin to surface. What you thought was shielded “t’ain’t.” If you’ve read my columns or feature articles over the years, you will recall that I caution RF constructors to use the kind of aluminum box with an overlapping flange of at least 0.25⬙, and a good tight fit. Many hobbyist-grade boxes on the market just simply are not good enough. Enter SESCOM, Inc. [Dept. JJC, 2100 Ward Drive, Henderson, NV, 89015-4249; (702) 565-3400 and (for voice orders only) 1-800-634-3457 and (for FAX orders only) 1-800-551-2749]. SESCOM makes a line of cabinets, 19⬙ racks, rack mount boxes, and RF shielded boxes. Their catalog has a lot of interesting items for radio and electronic hobbyist constructors. I was particularly taken by their line of RF shielded boxes. Why? Because it seems that RF projects are the main things I’ve built for the past 10 years. Figure 1-9 shows one of the SESCOM RF shielded steel boxes in their SB-x line. Notice that it uses the “finger” construction in order to get a good RF-tight fit be- tween the lid and the body of the box. Also notice that the box comes with some snap-in partitions for internal shielding between sections. The box body is punched to accept the tabs on these internal partitions, which can then be soldered in place for even better stability and shielding. At first, I was a little concerned about the material; the boxes are made of hot tin-plated steel rather than aluminum. The tin plating makes soldering easy, but steel 12 Introduction to RF electronics A 1-8 Shielded RF construction: (A) closed box showing dc connections made via coaxial capacitors; (B) box opened. B Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 19. is hard on drill bits. I found, however, in experimenting with the SB-5 box supplied to me by SESCOM that a good-quality set of drill bits had no difficulty making a hole. Sure, if you use old, dull drill bits and lean on the drill like Attila the Hun, then you’ll surely burn it out. But by using a good-quality, sharp bit and good workmanship practices to make the hole, there is no real problem. The boxes come in 11 sizes from 2.1⬙ ⫻ 1.9⬙ footprint to a 6.4⬙ ⫻ 2.7⬙ footprint, with heights of 0.63,⬙ 1.0, or 1.1⬙. Prices compare quite favorably with the prices of the better-quality aluminum boxes that don’t shield so well at RF frequencies. The small project in Fig. 1-10 is a small RF preselector for the AM broadcast band. It boosts weak signals and reduces interference from nearby stations. The tun- ing capacitor is mounted to the front panel and is fitted with a knob to facilitate tun- ing. An on/off switch is also mounted on the front panel (a battery pack inside the aluminum chassis box provides dc power). The inductor that works with the capac- itor is passed through the perfboard (where the rest of the circuit is located) to the rear panel (where its adjustment slug can be reached). RF components, layout, and construction 13 1-9 RF project box with superior shielding because of the finger-grip design of the top cover (one of a series made by SESCOM). Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 20. The project in Fig. 1-11 is a test that I built for checking out direct-conversion receiver designs. The circuit boards are designed to be modularized so that different sections of the circuit can easily be replaced with new designs. This approach allows comparison (on an “apples versus apples” basis) of different circuit designs. Coaxial cable transmission line (“coax”) Perhaps the most common form of transmission line for shortwave and VHF/UHF receivers is coaxial cable. “Coax” consists of two conductors arranged concentric to each other and is called coaxial because the two conductors share the same center axis (Fig. 1-12). The inner conductor will be a solid or stranded wire, and the other conductor forms a shield. For the coax types used on receivers, the shield will be a braided conductor, although some multistranded types are also sometimes seen. Coaxial cable intended for television antenna systems has a 75-⍀ characteristic impedance and uses metal foil for the outer conductor. That type of outer conductor results in a low-loss cable over a wide frequency range but does not work too well for most applications outside of the TV world. The problem is that the foil is aluminum, which doesn’t take solder. The coaxial connectors used for those antennas are generally Type-F crimp-on connectors and have too high of a casualty rate for other uses. The inner insulator separating the two conductors is the dielectric, of which there are several types; polyethylene, polyfoam, and Teflon are common (although the latter is used primarily at high-UHF and microwave frequencies). The velocity factor (V) of the coax is a function of which dielectric is used and is outlined as fol- lows: Dielectric type Velocity factor Polyethylene 0.66 Polyfoam 0.80 Teflon 0.70 14 Introduction to RF electronics 1-10 Battery-powered RF project. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 21. Coaxial cable is available in a number of characteristic impedances from about 35 to 125 ⍀, but the vast majority of types are either 52- or 75-⍀ impedances. Sev- eral types that are popular with receiver antenna constructors include the following: RG-8/U or RG-8/AU 52 ⍀ Large diameter RG-58/U or RG-58/AU 52 ⍀ Small diameter RG-174/U or RG-174/AU 52 ⍀ Tiny diameter RG-11/U or RG-11/AU 75 ⍀ Large diameter RG-59/U or RG-59/AU 75 ⍀ Small diameter Although the large-diameter types are somewhat lower-loss cables than the small diameters, the principal advantage of the larger cable is in power-handling ca- pability. Although this is an important factor for ham radio operators, it is totally unimportant to receiver operators. Unless there is a long run (well over 100 feet), where cumulative losses become important, then it is usually more practical on receiver antennas to opt for the small-diameter (RG-58/U and RG-59/U) cables; they Coaxial cable transmission line (“coax”) 15 1-11 Receiver chassis used as a “test bench” to try various modifications to a basic design. 1-12 Coaxial cable (cut-away view). Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 22. are a lot easier to handle. The tiny-diameter RG-174 is sometimes used on receiver antennas, but its principal use seems to be connection between devices (e.g., re- ceiver and either preselector or ATU), in balun and coaxial phase shifters, and in in- strumentation applications. Installing coaxial connectors One of the mysteries faced by newcomers to the radio hobbies is the small mat- ter of installing coaxial connectors. These connectors are used to electrically and mechanically fasten the coaxial cable transmission line from the antenna to the re- ceiver. There are two basic forms of coaxial connector, both of which are shown in Fig. 1-13 (along with an alligator clip and a banana-tip plug for size comparison). The larger connector is the PL-259 UHF connector, which is probably the most-common form used on radio receivers and transmitters (do not take the “UHF” too seriously, it is used at all frequencies). The PL-259 is a male connector, and it mates with the SO-239 female coaxial connector. The smaller connector in Fig. 1-12 is a BNC connector. It is used mostly on elec- tronic instrumentation, although it is used in some receivers (especially in handheld radios). The BNC connector is a bit difficult, and very tedious, to correctly install so I recommend that most readers do as I do: Buy them already mounted on the wire. But the PL-259 connector is another matter. Besides not being readily available al- ready mounted very often, it is relatively easy to install. Figure 1-14A shows the PL-259 coaxial connector disassembled. Also shown in Fig. 1-14A is the diameter-reducing adapter that makes the connector suitable for use with smaller cables. Without the adapter, the PL-259 connector is used for RG- 8/U and RG-11/U coaxial cable, but with the correct adapter, it will be used with smaller RG-58/U or RG-59/U cables (different adapters are needed for each type). 