Soil mechanics note

SOIL MECHANICS SUBJECT CODE : CE 42
EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF ENGG DEPT OF CIVIL ENGG
EINSTEIN
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Sir.C.V.Raman Nagar, Tirunelveli-12
Department of Civil Engineering
CE 42- SOIL MECHANICS
Lecture notes
Prepared by
BEULA ANGEL S.G
&
A.PONNIAHRAJU

CE 42 SOIL MECHANICS
OBJECTIVE
After undergoing this course, the student gains adequate knowledge on engineering properties of soil.
1. INTRODUCTION 10
Nature of Soil - Problems with soil - phase relation - sieve analysis - sedimentation analysis –
Atterberg limits - classification for engineering purposes - BIS Classification system - Soil
compaction - factors affecting compaction – field compaction methods and monitoring.
2. SOIL WATER AND WATER FLOW 8
Soil water – Various forms – Influence of clay minerals – Capillary rise – Suction - Effective stress
concepts in soil – Total, neutral and effective stress distribution in soil - Permeability – Darcy’s Law-
Permeability measurement in the laboratory – quick sand condition - Seepage – Laplace Equation -
Introduction to flow nets –properties and uses - Application to simple problems.
3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION, COMPRESSIBILITY AND SETTLEMENT 10
Stress distribution in soil media – Boussinesque formula – stress due to line load and Circular
and rectangular loaded area - approximate methods - Use of influence charts – Westergaard
equation for point load - Components of settlement - Immediate and consolidation settlement -
Terzaghi's one dimensional consolidation theory – governing differential equation – laboratory
consolidation test – Field consolidation curve – NC and OC clays - problems on final and time rate of
consolidation
4. SHEAR STRENGTH 9
Shear strength of cohesive and cohesionless soils - Mohr - Coulomb failure theory –Saturated
soil - Strength parameters - Measurement of shear strength, direct shear, Triaxial compression, UCC
and Vane shear tests –Types of shear tests based on drainage and their applicability - Drained and
undrained behaviour of clay and sand – Stress path for conventional triaxial test.
5. SLOPE STABILITY 8
Slope failure mechanisms - Modes - Infinite slopes - Finite slopes – Total and effective stress
analysis - Stability analysis for purely cohesive and C-soils - Method of slices – Modified
Bishop’s method - Friction circle method - stability number – problems – Slope protection
measures.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Punmia P.C., “Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, Laximi Publications Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 1995.
2. Gopal Ranjan and Rao A.S.R., “Basic and applied soil mechanics”, New Age
International Publishers, New Delhi, 2000.
3. Venkatramaiah, C. “Geotechnical Engineering”, New Age International Publishers, New
Delhi, 1995
4. Khan I.H., “A text book of Geotechnical Engineering”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
1999.
REFERENCES
1. Coduto, D.P., “Geotechnical Engineering Principles and Practices”, Prentice Hall of India
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2002.
2. McCarthy D.F., “Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Basic Geotechniques”,
Sixth Edition, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 2002.
3. Das, B.M, “Principles of Geotechnical Engineering”, (fifth edition), Thomas Books/ cole,
2002
4. Muni Budhu, “Soil Mechanics and Foundations”, John Willey & Sons, Inc, New York,
2000.

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
SOIL AND SOIL ENGINEERING
* The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in which it is
being considered.
*To a Pedologist ... Soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which grows and
develops plant life.
*To a Geologist ..... Soil is the material in the relative thin surface zone within which
roots occur, and all the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK irrespective
of its hardness.
*To an Engineer .... Soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits of mineral and/or
organic particles or fragments covering large portion of the earth's crust.
** Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of Civil Engineering involving the
study of soil, its behavior and application as an engineering material.
*According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics
and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration
of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituent."
* Geotechnical Engineering ..... Is a broader term for Soil Mechanics.
* Geotechnical Engineering contains:
- Soil Mechanics (Soil Properties and Behavior)
- Soil Dynamics (Dynamic Properties of Soils, Earthquake Engineering, Machine
Foundation)
- Foundation Engineering (Deep & Shallow Foundation)
- Pavement Engineering (Flexible & Rigid Pavement)
- Rock Mechanics (Rock Stability and Tunneling)
- Geosynthetics (Soil Improvement)

Soil Formation
* Soil material is the product of rock
* The geological process that produce soil is
WEATHERING (Chemical and Physical).
* Variation in Particle size and shape depends on:
- Weathering Process
- Transportation Process
* Variation in Soil Structure Depends on:
- Soil Minerals
- Deposition Process
* Transportation and Deposition
What type of soils are usually produced by the different weathering &
transportation process
- Boulders
- Gravel Cohesionless
- Sand (Physical)
- Silt Cohesive
- Clay (Chemical)
* These soils can be
- Dry
- Saturated - Fully
- Partially
* Also they have different shapes and textures

SOIL PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL AND INDEX PROPERTIES
1- Soil Composition
- Solids
- Water
- Air
2- Soil Phases
- Dry
- Saturated * Fully Saturated
* Partially Saturated
- Submerged
3- Analytical Representation of Soil:
For the purpose of defining the physical and index properties of soil it is more
convenient to represent the soil skeleton by a block diagram or phase diagram.
4- Weight - Volume Relationships:

Weight
Wt = Ww + Ws
Volume
Vt = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs
1- Unit Weight - Density
* Also known as
- Bulk Density
- Soil Density
- Unit Weight

- Wet Density
Relationships Between Basic Properties:
Examples:
Index Properties
Refers to those properties of a soil that indicate the type and conditions of the soil, and
provide a relationship to structural properties such as strength, compressibility, per
meability, swelling potential, etc.

1- PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
* It is a screening process in which coarse fractions of soil are separated by means of
series of sieves.
* Particle sizes larger than 0.074 mm (U.S. No. 200 sieve) are usually analyzed by means
of sieving. Soil materials finer than 0.074 mm (-200 material) are analyzed by means of
sedimentation of soil particles by gravity (hydrometer analysis).
1-1 MECHANICAL METHOD
U.S. Standard Sieve:
Sieve No. 4 10 20 40 60 100 140 200 -200
Opening in mm 4.76 2.00 0.84 0.42 0.25 0.149 0.105 0.074 -
Cumulative Curve:
* A linear scale is not convenient to use to size all the soil particles (opening from
200 mm to 0.002 mm).
* Logarithmic Scale is usually used to draw the relationship between the %
Passing and the Particle size.
Example:
Parameters Obtained From Grain Size Distribution Curve:
1- Uniformity Coefficient Cu (measure of the particle size range)
Cu is also called Hazen Coefficient
Cu = D60/D10
Cu < 5 ----- Very Uniform
Cu = 5 ----- Medium Uniform

Cu > 5 ----- Nonuniform
2- Coefficient of Gradation or Coefficient of Curvature Cg
(measure of the shape of the particle size curve)
Cg = (D30)2
/ D60 x D10
Cg from 1 to 3 ------- well graded
3- Coefficient of Permeability
k = Ck (D10)2
m/sec
Consistency Limits or Atterberg Limits:
- State of Consistency of cohesive soil

1- Determination of Liquid Limit:
2- Determination of
Plastic Limit:

3- Determination of Plasticity Index
P.I. = L.L. - P.L.
4- Determination of Shrinkage Limit
5- Liquidity Index:
6- Activity:
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering purposes
should be based mainly on mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, strength. The class
to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.

The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will allow useful
comparisons to be made between different soils. The system must be simple. The relevant
criteria for classifying soils are the size distribution of particles and the plasticity of the soil.
Particle Size Distribution
For measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample, it is necessary to conduct
different particle-size tests.
Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by washing the soil
specimen on a 75 micron sieve mesh.
Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples (with fines
removed) are dried and shaken through a set of sieves of descending size. The weight
retained in each sieve is measured. The cumulative percentage quantities finer than the sieve
sizes (passing each given sieve size) are then determined.
The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size along x-axis (log scale)
and percentage passing along y-axis (arithmetic scale).
Sedimentation analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer than 75 microns. Soil particles
are allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured
at various time intervals. The procedure is based on the principle that in a suspension, the
terminal velocity of a spherical particle is governed by the diameter of the particle and the
properties of the suspension.
In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled water to which a
deflocculating agent is added. The soil particles are then allowed to settle down. The
concentration of particles remaining in the suspension at a particular level can be determined
by using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same level at different
time intervals provide information about the size of particles that have settled down and the
mass of soil remaining in solution.
The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.
Grain-Size Distribution Curve
The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine grained portions, can be
combined to form one complete grain-size distribution curve (also known as grading
curve). A typical grading curve is shown.

From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be obtained such as:
1. Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-size
distribution.
2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.
Grading Characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The geometric properties of a grading
curve are called grading characteristics.
To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.
D60 = size at 60% finer by weight
The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:
1. Effective size = D10
2. Uniformity coefficient,
3. Curvature coefficient,
Both Cuand Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution of particles over a
wide size range.
Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.
Consistency of Soils
The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness, and it varies with the water
content of the soil.

A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change from solid to semi-solid to
plastic to liquid states. The water contents at which the consistency changes from one state to
the other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (WS), plastic limit (WP), and liquid limit
(WL) as shown. The values of these limits can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:
Liquid limit (WL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid state
Plastic limit (WP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic state
The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is known as the plasticity index
(IP), and it is in this range of water content that the soil has a plastic consistency. The
consistency of most soils in the field will be plastic or semi-solid.
Classification Based on Grain Size
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very large: from boulders with dimension
of over 300 mm down to clay particles that are less than 0.002 mm. Some clays contain
particles less than 0.001 mm in size which behave as colloids, i.e. do not settle in water.
In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS), soils are classified into groups
according to size, and the groups are further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-
groups.
The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into boulder, cobble,
gravel, sand, silt or clay.
Very coarse soils Boulder size > 300 mm
Cobble size 80 - 300 mm
Coarse soils Gravel size (G) Coarse 20 - 80 mm
Fine 4.75 - 20 mm
Sand size (S) Coarse 2 - 4.75 mm
Medium 0.425 - 2 mm
Fine 0.075 - 0.425 mm
Fine soils Silt size (M) 0.002 - 0.075 mm
Clay size (C) < 0.002 mm

Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M, and C respectively.
Physical weathering produces very coarse and coarse soils. Chemical weathering produce
generally fine soils.
Indian Standard Soil Classification System
Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the soil material by weight has
particle sizes greater than
0.075 mm. They are basically divided into either gravels (G) or sands (S).
According to gradation, they are further grouped as well-graded (W) or poorly graded (P). If
fine soils are present, they are grouped as containing silt fines (M) or as containing clay fines
(C).
For example, the combined symbol SW refers to well-graded sand with no fines.
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid in establishing its
identity and description. Some typical grading curves are shown.
Curve A - a poorly-graded medium SAND
Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having equal amounts of gravel and sand)
Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
Curve D - a sandy SILT
Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand)
Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has particle sizes less
than 0.075 mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which water adheres, thus imparting the
property of plasticity.
A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit (WL) and plasticity index (IP), is
provided in ISSCS to aid classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP = 0.73
(WL - 20).

Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays (C), silts (M), or
organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed as a percentage of the mass of organic
matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.Three divisions of plasticity
are also defined as follows.
Low plasticity WL< 35%
Intermediate plasticity 35% < WL<
50%
High plasticity WL> 50%
The 'A' line and vertical lines at WL equal to 35% and 50% separate the soils into various
classes.
For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of high plasticity.
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
Group Symbol Classification
Coarse soils
GW Well-graded GRAVEL
GP Poorly-graded GRAVEL
GM Silty GRAVEL
GC Clayey GRAVEL
SW Well-graded SAND
SP Poorly-graded SAND
SM Silty SAND
SC Clayey SAND

Fine soils
ML SILT of low plasticity
MI SILT of intermediate plasticity
MH SILT of high plasticity
CL CLAY of low plasticity
CI CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH CLAY of high plasticity
OL Organic soil of low plasticity
OI Organic soil of intermediate plasticity
OH Organic soil of high plasticity
Pt Peat
Activity
"Clayey soils" necessarily do not consist of 100% clay size particles. The proportion of clay
mineral flakes (< 0.002 mm size) in a fine soil increases its tendency to swell and shrink with
changes in water content. This is called the activity of the clayey soil, and it represents the
degree of plasticity related to the clay content.
Activity = (PIasticity index) /(% clay particles by weight)
Classification as per activity is:
Activity Classification
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 - 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
Liquidity Index
In fine soils, especially with clay size content, the existing state is dependent on the current
water content (w) with respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity
index (LI) provides a quantitative measure of the present state.
Classification as per liquidity index is:

Liquidity index Classification
> 1 Liquid
0.75 - 1.00 Very soft
0.50 - 0.75 Soft
0.25 - 0. 50 Medium stiff
0 - 0.25 Stiff
< 0 Semi-solid
Visual Classification
Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to identification
in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following:
SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.
SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands.
CLAY particles are sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have to be scraped or washed
off hands.
Worked Example
The following test results were obtained for a fine-grained soil:
WL= 48% ; WP = 26%
Clay content = 55%
Silt content = 35%
Sand content = 10%
In situ moisture content = 39% = w
Classify the soil, and determine its activity and liquidity index
Solution:
Plasticity index, IP = WL– WP = 48 – 26 = 22%
Liquid limit lies between 35% and 50%.
According to the Plasticity Chart, the soil is classified as CI, i.e. clay of intermediate
plasticity.

Liquidity index , = = 0.59
The clay is of normal activity and is of soft consistency.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
* Why do we need to classify soils ???????????
To describe various soil types encountered in the nature in a systematic way and
gathering soils that have distinct physical properties in groups and units.
* General Requirements of a soil Classification System:
1- Based on a scientific method
2- Simple
3- Permit classification by visual and manual tests.
4- Describe certain engineering properties
5- Should be accepted to all engineers
* Various Soil Classification Systems:
1- Geologic Soil Classification System
2- Agronomic Soil Classification System
3- Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
4-American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials System
(AASHTO)
5- Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
6- American Society for Testing and Materials System (ASTM)
7- Federal Aviation Agency System (FAA)
8- Others
1- Unified Soil Classification (USC) System:
The main Groups:
G = Gravel

S = Sand
.........................
M = Silt
C = Clay
O = Organic
* For Cohesionless Soil (Gravel and Sand), the soil can be Poorly Graded or Well
Graded
Poorly Graded = P
Well Graded = W
* For Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay), the soil can be Low Plastic or High Plastic
Low Plastic = L
High Plastic = H
Therefore, we can have several combinations of soils such as:
GW = Well Graded Gravel
GP = Poorly Graded Gravel
GM = Silty Gravel
GC = Clayey Gravel
Passing Sieve # 4
SW = Well Graded Sand
SP = Poorly Graded Sand
SM = Silty Sand
SC = Clayey Sand
Passing Sieve # 200

ML = Low Plastic Silt
CL = Low Plastic Clay
MH = High Plastic Silt
CH = High Plastic Clay
To conclud if the soil is low plastic or high plastic use Gassagrande's Chart
2- American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials System
(AASHTO):
- Soils are classified into 7 major groups A-1 to A-7
Granular A-1 {A-1-a - A-1-b}
(Gravel & Sand) A-2 {A-2-4 - A-2-5 - A-2-6 - A-2-6}
A-3
More than 35% pass # 200
A-4
Fine A-5
(Silt & Clay) A-6
A-7
Group Index:
3- Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
* USDA considers only:
Sand
Silt
Clay
No. Gravel in the System

* If you encounter gravel in the soil ------- Subtract the % of gravel from the
100%.
* 12 Subgroups in the system
MOISTURE DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS
(SOIL COMPACTION)
INTRODUCTION:
* In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other
engineering projects, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weight.
* Compaction improves characteristics of soils:
1- Increases Strength
2- Decreases permeability
3- Reduces settlement of foundation
4- Increases slope stability of embankments
* Soil Compaction can be achieved either by static or dynamic loading:
1- Smooth-wheel rollers
2- Sheepfoot rollers
3- Rubber-tired rollers
4- Vibratory Rollers
5- Vibroflotation
General Principles:
* The degree of compaction of soil is measured by its unit weight, , and
optimum moisture content, wc.
* The process of soil compaction is simply expelling the air from the voids.

