Sensors and transducers for an Embedded System
- 1. Displacement, position and proximity sensor Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of amount by which some object has moved Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position of some object with rereference to some reference point Proximity sensors are a form of position sensors. They are used to determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical distance of the sensor When selecting these sensors its essential to care of : -The size of displacement -Nature of the displacement -The required resolution & accuracy -The material of the measured object -cost
- 2. Contact sensors Displacement, position and proximity sensor Non-contacting sensors The presence in the vicinity of the measured object cause change in air pressure or change in inductance or capacitance The movement of the sensor element’s is used to cause a change in electrical volatge, resistance, capacitance or mutual inductance The commonly used displacement sensors are given below 1-10
- 3. 1-Potentiometer sensors (1) It consist of a constant resistance per unit length with sliding contact which can be moved over the length of the element. It can be used for linear or rotary displacements With a constant source voltage Vs, the output voltage V0 is a fractional of the input voltage 13 23 R R V V s o = So, for rotary potentiometer the output voltage is proportional to the angle through which the slider has rotated, hence an angular displacement can be converted into a potential difference
- 4. 1-Potentiometer sensors (2) It is very important to consider the effect of the load resistance RL connected across the output. The load voltage VL is only directly proportional to V0 if the load resistance is infinite. Assuming that the total potentiometer resistance is RP, find the error in the output reading in terms of x as suggested in the shown figure. And if Vs=4 volt, RP=500 ohm and the slider is in the middle of the traveling range with a load resistance of 10 k Ohm. Find the value of the error (in volt)
- 5. 2-Strain gauged element (1) Strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil or a strip of semiconductor material, these elements can be stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp. When subjected to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change in resistance being proportional to the strain ǫ ǫ ǫ ǫ, i.e ε G R R = ∆ For R=100, G=2, the change in resistance due to 0.001 strain is ∆R=RGǫ=0.2 ohm G is the gauge factor typical values are 2 for metal foil or wires +100 for P-type, -100 for N-type semiconductor Strain is the ratio of change in length / orignal length
- 6. When the flexible element is bent or deformed as a result of forces being applied by a contact point being displaced, then the electrical resistance strain gauges mounted on the element are strained and so give a resistance change, which can be monitored. The change in resistance is thus a measure of the displacement or deformation of the flexible element 2-Strain gauged element (2) Substrate Wires Termination Strain gauge Adhesive
- 7. 3- Capacitive element (1) • Since capacitance C of a parallel plate is given by: • Capacitive sensors for monitoring of linear displacements might take the forms shown. d A C r 0 ε ε = In (a) if d is changed by a displacement x then capacitance is x d A C C r + = ∆ + 0 ε ε d A C r 0 ε ε = d x d x C C / 1 / + − = ∆ The change in the capacitance value is non linear relationship
- 8. 3- Capacitive element (2) This nonlinearity can be overcome by using a push-pull displacement sensor shown. The displacement moves the central plate between the two outer plates so if initially the distance between plate 1 &2 equal the distance between plate 2 & 3 then C1=C2 And for small displacement x So when C1 is in one arm of an ac bridge and C2 in other arm then the result out balance voltage is proportional to x V=a+bx ???? Show how
- 9. 4- Differential Transformers(1) • Linear Differential Transformer “LVDT” : it consist of three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The two identical secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core is moved through the central tube in response to a displacement If ac voltage is applied to the primary winding, equal and opposite voltages will be generated in the secondary winding and the net output voltage is zero When the core is displaced from the center there is resultant output voltage
- 10. 4- Differential Transformers(2) The emf induced in the coil is given by Where M is mutual inductance (depends on the number of turns and the core). For sinusoidal input current, the induced voltages can be written as: dt di M e = And the net output voltage with v1>v2 is Or with v2>v1 is
- 11. 4- Differential Transformers(3) Normally a phase sensitive demodulator, with a low pass filter is used to convert the output into a dc. voltage which gives a unique value for each displacement. The free end of the core may be spring loaded for contact with the surface being monitored, so it used as sensor to monitor displacement . It can also be used as secondary transducers in the measurement of force, weight and pressure Typical operating ranges ±2mm to ± 400mm with nonlinearity errors ± 0.25%
- 12. 5- Eddy current proximity sensors If a coil is supplying an alternating magnetic field is in close proximity to a metal object, then an eddy current is produced in the object, which in turn produces a magnetic field. As a result the impedance of the coil change and so the amplitude of the alternating current. At some preset level, this change can be used to trigger a switch. It is used for detection of non-magnetic, but conductive materials
- 13. 6- Inductive proximity sensor • It consist of a coil wound a core. When the end of the coil is close to a metal object, its inductance change. This change can be monitored by its effect on a resonant circuit to trigger a switch. It can only be used for detection of metal objects and is best with ferrous metals.