16 Introduction to RF electronics 1-13 Various types of coaxial connectors, cable ends, and adapters. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 23. Coaxial cable transmission line (“coax”) 17 1-14 Installing the PL-259 UHF connector. (A) Disassembled PL-29 connector (B) Adapter and shield placed over the coax (C) Coax stripped and shield laid back onto adapter (D) Adapter threaded into main barrel and soldered through holes in barrel (E) Finished connector. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 24. The first step is to slip the adapter and thread the outer shell of the PL-259 over the end of the cable (Fig. 1-14B). You will be surprised at how many times, after the connector is installed, you find that one of these components is still sitting on the workbench . . . requiring the whole job to be redone (sigh). If the cable is short enough that these components are likely to fall off the other end, or if the cable is dangling a particularly long distance, then it might be wise to trap the adapter and outer shell in a knotted loop of wire (note: the knot should not be so tight as to kink the cable). The second step is to prepare the coaxial cable. There are a number of tools for stripping coaxial cable, but they are expensive and not terribly cost-effective for anyone who does not do this stuff for a living. You can do just as effective a job with a scalpel or X-acto knife, either of which can be bought at hobby stores and some electronics parts stores. Follow these steps in preparing the cable: 1. Make a circumscribed cut around the body of the cable 3 ⁄4⬙ from the end, and then make a longitudinal cut from the first cut to the end. 2. Now strip the outer insulation from the coax, exposing the shielded outer conductor. 3. Using a small, pointed tool, carefully unbraid the shield, being sure to separate the strands making up the shield. Lay it back over the outer insulation, out of the way. 4. Finally, using a wire stripper, side cutters or the scalpel, strip 5 ⁄8⬙ of the inner insulation away, exposing the inner conductor. You should now have 5 ⁄8⬙ of inner conductor and 3 ⁄8⬙ of inner insulation exposed, and the outer shield destranded and laid back over the outer insulation. Next, slide the adapter up to the edge of the outer insulator and lay the un- braided outer conductor over the adapter (Fig. 1-14C). Be sure that the shield strands are neatly arranged and then, using side cutters, neatly trim it to avoid in- terfering with the threads. Once the shield is laid onto the adapter, slip the connec- tor over the adapter and tighten the threads (Fig. 1-14D). Some of the threads should be visible in the solder holes that are found in the groove ahead of the threads. It might be a good idea to use an ohmmeter or continuity connector to be sure that there is no electrical connection between the shield and inner conductor (indicating a short circuit). Warning Soldering involves using a hot soldering iron. The connector will become dangerously hot to the touch. Handle the connector with a tool or cloth covering. • Solder the inner conductor to the center pin of the PL-259. Use a 100-W or greater soldering gun, not a low-heat soldering pencil. • Solder the shield to the connector through the holes in the groove. • Thread the outer shell of the connector over the body of the con- nector. After you make a final test to make sure there is no short circuit, the connector is ready for use (Fig. 1-14E). 18 Introduction to RF electronics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Introduction to RF electronics
- 25. 2 CHAPTER RF components and tuned circuits This chapter covers inductance (L) and capacitance (C), how they are affected by ac signals, and how they are combined into LC-tuned circuits. The tuned circuit allows the radio-frequency (RF) circuit to be selective about the frequency being passed. Alternatively, in the case of oscillators, LC components set the operating frequency of the circuit. Tuned resonant circuits Tuned resonant circuits, also called tank circuits or LC circuits, are used in the radio front end to select from the myriad of stations available at the antenna. The tuned resonant circuit is made up of two principal components: inductors and ca- pacitors, also known in old radio books as condensers. This section examines induc- tors and capacitors separately, and then in combination, to determine how they function to tune a radio’s RF, intermediate-frequency (IF), and local oscillator (LO) circuits. First, a brief digression is needed to discuss vectors because they are used in describing the behavior of these components and circuits. Vectors A vector (Fig. 2-1A) is a graphical device that is used to define the magnitude and direction (both are needed) of a quantity or physical phenomenon. The length of the arrow defines the magnitude of the quantity, and the direction in which it points defines the direction of action of the quantity being represented. Vectors can be used in combination with each other. For example, Fig. 2-1B shows a pair of displacement vectors that define a starting position (P1) and a final position (P2) for a person traveling 12 miles north from point P1 and then 8 miles east to arrive at point P2. The displacement in this system is the hypotenuse of the 19 Source: Secrets of RF Circuit Design Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
- 26. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 27. the establishment of a court which seems to have been standing rather than special.[2444] In his second tribunate, 100, supported by Marius, consul a sixth time, and by Servilius, Appuleius proposed and carried a law for the founding of settlements of the Marian veterans in Sicily, Corsica, Achaia, and Macedonia.[2445] Marius was to be a commissioner for conducting these colonies, and was to have the right to enroll as citizens in each settlement a specified number of aliens.[2446] The object of the latter clause was doubtless to provide for the Italian veterans in his army. He proposed further that certain Transpadane lands which the Cimbri had taken from the Gauls and which Marius had recovered should be distributed among the citizens and the Italians.[2447] Another proposal was for the monthly sale of a specified number of modii of grain to every citizen resident of Rome who desired it at five-sixths of an as to the modius—a merely nominal price.[2448] It is not known whether the colonial, agrarian, and frumentarian measures were separate enactments or articles of one statute; or the colonial and agrarian provisions may alone have been combined. However that may be, we are informed by Appian[2449] that attached to the agrarian measure—whether to the others also is nowhere stated—was an article which provided that if the bill should become a law, the senators within five days should swear to uphold it, or if any senator refused to take the oath, he should be expelled from the senate and should be liable to a fine of twenty talents, the Greek equivalent of about five hundred thousand sesterces.[2450] The rural plebs, including many discharged soldiers of Marius, swarmed into the comitia at the call of the tribune and violently passed the law. Marius, who as a consul and a knight disapproved of such illegality, set for the senators the example of swearing to the law, “in so far as it was a law,” which left them a loophole of escape from its provisions should they afterward so determine. Metellus, who alone of the senators refused the oath, was forced into exile and an interdict from fire and water was passed against him by the tribes on the motion of Saturninus.[2451] Soon afterward an election riot gave the senate a pretext for martial law.