or reducing air voids
* Reducing the water from the voids means consolidation.
Mechanism of Soil Compaction:
* By reducing the air voids, more soil can be added to the block. When moisture is
added to the block (water content, wc, is increasing) the soil particles will slip more
on each other causing more reduction in the total volume, which will result in
adding more soil and, hence, the dry density will increase, accordingly.
* Increasing Wc will increase
Up to a certain limit (Optimum moister Content, OMC)After this limit
Increasing Wc will decrease
Density-Moisture Relationship

Knowing the wet unit weight and the moisture content, the dry unit weight can be
determined from:
The theoretical maximum dry unit weight assuming zero air voids is:
I- Laboratory Compaction:
* Two Tests are usually performed in the laboratory to determine the maximum
dry unit weight and the OMC.
1- Standard Proctor Test
2- Modified Proctor Test
In both tests the compaction energy is:

1- Standard Proctor Test
Factors Affecting Compaction:
1- Effect of Soil Type
2- Effect of Energy on Compaction
3- Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure
4- Effect of Compaction on Cohesive Soil Properties
Field Compaction Equipment
There is a wide range of compaction equipment. The compaction achieved will depend on the
thickness of lift (or layer), the type of roller, the no. of passes of the roller, and the intensity
of pressure on the soil. The selection of equipment depends on the soil type as indicated.
Equipment Most suitable soils Least suitable soils
Smooth steel drum rollers (static
or vibratory)
Well-graded sand-gravel, crushed
rock, asphalt
Uniform sands, silty
sands, soft clays
Pneumatic tyred rollers Most coarse and fine soils Very soft clays
Sheepsfoot rollers Fine grained soils, sands and gravels
with > 20% fines
Uniform gravels, very
coarse soils
Grid rollers Weathered rock, well-graded coarse
soils
Uniform materials, silty
clays, clays
Vibrating plates Coarse soils with 4 to 8% fines
Tampers and rammers All soil types
II- Field Compaction- Control and Specifications
Control Parameter

Dry density and water content correlate well with the engineering properties, and thus
they are convenient construction control parametersSince the objective of compaction is
to stabilize soils and improve their engineering behavior, it is important to keep in mind
the desired engineering properties of the fill, not just its dry density and water content.
This point is often lost in the earthwork construction control.
Design-Construct Procedures
• Laboratory tests are conducted on samples of the proposed borrow materials to
define the properties required for design.
• After the earth structure is designed, the compaction specifications are written.
Field compaction control tests are specified, and the results of these become the
standard for controlling the project.
Specifications
(1) End-product specifications
This specification is used for most highways and building foundation, as long as the
contractor is able to obtain the specified relative compaction , how he obtains it doesn’t
matter, nor does the equipment he uses.
Care the results only !
(2) Method specifications
The type and weight of roller, the number of passes of that roller, as well as the lift
thickness are specified. A maximum allowable size of material may also be specified.
It is typically used for large compaction project
Relative Compaction (R.C.)
Determine the Relative Compaction in the Field
Where and When
• First, the test site is selected. It should be representative or typical of the
compacted lift and borrow material. Typical specifications call for a new field
test for every 1000 to 3000 m2 or so, or when the borrow material changes
significantly. It is also advisable to make the field test at least one or maybe two
compacted lifts below the already compacted ground surface, especially when
sheepsfoot rollers are used or in granular soils.
Method
• Field control tests, measuring the dry density and water content in the field can
either be destructive or nondestructive.
Destructive Methods

(a) Sand cone
(b) Balloon
(c) Oil (or water) method
Calculations
• Know Ms and Vt
• Get d field and w (water content)
• Compare d field with d max-lab and calculate relative compaction R.C.
Destructive Methods
Sometimes, the laboratory maximum density may not be known exactly. It is not
uncommon, especially in highway construction, for a series of laboratory compaction
tests to be conducted on “representative” samples of the borrow materials for the
highway. If the soils at the site are highly varied, there will be no laboratory results to
be compared with. It is time consuming and expensive to conduct a new compaction
curve. The alternative is to implement a field check point, or 1 point Proctor test.
Check Point Method
• 1 point Proctor test
• Known compaction curves A, B, C
• Field check point X
(it should be on the dry side of optimum)
• The measuring error is mainly from the determination of the volume of the
excavated material.
For example,
• For the sand cone method, the vibration from nearby working equipment will
increase the density of the sand in the hole, which will gives a larger hole volume
and a lower field density.
• If the compacted fill is gravel or contains large gravel particles. Any kind of
unevenness in the walls of the hole causes a significant error in the balloon
method.
• If the soil is coarse sand or gravel, none of the liquid methods works well, unless
the hole is very large and a polyethylene sheet is used to contain the water or oil.
Nondestructive Methods
Nuclear density meter
(a) Direct transmission
(b) Backscatter

(c) Air gap
Principles
Density
The Gamma radiation is scattered by the soil particles and the amount of scatter is
proportional to the total density of the material. The Gamma radiation is typically
provided by the radium or a radioactive isotope of cesium.
Water content
The water content can be determined based on the neutron scatter by hydrogen atoms.
Typical neutron sources are americium-beryllium isotopes.
Calibration
Calibration against compacted materials of known density is necessary, and for
instruments operating on the surface the presence of an uncontrolled air gap can
significantly affect the measurements.

UNIT-II

SOIL WATER AND WATER FLOW
Flow of Water in Soils
Permeability and Seepage
* Soil is a three phase medium -------- solids, water, and air
* Water in soils occur in various conditions
* Water can flow through the voids in a soil from a point of high energy to a point of low
energy.
* Why studying flow of water in porous media ???????
1- To estimate the quantity of underground seepage
2- To determine the quantity of water that can be discharged form a soil
3- To determine the pore water pressure/effective geostatic stresses, and to analyze earth
structures subjected to water flow.
4- To determine the volume change in soil layers (soil consolidation) and settlement of
foundation.
* Flow of Water in Soils depends on:
1- Porosity of the soil
2- Type of the soil - particle size
- particle shape
- degree of packing
3- Viscosity of the fluid - Temperature
- Chemical Components
4- Total head (difference in energy) - Pressure head
- Velocity head

- Elevation head
The degree of compressibility of a soil is expressed by the coefficient of permeability of the
soil "k."
k cm/sec, ft/sec, m/sec, ........
Hydraulic Gradient
Bernouli's Equation:
For soils
Flow of Water in Soils
1- Hydraulic Head in Soil
Total Head = Pressure head + Elevation Head
ht = hp + he

- Elevation head at a point = Extent of that point from the datum
- Pressure head at a point = Height of which the water rises in the piezometer above the
point.
- Pore Water pressure at a point = P.W.P. = gwater . hp
*How to measure the Pressure Head or the Piezometric Head???????
Tips
1- Assume that you do not have seepage in the system (Before Seepage)
2- Assume that you have piezometer at the point under consideration
3- Get the measurement of the piezometric head (Water column in the Piezometer before
seepage) = hp(Before Seepage)
4- Now consider the problem during seepage
5- Measure the amount of the head loss in the piezometer (Dh) or the drop in the
piezometric head.
6- The piezometric head during seepage = hp(during seepage) = hp(Before Seepage) - Dh

Formation of
Clay Minerals
A soil particle
may be a mineral
or a rock fragment. A mineral is a chemical compound formed in nature during a geological
process, whereas a rock fragment has a combination of one or more minerals. Based on the
nature of atoms, minerals are classified as silicates, aluminates, oxides, carbonates and
phosphates.
Out of these, silicate minerals are the most important as they influence the properties of clay
soils. Different arrangements of atoms in the silicate minerals give rise to different silicate
structures.
Basic Structural Units
Soil minerals are formed from two basic structural units: tetrahedral and octahedral.
Considering the valencies of the atoms forming the units, it is clear that the units are not
electrically neutral and as such do not exist as single units.
The basic units combine to form sheets in which the oxygen or hydroxyl ions are shared
among adjacent units. Three types of sheets are thus formed, namely silica sheet, gibbsite
sheet and brucite sheet.

Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of the central atom of the tetrahedral or
octahedral unit by another atom during the formation of the sheets.
The sheets then combine to form various two-layer or three-layer sheet minerals. As the basic
units of clay minerals are sheet-like structures, the particle formed from stacking of the basic
units is also plate-like. As a result, the surface area per unit mass becomes very large.
A tetrahedral unit consists of a central silicon atom that is surrounded by four oxygen atoms
located at the corners of a tetrahedron. A combination of tetrahedrons forms a silica sheet.
An octahedral unit consists of a central ion, either aluminium or magnesium, that is
surrounded by six hydroxyl ions located at the corners of an octahedron. A combination of
aluminium-hydroxyl octahedrons forms a gibbsite sheet, whereas a combination of
magnesium-hydroxyl octahedrons forms a brucite sheet.
Two-layer Sheet Minerals
Kaolinite and halloysite clay minerals are the most common.
Kaolinite Mineral
The basic kaolinite unit is a two-layer unit that is formed by stacking a gibbsite sheet on a
silica sheet. These basic units are then stacked one on top of the other to form a lattice of the
mineral. The units are held together by hydrogen bonds. The strong bonding does not permit
water to enter the lattice. Thus, kaolinite minerals are stable and do not expand under
saturation.
Kaolinite is the most abundant constituent of residual clay deposits.

Halloysite Mineral
The basic unit is also a two-layer sheet similar to that of kaolinite except for the presence of
wThree-layer Sheet Minerals
Montmorillonite and illite clay minerals are the most common. A basic three-layer sheet unit
is formed by keeping one silica sheet each on the top and at the bottom of a gibbsite sheet.
These units are stacked to form a lattice as shown.
Montmorillonite Mineral
The bonding between the three-layer units is by van der Waals forces. This bonding is very
weak and water can enter easily. Thus, this mineral can imbibe a large quantity of water
causing swelling. During dry weather, there will be shrinkage.
Illite Mineral
Illite consists of the basic montmorillonite units but are bonded by secondary valence forces
and potassium ions, as shown. There is about 20% replacement of aluminium with silicon in
the gibbsite sheet due to isomorphous substitution. This mineral is very stable and does not
swell or shrink.

ater between the sheets.
Fine Soil Fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and
nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these. The
arrangement and organisation of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its
fabric.
CLAY particles are flaky. Their thickness is very small relative to their length & breadth, in
some cases as thin as 1/100th of the length. They therefore have high specific surface values.
These surfaces carry negative electrical charge, which attracts positive ions present in the
pore water. Thus a lot of water may be held as adsorbed water within a clay mass.
Stresses in the Ground
Total Stress
When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the solid grains and the water in the pores. The
total vertical stress acting at a point below the ground surface is due to the weight of

everything that lies above, including soil, water, and surface loading. Total stress thus
increases with depth and with unit weight.
Vertical total stress at depth z, sv = g.Z
Below a water body, the total stress is the sum of the weight of the soil up to the surface and
the weight of water above this. sv = g.Z + gw.Zw
The total stress may also be denoted by sz or just s. It varies with changes in water level and
with excavation.
Pore Water Pressure
The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water pressure (u). The
magnitude of pore water pressure depends on:
 the depth below the water table.
 the conditions of seepage flow.
Under hydrostatic conditions, no water flow takes place, and the pore pressure at a given
point is given by
u = gw.h

where h = depth below water table or overlying water surface
It is convenient to think of pore water pressure as the pressure exerted by a column of water
in an imaginary standpipe inserted at the given point.
The natural level of ground water is called the water table or the phreatic surface. Under
conditions of no seepage flow, the water table is horizontal. The magnitude of the pore water
pressure at the water table is zero. Below the water table, pore water pressures are positive.
Principle of Effective Stress
The principle of effective stress was enunciated by Karl Terzaghi in the year 1936. This
principle is valid only for saturated soils, and consists of two parts:
1. At any point in a soil mass, the effective stress (represented by or s' ) is related to total
stress (s) and pore water pressure (u) as
= s - u
Both the total stress and pore water pressure can be measured at any point.
2. All measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression and a change of shearing
resistance, are exclusively due to changes in effective stress.
Compression =
Shear Strength =
In a saturated soil system, as the voids are completely filled with water, the pore water
pressure acts equally in all directions.
The effective stress is not the exact contact stress between particles but the distribution of
load carried by the soil particles over the area considered. It cannot be measured and can only
be computed.
If the total stress is increased due to additional load applied to the soil, the pore water
pressure initially increases to counteract the additional stress. This increase in pressure within
the pores might cause water to drain out of the soil mass, and the load is transferred to the
solid grains. This will lead to the increase of effective stress.

Effective Stress in Unsaturated Zone
Above the water table, when the soil is saturated, pore pressure will be negative (less than
atmospheric). The height above the water table to which the soil is saturated is called the
capillary rise, and this depends on the grain size and the size of pores. In coarse soils, the
capillary rise is very small.
Between the top of the saturated zone and the ground surface, the soil is partially saturated,
with a consequent reduction in unit weight . The pore pressure in a partially saturated soil
consists of two components:
Pore water pressure = uw
Pore air pressure = ua
Water is incompressible, whereas air is compressible. The combined effect is a complex
relationship involving partial pressures and the degree of saturation of the soil.
Effective Stress Under Hydrodynamic Conditions
There is a change in pore water pressure in conditions of seepage flow within the ground.
Consider seepage occurring between two points P and Q. The potential driving the water
flow is the hydraulic gradient between the two points, which is equal to the head drop per unit
length. In steady state seepage, the gradient remains constant.
Hydraulic gradient from P to Q, i = dh/ds
As water percolates through soil, it exerts a drag on soil particles it comes in contact with.
Depending on the flow direction, either downward of upward, the drag either increases or
decreases inter-particle contact forces.

A downward flow increases effective stress.
In contrast, an upward flow opposes the force of gravity and can even cause to counteract
completely the contact forces. In such a situation, effective stress is reduced to zero and the
soil behaves like a very viscous liquid. Such a state is known as quick sand condition. In
nature, this condition is usually observed in coarse silt or fine sand subject to artesian
conditions.
At the bottom of the soil column,
During quick sand condition, the effective stress is reduced to zero.
where icr = critical hydraulic gradient
This shows that when water flows upward under a hydraulic gradient of about 1, it
completely neutralizes the force on account of the weight of particles, and thus leaves the
particles suspended in water.
The Importance of Effective Stress
At any point within the soil mass, the magitudes of both total stress and pore water pressure
are dependent on the ground water position. With a shift in the water table due to seasonal
fluctuations, there is a resulting change in the distribution in pore water pressure with depth.
Changes in water level below ground result in changes in effective stresses below the water
table. A rise increases the pore water pressure at all elevations thus causing a decrease in
effective stress. In contrast, a fall in the water table produces an increase in the effective
stress.

