Semactics : Utterance Meaning
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The document discusses various aspects of utterance meaning including entailment, presupposition, implicature, reference, modality, and illocutionary force. It defines key terms like assertion, presupposition, conversational implicature, reference, tense, aspect, and modality. Examples are provided to illustrate these concepts such as how presuppositions differ from assertions and how implicatures can be derived based on conversational principles. The conclusion emphasizes that utterance meaning involves both what is literally said as well as what is implied, suggested, or meant.
![8.7
Entailment : assertion and presupposition
a) The definition of Entailment:
E is a relationship that applies between two sentences,
where the truth of one implies the truth of the other
because of the meanings of the words involved (Goddard,
1998).
An entailment is something that logically follows from
what is asserted in the utterance.” [Yule, 1996]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nhm12-semantic-161123132909/85/Semactics-Utterance-Meaning-3-320.jpg)
Semactics : Utterance Meaning
- 1. PART 3: UTTERTANCE MEANING -Chapter 8: The meaning of the utterance - Presented by Group 12: Pham Van Phi Bui Thi Thuong
- 2. 8.7. Entailment : assertion and presupposition MAIN CONTENTS 8.10. Modality 8.8. Implicatures 8.9. Reference
- 3. 8.7 Entailment : assertion and presupposition a) The definition of Entailment: E is a relationship that applies between two sentences, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved (Goddard, 1998). An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance.” [Yule, 1996]
- 4. Ex : 1. My parents gave me a very wonderful vacation 2. My parents gave me a vacation +) : (1) necessarily implies or entails (2) +): what about (2) and (1)?(2) does not entails (1) If (2) is true,then (1) is not neceesarily true The answer can be found in the meaning of the parts “wonderful vacation and vacation” ” wonderful vacation’’ is included in the scope of “ vacation” and not the other way round. =That is , Entailment may be seen as a kind of hyponymic relation 8.7 Entailment : assertion and presupposition
- 5. b)Subtypes of entailment Entailment Assertion Presupposition
- 6. A declarative sentence typically asserts that a state of affair exists. a. Johnny kicked the dog b. Johnny denied kicking the dog c. Johnny did not deny kicking the dog The 1st of these asserts that a state of affairs exists. Assertion
- 7. A declarative sentence typically asserts that a state of affair exists. On contrary, the 2nd example does not assert anything about Johhny kicking the dog.Saying, for instance, “ Johhny did not deny kicking the dog” simply concerns ,her denying while the state of affairs that “Johnny kicked the dog” still obtains. Assertion
- 8. A declarative sentence typically asserts that a state of affair exists. - In semantic literature, the content of “ deny” in the 2nd example is a presupposition.We cannot cancel the presuppositon bt negating the main verb. “A sentence S1 presupposes S2 just in case S1 entails S2 and the negation of S1 also entails S2” So (b) presupposes (a) bcz both it and its negation (c) still entail (a) Assertion
- 9. is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without challenge a. Have you stopped giving up smoking? b. Would you like another pen? In (a), the speaker has presupposed that at some time the past the person used to smoke,and in (b) the person has a pen before. When presupposions are inconsistent with actual state of the world, the utterance is felt to be strange. You would feel surprised at (a) if you really never gave up smoking. Presupposition
- 10. is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without challenge c. Why did you hide the thief? This presupposes that you did hide him. You may fall into the trap if you are not careful about the intention of the questioner.. d. Ex: John doesn’t write poems anymore. -> presupposes that John once wrote poetry Presupposition
- 11. is the assumption the speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to accept without challenge For example: a. The king of France is bald. b. The king of France is not bald. c. Is the king of France bald? d. If the king of France is bald, he should wear a hat in the winter . There is a king of France. Presupposition
- 12. (a) He MANAGED to repair the clock (b) He didn't MANAGE to repair the clock (c) She stopped running (d) You are late again. (e) When did she travel to the USA? (f) Where did you buy the book? (g) She pretended that he had understood what she meant. . Identify the respective presuppositions a. he tried to repair the clock Asserted meaning: he suceeded b. he tried to repair the clock Asserted meaning: he failed c. She used to run d. You were late before. e. She traveled f. You bought a book g. He did not understand what she meant.
- 13. 8.8 Implicatures a.Definition Implicature is a technical term, which refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied Example: John is meeting a woman this evening. The woman whom John is meeting this evening is not his mother, his sister or his wife.
- 14. Implicatures b. Types of implicatures Conventional implicatures Conversational implicatures It is the name given to non- truth-conditional aspects of meaning which are conventionally attached to particular linguistic forms. Implications derived on the basis of conversational principles and assumptions, relying on more than the linguistic meaning of words in a sentence. 8.8
- 15. Conversational implicature A (conversationally) implicates B if it is the case that uttering A in a certain conversational context systematically suggests, everything else being equal, that B is true. However, the implicature can be called off (i.e., cancelled). ex :Student A: Do you like Linguistics? Student B: Well, let’s just say I don’t jump for joy before class. A asked B about his feelings about the class, and B said B didn’t celebrate before the class. It shows the uninterested feeling of B about Linguistics subject
- 16. Conversational implicature - Cooperative Principle: 1. Quantity: give the right amount of information (not too little, not too much). 2. Quality: try to say only what is true (don't say that for which you lack adequate evidence; don't say what you know to be false). 3. Relevance: make what you say relevant to the topic at hand. 4. Manner: be clear (avoid ambiguity, excessive wordiness, obscurity, etc.).
