Sociology Notes for CSS.pdf

Sociology Notes 1 for CSS/ PMS
Compiled by:
Mr. Seetal Daas (contact via: seetal.daas@gmail.com)
SOCIOLOGY
Significance of social class:
Introduction:
Social classes are significant in societies for several reasons, as they play a central
role in shaping social structures, economic systems, and individuals' life
experiences. Here are some of the key significances of social classes:
1. Social Stratification: Social classes help to stratify or divide a society into
distinct levels or strata based on factors such as income, wealth, occupation,
and education. This stratification reflects the hierarchy of access to
resources, opportunities, and social privileges within a society.
2. Economic Inequality: Social classes are closely tied to economic
inequality. Different classes have varying levels of access to financial
resources, with upper classes typically having more wealth and income than
lower classes. Economic inequality can have far-reaching consequences for
a society's stability and well-being.
3. Access to Opportunities: Social classes often determine access to
opportunities such as quality education, healthcare, and employment
prospects. Individuals from higher social classes tend to have better access
to these opportunities, while those in lower classes may face barriers to
advancement.
4. Social Mobility: Social classes can influence an individual's ability to move
up or down the social hierarchy. Social mobility refers to the extent to which
individuals can change their social class based on their efforts, skills, and
circumstances. Societies with high social mobility provide opportunities for
individuals to improve their economic and social status.
5. Political Power: Social classes can wield significant political power, as
individuals with greater wealth and influence may have the means to shape
government policies and decisions. This can impact the distribution of
resources and the prioritization of certain social issues.
6. Cultural and Lifestyle Differences: Social classes often have distinct
cultural norms, values, and lifestyles. These differences can manifest in
terms of consumption patterns, leisure activities, and even cultural tastes.

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Understanding these distinctions is essential for marketers, policymakers,
and sociologists.
7. Social Cohesion and Conflict: Social classes can either promote social
cohesion or lead to conflict, depending on how resources and opportunities
are distributed. Societies with extreme disparities between classes may
experience social unrest and tension.
8. Education and Occupational Choices: Social class can influence an
individual's educational attainment and career choices. Higher social classes
may have more access to quality education and may pursue professions that
require advanced degrees, while lower classes may face limitations in these
areas.
9. Health Disparities: Social classes are linked to disparities in health
outcomes. Lower-class individuals often face higher rates of health problems
due to factors such as limited access to healthcare, poor living conditions,
and stressors associated with poverty.
10.Social Identity: An individual's social class can be a significant aspect of
their social identity. It can shape their sense of self, the communities they
belong to, and their perception of others.
Conclusion:
In summary, social classes are significant because they influence various aspects of
society, from economic systems and political structures to individual life
opportunities and experiences. Understanding the dynamics of social classes is
crucial for addressing issues related to inequality, social justice, and the overall
well-being of a society.
Social Control: Mechanisms of social control-internal and external means of
social control. Alienation, Integration-integrative pat terns in Pakistani
Society:
Social Control: Mechanisms of Social Control
Social control refers to the mechanisms, strategies, and institutions that societies
employ to maintain order, conformity to norms, and regulate behavior. These
mechanisms can be categorized into two main types: internal means of social
control and external means of social control.

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Internal Means of Social Control:
1. Norms and Values: Internalized norms and values are the fundamental
means of self-regulation within individuals. People develop a sense of what
is socially acceptable and unacceptable behavior based on societal norms
and values.
2. Conscience and Morality: An individual's sense of right and wrong, often
influenced by religious, ethical, or moral beliefs, serves as an internal
mechanism of social control. The conscience can guide behavior by creating
feelings of guilt or shame when norms are violated.
3. Socialization: The process of socialization, which occurs throughout a
person's life, instills societal norms, values, and expectations. This
internalizes social control by shaping an individual's identity and behavior.
4. Self-Regulation: Self-control and self-discipline are internal mechanisms
that individuals employ to manage their behavior and conform to societal
expectations.
5. Ego and Superego: In Freudian psychology, the ego and superego represent
internalized mechanisms of self-control. The ego balances individual desires
with societal demands, while the superego enforces moral and ethical
standards.
External Means of Social Control:
1. Laws and Regulations: Formal laws and regulations established by
governments and authorities are external means of social control. They
define legal boundaries, prescribe penalties for non-compliance, and
promote order in society.
2. Policing and Law Enforcement: Police and law enforcement agencies are
tasked with enforcing laws and maintaining public order. Their presence and
authority act as external controls on behavior.
3. Judicial System: Courts and the judicial system play a crucial role in social
control by adjudicating legal disputes, ensuring justice, and upholding the
rule of law.