Changes in water level above ground do not cause changes in effective stresses in the ground
below. A rise above ground surface increases both the total stress and the pore water pressure
by the same amount, and consequently effective stress is not altered.
In some analyses it is better to work with the changes of quantity, rather than in absolute
quantities. The effective stress expression then becomes:
Ds´ = Ds - Du
If both total stress and pore water pressure change by the same amount, the effective stress
remains constant.
Total and effective stresses must be distinguishable in all calculations.Ground movements
and instabilities can be caused by changes in total stress, such as caused by loading by
foundations and unloading due to excavations. They can also be caused by changes in pore
water pressures, such as failure of slopes after rainfall.
Worked Examples
Example 1: For the soil deposit shown below, draw the total stress, pore water pressure and
effective stress diagrams.The water table is at ground level.
Solution:

Total stress
At - 4m, = 1.92 x 4 = 7.68
At -11m, = 7.68 + 2.1 x 7 = 22.38
Pore water pressure
At - 4 m, u = 1 x 4 = 4
At -11 m, u = 1 x 11 = 11
Effective stress
At - 4 m , = 7.68 - 4 = 3.68
At -11m , = 22.38 - 11 = 11.38
Worked Examples
Example 2: An excavation was made in a clay stratum having = 2 T/m3
. When the depth
was 7.5 m, the bottom of the excavation cracked and the pit was filled by a mixture of sand
and water. The thickness of the clay layer was
10.5 m, and below it was a layer of pervious water-bearing sand. How much was the artesian
pressure in the
sand layer?
Solution:

When the depth of excavation was 7.5 m, at the interface of the CLAY and SAND layers, the
effective stress was equal to zero.
Downward pressure due to weight of clay = Upward pressure due to artesian pressure
(10.5 - 7.5) = , where h = artesian pressure head
3 x 2 = 1 x h
h = 6 m = 0.6 kg/cm2
or 6 T/m2
artesian pressure
Permeability of Soils
Pressure, Elevation and Total Heads
In soils, the interconnected pores provide passage for water. A large number of such flow
paths act together, and the average rate of flow is termed the coefficient of permeability, or
just permeability. It is a measure of the ease that the soil provides to the flow of water
through its pores.
At point A, the pore water pressure (u) can be measured from the height of water in a
standpipe located at that point.
The height of the water column is the pressure head (hw).
hw = u/gw
To identify any difference in pore water pressure at different points, it is necessary to
eliminate the effect of the points of measurement. With this in view, a datum is required from
which locations are measured.
The elevation head (hz) of any point is its height above the datum line. The height of water
level in the standpipe above the datum is the piezometric head (h).
h = hz + hw
Total head consists of three components: elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head.
As seepage velocity in soils is normally low, velocity head is ignored, and total head becomes
equal to the piezometric head. Due to the low seepage velocity and small size of pores, the
flow of water in the pores is steady and laminar in most cases. Water flow takes place
between two points in soil due to the difference in total heads.

Darcy's Law
Darcy's law states that there is a linear relationship between flow velocity (v) and hydraulic
gradient (i) for any given saturated soil under steady laminar flow conditions.
If the rate of flow is q (volume/time) through cross-sectional area (A) of the soil mass,
Darcy's Law can be expressed as
v = q/A = k.i
where k = permeability of the soil
i = Dh/L
Dh = difference in total heads
L = length of the soil mass
The flow velocity (v) is also called the Darcian velocity or the superficial velocity. It is
different from the actual velocity inside the soil pores, which is known as the seepage
velocity, vS. At the particulate level, the water follows a tortuous path through the pores.
Seepage velocity is always greater than the superficial velocity, and it is expressed as:
where AV = Area of voids on a cross section normal to the direction of flow
n = porosity of the soil
Permeability of Different Soils
Permeability (k) is an engineering property of soils and is a function of the soil type. Its value
depends on the average size of the pores and is related to the distribution of particle sizes,
particle shape and soil structure. The ratio of permeabilities of typical sands/gravels to those
of typical clays is of the order of 106
. A small proportion of fine material in a coarse-grained
soil can lead to a significant reduction in permeability.

For different soil types as per grain size, the orders of magnitude for permeability are as
follows:
Soil k (cm/sec)
Gravel 100
Coarse sand 100
to 10-1
Medium sand 10-1
to 10-2
Fine sand 10-2
to 10-3
Silty sand 10-3
to 10-4
Silt 1 x 10-5
Clay 10-7
to 10-9
Factors affecting Permeability
In soils, the permeant or pore fluid is mostly water whose variation in property is generally
very less. Permeability of all soils is strongly influenced by the density of packing of the soil
particles, which can be represented by void ratio (e) or porosity (n).
For Sands
In sands, permeability can be empirically related to the square of some representative grain
size from its grain-size distribution. For filter sands, Allen Hazen in 1911 found that k » 100
(D10)2
cm/s where D10= effective grain size in cm.
Different relationships have been attempted relating void ratio and permeability, such as k µ
e3
/(1+e), and k µ e2
. They have been obtained from the Kozeny-Carman equation for laminar
flow in saturated soils.
where ko and kT are factors depending on the shape and tortuosity of the pores respectively,
SS is the surface area of the solid particles per unit volume of solid material, and gw and h are
unit weight and viscosity of the pore water. The equation can be reduced to a simpler form as
For Silts and Clays
For silts and clays, the Kozeny-Carman equation does not work well, and log k versus e plot
has been found to indicate a linear relationship.
For clays, it is typically found that
where Ckis the permeability change index and ek is a reference void ratio.

Laboratory Measurement of Permeability
Constant Head Flow
Constant head permeameter is recommended for coarse-grained soils only since for such
soils, flow rate is measurable with adequate precision. As water flows through a sample of
cross-section area A, steady total head drop h is measured across length L.
Permeability k is obtained from:
Falling Head Flow
Falling head permeameter is recommended for fine-grained soils.
Total head h in standpipe of area a is allowed to fall. Hydraulic gradient varies with time.
Heads h1 and h2 are measured at times t1 and t2. At any time t, flow through the soil sample
of cross-sectional area A is
--------------------- (1)
Flow in unit time through the standpipe of cross-sectional area a is

= ----------------- (2)
Equating (1) and (2) ,
or
Integrating between the limits,
Field Tests for Permeability
Field or in-situ measurement of permeability avoids the difficulties involved in obtaining and
setting up undisturbed samples in a permeameter. It also provides information about bulk
permeability, rather than merely the permeability of a small sample.
A field permeability test consists of pumping out water from a main well and observing the
resulting drawdown surface of the original horizontal water table from at least two
observation wells. When a steady state of flow is reached, the flow quantity and the levels in
the observation wells are noted.
Two important field tests for determining permeability are: Unconfined flow pumping test,
and confined flow pumping test.

Unconfined Flow Pumping Test
In this test, the pumping causes a drawdown in an unconfined (i.e. open surface) soil stratum,
and generates a radial flow of water towards the pumping well. The steady-state heads h1 and
h2 in observation wells at radii r1 and r2 are monitored till the flow rate q becomes steady.
The rate of radial flow through any cylindrical surface around the pumping well is equal to
the amount of water pumped out. Consider such a surface having radius r, thickness dr and
height h. The hydraulic gradient is
Area of flow,
From Darcy's Law,
Arranging and integrating,
Field Tests for Permeability
Confined Flow Pumping Test
Artesian conditions can exist in a aquifer of thickness D confined both above and below by
impermeable strata. In this, the drawdown water table is above the upper surface of the

aquifer.
For a cylindrical surface at radius r,
Integrating,
Permeability of Stratified Deposits
When a soil deposit consists of a number of horizontal layers having different permeabilities,
the average value of permeability can be obtained separately for both vertical flow and
horizontal flow, as kVand kH respectively.
Consider a stratified soil having horizontal layers of thickness H1, H2, H3, etc. with
coefficients of permeability k1, k2, k3, etc.
For vertical flow
The flow rate q through each layer per unit area is the same.

Let i be the equivalent hydraulic gradient over the total thickness H and let the hydraulic
gradients in the layers be i1, i2, i3, etc. respectively.
where kV = Average vertical permeability
The total head drop h across the layers is
Horizontal flow
When the flow is horizontal, the hydraulic gradient is the same in each layer, but the quantity
of flow is different in each layer.
The total flow is
Considering unit width normal to the cross-section plane,
Worked Examples
Example 1: Determine the following:
(a) Equivalent coefficient of vertical permeability of the three layers
(b) The rate of flow per m2
of plan area
(c) The total head loss in the three layers

Solution:
(a) = = 1.33 x 10-3
cm/s
(b) Considering an area A = 1 m2
=1 x 104
cm2
q = k.i.A = = 7 x 10-4
x 0.25/2 x (1x104
) = 0.875 cm3
/s per m2
of plan area
(c) For continuity of flow, velocity is the same.
, where = total head loss in three layers
. = = = 1.184 m
Worked Examples
Example 2: For a field pumping test, a well was sunk through a horizontal stratum of sand
14.5 thick and underlain by a clay stratum.Two observation wells were sunk at horizontal
distances of 16 m and 34 m respectively from the pumping well.The initial position of the
water table was 2.2 m below ground level.
At a steady-state pumping rate of 1850 litres/min, the drawdowns in the observation wells
were found to be 2.45 m and 1.20 m respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of
the sand.
Solution:

q = 1850 litres/min =
r1 = 16 m
r2 = 34 m
h1 = 14.5 - 2.2 - 2.45 = 9.85 m
h2= 14.5 - 2.2 - 1.2 = 11.1 m
k = = 2.82 x 10-4
m/s = 1.41 x 10-2
cm/s
Stresses in the Ground
Total Stress
When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the solid grains and the water in the pores. The
total vertical stress acting at a point below the ground surface is due to the weight of
everything that lies above, including soil, water, and surface loading. Total stress thus
increases with depth and with unit weight.
Vertical total stress at depth z, sv = g.Z

Below a water body, the total stress is the sum of the weight of the soil up to the surface and
the weight of water above this. sv = g.Z + gw.Zw
The total stress may also be denoted by sz or just s. It varies with changes in water level and
with excavation.
Pore Water Pressure
The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water pressure (u). The
magnitude of pore water pressure depends on:
 the depth below the water table.
 the conditions of seepage flow.
Under hydrostatic conditions, no water flow takes place, and the pore pressure at a given
point is given by
u = gw.h
where h = depth below water table or overlying water surface
It is convenient to think of pore water pressure as the pressure exerted by a column of water
in an imaginary standpipe inserted at the given point.
The natural level of ground water is called the water table or the phreatic surface. Under
conditions of no seepage flow, the water table is horizontal. The magnitude of the pore water
pressure at the water table is zero. Below the water table, pore water pressures are positive.
Effective Stress in Unsaturated Zone
Above the water table, when the soil is saturated, pore pressure will be negative (less than
atmospheric). The height above the water table to which the soil is saturated is called the

capillary rise, and this depends on the grain size and the size of pores. In coarse soils, the
capillary rise is very small.
Between the top of the saturated zone and the ground surface, the soil is partially saturated,
with a consequent reduction in unit weight . The pore pressure in a partially saturated soil
consists of two components:
Pore water pressure = uw
Pore air pressure = ua
Water is incompressible, whereas air is compressible. The combined effect is a complex
relationship involving partial pressures and the degree of saturation of the soil.
Effective Stress under Hydrodynamic Conditions
There is a change in pore water pressure in conditions of seepage flow within the ground.
Consider seepage occurring between two points P and Q. The potential driving the water
flow is the hydraulic gradient between the two points, which is equal to the head drop per unit
length. In steady state seepage, the gradient remains constant.
Hydraulic gradient from P to Q, i = dh/ds
As water percolates through soil, it exerts a drag on soil particles it comes in contact with.
Depending on the flow direction, either downward of upward, the drag either increases or
decreases inter-particle contact forces.
A downward flow increases effective stress.

In contrast, an upward flow opposes the force of gravity and can even cause to counteract
completely the contact forces. In such a situation, effective stress is reduced to zero and the
soil behaves like a very viscous liquid. Such a state is known as quick sand condition. In
nature, this condition is usually observed in coarse silt or fine sand subject to artesian
conditions.
At the bottom of the soil column,
During quick sand condition, the effective stress is reduced to zero.
Where icr = critical hydraulic gradient
This shows that when water flows upward under a hydraulic gradient of about 1, it
completely neutralizes the force on account of the weight of particles, and thus leaves the
particles suspended in water.
The Importance of Effective Stress
At any point within the soil mass, the magitudes of both total stress and pore water pressure
are dependent on the ground water position. With a shift in the water table due to seasonal
fluctuations, there is a resulting change in the distribution in pore water pressure with depth.
Changes in water level below ground result in changes in effective stresses below the water
table. A rise increases the pore water pressure at all elevations thus causing a decrease in
effective stress. In contrast, a fall in the water table produces an increase in the effective
stress.
Changes in water level above ground do not cause changes in effective stresses in the
ground below. A rise above ground surface increases both the total stress and the pore water
pressure by the same amount, and consequently effective stress is not altered.

In some analyses it is better to work with the changes of quantity, rather than in absolute
quantities. The effective stress expression then becomes:
Ds´ = Ds - Du
If both total stress and pore water pressure change by the same amount, the effective stress
remains constant.
Total and effective stresses must be distinguishable in all calculations.Ground movements
and instabilities can be caused by changes in total stress, such as caused by loading by
foundations and unloading due to excavations. They can also be caused by changes in pore
water pressures, such as failure of slopes after rainfall.
Example 1: For the soil deposit shown below, draw the total stress, pore water pressure and
effective stress diagrams.The water table is at ground level.
Solution:
Total stress
At - 4m, = 1.92 x 4 = 7.68
At -11m, = 7.68 + 2.1 x 7 = 22.38

Pore water pressure
At - 4 m, u = 1 x 4 = 4
At -11 m, u = 1 x 11 = 11
Effective stress
At - 4 m , = 7.68 - 4 = 3.68
At -11m , = 22.38 - 11 = 11.38
Seepage in Soils
A rectangular soil element is shown with dimensions dx and dz in the plane, and thickness dy
perpendicuar to this plane. Consider planar flow into the rectangular soil element.
In the x-direction, the net amount of the water entering and leaving the element is
Similarly in the z-direction, the difference between the water inflow and outflow is
For a two-dimensional steady flow of pore water, any imbalance in flows into and out of an
element in the z-direction must be compensated by a corresponding opposite imbalance in the
x-direction. Combining the above, and dividing by dx.dy.dz , the continuity equation is
expressed as
From Darcy's law, , , where h is the head causing flow.

When the continuity equation is combined with Darcy's law, the equation for flow is
expressed as:
For an isotropic material in which the permeability is the same in all directions (i.e. k x= k z),
the flow equation is
This is the Laplace equation governing two-dimensional steady state flow. It can be solved
graphically, analytically, numerically, or analogically.
For the more general situation involving three-dimensional steady flow, Laplace equation
becomes:
One-dimensional Flow
For this, the Laplace Equation is
Integrating twice, a general solution is obtained.
The values of constants can be determined from the specific boundary conditions.
As shown, at x = 0, h = H , and at x = L, h = 0

Substituting and solving,
c2 = H ,
The specific solution for flow in the above permeameter is
which states that head is dissipated in a linearly uniform manner over the entire length of the
permeameter.
Two-dimensional Flow
Flow Nets
Graphical form of solutions to Laplace equation for two-dimensional seepage can be
presented as flow nets. Two orthogonal sets of curves form a flow net:
 Equipotential lines connecting points of equal total head h
 Flow lines indicating the direction of seepage down a hydraulic gradient
Two flow lines can never meet and similarly, two equipotential lines can never meet. The
space between two adjacent flow lines is known as a flow channel, and the figure formed on
the flownet between any two adjacent flow lines and two adjacent equipotential lines is
referred to as a field. Seepage through an embankment dam is shown.
Calculation of flow in a channel
If standpipe piezometers were inserted into the ground with their tips on a single
equipotential line, then the water would rise to the same level in each standpipe. The pore
pressures would be different because of their different elevations.There can be no flow along
an equipotential line as there is no hydraulic gradient.