- 28. Placed under custody, Saturninus and some fellow officials were stoned to death by a mob. His measures were then annulled by the senate on the ground that they had been violently passed;[2452] nevertheless Mariana was founded by Marius in Corsica, apparently under the colonial provision.[2453] The import of the agrarian law of Sex. Titius, tribune of the plebs in 99, is unknown.[2454] It may have been merely a reënactment of the Appuleian measure. At all events before it could be put into force it was annulled by the senate on the ground that it had been passed by violence and against the intercession of colleagues.[2455] The optimates, having again triumphed over the democracy, adopted a policy of moderation. Their consuls of 98, Q. Caecilius Metellus and T. Didius, attempted by a mild statute to check the most flagrant abuses of tribunician legislation, (1) the combination of various dissimilar provisions in one bill (lex satura) for the purpose of drawing the votes of all parties, (2) the passing of bills through the assembly by surprise. Their law accordingly, reviving usages once in force but recently neglected, forbade such combinations[2456] and ordered that the promulgation should precede the voting by at least a trinum nundinum—an interval which included three market days. [2457] Similarly in 95 their consuls, L. Licinius Crassus and Q. Mucius Scaevola, aimed by an equally moderate law to check the usurpation of the citizenship on the part of aliens. It forbade peregrini to perform the functions of citizens, though it did not order the innocent among them to leave Rome.[2458] It provided for the appointment of a special commission to discover and punish usurpers of the citizenship.[2459] Those found guilty were sent back to their communities.[2460] Though the authors were eminent in justice and cherished the best intentions, their law proved to be not merely useless but most pernicious to the state,[2461] as it helped drive the Italians to revolt.[2462] The next attempt at reform proceeded from the inmost circle of the aristocracy.[2463] M. Livius Drusus, tribune of the plebs in 91, was a man of the highest nobility, wealthy, eloquent, and upright at heart,
- 29. the son of that Livius who had opposed C. Gracchus.[2464] Regarding his aims and the quality of his statesmanship conflicting opinions have been expressed by modern scholars. The sources intimate that he wished primarily to strengthen the senate by breaking away from its hide-bound conservatism and undertaking various pressing reforms. His agrarian measure was conceived in the Gracchan spirit but was more radical.[2465] Appian[2466] states that it proposed the founding of colonies voted long ago but not yet established. Reference must be to the twelve colonies planned by his father.[2467] It probably abolished the statute of 111 and ordered the division not only of the Campanian lands,[2468] but also of those public domains which were held by the allied communities—in brief, of all the public land remaining in Italy and Sicily;[2469] and it established a board of ten for making the assignments.[2470] Livy[2471] attributes to the author a frumentarian proposal, though we are not informed of its character. The aim must have been to win the support of the populace for his other measures.[2472] He further proposed to mix with the silver coinage an eighth part of copper,[2473] the proceeds of this gain to be applied perhaps to the execution of his frumentarian project.[2474] There is much controversy as to the intent of his judiciary reform. Appian[2475] supposes that he wished to add three hundred knights to the senate and to draw the jurors from that body thus enlarged. Velleius[2476] is of the opinion that his aim was to transfer the iudicia to the senate; whereas the epitomator of Livy[2477] directly states that he provided for making up the iudicia of senators and knights in equal numbers. We may partially reconcile these conflicting statements by supposing that he planned to compose the jurors’ album of six hundred senators and knights in equal numbers, by which expedient he hoped to bring these two hostile orders back to their former harmony, [2478] while serving the interests of the senate and ridding the state of the corrupt and tyrannical rule of the knights.[2479] By a special article of the rogation a quaestio, probably perpetua, was to be appointed to inquire into the cases of bribery of jurors and to punish
- 30. the guilty.[2480] His most radical measure, introduced after opposition to his other reforms began to develop,[2481] was for extending the citizenship to the Latins[2482] and to all the Italians.[2483] This group of proposals, designed for the benefit of all parties, proved distasteful to all. The senators found a ground for complaint in the circumstance that the knights would have equal power with them in the courts; the knights were unwilling to surrender their judicial control or to grant the franchise to the Italians; the wealthy Italians feared they might lose the public lands which they still held. Only the poor among the Romans and allies supported the proposal in the hope of profiting by the distribution of lands.[2484] The agrarian, frumentarian, monetary, and judiciary measures were combined in one statute, and passed with violence[2485] and contrary to the omens.[2486] On these grounds and furthermore because they violated the article of the Caecilian-Didian statute forbidding the passing of a lex satura, they were annulled by the senate.[2487] Although Drusus might have interposed his veto against this decree, he preferred rather to disregard it, most probably on the theory that the senatorial authority did not avail against the sovereign will of the people.[2488] Aware that his intercession would but postpone the annulment to another year, he contented himself with informing his opponents that his measures were absolutely necessary for the security of the state, and that those who offended against them did it at their peril. He proceeded to carry his statute into immediate effect.[2489] A plebiscite of Saufeius, a colleague, established a commission of five in addition to the ten provided for by the Livian statute; and Livius was elected a member of both commissions.[2490] After his murder the Livian and Saufeian statutes were both considered null and void.[2491] The lex Remmia de calumniatoribus, which was enacted before 80, may belong to the year of the Livian attempt at reform, 91;[2492] and in that case it would be most natural to regard it as a piece of counter legislation to offset the proposal for establishing a court for the trial of jurors accused of bribery. The complainant who was proved malicious it rendered liable to trial and punishment with the loss of citizenship and the branding of his forehead with the letter K