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4. Social Norms and Peer Pressure: Social norms and the pressure to
conform to them are external mechanisms of control. The fear of social
stigma or ostracization can influence behavior.
5. Religious and Moral Authorities: Religious institutions and moral
authorities provide external guidance and control by promoting ethical
behavior and condemning transgressions.
6. Media and Public Opinion: The media can shape public opinion and
influence behavior by highlighting certain issues, promoting specific values,
or condemning particular actions.
Alienation and Integration in Pakistani Society:
Alienation: Alienation refers to a sense of isolation, detachment, or estrangement
experienced by individuals in society. In the context of Pakistani society, factors
contributing to alienation may include:
1. Economic Disparities: High levels of economic inequality in Pakistan can
lead to feelings of alienation among marginalized and impoverished
populations who lack access to basic resources and opportunities.
2. Political Instability: Periods of political instability, governance issues, and
corruption can erode trust in government institutions, leading to a sense of
alienation from the political process.
3. Cultural and Ethnic Diversity: Pakistan is a culturally and ethnically
diverse nation, and tensions between different ethnic groups can create
feelings of alienation among certain communities.
Integration: Integration refers to the process of bringing diverse individuals and
groups together to form a cohesive and unified society. In Pakistani society,
integrative patterns can be fostered through:
1. National Identity: Promoting a shared national identity and fostering a
sense of unity among diverse ethnic, religious, and cultural groups can
promote social integration.
2. Education: Access to quality education for all, regardless of background,
can help bridge social divides and promote social integration.

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3. Interfaith and Interethnic Dialogue: Encouraging dialogue and
understanding between different religious and ethnic communities can
promote social cohesion and integration.
4. Economic Development: Efforts to reduce economic disparities and create
economic opportunities for all citizens can contribute to social integration.
5. Rule of Law: Ensuring the rule of law, equal justice, and protection of
individual rights fosters trust in the legal and political system, which can
promote social integration.
Conclusion:
Efforts to address alienation and promote integration in Pakistani society are
essential for building a more cohesive and inclusive nation that respects the rights
and identities of all its citizens.
Community: The rural community, Traditional Characteristics of rural life,
The urban community. Rural-Urban convergence, Urbanism, Future of cities
in Pakistan:
Rural Community:
A rural community refers to a settlement or locality characterized by a low
population density, limited infrastructure, and a focus on agriculture or natural
resource-based livelihoods. In Pakistan, a significant portion of the population
resides in rural areas. Traditional characteristics of rural life in Pakistan include:
1. Agriculture: Agriculture is the primary economic activity in rural Pakistan.
People engage in farming, livestock rearing, and related activities to sustain
their livelihoods.
2. Close-Knit Social Structures: Rural communities often have close-knit
social structures with strong social bonds and interdependence among
community members. Traditional customs and values play a significant role
in daily life.
3. Limited Access to Services: Rural areas typically have limited access to
basic services such as healthcare, education, and clean water. This lack of
infrastructure can result in disparities in well-being between rural and urban
populations.