Consider a field of length L within a flow channel. There is a fall of total head Dh. The
average hydraulic gradient is
As the flow lines are b apart and considering unit length perpendicuar to field, the flow rate is
There is an advantage in sketching flow nets in the form of curvilinear 'squares' so that a
circle can be insrcibed within each four-sided figure bounded by two equipotential lines and
two flow lines.
In such a square, b = L , and the flow rate is obtained as Dq = k.Dh
Thus the flow rate through such a flow channel is the permeability k multiplied by the
uniform interval Dh between adjacent equipotential lines.
Calculation of total flow
For a complete problem, the flow net can be drawn with the overall head drop h divided into
Nd so that Dh = h / Nd.
If Nf is the no. of flow channels, then the total flow rate is
Procedure for Drawing Flow Nets
At every point (x,z) where there is flow, there will be a value of head h(x,z). In order to
represent these values, contours of equal head are drawn.
A flow net is to be drawn by trial and error. For a given set of boundary conditions, the flow
net will remain the same even if the direction of flow is reversed. Flow nets are constructed

such that the head lost between successive equipotential lines is the same, say Dh. It is
useful in visualising the flow in a soil to plot the flow lines, as these are lines that are
tangential to the flow at any given point. The steps of construction are:
1. Mark all boundary conditions, and draw the flow cross section to some convenient scale.
2. Draw a coarse net which is consistent with the boundary conditions and which has
orthogonal equipotential and flow lines. As it is usually easier to visualise the pattern of flow,
start by drawing the flow lines first.
3. Modify the mesh such that it meets the conditions outlined above and the fields between
adjacent flow lines and equipotential lines are 'square'.
4. Refine the flow net by repeating step 3.
The most common boundary conditions are:
(a) A submerged permeable soil boundary is an equipotential line. This could have been
determined by considering imaginary standpipes placed at the soil boundary, as for every
point the water level in the standpipe would be the same as the water level. (Such a boundary
is marked as CD and EF in the following figure.)
(b) The boundary between permeable and impermeable soil materials is a flow line (This is
marked as AB in the same figure).
(c) Equipotential lines intersecting a phreatic surface do so at equal vertical intervals.
Uses of Flow Nets
The graphical properties of a flow net can be used in obtaining solutions for many seepage
problems such as:
1. Estimation of seepage losses from reservoirs: It is possible to use the flow net in the
transformed space to calculate the flow underneath the dam.

2. Determination of uplift pressures below dams: From the flow net, the pressure head
at any point at the base of the dam can be determined. The uplift pressure distribution along
the base can be drawn and then summed up.
3. Checking the possibility of piping beneath dams: At the toe of a dam when the
upward exit hydraulic gradient approaches unity, boiling condition can occur leading to
erosion in soil and consequent piping. Many dams on soil foundations have failed because of
a sudden formation of a piped shaped discharge channel. As the stored water rushes out, the
channel widens and catastrophic failure results. This is also often referred to as piping failure
U
N
I

STRESS DISTRIBUTION, COMPRESSIBILITY AND SETTLEMENT
GEOSTATIC STRESSES
&
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
Stresses at a point in a soil mass are divided into two main types:
I- Geostatic Stresses ------ Due to the self weight of the soil mass.
II- Excess Stresses ------ From structures
I. Geostatic stresses
I.A. Vertical Stress
Vertical geostatic stresses increase with depth, There are three 3 types of geostatic stresses
1-a Total Stress, stotal
1-b. Effective Stress, seff, or s'
1-c Pore Water Pressure, u
Total Stress = Effective stress + Pore Water Pressure
stotal = seff + u

Geostatic Stress with Seepage

When the Seepage Force = H gsub -- Effective Stress seff = 0 this case is referred as
Boiling or Quick Condition
I.B. Horizontal Stress or Lateral Stress
sh = ko s'v
ko = Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient
sh is always associated with the vertical effective stress, s'v.
never use total vertical stress to determine sh.
II. Stress Distribution in Soil Mass:
When applying a load on a half space medium the excess stresses in the soil will decrease
with depth.
Like in the geostatic stresses, there are vertical and lateral excess stresses.
1. For Point Load
The excess vertical stress is according to Boussinesq (1883):
- Ip = Influence factor for the point load
- Knowing r/z ----- I1 can be obtained from tables
According to Westergaard (1938)
where h = s (1-2m / 2-2m) m = Poisson's
Ratio
2. For Line Load
Using q/unit length on the surface of a semi infinite soil mass, the vertical stress is:

3. For a Strip Load (Finite Width and Infinite Length):
The excess vertical stress due to load/unit area, q, is:
Where Il = Influence factor for a line load
3. For a Circular Loaded Area:
The excess vertical stress due to q is:
Compression and Consolidation of Soils
When a soil layer is subjected to vertical stress, volume change can take place through
rearrangement of soil grains, and some amount of grain fracture may also take place. The
volume of soil grains remains constant, so change in total volume is due to change in volume
of water. In saturated soils, this can happen only if water is pushed out of the voids. The
movement of water takes time and is controlled by the permeability of the soil and the
locations of free draining boundary surfaces.
It is necessary to determine both the magnitude of volume change (or the settlement) and the
time required for the volume change to occur. The magnitude of settlement is dependent on
the magnitude of applied stress, thickness of the soil layer, and the compressibility of the soil.
When soil is loaded undrained, the pore pressure increases. As the excess pore pressure
dissipates and water leaves the soil, settlement takes place. This process takes time, and the
rate of settlement decreases over time. In coarse soils (sands and gravels), volume change
occurs immediately as pore pressures are dissipated rapidly due to high permeability. In fine
soils (silts and clays), slow seepage occurs due to low permeability.
Components of Total Settlement
The total settlement of a loaded soil has three components: Elastic settlement, primary
consolidation, and secondary compression.

Elastic settlement is on account of change in shape at constant volume, i.e. due to vertical
compression and lateral expansion. Primary consolidation (or simply consolidation) is on
account of flow of water from the voids, and is a function of the permeability and
compressibility of soil. Secondary compression is on account of creep-like behaviour.
Primary consolidation is the major component and it can be reasonably estimated. A general
theory for consolidation, incorporating three-dimensional flow is complicated and only
applicable to a very limited range of problems in geotechnical engineering. For the vast
majority of practical settlement problems, it is sufficient to consider that both seepage and
strain take place in one direction only, as one-dimensional consolidation in the vertical
direction.
Compressibility Characteristics
Soils are often subjected to uniform loading over large areas, such as from wide foundations,
fills or embankments. Under such conditions, the soil which is remote from the edges of the
loaded area undergoes vertical strain, but no horizontal strain. Thus, the settlement occurs
only in one-dimension.
The compressibility of soils under one-dimensional compression can be described from the
decrease in the volume of voids with the increase of effective stress. This relation of void
ratio and effective stress can be depicted either as an arithmetic plot or a semi-log plot.
In the arithmetic plot as shown, as the soil compresses, for the same increase of effective
stress Ds', the void ratio reduces by a smaller magnitude, from De1 to De2. This is on account
of an increasingly denser packing of the soil particles as the pore water is forced out. In fine
soils, a much longer time is required for the pore water to escape, as compared to coarse soils.
It can be said that the compressibility of a soil decreases as the effective stress increases. This
can be represented by the slope of the void ratio – effective stress relation, which is called the
coefficient of compressibility, av.

For a small range of effective stress,
The -ve sign is introduced to make av a positive parameter.
If e0 is the initial void ratio of the consolidating layer, another useful parameter is the
coefficient of volume compressibility, mv, which is expressed as
It represents the compression of the soil, per unit original thickness, due to a unit increase of
pressure.
Normally Consolidated and Over-Consolidated Clays
The figure shows the relation of void ratio and effective stress of a clay soil as a semi-log
plot.
OP corresponds to initial loading of the soil. PQ corresponds to unloading of the soil. QFR
corresponds to a reloading of the soil. Upon reloading beyond P, the soil continues along the
path that it would have followed if loaded from O to R continuously.
The preconsolidation stress, s'pc, is defined to be the maximum effective stress experienced
by the soil. This stress is identified in comparison with the effective stress in its present state.
For soil at state Q or F, this would correspond to the effective stress at point P.
If the current effective stress, s', is equal (note that it cannot be greater than) to the
preconsolidation stress, then the deposit is said to be normally consolidated (NC). If the
current effective stress is less than the preconsolidation stress, then the soil is said to be over-
consolidated (OC).
It may be seen that for the same increase in effective stress, the change in void ratio is much
less for an overconsolidated soil (from e0 to ef), than it would have been for a normally

consolidated soil as in path OP. In unloading, the soil swells but the increase in volume is
much less than the initial decrease in volume for the same stress difference.
The distance from the normal consolidation line has an important influence on soil behaviour.
This is described numerically by the overconsolidation ratio (OCR), which is defined as the
ratio of the preconsolidation stress to the current effective stress.
Note that when the soil is normally consolidated, OCR = 1
Settlements will generally be much smaller for structures built on overconsolidated soils.
Most soils are overconsolidated to some degree. This can be due to shrinking and swelling of
the soil on drying and rewetting, changes in ground water levels, and unloading due to
erosion of overlying strata.
For NC clays, the plot of void ratio versus log of effective stress can be approximated to a
straight line, and the slope of this line is indicated by a parameter termed as compression
index, Cc.
Estimation of Preconsolidation Stress
It is possible to determine the preconsolidation stress that the soil had experienced. The soil
sample is to be loaded in the laboratory so as to obtain the void ratio - effective stress
relationship. Empirical procedures are used to estimate the preconsolidation stress, the most
widely used being Casagrande's construction which is illustrated.
The steps in the construction are:
• Draw the graph using an appropriate scale.

• Determine the point of maximum curvature A.
• At A, draw a tangent AB to the curve.
• At A, draw a horizontal line AC.
• Draw the extension ED of the straight line portion of the curve.
• Where the line ED cuts the bisector AF of angle CAB, that point corresponds to the
preconsolidation stress.
Analysis of Consolidation - Terzaghi's Theory
The total stress increases when additional vertical load is first applied. Instantaneously, the
pore water pressure increases by exactly the same amount. Subsequently there will be flow
from regions of higher excess pore pressure to regions of lower excess pore pressure causing
dissipation. The effective stress will change and the soil will consolidate with time. This is
shown schematically.
On the assumption that the excess pore water drains only along vertical lines, an analytical
procedure can be developed for computing the rate of consolidation.
Consider a saturated soil element of sides dx, dy and dz.

The initial volume of soil element = dx.dy.dz
If n is the porosity, the volume of water in the element = n.dx.dy.dz
The continuity equation for one-dimensional flow in the vertical direction is
Only the excess head (h) causes consolidation, and it is related to the excess pore water
pressure (u) by
h = u/gw.The Darcy equation can be written as
The Darcy eqn. can be substituted in the continuity eqn., and the porosity n can be expressed
in terms of void ratio e, to obtain the flow equation as
The soil element can be represented schematically as

If e0 is the initial void ratio of the consolidating layer, the initial volume of solids in the
element is (dx dy dz ) / (1 + e0), which remains constant. The change in water volume can be
represented by small changes De in the current void ratio e.
The flow eqn. can then be written as
or
This is the hydrodynamic equation of one-dimensional consolidation.
If av = coefficient of compressibility, the change in void ratio can be expressed as De = av.(-
Ds') = av.(Du) since any increase in effective stress equals the decrease in excess pore water
pressure. Thus,
The flow eqn. can then be expressed as
or
By introducing a parameter called the coefficient of consolidation, ,
the flow eqn. then becomes
This is Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation equation. A solution of this for a set of
boundary conditions will describe how the excess pore water pressure u dissipates with time t
and location z. When all the u has dissipated completely throughout the depth of the
compressible soil layer, consolidation is complete and the transient flow situation ceases to
exist.
Solution of Terzaghi's Theory

During the consolidation process, the following are assumed to be constant:
1. The total additional stress on the compressible soil layer is assumed to remain constant.
2. The coefficient of volume compressibility (mV) of the soil is assumed to be constant.
3. The coefficient of permeability (k) for vertical flow is assumed to be constant.
There are three variables in the consolidation equation:
1. the depth of the soil element in the layer (z)
2. the excess pore water pressure (u)
3. the time elapsed since application of the loading (t)
To take care of these three variables, three non-dimensional parameters are provided:
1. Drainage path ratio, , where H = drainage path which is the longest path taken by
the pore water to reach a permeable sub-surface layer above or below.
2. Consolidation ratio at depth z, Uz , which is the ratio of dissipated pore pressure to the
initial excess pore pressure. This represents the stage of consolidation at a certain location in
the compressible layer.
3. Time factor,
The graphical solution of Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation equation using the
non-dimensional parameters is shown.

The figure is symmetrical about the horizontal line at = 1.
For double drainage conditions, pore water above this location flows upwards whereas
water below this location flows downwards. Thus, the horizontal line at Z = 1 is equivalent to
an imperious boundary. For single drainage conditions, only either the top half or bottom
half of the figure is to be used, and the drainage path is equal to the thickness of the
compressible layer.
The above graphical solution shows how consolidation proceeds with time at different
locations for a particular set of boundary conditions, but it does not describe how much
consolidation occurs as a whole in the entire compressible layer.
The variation of total consolidation with time is most conveniently plotted in the form of the
average degree of consolidation (U) for the entire stratum versus dimensionless time T, and
this is illustrated below.
There are useful approximations relating the degree of consolidation and the time factor, viz:
For U £ 0.60, T = ( p /4).U2
For U > 0.60, T = 1.781 – 0.933 log10(100 - U%)

Consolidation Settlement and Time
To estimate the amount of consolidation which would occur and the time it would take to
occur, it is necessary to know:
1. The boundary and drainage conditions
2. The loading conditions
3. The relevant parameters of the soil, including initial void ratio, coefficient of
compressibility, coefficient of volume compressibility , compression index, and
coefficient of consolidation. They are obtained from consolidation tests on
representative undisturbed samples of the compressible soil stratum.
Comparing the compressible soil layer with a soil element of this layer,
De can be expressed in terms of av or Cc.
or
The magnitude of consolidation settlement is

or
Worked Examples
Example 1: A 3 m thick layer of saturated clay in the field under a surcharge loading will
achieve 90% consolidation in 75 days in double drainage conditions. Find the coefficient of
consolidation of the clay.
Solution:
As the clay layer has two-way drainage, H = 1.5 m = 150 cm
t90 = 75 days = 75 x 24 x 60 x 60 seconds
For 90% consolidation (U = 90%)
T90 = 0.848
UNIT-IV
SHEAR STRENGTH
Shear Strength of Soils
Soils consist of individual particles that can slide and roll relative to one another. Shear
strength of a soil is equal to the maximum value of shear stress that can be mobilized within a
soil mass without failure taking place.
The shear strength of a soil is a function of the stresses applied to it as well as the manner in
which these stresses are applied. A knowledge of shear strength of soils is necessary to

determine the bearing capacity of foundations, the lateral pressure exerted on retaining walls,
and the stability of slopes.
Mohr Circle of Stresses
In soil testing, cylindrical samples are commonly used in which radial and axial stresses act
on principal planes. The vertical plane is usually the minor principal plane whereas the
horizontal plane is the major principal plane. The radial stress (sr) is the minor principal stress
(s3), and the axial stress (sa) is the major principal stress (s1).
To visualise the normal and shear stresses acting on any plane within the soil sample, a
graphical representation of stresses called the Mohr circle is obtained by plotting the principal
stresses. The sign convention in the construction is to consider compressive stresses as
positive and angles measured counter-clockwise also positive.
Draw a line inclined at angle with the horizontal through the pole of the Mohr circle so as
to intersect the circle. The coordinates of the point of intersection are the normal and shear
stresses acting on the plane, which is inclined at angle within the soil sample.
Normal stress
Shear stress
The plane inclined at an angle of to the horizontal has acting on it the maximum shear
stress equal to , and the normal stress on this plane is equal to .
The plane with the maximum ratio of shear stress to normal stress is inclined at an angle of

to the horizontal, where a is the slope of the line tangent to the Mohr circle and
passing through the origin.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
When the soil sample has failed, the shear stress on the failure plane defines the shear
strength of the soil. Thus, it is necessary to identify the failure plane. Is it the plane on which
the maximum shear stress acts, or is it the plane where the ratio of shear stress to normal
stress is the maximum?
For the present, it can be assumed that a failure plane exists and it is possible to apply
principal stresses and measure them in the laboratory by conducting a triaxial test. Then, the
Mohr circle of stress at failure for the sample can be drawn using the known values of the
principal stresses.
If data from several tests, carried out on different samples upto failure is available, a series of
Mohr circles can be plotted. It is convenient to show only the upper half of the Mohr circle. A
line tangential to the Mohr circles can be drawn, and is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelope.
If the stress condition for any other soil sample is represented by a Mohr circle that lies below
the failure envelope, every plane within the sample experiences a shear stress which is
smaller than the shear strength of the sample. Thus, the point of tangency of the envelope to
the Mohr circle at failure gives a clue to the determination of the inclination of the failure
plane. The orientation of the failure plane can be finally determined by the pole method.