- 31. (for Kalumniator).[2493] This we may believe was the defiance offered by the knights to those who were attempting to bring them to account for their conduct as judges. Exulting in their victory over Drusus, they expressed their antipathy to the Italian movement in a lex de maiestate of Q. Varius, tribune of the plebs in 90. They stood round the Rostra with drawn daggers and forced it through the comitia in spite of tribunician intercession. It supplanted the Appuleian law on the subject by a severe provision against those who encouraged the Italians to demand the citizenship or in any way to conspire or to revolt against the Roman people. It must have contained an article, too, concerning seditions.[2494] The court which it established was to sit on all ordinary dies fasti, undisturbed by iustitia,[2495] and was to be a quaestio perpetua.[2496] Now that two attempts, the Appuleian and the Livian, to substitute more popular measures for the Sempronian frumentarian law had failed, the optimates found themselves strong enough to supersede the Sempronian act by one less popular. This was the Octavian law,[2497] the contents of which are unknown, but which received the praise of Cicero for its moderation.[2498] The Social War, following close upon the murder of Livius Drusus, compelled the Romans to grant the citizenship to the Italians. This result was brought about by a succession of statutes. A law of the consul L. Julius Caesar, 90, bestowed the citizenship upon the Latins[2499] and on all the Italians who had not taken arms against Rome[2500] and who were willing to accept the gift.[2501] The same statute probably regulated the assignment of these new citizens to the tribes.[2502] In the following year a law of L. Calpurnius Piso, probably a tribune, granted the commanding general power, apparently absolute, to bestow the right of the city upon the soldiers under his orders.[2503] Another statute of 89, carried by M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo, tribunes of the plebs, granted the citizenship to all members of allied communities who were domiciled in Italy at the time the statute was passed and who within sixty days should signify to the praetor at Rome their willingness to accept the offer.[2504] The object of this measure was not only to expedite the
- 32. reconciliation, but also to make the work of the next censors practicable. The citizenship thus granted involved the right of suffrage, though in new tribes which voted after the others. Many Italians, especially the Lucanians and the Samnites, took no notice of the offer.[2505] In the same year Cn. Pompeius Strabo, a consul, proposed and carried a law which seems to have empowered himself at his discretion to invest with full citizenship those Transpadani who already enjoyed the Latin rights, and to confer upon the rest the ius Latii.[2506] The question as to the composition of the courts, still left unsettled, was taken up by M. Plautius Silvanus, the tribune referred to above. His statute transferred the filling of the album from the urban praetor to the tribes, which were to elect each fifteen members. The law made the qualifications of the iudices independent of the social classes. Under it accordingly senators and a few common plebeians in addition to equites served as jurors, so that the equestrian control of the courts was partially checked.[2507] Mommsen[2508] supposes that these jurors were for the quaestio de maiestate only. For this opinion he depends upon the assertion of Cicero[2509] that the equites remained till Sulla’s legislation in uninterrupted possession of the courts. The authority of Cicero, however, would allow us to assume that while the equites lost the legal monopoly they retained practical control. However that may be, it is hardly possible that this reactionary measure survived the proletarian uprising under Marius and Cinna. The lex agraria of the same Plautius seems to have been intended for supplying the veterans of the Social War with farms.[2510] The lex Papiria, which introduced the semiuncial as, is doubtless to be assigned to C. Papirius Carbo, the colleague of Plautius above mentioned. If so, the object was to relieve slightly the financial embarrassment caused by the war, and more particularly to bring the small coins of Rome into correspondence with those of Italy.[2511] IV. The Political Equalization of Italy 88-83
- 33. With many Italians still in revolt and the others smarting under the inferior citizenship eked out to them, and with Mithridates threatening the existence of the empire, Rome should have adopted a policy of domestic conciliation. Under these circumstances Sulla, consul in 88, showed a lamentable want of tact in expressing the sentiment that there could be no peace in Italy as long as a single Samnite lived[2512]—a curiously antiquated frame of mind for a statesman of his shrewdness. The cause of the new citizens was taken up by P. Sulpicius Rufus, a patrician who had forsaken his rank to qualify himself for the plebeian tribunate.[2513] A man of marvellous eloquence, he had been an adherent of Drusus, though more inclined to the equestrian interests. As tribune of the plebs, 88, he seems to have tried to win the support of the senate and of the equestrian order to his policy; but failing in the attempt, he looked for aid to the commons and to a small band of knights who were faithful to him. His rogation contained the following articles: (1) that the new citizens and the libertini should be distributed among all the tribes, [2514] with a view to completing the plan of Livius Drusus for the political equalization of Italy; (2) that those who had been driven from the state by violence should be recalled.[2515] This article was probably for the benefit of those knights against whom the Varian law had been turned.