- 14. 7- Optical position encoders (1) • An encoder sensor is a device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear or or angular displacement. Position encoders are of two types: • Incremental encoders: detect change s in rotation from some datum position • Absolute encoders: gives the actual angular position
- 15. • Incremental encoder: A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a suitable light sensor. When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with the number of pulses being proportional to the angle through which the disc rotates. Normally three tracks are used to monitor the position 7- Optical position encoders (2) Outer track Middle track Inner track
- 16. 7- Optical position encoders (3) Absolute encoder: output a unique digital numeric for any given position of the encoder's rotation. They are used in applications where a device is inactive for long periods of time or moves at a slow rate, such as flood gate control, telescopes, cranes, valves, etc. The rotary absolute encoder design uses a precision wheel with a number of concentric tracks, with each track representing one bit of accuracy
- 17. 8- Pneumatic sensors It involves the use of compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an object being transformed into a change in air pressure Low pressure is allowed to escape through a port in front of the sensor. So if there is a close by object, the air can not so readily escape and the result is that, the pressure increases in the sensor output port. Such senor are used for measurement of displacements of fractions of millimeters (3-12 mm)
- 18. 9- Proximity switches (1) These are switches which can be activated by the presence of an object These are micro switches, which can be activated by the presences of an object, require physical contact and a small operating force to operate. Mechanical devices:
- 19. 9-Proximity switches (2) Reed switch: It consist of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a glass tube. When a magnet is brought close to the switch, the magnet reeds are attracted to each other and close the switch contacts. It is a non contact proximity switch Photosensitive devices: Can be used to detect the presence of an opaque object that break a beam of light or infrared radiation falling upon such device or by detecting a light reflected from the object.
- 20. 10- Hall effect sensors • The value of this voltage is given by: • Where t is the plate thickness and KH is hall constant • At constant current source, the voltage difference is a measure of magnetic flux density The function of the Hall Sensor is based on the principle of Hall Effect. A Voltage is generated transversely to the current flow direction, if a magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to the conductor. t BI K V H = Form of hall sensor: Sharp drop at certain flux value •can be used as switches up to 100 kHz
- 21. • Can be used as position, displacement and proximity sensors • Can be used to measure the level of fluid 10- Hall effect sensors (application) • Other applications • commutation of BLDC motors • Current and voltage measurement • wheel speed sensors • angle sensor • Rotor position measurement • distance measurement
- 22. Temperature sensors (1) The temperature sensor can be grouped as: • Bimetallic strips • Thermocouples • Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) • Thermistors • Thermo-diodes & transistor Bimetallic strips: The metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature changes, the composite strip bends into curved strip, with the high coefficient metal on the outside of the curve. This deformation is used as a temperature switch as in the simple thermostat used in heating system.