The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion can be written as the equation for the line that represents
the failure envelope. The general equation is
Where = shear stress on the failure plane
c = apparent cohesion
= normal stress on the failure plane
f = angle of internal friction
The failure criterion can be expressed in terms of the relationship between the principal
stresses. From the geometry of the Mohr circle,
Rearranging,
where
Methods of Shear Strength Determination
Direct Shear Test
The test is carried out on a soil sample confined in a metal box of square cross-section which
is split horizontally at mid-height. A small clearance is maintained between the two halves of
the box.The soil is sheared along a predetermined plane by moving the top half of the box
relative to the bottom half. The box is usually square in plan of size
60 mm x 60 mm. A typical shear box is shown.

If the soil sample is fully or partially saturated, perforated metal plates and porous stones are
placed below and above the sample to allow free drainage. If the sample is dry, solid metal
plates are used. A load normal to the plane of shearing can be applied to the soil sample
through the lid of the box.
Tests on sands and gravels can be performed quickly, and are usually performed dry as it is
found that water does not significantly affect the drained strength. For clays, the rate of
shearing must be chosen to prevent excess pore pressures building up.
As a vertical normal load is applied to the sample, shear stress is gradually applied
horizontally, by causing the two halves of the box to move relative to each other. The shear
load is measured together with the corresponding shear displacement. The change of
thickness of the sample is also measured.
A number of samples of the soil are tested each under different vertical loads and the value of
shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. Provided there is no
excess pore water pressure in the soil, the total and effective stresses will be identical. From
the stresses at failure, the failure envelope can be obtained.
The test has several advantages:
• It is easy to test sands and gravels.
• Large samples can be tested in large shear boxes, as small samples can give misleading
results due to imperfections such as fractures and fissures, or may not be truly representative.
• Samples can be sheared along predetermined planes, when the shear strength along fissures
or other selected planes are needed.
The disadvantages of the test include:
• The failure plane is always horizontal in the test, and this may not be the weakest plane in
the sample. Failure of the soil occurs progressively from the edges towards the centre of the
sample.

• There is no provision for measuring pore water pressure in the shear box and so it is not
possible to determine effective stresses from undrained tests.
• The shear box apparatus cannot give reliable undrained strengths because it is impossible to
prevent localised drainage away from the shear plane.
Triaxial Test
The triaxial test is carried out in a cell on a cylindrical soil sample having a length to diameter
ratio of 2. The usual sizes are 76 mm x 38 mm and 100 mm x 50 mm. Three principal stresses
are applied to the soil sample, out of which two are applied water pressure inside the
confining cell and are equal. The third principal stress is applied by a loading ram through the
top of the cell and is different to the other two principal stresses. A typical triaxial cell is
shown.
The soil sample is placed inside a rubber sheath which is sealed to a top cap and bottom
pedestal by rubber O-rings. For tests with pore pressure measurement, porous discs are
placed at the bottom, and sometimes at the top of the specimen. Filter paper drains may be
provided around the outside of the specimen in order to speed up the consolidation process.
Pore pressure generated inside the specimen during testing can be measured by means of
pressure transducers.
The triaxial compression test consists of two stages:
First stage: In this, a soil sample is set in the triaxial cell and confining pressure is then
applied.
Second stage: In this, additional axial stress (also called deviator stress) is applied which
induces shear stresses in the sample. The axial stress is continuously increased until the
sample fails.
During both the stages, the applied stresses, axial strain, and pore water pressure or change in
sample volume can be measured.

Test Types
There are several test variations, and those used mostly in practice are:
UU (unconsolidated undrained) test: In this, cell pressure is applied without allowing
drainage. Then keeping cell pressure constant, deviator stress is increased to failure without
drainage.
CU (consolidated undrained) test: In this, drainage is allowed during cell pressure
application. Then without allowing further drainage, deviator stress is increased keeping cell
pressure constant.
CD (consolidated drained) test: This is similar to CU test except that as deviator stress is
increased, drainage is permitted. The rate of loading must be slow enough to ensure no excess
pore water pressure develops.
In the UU test, if pore water pressure is measured, the test is designated by .
In the CU test, if pore water pressure is measured in the second stage, the test is symbolized
as .
Significance of Triaxial Testing
The first stage simulates in the laboratory the in-situ condition that soil at different depths is
subjected to different effective stresses. Consolidation will occur if the pore water pressure
which develops upon application of confining pressure is allowed to dissipate. Otherwise the
effective stress on the soil is the confining pressure (or total stress) minus the pore water
pressure which exists in the soil.
During the shearing process, the soil sample experiences axial strain, and either volume
change or development of pore water pressure occurs. The magnitude of shear stress acting
on different planes in the soil sample is different. When at some strain the sample fails, this
limiting shear stress on the failure plane is called the shear strength.
The triaxial test has many advantages over the direct shear test:
• The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.
• Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.
• Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.
• Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.
• The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined.

Total Stress Parameters
UU Tests:
All Mohr circles for UU test plotted in terms of total stresses have the same diameter.
The failure envelope is a horizontal straight line and hence
It can be represented by the equation:
CU & CD Tests:
For tests involving drainage in the first stage, when Mohr circles are plotted in terms of total
stresses, the diameter increases with the confining pressure. The resulting failure envelope is
an inclined line with an intercept on the vertical axis.
It is also observed that cCU ¹ cCD and fCU ¹ fCD
It can be stated that for identical soil samples tested under different triaxial conditions of UU,
CU and CD tests, the failure envelope is not unique.
Effective Stress Parameters

If the same triaxial test results of UU, CU and CD tests are plotted in terms of effective
stresses taking into consideration the measured pore water pressures, it is observed that all the
Mohr circles at failure are tangent to the same failure envelope, indicating that shear strength
is a unique function of the effective stress on the failure plane.
This failure envelope is the shear strength envelope which may then be written as
where c' = cohesion intercept in terms of effective stress
f' = angle of shearing resistance in terms of effective stress
If is the effective stress acting on the rupture plane at failure, is the shear stress on the
same plane and is therefore the shear strength.
The relationship between the effective stresses on the failure plane is
Pore Water Pressure Parameters
The difference between the total and effective stresses is simply the pore water pressure u.
Consequently, the total and effective stress Mohr circles have the same diameter and are only
separated along the s - axis by the magnitude of the pore water pressure.
It is easy to construct a series of total stress Mohr Circles but the inferred total stress
parameters have no relevance to actual soil behaviour. In principle, the effective strength
parameters are necessary to check the stability against failure for any soil construction in the
field. To do this, the pore water pressure in the ground under the changed loading conditions
must be known and in general they are not.
In an undrained triaxial test with pore pressure measurement, this is possible and the effective
stresses can then be determined. Alternatively, in drained tests, the loading rate can be made
sufficiently slow so as to allow the dissipation of all excess pore water pressure. For low
permeability soils, the drainage will require longer times.

In undrained tests, the general expression relating total pore water pressure developed and
changes in applied stresses for both the stages is:
Du = Du1 + Du2 = B.Ds3+ B.A.(Ds1 - Ds3) = B[Ds3+ A(Ds1 - Ds3)]
where Du1 = pore water pressure developed in the first stage during application of confining
stress Ds3,
Du2 = pore water pressure developed in the second stage during application of deviator stress
(Ds1 - Ds3), and
B and A are Skempton's pore water pressure parameters.
Parameter B is a function of the degree of saturation of the soil (= 1 for saturated soils, and =
0 for dry soils). Parameter A is also not constant, and it varies with the over-consolidaton
ratio of the soil and also with the magnitude of deviator stress. The value of A at failure is
necessary in plotting the effective stress Mohr circles.
Consider the behaviour of saturated soil samples in undrained triaxial tests. In the first stage,
increasing the cell pressure without allowing drainage has the effect of increasing the pore
water pressure by the same amount.
Thus, there is no change in the effective stress. During the second shearing stage, the change
in pore water pressure can be either positive or negative.
For UU tests on saturated soils, pore water pressure is not dissipated in both the stages (i.e.,
Du = Du1 + Du2).
For CU tests on saturated soils, pore water pressure is not dissipated in the second stage only
(i.e., Du = Du2).
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Sands
Sands are usually sheared under drained conditions as they have relatively higher
permeability. This behaviour can be investigated in direct shear or triaxial tests. The two most
important parameters governing their behaviour are the relative density (ID) and the
magnitude of the effective stress (s¢). The relative density is usually defined in percentage as
where emax and emin are the maximum and minimum void ratios that can be determined from
standard tests in the laboratory, and e is the current void ratio. This expression can be re-
written in terms of dry density as

where gdmax and gdmin are the maximum and minimum dry densities, and gd is the current dry
density. Sand is generally referred to as dense if ID > 65% and loose if < 35%.
The influence of relative density on the behaviour of saturated sand can be seen from the
plots of CD tests performed at the same effective confining stress. There would be no
induced pore water pressures existing in the samples.
For the dense sand sample, the deviator stress reaches a peak at a low value of axial strain
and then drops down, whereas for the loose sand sample, the deviator stress builds up
gradually with axial strain. The behaviour of the medium sample is in between. The
following observations can be made:
• All samples approach the same ultimate conditions of shear stress and void ratio,
irrespective of the initial density. The denser sample attains higher peak angle of shearing
resistance in between.
• Initially dense samples expand or dilate when sheared, and initially loose samples compress.
Worked Examples
Example 1: A UU test is carried out on a saturated normally consolidated clay sample at a
confining pressure of
3 kg/cm2
.The deviator stress at failure is 1 kg/cm2
.
(a) Determine its total stress strength parameters.

(b) If another identical sample is tested at a confining pressure of 4 kg/cm2
, what will be the
vertical axial stress at failure?
Solution:
(a)
From the plot, note that fUU = 0 and
(b)
UU tests on identical samples yield the same failure deviator stress at all
confining pressures.
Therefore, the vertical axial stress at failure,
Worked Examples
Example 2: Results of tests conducted on two saturated clay samples are given.
Determine the shear strength parameters.
Sample1 Sample2
Confining pressure ---------------- 4.8 kg/cm2
6.3 kg/cm2
Axial stress at failure -------------- 6.8 kg/cm2
9.3 kg/cm2
Pore water pressure at failure --- 3.8 kg/cm2
4.8 kg/cm2
Solution:

For sample 1:
For sample 2:
From the plot, one can obtain
Compaction of Soils
Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles
and reduce the void ratio.
It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in the process of placing fill such
as in the construction of embankments, road bases, runways, earth dams, and reinforced earth
walls. Compaction is also used to prepare a level surface during construction of buildings.
There is usually no change in the water content and in the size of the individual soil particles.
The objectives of compaction are:
 To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing capacity.
 To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
 To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow through.
Laboratory Compaction
The variation in compaction with water content and compactive effort is first determined in
the laboratory. There are several tests with standard procedures such as:
 Indian Standard Light Compaction Test (similar to Standard Proctor Test)
 Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test (similar to Modified Proctor Test)
Indian Standard Light Compaction Test
Soil is compacted into a 1000 cm3
mould in 3 equal layers, each layer receiving 25 blows of a
2.6 kg rammer dropped from a height of 310 mm above the soil. The compaction is repeated
at various moisture contents.
Indian Standard Heavy Compaction Test
It was found that the Light Compaction Test (Standard Test) could not reproduce the
densities measured in the field under heavier loading conditions, and this led to the

development of the Heavy Compaction Test (Modified Test). The equipment and procedure
are essentially the same as that used for the Standard Test except that the soil is compacted in
5 layers, each layer also receiving 25 blows. The same mould is also used. To provide the
increased compactive effort, a heavier rammer of 4.9 kg and a greater drop height of 450 mm
are used.
Dry Density - Water Content Relationship
To assess the degree of compaction, it is necessary to use the dry unit weight, which is an
indicator of compactness of solid soil particles in a given volume. The laboratory testing is
meant to establish the maximum dry density that can be attained for a given soil with a
standard amount of compactive effort.
In the test, the dry density cannot be determined directly, and as such the bulk density and the
moisture content are obtained first to calculate the dry density as , where = bulk
density, and w = water content.
A series of samples of the soil are compacted at different water contents, and a curve is drawn
with axes of dry density and water content. The resulting plot usually has a distinct peak as
shown. Such inverted “V” curves are obtained for cohesive soils (or soils with fines), and are
known as compaction curves.
Dry density can be related to water content and degree of saturation (S) as
Thus, it can be visualized that an increase of dry density means a decrease of voids ratio and
a more compact soil.
Similarly, dry density can be related to percentage air voids (na) as
The relation between moisture content and dry unit weight for a saturated soil is the zero air-

voids line. It is not feasible to expel air completely by compaction, no matter how much
compactive effort is used and in whatever manner.
Effect of Increasing Water Content
As water is added to a soil at low moisture contents, it becomes easier for the particles to
move past one another during the application of compacting force. The particles come closer,
the voids are reduced and this causes the dry density to increase. As the water content
increases, the soil particles develop larger water films around them.
This increase in dry density continues till a stage is reached where water starts occupying the
space that could have been occupied by the soil grains. Thus the water at this stage hinders
the closer packing of grains and reduces the dry unit weight. The maximum dry density
(MDD) occurs at an optimum water content (OMC), and their values can be obtained from
the plot.
Effect of Increasing Compactive Effort
The effect of increasing compactive effort is shown. Different curves are obtained for
different compactive efforts. A greater compactive effort reduces the optimum moisture
content and increases the maximum dry density.
An increase in compactive effort produces a very large increase in dry density for soil when it
is compacted at water contents drier than the optimum moisture content.It should be noted
that for moisture contents greater than the optimum, the use of heavier compaction effort will
have only a small effect on increasing dry unit weights.
It can be seen that the compaction curve is not a unique soil characteristic. It depends on the
compaction effort. For this reason, it is important to specify the compaction procedure (light
or heavy) when giving values of MDD and OMC.

UNIT-V
SLOPE STABILITY
The field of slope stability encompasses the analysis of static and dynamic stability of slopes
of earth and rock-fill dams, slopes of other types of embankments, excavated slopes, and
natural slopes in soil and soft rock.
Slope failure mechanism:
Slope Failure Factors
Gravity can be divided into components acting parallel to aslope and perpendicular to the
slope.
Failure is more likely to occur if the effect of friction on thepotential sliding surface is
reduced.
The physicalproperties of the slope materials such as cohesion between grains may
reduce the potential for slope failure.
The angle of repose is the maximum slope generated whenloose unconsolidated material
is formed into a pile.
The addition of excess water maydestabilize slopes by adding weight, destroying
cohesion between grains, and reducing friction.
Gravity acts on all objects on Earth’s surface. Gravity can be divided into two components
for objects resting on sloping surfaces (Fig. 4). One component is parallel to the slope (gs)
and one is perpendicular to the slope (gp). On steep slopes (>45 degrees) the component
parallel to the slope will be greatest and will act to pull objects downhill. On gentle slopes the
component perpendicular to the slope will be greatest and will act to hold the object in place.
However, gravity alone does not determine if the object will move downslope. There are
numerous steep slopes that are not currently undergoing mass wasting. A physical trigger is
often required to initiate slope failure.
The properties of the surface between the object and the slope (e.g., friction) and the
physical properties of the sliding object itself all contribute to the potential for mass
wasting. The object is more likely to move if friction between the object and the slope is
reduced. In contrast, a slope will be less likely to fail if the cohesion between the grains in
the material is
Figure 4.Components of gravity oriented parallel (gs) and perpendicular (gp) to the slope for
gentle and steep slopes increased.
For example, no matter how much dry sand is added to a pile, it can never form a slope that
is steeper than 35 degrees inclination. This angle is termed the material’s angle of repose. In

contrast, by adding a little water, the cohesion between the sand grains (surface tension)
increases dramatically allowing us to sculpt sand castles with vertical walls. Irregularly
shaped objects may form steeper slopes than dry sand; large angular blocks may have an
angle of repose of around 45 degrees. In contrast, spherical marbles are almost impossible to
form into a pile with sloping sides. The addition of excess water to a slope may also be the
Precursor for a disaster. Not only does excess water saturate the material and reduce cohesion
between grains but water saturated pore spaces will support the weight of overlying material
thus reducing the effect of friction. Finally, the addition of water may promote instability by
adding weight to a slope. The addition of extra weight to a slope may be attributed to natural
processes (e.g., rainfall) but may also be the result of human activity that adds water to the
slope (e.g., leaking septic systems, overzealous irrigation) or adds new structures.
Furthermore, human activity such as logging may remove vegetation that shelters the slope
and provides a network of roots to hold slope material in place. Over 100 people were killed
when devastating mudslides destroyed parts of two Italian villages in May 1998. The
mudslides followed heavy
Figure 5. Two views
of a landslide area
in southwest
Montana before and
after supports
were added to the road above the slide area and the slide area was graded to reduce risk of
future mass wasting
rains and were blamed on poor land management practices,
including deforestation of slopes.
Stabilizing Slopes
One obvious solution to the problem of landslides is to avoid building structures on steep
slopes. However, such pragmatic advice may not deter a homeowner in search of a
spectacular
view and is of little use to engineers who must build roads on
steep slopes in mountainous terrain (Fig. 5). Instead, efforts
focus on improving slope drainage (to reduce the role of water)
or attaching the slope material to bedrock with physical

restraints. Such restraints may be as mundane as covering slope
material with chicken wire or cement, or bolting rock panels to
the underlying bedrock (Fig. 6).
The Beartooth highway climbs up the side of the Beartooth
Mountains, Montana (Fig. 7). The route connects the northeast
entrance to Yellowstone National Park (Wyoming) with the
city of Red Lodge, Montana. Persistent failure of the steep
slopes requires that the road be repaired every few years.
Elsewhere, efforts to prevent mass wasting have involved
supporting the base of the slope to prevent it from failing (Fig.
8). Wire baskets filled with rocks are often used for such retaining walls.
Figure 6. Slope stabilization methods. Chicken wire (top left) and concrete (top right) cover
exposed slopes and a retaining wall with drainage pipes protects the road (below). All images
from the Rocky Mountains.