[2516] His rogation provided further, (3) that no one who owed more than two thousand denarii should be a senator.[2517] Money was scarce because of the war;[2518] and Sulpicius must have felt that if the senators, most of whom were abundantly able, should pay their debts, it would go far toward relieving the stringency, and that if any were ejected because of failure to pay, an opportunity would be afforded of promoting equites to the vacant places. The consuls of the year, L. Cornelius Sulla and Q. Pompeius Rufus, attempted to prevent a vote on these radical measures by interposing a cessation of business for many days through the proclamation of a festival.[2519] With his armed followers Sulpicius forced the consuls to recall the proclamation, whereupon Sulla fled for safety to his army at Nola. Sulpicius then added to his statute a fourth article to the effect that the imperium of Sulla should be abrogated and that the province of Asia, involving the conduct of the
- 34. war against Mithridates, should be given to Marius as proconsul, [2520] although the latter was now but a private citizen. Doubtless Sulpicius understood that there could be no guarantee for the execution of his statute as long as Sulla remained in power, and furthermore that the advancement of Marius would be a great gain for the knights. The bill was passed by the comitia of tribes; but Sulla, far from delivering up his command, marched his army into Rome to settle the question in his own interest by the sword. On his initiative Sulpicius, Marius, and ten of their associates were declared public enemies by a decree of the senate ratified by a popular vote. [2521] There is no need of assuming that the supporters of the tribune turned against him; the optimates were as clever as their opponents at packing assemblies. The absurdity of continuing the worn-out comitial machinery as a factor of government is nowhere more apparent than on this page of history, which records that the comitia a few days after adopting the measures of Sulpicius, voted to outlaw him and his friends. Marius fled; Sulpicius and several adherents were killed. Thereupon the senate annulled the entire Sulpician statute on the ground that it had been violently passed.[2522] No statesman, however opposed to popular government, could think of abolishing the comitia or even of putting an end to their legislative function. But the democracy could be effectually checked by reducing the legislative power of the assemblies to the harmless function of ratifying decrees of the senate. This result Sulla and Pompeius aimed to reach by renewing an ancient law[2523] that no measure should ever again be brought before the people which had not been previously considered and agreed to by the senate.[2524] A closely related law of the same consuls ordered that “the voting should not be by tribes but by centuries, as King Tullius had ordained.”[2525] This statement has often been interpreted to signify the restoration of the earlier form of comitia centuriata. But it seems most improbable that, on the point of setting out for a long, distant war, Sulla should think of restoring an organization which had been obsolete for more than a century and a half, and which could have been known to none but antiquarians. With his clear, practical intelligence he could not have failed to see the insuperable difficulty
- 35. of restoring the ancient definitions of the classes in terms of iugera or even on the later basis of the libral as.[2526] Furthermore no censors were then at hand to undertake the work, and it was altogether unlikely that during his absence any could be elected who would be willing to apply themselves to the revitalization of the antique mummy. Such a measure, too, as Meyer[2527] has pointed out, would place the control of the assembly in the hands, not of the senate, but of the knights, his mortal enemies. It is far more reasonable to suppose that this act transferred the function of ratifying laws from the tribal to the centuriate comitia, to restore the arrangement supposed to have been introduced by Servius Tullius.[2528] If this reasoning is correct, the act under consideration totally abolished the legislative initiative of the tribunes.[2529] The other Cornelian- Pompeian law mentioned by Appian must have applied, accordingly, not to the tribunate but to the other magistracies.[2530] The current interpretation, which involves the theory of a return to the original centuriate system, requires further examination. Its chief basis is the statement of Appian that no law should be brought before the πλῆθος which had not been previously considered in the senate. It is commonly assumed that he uses δῆμος to designate the whole citizen body, and πλῆθος the exclusively plebeian assembly under tribunician presidency. A study of his usage, however, proves that he makes no such discrimination. Δῆμος is ordinarily the people in general, especially as distinguished from the βουλή,[2531] parallel to Livy’s common distinction between plebs and senatus. It is the technical term for the plebs in their tribal comitia under tribunician presidency.[2532] Rarely it signifies the state[2533] with reference to the interest of the people. Πλῆθος, on the other hand, ordinarily denotes the masses, multitude, rabble,[2534] including the crowd gathered not only in a tribunician assembly[2535] but also in the ἐκκλησία (here meaning contio) under the presidency of a patrician magistrate.[2536] But πλῆθος is never technically or officially used to denote any assembly either of the populus or of the plebs. In the passage under discussion Appian’s statement of the Cornelian- Pompeian law is εἰσηγοῦντό τε μηδὲν ἔτι ἀπροβούλευτον ἐς τὸν