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4. Traditional Practices: Many rural communities in Pakistan adhere to
traditional customs, dress, and lifestyle practices, preserving cultural
heritage.
5. Agrarian Lifestyle: People in rural areas have an agrarian lifestyle, where
daily routines are closely tied to the agricultural calendar. Seasons dictate
planting, harvesting, and other agricultural activities.
Urban Community:
An urban community refers to a settlement or locality characterized by higher
population density, advanced infrastructure, and diverse economic activities
beyond agriculture. In Pakistan, urbanization has been on the rise, leading to the
growth of cities. Key features of urban life include:
1. Diverse Economic Activities: Urban areas offer a wider range of economic
opportunities, including manufacturing, services, trade, and technology-
based industries.
2. Better Access to Services: Cities generally have better access to healthcare,
education, sanitation, and other services compared to rural areas.
3. Cultural Diversity: Urban areas are often more culturally diverse, with
people from various backgrounds and regions coming together, leading to
cultural exchange and cosmopolitanism.
4. Modernization: Urbanization brings modern amenities and lifestyle
changes, including improved transportation, communication, and access to
information.
Rural-Urban Convergence:
Rural-urban convergence refers to the blurring of distinctions between rural and
urban areas. In Pakistan, this phenomenon is driven by factors such as rural-to-
urban migration, the expansion of small towns, and improved transportation and
communication networks. As more people move to cities in search of employment
and better living conditions, rural and urban areas become interconnected.
Urbanism:
Urbanism refers to the characteristics, patterns, and culture associated with urban
life. It encompasses aspects such as city planning, architecture, transportation, and
the social dynamics of urban communities. In Pakistan, urbanism is evident in the

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growth of cities, the development of infrastructure, and the emergence of
cosmopolitan and diverse urban cultures.
Future of Cities in Pakistan:
The future of cities in Pakistan is likely to be shaped by several trends:
1. Urbanization: Pakistan's urban population is expected to continue growing
as rural-to-urban migration persists. This will require investment in urban
infrastructure, housing, and services.
2. Infrastructure Development: To accommodate urban growth, cities will
need to invest in modern infrastructure, including transportation, utilities,
and housing.
3. Sustainability: There is a growing awareness of the need for sustainable
urban development. Cities in Pakistan will likely focus on environmentally
friendly practices, resource management, and resilience to climate change.
4. Technology and Innovation: Advancements in technology will play a
significant role in shaping the future of Pakistani cities, with an emphasis on
smart city initiatives, digital connectivity, and e-governance.
5. Economic Hubs: Major cities like Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad will
continue to serve as economic and cultural hubs, attracting investment and
fostering innovation.
6. Challenges: Urbanization also brings challenges such as traffic congestion,
pollution, and housing shortages. Addressing these issues will be crucial for
the sustainable development of cities.
Conclusion:
Overall, Pakistan's urban centers will continue to evolve, offering opportunities
and challenges, as they play a pivotal role in the country's economic and social
development. Planning and governance will be essential to ensure that cities are
inclusive, sustainable, and equipped to meet the needs of their growing
populations.

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Individual, Culture and Society : Individual as a social product. The variety of
social forms. Methods of socialization, Ethnocentricism, Norms and Values,
Cultural Patterns, Varieties of sub-cultures:
Individual as a Social Product:
The concept of the "individual as a social product" suggests that an individual's
identity, behavior, and beliefs are shaped by the social environment in which they
are raised and live. Several factors contribute to this idea:
1. Socialization: Individuals are socialized from a young age, which means
they learn the norms, values, customs, and behaviors of their society or
culture. This process heavily influences their development and sense of self.
2. Family and Peer Groups: Family and peer groups are key agents of
socialization. Children adopt behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs from their
families and friends, reflecting the values and expectations of their social
milieu.
3. Education: Formal education systems further socialize individuals by
teaching them the knowledge and values of their society. Educational
institutions reinforce cultural norms and prepare individuals for their roles in
society.
4. Media and Technology: Mass media, including television, the internet, and
social media, also play a significant role in shaping individuals' worldviews,
opinions, and behaviors. Media can promote specific cultural messages and
influence social norms.
5. Religion and Institutions: Religious institutions and other organizations
often contribute to an individual's moral and ethical framework, influencing
their behavior and beliefs.
6. Language and Communication: The language individuals use to
communicate is a product of their culture and society. Language carries with
it the values, norms, and meanings of a particular group.
Variety of Social Forms:
Societies around the world have various social forms, including:

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1. Kinship Systems: Different societies have different kinship structures and
family arrangements, such as nuclear families, extended families, or
matrilineal and patrilineal systems.
2. Economic Systems: Societies may have different economic systems,
ranging from capitalism to socialism to traditional subsistence economies.
3. Political Systems: Governments and political structures can vary, including
democracies, monarchies, authoritarian regimes, and more.
4. Religious Beliefs: Different cultures and societies have distinct religious
beliefs, rituals, and practices, leading to a wide range of religious diversity.
5. Social Hierarchies: Societies have different ways of organizing social
hierarchies, including caste systems, class structures, and tribal affiliations.
Methods of Socialization:
Socialization is the process by which individuals learn the values, norms, and
behaviors of their society. Methods of socialization include:
1. Family: Family is often the primary agent of socialization, teaching children
societal norms, values, and behaviors from a young age.
2. Peer Groups: Peer groups, including friends and classmates, influence
individuals' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors as they interact and conform to
group dynamics.
3. Education: Schools and educational institutions transmit knowledge and
cultural values, shaping individuals' understanding of society.
4. Media and Technology: Mass media, including television, movies, and the
internet, can influence people's beliefs and perceptions of the world.
5. Religion: Religious institutions and practices teach moral and ethical values
and provide a sense of community and belonging.
Ethnocentrism:
• Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture, group, or ethnicity is
superior to others. It can lead to biases and prejudices against other cultures
and societies, inhibiting understanding and cooperation among diverse
groups.

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Norms and Values:
• Norms are established rules or expectations for behavior within a society,
while values are the beliefs and principles that a society considers important.
Norms and values guide individuals' actions and interactions, contributing to
social order and cohesion.
Cultural Patterns:
• Cultural patterns refer to the recurring themes, practices, and behaviors
within a particular culture. They include language, customs, rituals, and
social norms that define a society's way of life.
Varieties of Subcultures:
• Subcultures are smaller, distinct groups within a larger culture that share
common values, beliefs, and behaviors. Examples include youth subcultures,
countercultures, and ethnic or religious subcultures, each with its unique
characteristics and norms.
Conclusion:
• Understanding these concepts is essential for comprehending how
individuals are socialized within their societies and how culture and society
shape human behavior and identity. It also helps in fostering cultural
awareness and respecting cultural diversity.
Social Institutions: The nature and genesis of institutions, the process of
institutions, Functions and Trade of Social Institutions, Family, Religion,
Educational, Economic and Political Institutions:
Social Institutions:
Social institutions are complex, enduring structures that play a fundamental role in
organizing, guiding, and regulating various aspects of human behavior within a
society. These institutions are essential for maintaining social order and facilitating
the functioning of societies. Here are key aspects of social institutions:
Nature and Genesis of Institutions:
• Nature: Social institutions are normative systems that establish and enforce
rules, values, and roles within a society. They provide the framework for
interactions, relationships, and the fulfillment of essential societal functions.

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• Genesis: Institutions typically emerge and evolve over time as a society
responds to its needs and challenges. They can arise organically through
cultural and historical processes, or they may be intentionally created to
address specific social functions.
Process of Institutions:
• Formation: Institutions often begin as informal practices and customs
within a society. Over time, they become more structured and codified as
formal rules, roles, and organizations develop.
• Maintenance: Social institutions require ongoing maintenance to ensure
they continue to fulfill their intended functions. This may involve adapting
to changing societal norms and needs.
• Change: Institutions can change or evolve in response to external factors,
such as technological advancements, shifts in values, or changes in political
and economic systems.
Functions of Social Institutions:
Social institutions serve several essential functions within a society, including:
1. Socialization: Institutions, such as the family and educational institutions,
socialize individuals by imparting cultural norms, values, and knowledge.
2. Economic Production: Economic institutions, such as markets and
corporations, facilitate the production, distribution, and exchange of goods
and services within a society.
3. Resource Allocation: Political institutions, such as governments, allocate
and manage resources, establish laws, and maintain order.
4. Cultural Preservation: Religious and cultural institutions preserve and
transmit cultural beliefs, practices, and traditions from one generation to the
next.
5. Social Order: Institutions establish and enforce rules and norms that help
maintain social order and regulate behavior.
Trade of Social Institutions:
Social institutions interact and interrelate in various ways:

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1. Family and Education: Families socialize children, and educational
institutions build on this foundation by imparting knowledge and skills.
2. Religion and Politics: Religion often plays a role in shaping moral values
and can influence political ideologies and policies.
3. Economy and Politics: Economic institutions, such as businesses and
industries, can influence government policies through lobbying and
campaign contributions.
4. Economy and Family: Economic conditions, such as employment and
income, can significantly impact family dynamics and structures.
Key Social Institutions:
1. Family Institution: The family is the fundamental unit of society,
responsible for child-rearing, socialization, and providing emotional support.
2. Religious Institution: Religious institutions encompass various faiths and
belief systems, providing spiritual guidance, moral values, and a sense of
community.
3. Educational Institution: Educational institutions, such as schools and
universities, provide formal education and contribute to knowledge
transmission and skill development.
4. Economic Institution: Economic institutions, including markets,
corporations, and financial systems, organize and regulate economic
activities and resource allocation.
5. Political Institution: Political institutions, such as governments,
legislatures, and legal systems, establish and enforce laws, maintain order,
and govern society.
Conclusion:
Each of these institutions plays a distinct role in shaping human behavior, values,
and the overall functioning of society. Together, they form the backbone of social
order and structure, helping societies navigate complex challenges and meet their
collective needs.

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Social Problems in Pakistan: Population Growth. Demographic Transition:
Deviant Behaviour, Institutionalised evasions, social conflicts, internal and
international Migration, Aging, Drug abuse, Prostitution. Smuggling, Illiteracy
and Poverty:
Social Problems in Pakistan:
Pakistan faces a range of social problems that have significant implications for the
well-being and development of the country. These issues encompass various
aspects of society, including demographic challenges, deviant behavior, social
conflicts, migration, aging, substance abuse, prostitution, smuggling, illiteracy, and
poverty. Here is an overview of these social problems:
1. Population Growth:
• Pakistan has one of the highest population growth rates in the world, leading
to challenges related to resource allocation, education, healthcare, and
employment opportunities.
• On 5 August 2023, the Council of Common Interests (CCI) “unanimously”
approved the results of the 2023 digital census. Pakistan's population has
increased to 241.49 million with an annual growth rate of 2.55%
2. Demographic Transition:
• Pakistan is experiencing a demographic transition characterized by a large
youth population. This transition can be an opportunity for economic growth
if properly harnessed but also poses challenges in terms of providing
education and employment opportunities for the youth.
3. Deviant Behavior:
• Deviant behaviors, including crime, substance abuse, and domestic violence,
are prevalent issues that disrupt social harmony and stability.
4. Institutionalized Evasions:
• Corruption and institutionalized evasions of rules and laws hinder economic
progress and erode public trust in government institutions.
5. Social Conflicts:
• Ethnic, religious, and sectarian conflicts occasionally lead to violence and
social unrest, challenging national unity and peace.

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6. Internal and International Migration:
• Both internal rural-to-urban migration and international migration pose
challenges, including the strain on urban infrastructure and remittances'
dependence.
7. Aging Population:
• Pakistan's population is gradually aging, which presents healthcare and
pension challenges for the elderly, as well as potential labor force shortages.
• Population ages 65 and above (% of total population) in Pakistan was
reported at 4.2737 % in 2022, according to the World Bank collection of
development indicators.
8. Drug Abuse:
• Drug abuse is a growing concern, affecting individuals, families, and
communities and requiring effective prevention and rehabilitation programs.
• The most common causes of drug addiction in Pakistan are family issues,
mental illness, Peer pressure, toxic relationships.
9. Prostitution:
• Prostitution is illegal in Pakistan and often linked to human trafficking and
exploitation, presenting social and legal challenges.
• A 2017 UNAIDS report estimates that there are around 229,441
prostitutes in the country.
10. Smuggling: - Smuggling, including the illegal trade of goods, drugs, and arms,
undermines national security and economic stability.
11. Illiteracy: - High levels of illiteracy, particularly among women and rural
populations, limit access to education, job opportunities, and social mobility.
12. Poverty: - Poverty remains a pervasive issue in Pakistan, with a significant
portion of the population living below the poverty line. It affects access to basic
necessities, healthcare, and education.
Conclusion:
Addressing these social problems in Pakistan requires a multi-faceted approach,
involving government policies, community initiatives, education, healthcare, and