Slope Failure Processes
Rock fall occurs when ice wedging loosens angular boulders from rocky cliffs.
Rockslides occur where sheets of rock move downslope on a planar sliding surface such as a
bedding plane or fracture
surface.
View of Beartooth Highway along the east side of the Beartooth Mountains, near
Red Lodge, Montana.

Retaining
wall made up of
rock-filled wire
baskets below
restaurant on a
hillside in
Pennsylvania.
(Right: a close up of
the contents of the
wire baskets).
STABILITY ANALYSIS:
The slope stability analyses are performed to assess the safe and economic design of a
human-made or natural slopes (e.g. embankments, road cuts, open-pit mining, excavations,
landfills etc.) and the equilibrium conditions. The term slope stability may be defined as the
resistance of inclined surface to failure by sliding or collapsing. The main objectives of slope
stability analysis are finding endangered areas, investigation of potential failure mechanisms,
determination of the slope sensitivity to different triggering mechanisms, designing of

optimal slopes with regard to safety, reliability and economics, designing possible remedial
measures, e.g. barriers and stabilization.[1][2]
Successful design of the slope requires geological information and site characteristics, e.g.
properties of soil/rock mass, slope geometry, groundwater conditions, alternation of materials
by faulting, joint or discontinuity systems, movements and tension in joints, earthquake
activity etc. Choice of correct analysis technique depends on both site conditions and the
potential mode of failure, with careful consideration being given to the varying strengths,
weaknesses and limitations inherent in each methodology.
Before the computer age stability analysis was performed graphically or using hand-held
calculator. Today engineers have a lot of possibilities to use analysis software, ranges from
simple limit equilibrium techniques through computational limit analysis approaches (e.g.
Finite element limit analysis, Discontinuity layout optimization) to complex and sophisticated
numerical solutions (finite-/distinct-element codes).[1]
The engineer must fully understand
limitations of each technique. For example, limit equilibrium is most commonly used and
simple solution method, but it can become inadequate if the slope fails by complex
mechanisms (e.g. internal deformation and brittle fracture, progressive creep, liquefaction of
weaker soil layers, etc.). In these cases more sophisticated numerical modelling techniques
should be utilised. In addition, the use of the risk assessment concept is increasing today.
Risk assessment is concerned with both the consequence of slope failure and the probability
of failure (both require an understanding of the failure mechanism).
Within the last decade (2003) Slope Stability Radar has been developed to remotely scan a
rock slope to monitor the spatial deformation of the face. Small movements of a rough wall
can be detected with sub-millimeter accuracy by using interferometry techniques.
Conventional methods of analysis
Most of the slope stability analysis computer programs are based on the limit equilibrium
concept for a two- or three-dimensional model. In rock slope stability analysis conventional
methods can be divided into three groups: kinematic analysis, limit equilibrium and rock fall
simulators.
Limit equilibrium analysis
The conventional limit equilibrium methods investigate the equilibrium of the soil mass
tending to slide down under the influence of gravity. Transitional or rotational movement is
considered on assumed or known potential slip surface below soil or rock mass. In rock slope
engineering, methods may be highly significant to simple block failure along distinct
discontinuities. All methods are based on comparison of forces (moments or stresses)
resisting instability of the mass and those that causing instability (disturbing forces). Two-
dimensional sections are analyzed assuming plain strain conditions. These methods assume
that the shear strengths of the materials along the potential failure surface are governed by
linear (Mohr-Coulomb) or non-linear relationships between shear strength and the normal
stress on the failure surface. analysis provides a factor of safety, defined as a ratio of
available shear resistance (capacity) to that required for equilibrium. If the value of factor of
safety is less than 1.0, slope is unstable. The most common limit equilibrium techniques are
methods of slices where soil mass is discretized into vertical slices (Fig. 2) Results (factor of

safety) of particular methods can vary because methods differs in assumptions and satisfied
equilibrium conditions
Figure 2: Method of slices
Functional slope design considers calculation with the critical slip surface where is the lowest
value of factor of safety. Locating failure surface can be made with the help of computer
programs using search optimization techniques.[13]
Wide variety of slope stability software
using limit equilibrium concept is available including search of critical slip surface. The
program analyses the stability of generally layered soil slopes, mainly embankments, earth
cuts and anchored sheeting structures. Fast optimization of circular and polygonal slip
surfaces provides the lowest factor of safety. Earthquake effects, external loading,
groundwater conditions, stabilization forces (i.e. anchors, georeinforcements etc.) can be also
included. The software uses solution according to various methods of slices (Fig. 2), such as
Bishop simplified, Ordinary method of slices (Swedish circle method/Petterson/Fellenius),
Spencer, Sarma etc.
Sarma and Spencer are called as rigorous methods because they satisfy all three conditions of
equilibrium: force equilibrium in horizontal and vertical direction and moment equilibrium
condition. Rigorous methods can provide more accurate results than non-rigorous methods.
Bishop simplified or Fellenius are non-rigorous methods satisfying only some of the
equilibrium conditions and making some simplifying assumptions.
Another limit equilibrium program SLIDE provides 2D stability calculations in rocks or soils
using these rigorous analysis methods: Spencer, Morgenstern-Price/General limit
equilibrium; and non-rigorous methods: Bishop simplified, Corps of Engineers, Janbu
simplified/corrected, Lowe-Karafiath and Ordinary/Fellenius. Searching of the critical slip
surface is realized with the help of a grid or as a slope search in user-defined area. Program
includes also probabilistic analysis using Monte Carlo or Latin Hypercube simulation
techniques where any input parameter can be defined as a random variable. Probabilistic
analysis determine the probability of failure and reliability index, which gives better
representation of the level of safety. Back analysis serves for calculation of a reinforcement
load with a given required factor of safety. Program enables finite element groundwater
seepage analysis.
Program SLOPE/W is formulated in terms of moment and force equilibrium factor of safety
equations. Limit equilibrium methods include Morgenstern-Price, General limit equilibrium,
Spencer, Bishop, Ordinary, Janbu etc. This program allows integration with other
applications. For example finite element computed stresses from SIGMA/W or QUAKE/W

can be used to calculate a stability factor by computing total shear resistance and mobilized
shear stress along the entire slip surface. Then a local stability factor for each slice is
obtained. Using a Monte Carlo approach, program computes the probability of failure in
addition to the conventional factor of safety.
SVSlope is formulated in terms of moment and force equilibrium factor of safety equations.
Limit equilibrium methods include Morgenstern-Price, General limit equilibrium, Spencer,
Bishop, Ordinary, Kulhawy and others This program allows integration with other
applications in the geotechnical software suite. For example finite element computed stresses
from SVSolid or pore-water pressures from SVFlux can be used to calculate the factor of
safety by computing total shear resistance and mobilized shear stress along the entire slip
surface. The software also utilizes Monte Carlo,Latin Hypercube, and the APEM
probabilistic approaches. Spatial variability through random fields computations may also be
included in the analysis.
Some other programs based on limit equilibrium concept:
 GALENA - includes stability analysis, back analysis, and probability analysis, using
the Bishop, Spencer-Wright and Sarma methods.
 GSLOPE - provides limit equilibrium slope stability analysis of existing natural
slopes, unreinforced man-made slopes, or slopes with soil reinforcement, using
Bishop’s Modified method and Janbu’s Simplified method applied to circular,
composite or non-circular surfaces.
 CLARA-W - three-dimensional slope stability program includes calculation with the
help of these methods: Bishop simplified, Janbu simplified, Spencer and Morgenstern-
Price. Problem configurations can involve rotational or non-rotational sliding
surfaces, ellipsoids, wedges, compound surfaces, fully specified surfaces and
searches.
 TSLOPE3 - two- or three-dimensional analyses of soil and rock slopes using Spencer
method.
Rock slope stability analysis based on limit equilibrium techniques may consider following
modes of failure:
 Planar failure -> case of rock mass sliding on a single surface (special case of general
wedge type of failure); two-dimensional analysis may be used according to the
concept of a block resisting on an inclined plane at limit equilibrium
 Polygonal failure -> sliding of a nature rock usually takes place on polygonally-
shaped surfaces; calculation is based on a certain assumptions (e.g. sliding on a
polygonal surface which is composed from N parts is kinematically possible only in
case of development at least (N - 1) internal shear surfaces; rock mass is divided into
blocks by internal shear surfaces; blocks are considered to be rigid; no tensile strength
is permitted etc.)
 Wedge failure -> three-dimensional analysis enables modelling of the wedge sliding
on two planes in a direction along the line of intersection
 Toppling failure -> long thin rock columns formed by the steeply dipping
discontinuities may rotate about a pivot point located at the lowest corner of the
block; the sum of the moments causing toppling of a block (i.e. horizontal weight
component of the block and the sum of the driving forces from adjacent blocks behind
the block under consideration) is compared to the sum of the moments resisting

toppling (i.e. vertical weight component of the block and the sum of the resisting
forces from adjacent blocks in front of the block under consideration); toppling occur
if driving moments exceed resisting moments
Stereographic and kinematic analysis
Kinematic analysis examines which modes of failure can possibly occur in the rock mass.
Analysis requires the detailed evaluation of rock mass structure and the geometry of existing
discontinuities contributing to block instability. Stereographic representation (stereonets) of
the planes and lines is used. Stereonets are useful for analyzing discontinuous rock blocks
Program DIPS allows for visualization structural data using stereonets, determination of the
kinematic feasibility of rock mass and statistical analysis of the discontinuity properties.
Rockfall simulators
Rock slope stability analysis may design protective measures near or around structures
endangered by the falling blocks. Rockfall simulators determine travel paths and trajectories
of unstable blocks separated from a rock slope face. Analytical solution method described by
Hungr & Evans assumes rock block as a point with mass and velocity moving on a ballistic
trajectory with regard to potential contact with slope surface. Calculation requires two
restitution coefficients that depend on fragment shape, slope surface roughness, momentum
and deformational properties and on the chance of certain conditions in a given impact.
Program ROCFALL provides a statistical analysis of trajectory of falling blocks. Method
rely on velocity changes as a rock blocks roll, slide or bounce on various materials. Energy,
velocity]], bounce height and location of rock endpoints are determined and may be analyzed
statistically. The program can assist in determining remedial measures by computing kinetic
energy and location of impact on a barrier. This can help determine the capacity, size and
location of barriers.
Numerical methods of analysis
Numerical modelling techniques provide an approximate solution to problems which
otherwise cannot be solved by conventional methods, e.g. complex geometry, material
anisotropy, non-linear behaviour, in situ stresses. Numerical analysis allows for material
deformation and failure, modelling of pore pressures, creep deformation, dynamic loading,
assessing effects of parameter variations etc. However, numerical modelling is restricted by
some limitations. For example, input parameters are not usually measured and availability of
these data is generally poor. Analysis must be executed by well trained user with good
modelling practise. User also should be aware of boundary effects, meshing errors, hardware
memory and time restrictions. Numerical methods used for slope stability analysis can be
divided into three main groups: continuum, discontinuum and hybrid modelling.
Continuum modelling
See also: Finite element method and Finite difference method

Figure 3: Finite element mesh
Modelling of the continuum is suitable for the analysis of soil slopes, massive intact rock or
heavily jointed rock masses. This approach includes the finite-difference and finite element
methods that discretize the whole mass to finite number of elements with the help of
generated mesh (Fig. 3). In finite-difference method (FDM) differential equilibrium equations
(i.e. strain-displacement and stress-strain relations) are solved. finite element method (FEM)
uses the approximations to the connectivity of elements, continuity of displacements and
stresses between elements. Most of numerical codes allows modelling of discrete fractures,
e.g. bedding planes, faults. Several constitutive models are usually available, e.g. elasticity,
elasto-plasticity, strain-softening, elasto-viscoplasticity etc.
Discontinuum modelling
See also: Discrete element method and Discontinuous Deformation Analysis
Discontinuum approach is useful for rock slopes controlled by discontinuity behaviour. Rock
mass is considered as an aggregation of distinct, interacting blocks subjected to external loads
and assumed to undergo motion with time. This methodology is collectively called the
discrete-element method (DEM). Discontinuum modelling allows for sliding between the
blocks or particles. The DEM is based on solution of dynamic equation of equilibrium for
each block repeatedly until the boundary conditions and laws of contact and motion are
satisfied. Discontinuum modelling belongs to the most commonly applied numerical
approach to rock slope analysis and following variations of the DEM exist:
 distinct-element method
 discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA)
 particle flow codes
The distinct-element approach describes mechanical behaviour of both, the discontinuities
and the solid material. This methodology is based on a force-displacement law (specifying
the interaction between the deformable rock blocks) and a law of motion (determining
displacements caused in the blocks by out-of-balance forces). Joints are treated as [boundary
conditions. Deformable blocks are discretized into internal constant-strain elements.
Discontinuum program UDEC (Universal distinct element code) is suitable for high jointed
rock slopes subjected to static or dynamic loading. Two-dimensional analysis of translational
failure mechanism allows for simulating large displacements, modelling deformation or
material yielding. Three-dimensional discontinuum code 3DEC contains modelling of
multiple intersecting discontinuities and therefore it is suitable for analysis of wedge
instabilities or influence of rock support (e.g. rockbolts, cables).

In discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA) displacements are unknowns and equilibrium
equations are then solved analogous to finite element method. Each unit of finite element type
mesh represents an isolated block bounded by discontinuities. Advantage of this methodology
is possibility to model large deformations, rigid body movements, coupling or failure states
between rock blocks.
Discontinuous rock mass can be modelled with the help of distinct-element methodology in
the form of particle flow code, e.g. program PFC2D/3D. Spherical particles interact through
frictional sliding contacts. Simulation of joint bounded blocks may be realized through
specified bond strengths. Law of motion is repeatedly applied to each particle and force-
displacement law to each contact. Particle flow methodology enables modelling of granular
flow, fracture of intact rock, transitional block movements, dynamic response to blasting or
seismicity, deformation between particles caused by shear or tensile forces. These codes also
allow to model subsequent failure processes of rock slope, e.g. simulation of rock
Hybrid/coupled modelling
Hybrid codes involve the coupling of various methodologies to maximize their key
advantages, e.g. limit equilibrium analysis combined with finite element groundwater flow
and stress analysis adopted in the SVOFFICE or GEO-STUDIO suites of software; coupled
particle flow and finite-difference analyses used in PF3D and FLAC3D.Hybrid techniques
allows investigation of piping slope failures and the influence of high groundwater pressures
on the failure of weak rock slope. Coupled finite-/distinct-element codes, e.g. ELFEN,
provide for the modelling of both intact rock behaviour and the development and behaviour
of fractures.
Infinite Slope Analysis (Slope Stability). For long slopes where the end effects on the
sliding material can be neglected, an infinite slope analysis of the stability of the slope can be
expressed as cu.
An infinite slope analysis is appropriate for the long, continuous slopes such as those
formed in dredged material deposits. In this type analysis, the thickness of the unstable
material is small compared to the height of the slope, and each vertical block of soil above the
potential slip plane will have the same forces acting on it (Taylor 1954; Lambe and Whitman
1979). The infinite slope analysis will indicate the various combinations of slope angle and
maximum deposit height that will result in a stable deposit. It is a simple analysis to conduct,
and it is one that should be evaluated in any comprehensive slope stability analysis.
Spencer's Analysis Method (Slope Stability). A detailed analysis of potential sliding
surfaces should be made using Spencer's method, which is generally considered to be the
most reliable of the method of slices analysis techniques and which provides the best
solutions for meeting both force and moment equilibrium requirements. Calculations can be
made using the UTEXAS3 computer program developed at the University of Texas (Edris
and Wright 1992). When the program is used, piezometric levels should be assumed to
coincide with mean water surface elevation. The water should be modeled with normal loads
applied to the slope surface as is recommended by Edris and Wright (1992) for submerged
slopes. Analysis conditions should include the dredged material prior to capping and soon
after capping, if a cap will be used on the project. If stability problems are indicated in the
analysis, it would be advisable to simulate consolidation for some reasonable period of time,
then correlate output from a consolidation analysis (such as output from Primary
Consolidation, Secondary Compression, and Desiccation of Dredged Fill (PSDDF)) to

density and strength at that time, additional stability calculations can be made to assess the
effect of consolidation on the stability of the material. In simulations with a cap, the cap
should be modeled as a load normal to the slope surface. The condition of the foundation soil
(firm versus weak) beneath the soft dredged material mound has a major impact on the
formation of the slope failure surface. Several failure modes should be postulated and
examined individually for each project, as illustrated in Figure 2, which is based on data for a
capping project in the Mud Dump Site (Rollings and Rollings 1998b). The computerized
analysis using Spencer's method of slices locates the specific surface of these various
potential
Analysis methods
Figure 3: Slope with eroding river and swimming pool
Figure 4: Method of slices
If the forces available to resist movement are greater than the forces driving movement, the
slope is considered stable. A factor of safety is calculated by dividing the forces resisting
movement by the forces driving movement. In earthquake-prone areas, the analysis is
typically run for static conditions and pseudo-static conditions, where the seismic forces from
an earthquake are assumed to add static loads to the analysis.
Method of slices
The method of slices is a method for analyzing the stability of a slope in two dimensions.
The sliding mass above the failure surface is divided into a number of slices. The forces
acting on each slice are obtained by considering the mechanical equilibrium for the slices.

Bishop's method
The Modified (or Simplified) Bishop's Method is a method for calculating the stability of
slopes. It is an extension of the Method of Slices. By making some simplifying assumptions,
the problem becomes statically determinate and suitable for hand calculations:
 forces on the sides of each slice are horizontal
The method has been shown to produce factor of safety values within a few percent of the
"correct" values.
where
c' is the effective cohesion
φ' is the effective internal angle of internal friction
b is the width of each slice, assuming that all slices have the same width
W is the weight of each slice
u is the water pressure at the base of each slice
Lorimer's method
Lorimer's Method is a technique for evaluating slope stability in cohesive soils. It differs
from Bishop's Method in that it uses a clothoid slip surface in place of a circle. This mode of
failure was determined experimentally to account for effects of particle cementation.
The method was developed in the 1930s by Gerhardt Lorimer (Dec 20, 1894-Oct 19, 1961), a
student of geotechnical pioneer Karl von Terzaghi.
Surface Protection Measures
The simplest and most cost effective means of stabilizing bare soil surfaces is through the use
of vegetation or mulches. The objective of all surface stabilization techniques is to establish,
as rapidly as possible, a dense vegetative cover to minimize available sources for sediment.
Native plants generally require less expense and maintenance as well as being visually
harmonious with the natural landscape. Many exotic species have been cultivated specifically
for erosion protection and may also be suitable.
The body of research that points to road construction as the major cause of stream
sedimentation in mountainous environments also indicates that surface erosion on severely

disturbed soils such as road fills is highest immediately following disturbance and decreases
rapidly over time. This suggests that stabilization measures must be employed during and
immediately following construction. The methods chosen must provide rapid benefits, hence
merely seeding disturbed areas may not provide much relief. Transplanting living plants,
fertilizing, or mulching exposed soil surfaces may be required to achieve the desired level of
protection.
Figure 94. Selection criteria for slope stabilization methods
5.2.1 Site Analysis
In order to ensure success of any revegetation effort, it is necessary to prepare an overall plan
which considers the climate, vegetation, and microsite (soils, microclimate, slope, and
aspect).
Climatic information should center on rainfall frequency distribution and amount. Likewise,
average temperature, minimum/maximum temperatures, heating degree days and number of
frost free days are important points to consider. The vegetation analysis includes the
suitability of native or exotic (introduced) plant species for the specific area in question.
Here, the focus should be set on inventorying the entire spectrum of plant species that occupy
a given site. The survey should note the particular microsites, soils and aspects in which
different species grow. Typical points to consider include:
- which plants do well in a wide range of conditions
- which plants make good seed crops
- which plants root readily when partially buried or resprout from roots cut during
construction

- which plants have the best attributes for erosion control (rapid, dense growth; growing
season; rooting characteristics).
Microsite evaluation should consider factors such as microclimate, aspect, topography and
soils. The microclimate is primarily affected by variations in the radiation balance and the
immediate surroundings. Changes in the radiation balance will affect microclimate regime
and surface temperatures -- two extremely important factors for plant survival. Examples are
changing the surface color or establishing a vapor barrier. Installing a vapor barrier to reduce
evaporation losses will result in increases in the surface temperature. By changing the surface
to a light color, the radiation absorbed by the surface can be reduced to compensate for the
temperature rise. For further information on the interaction of microclimate and vegetation,
the reader is referred to Geiger (1961, 1966).
Aspect and topography may reveal the need for specific site treatment either for plant
survival and/or local site stabilization and slope preparation to allow for plant establishment.
Wet and dry areas should be mapped for determining the need for special dewatering
treatments or adoption of a particular seed mix. Likewise slope angles greater than 40 degrees
are often difficult to revegetate, except in cases where slopes consist of decomposing bedrock
or have a uniform, rocky subsoil. Assessment of the degree of local surface erosion (e.g.
shallow versus deep seated) will determine the need for shallow rooted plant cover or a more
deeply rooted plant species.
Soil analysis should consider the local soil profile and determine the predominant soil
horizon present on the finished surface. Road cuts or fills may expose layers, strata, or
horizons which may be significantly different from the surface soil which supports a given
plant species community. Factors to consider are pH, salinity, nutrient levels, and texture
(water holding capacity).
5.2.2 Site Preparation
In order to ensure success of any revegetation effort, it is necessary to prepare a proper
seedbed. This may include reshaping the slope if gravity will cause "ravelling" of loose soil.
A 1:1 slope ratio or better is recommended to provide a good seeding surface. Slopes of 6
meters (20 feet) or more should be broken up with small ditches or flat benches on the
contour. Roughening the slope along the contours will reduce the chance of rilling and will
provide small depressions which retain the seed. Oftentimes, construction work or tree and
brush removal generally leave sites sufficiently scarified to permit seed to reach mineral soil.
Site preparation efforts on shallow soils may permanently damage the seeding site. The small
volume of soil interlacing rocks may fall in the ditch line and be lost. Likewise, loose soil
sidecast on fill slopes is extremely prone to erosion. Compaction of this sidecast material
with one pass of a sheepsfoot roller will secure the soil to the slope and provide roughened
surface for planting. Fill slopes often are best treated with brush-layering or wattling in order
to provide added mechanical stability. Typically, fill slopes are more prone to deep seated
erosion (rilling or gullying) than are cut slopes.
5.2.3 Seeding and Planting
Type of seed, plant or cutting will determine the most appropriate planting technique.
Herbaceous species typically germinate rapidly when compared to woody species. Woody

species often must be planted to greater depths than herbaceous plants and may need
mulching to keep them from drying out before germination takes place. Woody plants often
require protection from herbivores and rodents because of their slow growth.
In addition to providing a dense, fibrous mat of protective material, seeded grasses and
legumes[1] improve the organic and nutrient balance of the soil. They also act as "nurse
plants" to young native species by providing shade and thereby reducing moisture loss from
the soil. Grass seeding is often considered detrimental to tree regeneration, although this need
not be the case. For instance, in southeast Alaska, grass seeding of exposed mineral soil helps
establish spruce and hemlock seedlings by reducing the disruptive influence of frost heave
and by retarding alder invasion. Grass species can also be selected such that competition with
tree species for vital soil moisture during critical growth stages is minimized.
Mixtures of at least three plant species is recommended to assure continuous, even protection
across a slope. In addition to factors mentioned at the beginning of this section, other factors
to consider in selecting an appropriate mixture include:
- slope stability, angle, aspect, and exposure
- general climatic conditions, including conditions at the time of planting
- competitive ability of species to be planted in relation to native weed species or desired
ultimate vegetation establishment
- susceptibility to foraging by livestock, rodents, and game
- visual and esthetic considerations
- physical and chemical characteristics of the soil.
It is impossible to recommend specific grass seed mixtures in this document. Likewise,
seeding rates depend upon the number of live germinant seeds per unit weight and not simply
on seed weight. For example, one kilogram of subterranean clover contains 34,000 seeds
whereas one kilogram of timothy grass has 590,000 seeds--a 17.3 fold difference. In general,
1,100 to 1,600 live pure seed per square meter (100 to 150 per square foot) are sufficient seed
densities for roadside erosion control in temperate climates (Berglund, 1978). It may be
desirable to increase this rate in critical areas--culvert and bridge installations and road fill
slopes--and decrease it in less critical or arid areas. Because of wide variations between sites
and adaptability of individual grass and forb species around the globe, appropriate specialists
should be consulted in each case in order to tailor the seed mixture to site conditions. These
specialists include soil scientists, agronomists, ecologists, range conservationists, wildlife
biologists, and landscape architects.
Generally, a vigorous, fast-spreading legume is included in the seed mixture because of its
beneficial effects in replenishing soil nitrogen. Care must be taken, however, in ensuring that
the chosen legume has been treated with an innoculant of the associated root bacteria. A
problem associated with most legumes is their high palatability to livestock, deer, elk, and
other game. Grazing animals will trample the soil and mechanical structures and create a
more erosive condition than existed prior to the treatment. It is therefore recommended that
legumes not be included in seed mixtures for sites readily accessible to game animals, cattle,
sheep, or goats unless the legume is known to be unpalatable to animals (Adams, et al.,
1983).
Road construction oftentimes results in the loss of the very thin mantle of fertile topsoil
leaving a relatively infertile residual subsoil. Fertilizers are often required to provide young

plants with sufficient nutrients. Again, variability from site to site requires the expertise of a
specialist in order to determine proper fertilizer selection and application rates. In general,
fertilizer prescriptions are developed on the basis of the amount of total nitrogen in the soil. If
a soil test shows total nitrogen to be greater than 0.2 percent, no fertilizer is needed.
Fertilization normally occurs together with seeding either prior to or near the end of the rainy
season. Two applications--one prior to and one after the rainy season--are extremely
effective. Refertilization may also be needed in following years due to reductions in vigor of
the crop. If fertilizer costs are prohibitive or supplies limited, it may be desirable to
concentrate efforts on such key areas as large fills and culvert and bridge emplacements.
[1] Any one of a large group of plants of the pea family (Leguminosae). Because of their
ability to store and fix nitrogen, legumes, such as alfalfa, are often used in rotation with other
cash crops to restore soil productivity.
5.2.4 Application Methods
Techniques used in establishing grasses include hand-operated cyclone seeders, truck-
mounted broadcast seeders, seed drills, and hydroseeders. Drilling is best as it places the seed
directly in the soil at a controlled depth and seeding rate, but may be impossible on steep cut
banks and fills. Hydroseeding is the application of seed, fertilizer, and mulch in a slurry of
some sort of viscous water soluble binder, such as wood fiber, from a truck-mounted tank.
This method is most suitable for large areas and steep slopes where plastering of materials is
necessary to achieve uniform coverage. It is also expensive and sometimes impractical due to
climatic, terrain, or road access conditions. Hand planting is generally effective for small
areas and is often the least expensive. Covering the seed with at least 0.5 to 1 centimeter of
soil is critical. Rainfall may help cover it, but raking or dragging seeded areas with tire
chains, sections of cyclone fence, or similar objects is the most effective.
Soils which are heavily disturbed or which have little surface organic material to retard water
runoff need protection afforded by any readily available mulching materials. Such materials
include excelsior, straw, shredded logging residue or slash, and slurried wood or ground
paper fibers. Excelsior provides the best protection but is very expensive. Straw mulch is very
effective when applied at a rate of 5.5 metric tons per hectare (2 tons per acre) and secured to
the surface either mechanically by punching it into the surface with the end of a shovel or
chemically with a liquid "tackifier" such as emulsified asphalt. Table 36 shows the
effectiveness of different mulches subjected to a rainfall rate of 64 mm (2.5 in) per hour on a
20 percent slope with 15 cm (6 in) of sift loam over compacted calcareous till. Figure 91
outlines a decision matrix to use in order to choose the most effective erosion control
combination for a given set of site and climatic conditions.
Table 36. Erosion control and vegetation establishment effectiveness of various mulches on
highways in eastern and western Washington. Soils: silty, sandy and gravelly loams, glacial
till consisting of sand, gravel and compacted silts and clays (all are subsoil materials without
topsoil addition). Slope lengths: approximate maximum of 50 m (165 ft). Application rates:
Cereal straw - 5,500 kg/ha (2 t/ac); Straw plus asphalt - 5,500 kg/ha (2 t/ac) and 0.757 I/Kg
(200 gal/t), respectively; Wood cellulose fiber- 1,345 kg/ha (1,200 Ibs/ac); Sod - bentgrass
strips 46 cm (18 in) by 1.8 m (6 ft) pegged down every third row.