- 36. δῆμον ἐσφέρεσθαι, in which he uses δῆμος according to his custom to designate the popular assembly without specifying whether it is of the populus or of the plebs. In commenting on it he substitutes πλῆθος for δῆμος for the purpose, not of defining the assembly as tribunician, but of contrasting the masses in the assembly with the nobles in the senate: ἐσ τὸ πλῆθος is substantially equivalent to ἐν τοῖς πένησι καὶ θρασυτάτοις used just below; Sulla wished nothing to be submitted to the masses in the comitia centuriata before it had been considered by the senate. Appian[2537] attributes to Sulla for this early date an attempt to increase the number of senators. “They (the consuls) enrolled three hundred nobles in the senate, which had been reduced in numbers and for that reason had come to be despised.” He does not state, however, by what authority the consuls made this extraordinary adlectio; and it is in fact improbable that the senate had so dwindled. However that may be, the increase did not take permanent effect at this time.[2538] Two other laws of these consuls are briefly mentioned: (1) for planting colonies,[2539] of which nothing is known; (2) a lex unciaria.[2540] The latter may have been a reduction of existing debts by one-twelfth of the principle, or a lowering of the maximal rate of interest to 8⅓ per cent;[2541] or it may have been a general insolvency law, providing for the payment of debts in instalments.[2542] The chief value of these measures, even if we knew them in detail, would be to reveal the idea of their authors; for they were all repealed in the following year on the initiative of the consul L. Cornelius Cinna, probably by a comitial vote.[2543] Cinna then proposed (1) a renewal of the Sulpician plebiscite for the enrolment of the new citizens and the libertini among all the tribes,[2544] (2) a recall of Marius and the other exiles.[2545] Before these measures could be carried, the consul was driven from Rome and deposed from office by an act of the senate on the motion of Cn. Octavius, the other consul.[2546] This is the only certain instance of the abrogation of the civil imperium known to the history of the republic. Cinna returned at the head of an army; and after taking forcible possession of the city, he carried his law concerning the
- 37. exiles through the assembly either on his own motion or that of a tribune.[2547] As the senate, reversing its earlier action,[2548] had already legalized the Sulpician provision concerning the distribution of the libertini and the new citizens among the thirty-five tribes,[2549] it was without reënactment carried into effect in 84.[2550] The execution of this measure completed the political unification of Italy. Meantime L. Valerius Flaccus, consul suffectus in 86, to relieve the financial distress, passed a law which compelled creditors to satisfy themselves with one-fourth of the amount due.[2551] In 83 M. Junius Brutus, tribune of the plebs, proposed and carried, as a milder measure of relief, a law for the colonization of Capua.[2552] Schulze, C. F., Volksversammlungen der Römer, 110-26; Peter, C., Epochen der Verfassungsgesch. der röm. Republik, 141-65; Geschichte Roms, bks. VI, VII. chs. i-iv; Ihne, W., History of Rome, bk. VII. chs. ii-xix; Researches into the History of the Roman Constitution, 161 ff.; Long, G., Decline of the Roman Republic, I. ch. x- II. ch. xxiv; Lange, Röm. Altertümer, iii. 1-146, and see indices s. the various laws; Die promulgatio trinum nundinum, die lex Caecilia Didia und nochmals die lex Pupia, in Kleine Schriften, ii. 214-70; Mommsen, Th., History of Rome, bk. iv; Röm. Staatsr. see index s. the various laws; Ueber das thorische Ackergesetz, in Ber. sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. i (1849). 89-101; Neumann, C., Geschichte Roms, I. chs. ii-v; Ferrero, Greatness and Decline of Rome, I. chs. ii-v; Greenidge, A. H. J., History of Rome, i; The Lex Sempronia and the Banishment of Cicero, in Class. Rev. vii (1893). 347 f.; Greenidge and Clay, Sources for Roman History, 133-70 B.C.; Strachan-Davidson, J. L., ed. Appian, Civil Wars, bk. i, with notes; Weber, M., Röm. Agrargeschichte, 151 ff.; Dreyfus, Lois agr. sous la république Rom. 77-196; Voigt, M., Ueber die staatsrechtliche Possessio und den Ager compascuus, in Abhdl. sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. x (1880). 221-72; Ueber das röm. System der Wege im alten Italien, in Ber. sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. xxiv (1872). 29-90; Babeion, E., Monnaies de la république Rom. i. 69-79; Billeter, G., Geschichte des Zinsfusses im griechisch-röm. Altertum, 155 ff.; Fowler, W. W., Notes on Gaius Gracchus, in Eng. Hist. Rev. xx (1905). 209-27, 417-33; Gaius Gracchus and the Senate, in Class. Rev. x (1896). 278-80; Pöhlmann, R., Zur Geschichte der Gracchen, in Sitzb. d. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss. 1907. 443-93; Oman, C., Seven Roman Statesmen, i-iv; Huschke, Ph. E., Die lex Sempronia und ihr Verhältniss zur lex Acilia repetundarum, in Zeitschr. f. Rechtsgesch. v. (1866). 46-84; Rudorff, A. E., Ad legem Aciliam de pecuniis repentundis latam anno ab urbe condita 631 vel 632, in Philol. u. hist. Abhdl. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, 1861. 411-553; Krüger-Brissaud, Hist. d. sources d. droit Rom. 94 f.; Hegewisch, D. H., Geschichte der gracchischen Unruhen; Ahren, E. A. J., Die drei Volkstribunen Ti.
- 38. Gracchus, M. Drusus, und P. Sulpicius; Nitzsch, K. W., Die Gracchen und ihre nächsten Vorgänger, bks. iii, iv; Blasel, J., Die Motiven der Gesetzgebung des C. Gracchus; Callegari, E., La legislazione di Caio Gracco; Meyer, E., Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Gracchen, in Festschriften ... der vereinigten Friedrichs-Universität, etc. 1894. Philos. Fak. 79-109; controverted by Schwartz, E., in Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, clviii (1896). 792-811; Hesky, R., Anmerkungen zur lex Acilia repetundarum, in Wiener Studien, xxv (1903). 272-87; Brassloff, S., Beiträge zur Erläuterung der lex Acilia repetundarum, ibid. xxvi. 106- 17; Hagge, Einige Bemerkungen über die lex Servilia repetundarum; Mühl, F. V., De L. Appuleio Saturnino tribuno plebis; Pappritz, R., Marius und Sulla; Vassis, S., Ζητληματα Ῥωμαϊκά, in Athena, xii (1900). 54-7 (on the Cornelian-Pompeian laws of 88 concerning the assemblies); Lengle, J., Sullanische Verfassung; articles in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encycl. i. 426-8: Adsignatio (Kubitschek); 256: (M’.) Acilius Glabrio (Klebs); 584-8: M. Aemilius Scaurus (Klebs); 780-93 Ager (idem); ii. 261-9: Appuleius (Klebs); 2848 f.: Bantia (Hülsen); iii. 1414-21: Calumnia (Hitzig); 1441 f.: Campanus Ager (Kubitschek); iv. 195 f.: C. Coelius Caldus (Münzer); 510-88: Coloniae (Kornemann); v. 407-10: T. Didius (Münzer); articles in Daremberg et Saglio, Dict. i. 133-8: Ager Publicus (Humbert); 1301-21: Colonies Romains (Lenormant); ii. 1346-8: Frumentariae leges (Humbert).