- 23. Temperature sensors (2)- RDT RTD are simple resistive elements in form of coils of wires of such material as platinum and nickel-copper alloys. They available in many configurations and sizes RTD follow the well known relationship where; Rt = resistance of the conductor at temp t (oC) Ro=resistance at the reference temp. α= temperature coefficient of resistance ∆T= difference in temperature (Tt-T0) ) 1 ( T R R o t ∆ + = α Example: A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 220Ω at 20oC. Calculate the resistance at 50oC? Given that α α α α20oC=0.00392.
- 24. • A Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature changes, relying on the change in its resistance with changing temperature. In the range of (-40 ~ 150 ) °C with accuracy = ±0.35 • Thermistors are of two types; NTC, negative thermal coefficient, and PTC, positive thermal coefficient. The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases with increases in temperature. The resistance of PTC thermistors increases resistance with increases in temperature Temperature sensors (1)- Thermisters
- 25. • NTC are made from the oxides of metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel and copper. Some NTC thermistors are crystallized from semiconducting material such as silicon and germanium. PTC Thermistors are generally made by introducing small quantities of semiconducting material into a polycrystalline ceramic. The change in resistance/ degree change in temperature can be described as: t B t ke R = Temperature sensors (2)- Thermisters
- 26. Temperature sensors (3)- Thermisters • PTC: They are used as fuses, time delay circuits, motor starting circuits and as ‘liquid level’ and ‘flow sensors’. • NTC: Industrial process controls, Hot mold equipment, Solar energy, Engine temperatures. Fever Thermometers, Fluid temperature, Dialysis Equipment, refrigeration and air conditioning, Fire detection, Oven temperature control • Advantage of NTC: rugged, can be very compact, they responds very rapidly to changes in temp., they give very large changes in resistance per degree temp. • temperature range, typically -100 ~ 150 °C • Disadvantage of NTC: Nonlinear resistance-temperature relationship, unlike RTD which have almost linear relationship.
- 27. Temperature sensors (4)-thermocouple It based on Seebeck effect that: if the junction of two different metals are heated, a potential difference occurs across the junction. A thermo-couple is a complete circuit involving two such junctions. If both junctions are at the same temperature there is no net emf, however, if there is a different in temperature between the two junctions, there is an emf
- 28. Temperature sensors (4)-thermocouples Normally one junction is held at 00C and to a reasonable extent the following relationship holds: V=at + bt2 ; a &b are constant • Example : During experiment with a copper- constantan thermocouple, it was found that a= 3.75x10-2 mV/oC and b = 4.50x10-5 mV/oC. If T1= 100oC and the cold junction T2 is kept in the ice, compute the resultant electromotive force, emf?
- 29. Temperature sensors (4)-thermocouples Types of thermocouple Type E, J, K, and T are base-metal thermocouples and can be used up to about 1000° C (1832° F). Type S, R, and B are noble-metal thermocouples and can be used up to about 2000° C (3632° F). Ref. Range µV/0C B (0-1800) 3 E (-200-1000) 63 J (-200-1300) 53 K (-200-1300) 41 N (-200-1300) 28 R (0-1400) 6 S (0-1400) 6 T (-200-400) 43
- 30. Velocity and Motion sensors (1) • Many sensors is now under operation to monitor linear and angular velocity and detect motion however the most used are • Encoders, Tacho-generators Pyroelectic sensors Both increment al and absolute encoders Is used to measure angular velocity : 1-Variable reluctance 2-Ac generator It is based on pyroelectrical materials that produces charge in respond to heat flow
- 31. Velocity and Motion sensors (2) Tacho-generator: Is used to measure angular velocity Can be of two types: variable reluctance or ac generator The variable reluctance one consist of toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material which is attached to the rotating shaft. As the wheel rotates, the air-gap between the coil and the Ferro-magnet changes. Thus the flux linked by the a pickup coil changes. This result in alternating emf in the coil. If the coil has n teeth and rotates with angular velocity w, then the flux and the induced voltage is given by Emax is measure of the angular velocity. A pulse shaping circuit can be use to transform the output into sequence of pulses which can be counted