Surface Cover
Jute Excelsior Straw
Straw &
Asphalt
Asphalt
Wood
Fiber
Sod
Rating
Erosion Control
Sheet
erosion
1:1 slope
9.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 3.0 10.0
Sheet
erosion
2:1 slope
9.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 7.0 6.0 10.0
Sheet
erosion
3:1 +
slope
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
Rill
erosion
1:1 slope
6.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 6.0 3.0 10.0
Rill
erosion
2:1 slope
8.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 7.0 5.0 -
Rill
erosion
3:1 +
slope
10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 10.0
Sump
erosionl
1:1 slope
10.0 8.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 8.0
Slump
erosion
2:1 slope
10.0 9.0 7.0 8.0 5.0 4.0 9.0
Slump
erosion
3:1 slope
Slumps usually do not occur.
Vegetation Establishment
1.5:1
glasial
till cut
slope
7.5 9.0 7.5 8.5 7.5 6.0 -
2:1
glasial
till cut
slope
8.9 9.5 8.0 9.3 8.7 6.2 -

2:1 sandy
loam
fill slope
9.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 7.5 8.5 10.0
2.5:1 silt
loam
cut slope
5.0 10.0 - 7.8 6.0 - -
Effectiveness rating: 10.0 = most
effective, 1.0 = not effective.
Figure 95. Selection criteria for surface cover establishment methods in relation to erosion
risk.
When using straw as a mulch, it is recommended that only "clean" straw be used to prevent
the introduction of noxious plants. Wood fiber should be applied at a rate of 1.4 to 1.6 metric
tons per hectare (0.5 to 0.6 tons per acre). At higher rates, wood fiber improves erosion
control but inhibits plant establishment. When mulching follows seed and fertilizer
application, rather than in combination with seeding and fertilizing (as is the case sometimes
with hydroseeding), there is a much greater chance that seed will be in direct contact with
mineral soil and will germinate more readily. Hydroseeding a fiber-seed-water slurry can
entrap 60-70 percent of the seed in the mulch layer.
5.2.5 Wattling and filter strips

Oftentimes grass cover alone is insufficient to prevent erosion on long, steep slopes. Wattling
or filter strips work to break the slope into short segments so that the kinetic energy of water
flowing over the surface is dissipated. Many different methods and materials can be
employed to achieve this objective. Heede (1975) successfully used submerged burlap strips
30 cm (1 ft) wide, placed vertically into the ground on the contour 0.5 to 1 meter (1.5 to 3 ft)
apart from each other to control rilling in semi-desert regions. Filter windrows can be
fabricated from slash accumulated during road construction and can easily be constructed
simultaneously along with the road (Cook and King, 1983). A rough estimate of production
rates for windrow construction during one demonstration is 52 m/hour (170 ft/hour) using a
track-mounted Caterpillar 235 hydraulic pull shovel (a large backhoe). Sediment trapping
efficiency was estimated at between 75 and 85 percent. Windrows in this demonstration
consisted of logs not less than 0.45 m (18 in) diameter secured against undisturbed stumps,
rocks, or trees on fill slopes immediately above and parallel to the toe of the slope. Slash
(tops, limbs, and brush not exceeding 15 cm (6 in) in diameter and 3.7 m (12 ft) in length
were then placed above the logs in neat piles (also see Chapter 6.3.3, Figure 119 ).
Table 36 is included to provide guidance in determining appropriate windrow widths based
on the length of the slope and type of material used to construct the windrow.
Wattling (Figure 96) consists of combined mechanical and natural stabilization techniques in
which stakes are placed on the contour 0.5 m (1.6 ft) apart and at 1.2 m (4 ft) intervals
between rows. A trench is then dug 20 cm (8 in) wide and 25 cm (10 in) deep against or
immediately above the contour stakes. Bundles of live vegetative materials (such as Salix
spp., Bambusa spp., Cassia sepium or other locally available material) 13 cm (5 in) in
diameter and 3 m (10 ft) long are placed in the trench overlapping end and tail. The wattling
bundles are then covered with soil so that part of the branches and leaves above ground are
left visible. It is very important that the soil is worked thoroughly into the interstices of the
wattles. During the installation workers should walk on the wattles as much as possible to
insure maximum compaction and working the soil into the bundles.
Incorrect installation of wattles may actually aid in soil slumping because of collection of
water in the wattle trenches. It is therefore important that soil is thoroughly worked into the
wattles and no trench remains to be filled with water. Likewise firm staking is important
particularly in areas where frost heaving is a problem. An average 10 person crew can treat
200 m² to 250 m² (2,000 to 2,500 ft2) in a day (Sheng, 1977b). More detailed information on
wattling procedure and installation can also be found in Kraebel (1936), Grey and Leiser
(1982), and Schiechtl (1978, 1980).
Table 37. Windrow protective strip widths required below the shoulders[1] of 5 year old[2]
forest roads built on soils derived from basalt[3], having 9 m cross-drain spacing[4], zero
initial obstruction distance[5], and 100 percent fill slope cover density[6].(U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1975).
Obstruction Protective windrow width by type of obstruction

spacing
Depressions
or mounds
Logs Rocks Trees
and
stumps
Slash
and
brush
Herbaceous
vegetation
meters
0.3 10.6 11.2 11.6 12.1 12.5 13.1
0.6 11.3 12.2 13.1 14.0 14.9 15.9
0.9 11.9 13.1 14.3 15.9 17.4 18.6
1.2 12.2 14.0 15.9 17.7 19.5 21.3
1.5 12.5 14.6 17.0 19.2 21.6 23.8
1.8 15.2 18.0 20.7 23.5 26.2
2.1 15.9 18.9 22.2 25.6 28.7
2.4 16.2 19.8 23.5 27.1 30.8
2.7 16.5 20.4 24.7 29.0 32.9
3.0 25.9 30.5 35.1
3.4 27.8 31.7 36.9
3.7 38.7
[1] For protective strip widths from centerlines of proposed
roads, increase widths by one-half the proposed road width.
[2] If storage capacity of obstructions is to be renewed when
roads are 3 years old, reduce protective strip width by 7 m.
[3] If soil is derived from andesite, increase protective strip
width by 30 cm; from glacial till, increase 1 m; from hard
sediments, increase 2.4 m; from granite, increase 2.5 m;
from loess, increase 7 m.
[4] For each increase in cross-drain spacing beyond 9 m,
increase protective strip width 30 cm.
[5] For each 1.5 m increase in distance to the initial
obstruction beyond zero (or the road shoulder), increase
protective strip width 1.2 m.
[6] For each 10 percent decrease in fill slope cover below a
density of 100 percent, increase protective strip width 0.30
m.
Preparation and installation procedure for contour wattling, using live willow stakes Shown
are (a) stems of cut brush wattles; (b) live willow stakes that have rooted sprouts; (c) inert
construction stakes driven through wattles; (d), (e), and (f) vegetation (grasses, shrubs, and
trees) (after Kraebel, 1936).

Brush Layering
Contour brush layering (Figure 97) involves embedding green branches of shrubs or trees on
successive horizontal layers into the slope. Brush layering is different from wattling in that
(1) branches are placed into the slope perpendicular to the strike instead of parallel creating
better resistance to shallow shear failure, (2) staking is not required, (3) brush layers and
surfaces can be reinforced with wire mesh or other material, (4) brush layers can be
incorporated into the construction process of a fill. That is, brush layers are laid down, the
next lift of soil is placed and compacted, and the process is repeated.
Contour brush layering is comparable to the "reinforced earth" concept where the cuttings or
branches act in the same fashion as the reinforcing strips.
Figure 97. Brush layer installation for slope stabilization using rooted plants for cut slope and
green branches for fill slope stabilization.

According to Schiechtl (1978, 1980) three brush layering techniques may be used. The first
technique uses brush layers consisting of rooted plants or rooted cuttings only.
Approximately 5 to 20 rooted seedlings per meter are required (See Figure 97).
The second technique utilizes green cuttings or branches from alder, cottonwood or willow.
On cut slopes, cuttings from 0.5 to 2.0 meters in length are used. On fill slopes, cutting length
can vary from 2.0 to 5.0 meters. This method is particularly suited for use in critical and
sensitive areas.
The third technique is a combination of the first two methods where rooted seedlings or
cuttings are installed together with branches or cuttings. From 1 to 5 rooted cuttings per meter
are required.
In all three methods, the material should be placed with the butt ends slightly dipping into the
fill (20 percent) and the tips protruding a few centimeters. Vertical spacing of brush layers
can vary from 0.5 to 1.5 meters depending on soil type, erosion hazard, slope angle and
length of slope. A good practice is to vary the vertical spacing on long slopes with short
spacings at the bottom and increasing the spacing towards the upper end of the slope.
A variation to the contour brush layering approach where the layers are positioned along the
contours or horizontally is to arrange the layers at a 10 - 40 percent incline. This variation is
called for on wet, heavy soils or slopes with numerous small springs. Water collecting in the
berms or brush layers is drained off and does not stagnate and infiltrate into the slope.
Installation procedures typically proceed from bottom to top. Fill slope installation is simple.
However, care should be taken that the brush layer dips into the slope at least 20 percent. The
next soil layer is placed on top and compacted. Cut slope installation requires the opening of
a ditch or berm. As with fills, work progresses from bottom to top. The excavation of the
upper berm is used for filling-in and covering the lower brush layer.
Mechanical Treatment

Mechanical surface stabilization measures consist of diversion ditches and terraces,
serrations, or scarification and can be used in conjunction with vegetative methods discussed
above. These methods generally require detailed engineering design and location. T. C.
Sheng (1977a) discusses several different methods for the construction of bench terraces
together with tables providing design information and costs.
Serrations consist of steps of 60 to 120 cm (2 to 4 ft) cut vertically and horizontally along the
normal, intended slope gradient. After treatment, the slope is seeded, fertilized, and mulched
as discussed in Chapter 5.2.3. The steps provide improved seedbeds free of sliding forces
normally experienced on steep slopes. Serrations are only effective on cut slopes of soft rock
or similar material that will stand vertically or near vertically for a few years in cut heights of
approximately one meter. Likewise, this method is not applicable to soil types where the rate
of slough is so high that vegetative cover is buried and destroyed. If acceptable slope material
is soft, the slope should be allowed to slough before seeding until about one-third of the steps
are filled. Otherwise, grass may be destroyed by the excessive rate of initial slough.
Roughened or scarified slopes may not be as esthetically pleasing to the eye as smoothly
graded cut and fill slopes, but they are far more effective in increasing infiltration and
impeding runoff. Scarified slopes also provide small depressions for the retention of seed and
also help mulch to better adhere to the slope. Roughening may be accomplished by several
means including deep cleated bulldozers traveling up and down the slope, sheepsfoot rollers,
rock rippers, and brush rakes mounted on bulldozers. The path of the roughened slope should
trend perpendicular to the direction of flow.
Mass Movement Protection
Deep seated mass failures can be dealt with in three ways. The methods are
categorized by the way they affect soil stability.
1. Avoidance Methods: Relocate road on a more stable area (for large, unstable fills
probably by far the most appropriate approach).
2. Reducing Shear Stress: This is achieved through excavation of unacceptable
materials. It creates a reduction in soil weight and can be accomplished by: a) removal
of soil mass at the top of the potential slide, b) flattening of cut slopes above the road,
c) benching of cut slopes.
3. Increasing Shear Strength: This is achieved through retaining structures. They can be
grouped into a) rock buttresses at the toe of fill slope, b) cribs or gravity retaining
walls at toe of fill or cut, and c) piling walls, likewise at the toe of fills or cuts.
Engineering and structural methods for stabilizing slopes can be grouped into four categories:
1. Excavation and filling techniques. This would include excavating the toe of an earth
flow until successive failures result in a stable slope, removing and replacing failed
material with lighter, more stable material, or recompacted debris, excavating to
unload upper portions of a mass failure, and filling to load the lower portions of a
mass failure (most likely in conjunction with other loading or restraining structures).
2. Drainage techniques. This would include efforts to remove or disperse surface water
(as discussed in Chapter 4), drainage of tension cracks, using rock fill underlain by
filter cloth to prevent upward migration of water into the road prism, insertion of
trench drains, perforated, horizontal drains, or drainage galleries, insertion of vertical

drains or wells discharged by syphons, or pumps, and electro-osmosis (the use of
direct current passing between wellpoints and steel rods placed midway between the
rods to increase the drainage rate) for drainage of low permeability soils.
3. Restraining structures. These include retaining walls, piles, buttresses, counterweight
fills, cribs, bin walls, reinforced earth, and pre-stressed or post-tensioned soil or rock
anchors (Figure 98). Organizations such as highway departments and railroads have
developed charts and tables giving earth pressures for the design of retaining walls
that require a minimum of computation. Nearly all of these charts and tables are based
on the Rankine formula which describes earth pressures as a function of unit weight
and internal angle of friction of the backfill material.
4. Miscellaneous techniques. Grouting can be used to reduce soil permeability, thereby
preventing the ingress of groundwater into a failure zone. Chemical stabilization,
generally in the form of ion exchange methods, is accomplished by high pressure
injection of specificion exchange solutions into failure zones or into closely spaced
pre-drillled holes throughout the movement zone. Heating or baking of clay soils can
sometimes improve their strength, and, rarely, freezing of soils will help gain
temporary stability. Localized electro-osmosis can be used to form in situ anchors or
tie-backs. Suppression of natural electro-osmosis can be used to reduce unfavorable
groundwater pressures. Blasting is sometimes used to disrupt failure surfaces and to
improve drainage.
Types of retaining walls.

For correcting cut or fill failures, a detailed investigation into the reason for the failure,
particularly the position and geometry of the failure surface and other potential failure
surfaces, is required prior to prescribing ameliorative measures. The neutral line concept,
discussed by Hutchinson (1977) and Sidle, et al. (1985), is of particular interest in assessing
the impact of cuts and fills on factors of safety. The neutral line describes where the load
attributed to fill material will have no effect on the original factor of safety. If the load falls
up-slope of the neutral line, the factor of safety will decrease; if it is downslope of the neutral
line, the factor of safety will decrease.
The use of any of these stabilization techniques requires extensive site specific investigations
into the mechanics of soils, groundwater, and bedrock occurring on the site. It is advisable to
utilize the most experienced geotechnical or highway engineer available in order to provide
the most effective design possible. As can be inferred from the above discussion, any of these
techniques will be quite costly to design and install. Furthermore, the success of such
measures in functioning adequately through time is highly dependent on the skill of the

design engineer and the degree of maintenance employed after construction. Hence,
avoidance of areas where structural stabilization measures are required will result in
considerable short term and long term cost savings, and the major opportunity for reducing
landslide risk is at the route planning stage.
The purpose of a retaining structure is to provide stability against sliding or failure and
protection against scour and erosion of a slope, or the toe or cutface. The typical retaining
structure on forest roads is a gravity retaining wall which resists earth pressure by the force of
its own weight. Excavation and/or fill volume can be significantly reduced particularly on
steep side slopes (see also discussion in Chapter 3.2).
The volume of cribs or retaining walls should be 1/6 to 1/10 of that of the total moving mass
to be retained. As a rule, the foundation or base should at least extend 1.2 to 2.0 meters below
the slip plane in order to be effective.
The forces acting on a retaining wall are similar to those acting on a natural slope. These
forces are be grouped into resisting forces (forces resisting failure) and driving forces (forces
causing failure) as illustrated in Figure 99.
Failure of a retaining wall can be brought about through
- sliding along its base
- bearing capacity failure
- overturning
Forces acting on a retaining wall.

For low toe walls or toe-bench structures it is usually possible to use standard designs.
Standard designs have been developed on the basis of soil mechanics and past performance.
Standard designs have been developed by a number of sources and are typically available on
request. These sources include manufacturers of retaining wall systems (e.g. gabions, crib
walls, welded-wire walls, geotextiles), trade associations (e.g. American Wood Preservers
Institute), and state and federal agencies (e.g. Forest Service, Highway Administration, local
transportation departments). Standard designs can be used safely provided they conform with
the local conditions The factors or conditions to consider include maximum wall height,
surcharge conditions, strength and finish of structural members, inclination requirements,
construction requirements, backfill material, soil conditions at base, and groundwater
conditions.
An example of a standard log crib wall is shown in Figure 100. A thorough discussion of
timber walls is provided by Schuster et al. (1973). Timber crib walls and gabion structures
can withstand some limited, differential base settlement without a significantly affecting the
retaining action. Drainage characteristics of the backfill and crib material is important
because of potential water pressure build-up. Most standard designs assume free draining
sand or gravel fills.
Gabions are rectangular containers made of heavy steel wire and filled with cobble-sized
rocks (10 to 30 cm in diameter). A typical gabion retaining wall is shown in Figure 101.
Advantages of gabion structures are ease of construction, tolerance of uneven settlement, and
good drainage characteristics. Gabion walls are particularly suited in areas where only small,
fragmented rocks are available. Typically, they can be built without heavy equipment. Both

crib and gabion walls lend themselves to incorporation of vegetative systems to provide
additional strength over time as well as providing a more esthetically pleasing appearance.
Gravity retaining structures utilizing standard designs are typically limited to a height of less
than 6.0 meters. Structures requiring a larger height have to be designed based on site-
specific soil mechanical conditions.

Soil mechanics note

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