- 39. CHAPTER XVII COMITIAL LEGISLATION From Sulla to the End of the Republic, 82 to about 30 I. The Cornelian Reaction 82-70 In November, 82, after destroying his political enemies by war and proscription, Sulla was ready to begin the work of restoring the aristocratic constitution. As both consuls, Cn. Papirius Carbo and C. Marius the younger,[2553] were dead, and as Sulla desired above all things to give his legislation a constitutional basis, he advised the senate to appoint an interrex. The choice fell on L. Valerius Flaccus, princeps senatus, a moderate in politics. Thereupon Sulla withdrew from Rome, leaving the civil authorities free in appearance to act at their discretion. In reality he had determined to retain control of affairs; and accordingly he wrote to Valerius advising the appointment of a dictator, not for a fixed time but till the general unrest should be quieted. He suggested himself as a suitable person for the place. Valerius obediently proposed and carried a law through the comitia centuriata, (1) which made Sulla dictator rei publicae constituendae for an indefinite time with absolute power over the lives and property of the citizens,[2554] (2) which legalized all his past acts, both as consul and as proconsul,[2555] including his arrangements in Asia as well as his proscriptions and confiscations. [2556] He returned to the city, appointed Valerius his magister equitum,[2557] and took to himself twenty-four lictors in addition to a less formal guard of servants and friends.[2558] Without delay he began the promulgation of laws, which undoubtedly he had long been planning. They are here grouped according to subject, with an occasional reference to their chronological relation. First he applied himself to curbing the power of the tribunate, an institution in which centred the strength of the democracy. A statute
- 40. for that purpose he must have felt compelled to draw up and pass before the next tribunician election. Instead of renewing his earlier law, however, for absolutely depriving the tribunes of initiative in legislation,[2559] he enacted simply that the previous consent of the senate should be necessary to bills brought by them before the tribes.[2560] By another article of this law he limited the right of tribunes to address the people in contiones.[2561] The range of their intercession was also greatly limited.[2562] Their function of bringing prosecutions before the people underwent restriction not only through the laws affecting the quaestiones but also by special enactment;[2563] for had they retained their unlimited right to prosecute, they could at once have regained all their other power. [2564] Little was left them but their original auxilii latio adversus imperium.[2565] Finally the office was made unattractive to the ambitious by the provision that those who held it were thereby disqualified for other magistracies.[2566] By these measures the most vital and powerful institution in the state was reduced to a shadow without substance.[2567] The return to conditions preceding the Hortensian legislation, in some respects even the Decemviral legislation, was, as Fröhlich[2568] remarks, a backward step such as finds few parallels in history. About a year[2569] after limiting the power of the tribunes Sulla proceeded to regulate the other offices through his lex de magistratibus, 81. This statute, making use of the principle contained in the lex Villia annalis,[2570] prescribed (1) that no one could be consul before he had been praetor or praetor before he had been quaestor,[2571] (2) that a space of two years should intervene between the holding of consecutive offices.[2572] (3) The minimal age of the quaestor it fixed at thirty-seven.[2573] The fortieth year was therefore the age for the praetorship and the forty-third for the office of consul. The aedileship, while bringing the holder a positive advantage for his future career, was never an essential step to a higher place. But in case this office was taken, the biennial interval had to be observed.[2574] The quaestorship Sulla made the sole
- 41. avenue to the senate, so as to dispense with the revision of the list by the censors.[2575] The statute of 151, forbidding reëlection to the consulship,[2576] he repealed, and substituted for it the article of the Genucian plebiscite of 442[2577] which fixed an interval of ten years between the expiration of any office and reëlection to the same.[2578] He increased the number of quaestors, at this time certainly more than eight,[2579] to twenty, with the object not only of supplying an administrative need but also of creating the required number of senators.[2580] It was necessary also to raise the number of praetors from six to eight in order to provide presidents for the new quaestiones perpetuae.[2581] The reforms above mentioned, together with the doubling of the number of senators to be considered below, naturally led to the enlargement of the chief sacerdotal colleges. The augurs and pontiffs were increased from nine to fifteen and the decemviri sacris faciundis were made quindecemviri.[2582] Another measure, which seems to have been an article of the same act, repealed the Domitian lex de sacerdotiis,[2583] and thus restored to these colleges, and at the same time to the epulones, their right of filling vacancies by coöptation,[2584] leaving to the people the function only of electing the head of the pontifical college from among the members.[2585] As the object of the first article was evidently to provide places for some of the new magistrates and senators,[2586] the coöptation doubtless immediately followed the enactment of the law. In increasing the number of praetors to eight[2587] Sulla provided that during their year of office they were to remain in the city and devote their whole time to the administration of justice. After the expiration of their term they were to take upon themselves as propraetors the command of provinces. In like manner the consuls were to remain in Italy during their term, in the ordinary course of events to give their entire attention to the affairs of peace; only after they had retired from office were they expected as proconsuls to govern provinces. In brief, Sulla by law established an absolute
- 42. distinction between the civil magistrate and the military promagistrate.[2588] The lex de provinciis ordinandis[2589] recognized the right of the senate to determine which provinces should be consular and which pretorian in the way provided for by the Sempronian law on this subject.[2590] The Cornelian statute did not, however, any more than the Sempronian, forbid the assignment of a province to a promagistrate by popular vote; and it recognized the right of the senate to create promagistracies.[2591] But it established the rule (1) that the two consuls should receive for a year of promagisterial imperium the provinces declared to be consular; and that they should either agree as to which each should take or cast lots for them;[2592] (2) that the senate should annually assign the eight retiring praetors to the remaining provinces, also for a year of promagistracy.[2593] The same law directed that the promagistrate, who had received the imperium in legal form, should retain it till his return to the city and the celebration of his triumph,[2594] provided he merited one. To avoid conflicts between retiring and incoming governors it ordained that the former should leave the province within thirty days after the latter had entered it.[2595] The law further contained the definite regulation of the supplies and honors granted the legati by the provincials.[2596] The tendency of Sulla’s legislation thus far considered was to weaken the civil functionaries (1) by restricting the tribunician initiative. (2) by increasing the number of quaestors and praetors. (3) by depriving the higher civil magistrates of the military imperium. The last-mentioned loss was in some measure an advantage to the senate but in a far higher degree to the promagistrates, who from this time began to overshadow the republic. The power taken from the tribunes necessarily went to the senate, to restore to it the full control of legislation which it had possessed before the enactment of the Hortensian statute. Under the reformed constitution it was to be supreme. As it had dwindled during the recent civil war and proscription,[2597] and as the performance of jury service, which Sulla was restoring to its members, required a large number of men, he added three hundred, mostly from the equestrian