- 17. Exercise :Discuss the possible conversational implicatures in the following utteerances: 1. A: Will Sally be at the meeting this afternoon? B. Her car broke down. Sally won't be at the meeting. 2. "Fred thinks there is a meeting tonight." Fred doesn't know for sure that there is a meeting tonight. 3. I ate some of the cake this sentence implies “I did not eat all of the cake” 4. Joe is poor but happy This sentence implies poverty and happiness are not compatible but in spite of this Joe is still happy. This sentence will always necessarily imply “Surprisingly Joe is happy in spite of being poor”.
- 18. a) 8.9.1 - Definition :Reference is the relationship that exists between an expression used by a speaker and an object which he/she is referring to or talking about - Ex: I lost a book on the train yesterday The entity referred to by “ I” or “ train” or “ book” will vary from situation to situation.In fact, “I” can refer to any speaker. 8.9 Reference
- 19. a) 8.9.1 -Simple propoitions normally includes 2 kinds : Name Predicates Serve to pick out or refer ascribe proerties to entities to entities (both concrete and abstract in some possible worlds about which statements are made 8.9 Reference
- 20. b) 8.9.2 - Pronouns constitute a special class of referring expression, even though they are traditionally regarded as noun- subsitutes . They are characterized by a special function often called deictic(pointing) or indexical function. Therefore,personally and demonstrative pronouns can serve as the best example of this class. ex :I met her and took her for a walk. This refers to an event which can be viewed as past form the moment this utterance is made.It is also observed that most languages have a dichotomous tense system rather that trichotomous,involving past and present. 8.9 Reference
- 21. c) 8.9.3 - The expression of tense is,though, language-specific: synthetically and lexically.It should be noted that there is no reason in principle why distinctions of tense must be necessarily expressed in inflectionally variants formd of language. - In Vietnamese,they may be expressed by particles like “ đã” or lexical, adverbials like “ hôm qua” or “ ngày mai” ,which are no more closely gramatically associated with the verb than with any other part of the sentence. 8.9 Reference
- 22. c) 8.9.3 - Wheras tense is a deintic category, aspect is not.It is basically a pemporal category expressing a kind of time correlation. Compare: - She has seen this film - She had seen this film before she left. It suggests that while 2 states of affairs as expressed by them are past,the point worth nothing is that perfection aspect relation a past event to either a present point of time or a past point of time. 8.9 Reference
- 23. - Definition : Is another category associated with both sentence and utterance meaning - The purpose of treating modality: is to see how it fits in with utterance - In this sense,modality may be said to be deictical - The determination of whether modality is be objective and subjective is context-dependent. 8.10 Modality
- 24. Ex: He may not love her If the utterance is given an objective epistemic interpretation, its propositional content will be: relative to what is known,it is possible that he will not love her In other words, the modality is represented as a matter of fact. On the other hand,given its subjective interpretation, its propositional content will be : I think it is possible that he will not love her. 8.10 Modality
- 25. Compare:- You must finish the report by tomorrow - You have to finish the report by tomorrow It may be of interest to remember that traditional treatment of these 2 verbs often stamps the first as subjective obligation and the latter as objective obligation.It could help much to consider epistemic and deonic modality in relation to illocutionary commitment. 8.10 Modality
- 26. - All natural languages offer their users prosodic resources including stress, intonation to do this job.Some,but by no mean all,grammaticalize them in the category of mood, and other may lexical or semi- lexicalize them by means of modal verbs( may, must...), modal adjectives ( possible, likely...) , modal adverbs ( possibly, really, actually...) - Within the scope of epistemic modality, we can find a diversity including such items as : possibility, inference, belief, hearsay,deduction, opinion, commitment,quotation,doubt, evidence..... 8.10 Modality
- 27. Consider: - She looks pretty - They say she is pretty In the 1st,the proposition signals the fact that the ground for the speaker’s assertion lies in his direct experience. In the 2nd ,it is hearsay. For Frawley, deontic modality expresses the imposition of the state of affairs on individuals or with the modality as deixis,the imposition of an exoressed world on a reference world. 8.10 Modality
- 28. Let’s consider: She must be nice to him It is deontic in the sense that there is an obligatory state of affairs that the argument or participant must come to : be nice to him While epistemic modality can be grounded in the present,past, or future, deontic modality is firmly grounded in the future. Obviously, she will be nice,hopefully, from any point of time after the moment of speaking 8.10 Modality
- 29. Lyons suggests that epistemic modality is possibility- based and deontic modality is necessity-based. It should be noted that it is always easy to distinguish epistemic and deontic modality synchronically: Consider: You must be kidding You have to be kidding. 8.10 Modality
- 30. CONCLUSION • Sentences types are viewed as a way of grammaticalizing the illoentionary force in many languages such as English for one, • Other parts of utterance meaning is presupposition and implicatures, accounting for what a speaker can imply,suggest, or mean as distinct from what he literally says. • This principles consists of 4 maxims: quantity, quality, relation and manner. • Finally, we had a look at reference ,but not just in the narrow sense. Reference can involve tense,as well