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social reforms. Collaborative efforts among government agencies, civil society
organizations, and international partners are crucial to mitigating the impact of
these challenges and fostering sustainable development and social progress in the
country.
Sociological Theory : The sociological perspectives- Evolutionary, order and
conflict, Evolutionary Theorists : Ibn-i-Khaldun Spencer and Tannis, Order
Theorists: August Comte, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Conflict Theorists :
George Hegel. Karl Mars. Lewis Coser, Mills:
Introduction:
Sociological theory encompasses various perspectives that seek to understand and
explain social phenomena, human behavior, and the structures of society. These
perspectives often fall into three main categories: evolutionary, order, and conflict
theories. Here are some key sociological theorists associated with each perspective:
Evolutionary Theorists: Evolutionary theorists focus on the development and
progress of societies over time, often drawing parallels between societal evolution
and biological evolution.
1. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406): A Muslim scholar, Ibn Khaldun is often
regarded as one of the earliest sociologists. He emphasized the cyclical
nature of empires and the importance of group solidarity in the rise and fall
of civilizations.
2. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903): Spencer is known for his concept of Social
Darwinism, which applied Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to
society. He argued that societies evolve and adapt over time, with the fittest
institutions surviving.
3. William Graham Sumner (1840-1910): Sumner expanded on Spencer's
ideas of Social Darwinism and emphasized the role of individual
competition in shaping societal norms and values.
Order Theorists: Order theorists focus on the stability, integration, and
maintenance of social order within societies.
1. Auguste Comte (1798-1857): Comte is often referred to as the father of
sociology. He developed the idea of positivism, advocating for the
application of the scientific method to study society. He believed in the
possibility of a science of society that could help guide social progress.

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2. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): Durkheim is known for his work on the
functionalist perspective. He emphasized the importance of social
integration and cohesion in maintaining social order. He also conducted
research on suicide, highlighting the social causes of this phenomenon.
3. Max Weber (1864-1920): Weber's work focused on understanding the role
of bureaucracy, rationalization, and the influence of religion on society. He
introduced the concept of the "Protestant work ethic" and emphasized the
importance of subjective meanings in social action.
Conflict Theorists: Conflict theorists emphasize the role of power, inequality, and
social conflict in shaping society and social change.
1. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): Hegel's dialectical method
influenced many conflict theorists. He believed that societal progress
occurred through the clash of opposing ideas and social forces, leading to a
synthesis.
2. Karl Marx (1818-1883): Marx is one of the most influential conflict
theorists. He developed the theory of historical materialism, arguing that
class struggle and the conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the
proletariat (workers) were the driving forces of social change.
3. Lewis Coser (1913-2003): Coser explored the role of conflict and social
tensions in maintaining social order. He argued that certain levels of conflict
could be functional for societies by promoting change and adaptation.
4. C. Wright Mills (1916-1962): Mills is known for his concept of the
"sociological imagination," which encourages individuals to connect their
personal experiences to larger societal issues. He highlighted the role of
power elites in shaping social structures and inequalities.
Conclusion:
These sociological perspectives and theorists provide diverse lenses through which
sociologists analyze and interpret society. Each perspective offers unique insights
into how societies function, change, and adapt to various challenges and
circumstances. Sociological theory continues to evolve and expand as scholars
explore new dimensions of human social behavior and interaction.

Sociology Notes for CSS.pdf

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