- 43. rank, but including some centurions and other insignificant persons who were likely to do his bidding.[2598] Appian[2599] states that these new senators were elected by the tribes, possibly meaning the tribal comitia.[2600] But as that process of selection would have required an enormous length of time, it is far more probable that each tribe had the privilege of choosing a definite number, perhaps nine, after the precedent of the lex Plautia iudiciaria.[2601] This addition would raise the number to about four hundred and fifty. As the normal membership from Sulla to Caesar was about six hundred,[2602] we may assume either that, independently of the extraordinary adlectio by the tribes, he made the usual censorial enrolment of the recently retired magistrates, or that he left it to time to fill up the senate to the desired number by the annual admission of retired quaestors.[2603] Henceforth it was to be recruited automatically by this process, without any action on the part of the censors, who were thus deprived of the only important function remaining to them.[2604] Closely connected with the increase in membership is the lex iudiciaria,[2605] which restored the quaestiones to the senators.[2606] It was enacted near the end of 81, but prior to the increase in the number of quaestors.[2607] Before this act the courts had remained under the control of the knights in spite of the lex Plautia of 89, which seems not to have continued long in force.[2608] In the reorganization of the criminal courts (year 81) Sulla passed criminal laws, in which he regulated the procedure of the existing courts and created new quaestiones perpetuae.[2609] His reform increased the number to seven, four of which were concerned almost wholly with maladministration of office: (1) quaestio repetundarum, extortion,[2610] (2) quaestio ambitus, bribery in elections,[2611] (3) quaestio peculatus, misappropriation of public funds[2612] and sacrilege,[2613] (4) quaestio maiestatis, injury to the majesty of the Roman name, of which a private person as well as a magistrate might be guilty.[2614] The three following were concerned with common crimes: (5) quaestio inter sicarios et veneficos, assassination, poisoning, and arson,[2615] (6) quaestio de falsis,
- 44. counterfeiting and falsification of testaments and other forgery,[2616] (7) quaestio iniuriarum, acute personal violence, housebreaking, and probably defamation of character.[2617] These laws concerning quaestiones contained provisions for granting the accused the privilege of deciding whether the vote should be oral or by ballot, [2618] and they directed that the order of voting should be determined by lot.[2619] The first of these two articles aimed to make the jurors individually responsible, and the second to prevent influential men from prejudicing the case by giving their opinions first.[2620] While the praetor urbanus and praetor peregrinus still busied themselves with civil jurisdiction, the six other praetors presided over these courts; but as the number was insufficient, past aediles were appointed to preside as iudices quaestionis. This arrangement was especially necessary for the quaestio inter sicarios, overburdened as it was with a variety of crimes. As these courts were vested with the function of trying without appeal all crimes, including those formerly brought before the comitia, the result was that the people were practically, though not constitutionally, deprived of their judicial power. The tendency of the Cornelian legislation in this as in other respects was oligarchic. Among the statutes passed in the winter or early spring of 81 we must place the lex de proscriptione,[2621] which added certain regulations to those of the Valerian law for the creation of the Cornelian dictatorship,[2622] and which Sulla considered essential to the execution of his policy and the maintenance of its results. The Cornelian statute concerning proscription forbade the giving of relief or aid to a proscribed person;[2623] it legalized the previous slayings and confiscations of property,[2624] and provided also that the estates not only of the proscribed but also of enemies who had fallen in battle should be sold for the benefit of the treasury.[2625] It excepted from the sale ten thousand of the youngest and strongest slaves, who were given their freedom; and it debarred from the ius honorum the sons, grandsons, and other descendants of the proscribed,[2626] with a view to keeping from them the means of
- 45. vengeance; and lastly, it fixed the date for closing the proscriptions at June 1, 81.[2627] During the winter of 82-81 Sulla gave his attention not only to law- making but also to the sale of confiscated property and to the regulation of Italy. The latter work was carried out by the administrative power of the dictator through the destruction of the fortifications of rebellious communities, their punishment by fines and extraordinary taxes, and the confiscation of some of their lands, to be assigned to his discharged veterans.[2628] The Cornelian agrarian laws,[2629] which brought about these confiscations and assignments, seem to have been not acts of the comitia but dictatorial orders.[2630] They must have been issued from time to time as occasion demanded, probably through the entire year 81. [2631] The legions were kept together till after the triumph (January 27, 28 of the year 81)[2632] and then disbanded, to be led off gradually to their lands. Some of the municipia to which soldiers were assigned, most obstinately Volaterrae and Nola, resisted their admission by force of arms. To punish these rebels Sulla carried through the comitia centuriata his lex de civitate Volaterranis adimenda,[2633] which disfranchised not only Volaterrae but also other rebellious municipia.[2634] Those who by this act were deprived of the citizenship received the so-called Latin rights of Ariminum. [2635] Among the regulations for the improvement of the finances, which he found in bad condition,[2636] was his abolition of the distributions of grain.[2637] Whether it was effected by a lex frumentaria or a dictatorial order cannot be determined.[2638] The levy of taxes on Italian and transmarine communities[2639] could be brought about by senatus consulta,[2640] as the people had nothing to do with such matters. Credit had been shattered by the law of L. Valerius Flaccus concerning debts, 86,[2641] which Sulla repealed by one of his own on the same subject, 81.[2642]
- 46. In connection with the Circensian games which he celebrated in the autumn of 81, and which in honor of Victoria were thereafter repeated annually from October 26 to November 1,[2643] Sulla must have passed a lex de ludis Victoriae instituendis.[2644] Lastly came the sumptuary law, through which he attempted to regulate the manners and morals of the citizens.[2645] It was the restoration, in a revised form, of the lex Licinia of 104,[2646] which had been repealed by M. Duronius in 97.[2647] The Cornelian statute permitted the expenditure of no more than three hundred sesterces for meals on the calends, nones, ides, ludi, and certain other holidays, and only thirty for ordinary meals; and it fixed the prices of various luxuries. [2648] Another article of the same statute limited funeral expenses. [2649] The author’s object seems to have been to restore the morals and manners as well as the constitution and laws of the good old time before they were corrupted by the demagogues. Sulla’s legislation was substantially complete on January 1, 80, when he entered upon his second consulship with Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius as colleague.[2650] Retiring into private life early in 79, he left the constitution to its fate. No better comment on its value could be offered than the history of its decline and overthrow in a single decade. Opposition began to manifest itself from the time of his abdication; and he was hardly in his grave when M. Aemilius Lepidus, consul in 78, promulgated bills for the abolition of some of the Cornelian statutes; but the opposition of his colleague, Q. Lutatius Catulus, and of the senate prevented their ratification.[2651] The right of retired tribunes to sue for other offices,[2652] however, was restored by a statute of the consul C. Aurelius Cotta, 75.[2653] Before coming to the restoration of the tribunician power it is necessary to mention the statutes passed under the Cornelian constitution. To 78 or 77 probably belongs the lex Plautia de vi, generally regarded as tribunician, which established a quaestio perpetua for the trial of persons charged with violence. It also forbade the acquisition by long use of things stolen or violently seized.[2654] As no censors were elected, an order of the people of
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