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- 2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2 Learn the reasons for sampling Develop an understanding about different sampling methods Distinguish between probability & non probability sampling Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each sampling methods
- 3. What is research? 3 • “Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena.” – Kerlinger, 1986 • Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions
- 4. Important Components of Empirical Research 4 Problem statement, research questions, purposes, benefits Theory, assumptions, background literature Variables and hypotheses Operational definitions and measurement Research design and methodology Instrumentation, sampling Data analysis Conclusions, interpretations, recommendations
- 5. SAMPLING 5 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005) Why sample? Resources (time, money) and workload Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically The sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents are drawn Registrar’s office Class rosters Must assess sampling frame errors
- 6. SAMPLING…… 6 What is your population of interest? To whom do you want to generalize your results? All doctors School children Indians Women aged 15-45 years Other Can you sample the entire population?
- 7. SAMPLING……. 7 3 factors that influence sample representative- ness Sampling procedure Sample size Participation (response) When might you sample the entire population? When your population is very small When you have extensive resources When you don’t expect a very high response
- 10. Types of Samples 10 Probability (Random) Samples Simple random sample Systematic random sample Stratified random sample Multistage sample Multiphase sample Cluster sample Non-Probability Samples Convenience sample Purposive sample Quota
- 11. Process 11 The sampling process comprises several stages: Defining the population of concern Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame Determining the sample size Implementing the sampling plan Sampling and data collecting Reviewing the sampling process
- 12. Population definition 12 A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population.
- 13. Population definition……. 13 Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not be the same as the population about which we actually want information. Often there is large but not complete overlap between these two groups due to frame issues etc . Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we might study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health, or we might study records from people born in 2008 in order to make predictions about people born in 2009.
- 14. SAMPLING FRAME 14 In the most straightforward case, such as the sentencing of a batch of material from production (acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to identify and measure every single item in the population and to include any one of them in our sample. However, in the more general case this is not possible. There is no way to identify all rats in the set of all rats. Where voting is not compulsory, there is no way to identify which people will actually vote at a forthcoming election (in advance of the election) As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can identify every single element and include any in our sample . The sampling frame must be representative of the population
- 15. PROBABILITY SAMPLING 15 A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. . When every element in the population does have the same probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given the same weight.
- 16. PROBABILITY SAMPLING……. 16 Probability sampling includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified Random Sampling, Cluster Sampling Multistage Sampling. Multiphase sampling
- 17. NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING 17 Any sampling method where some elements of population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not allows the estimation of sampling errors.. Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.
- 18. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING……. 18 • Nonprobability Sampling includes: Accidental Sampling, Quota Sampling and Purposive Sampling. In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse effectively modifies each element's probability of being sampled.
- 19. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING 19 • Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available • All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection. • It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame. • A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are to be selected.
- 20. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING…….. 20 Estimates are easy to calculate. Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all EPS designs are simple random sampling. Disadvantages If sampling frame large, this method impracticable. Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present in sample in sufficient numbers for study.
- 21. REPLACEMENT OF SELECTED UNITS 21 Sampling schemes may be without replacement ('WOR' - no element can be selected more than once in the same sample) or with replacement ('WR' - an element may appear multiple times in the one sample). For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and immediately return them to the water before continuing with the sample, this is a WR design, because we might end up catching and measuring the same fish more than once. However, if we do not return the fish to the water (e.g. if we eat the fish), this becomes a WOR design.
- 22. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING 22 Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size). It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').
- 23. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING…… 23 As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have the same probability of selection (in the example given, one in ten). It is not 'simple random sampling' because different subsets of the same size have different selection probabilities - e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection, but the set {4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of selection.
- 24. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING…… 24 ADVANTAGES: Sample easy to select Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily Sample evenly spread over entire reference population DISADVANTAGES: Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides with that of selection. Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.
- 25. STRATIFIED SAMPLING 25 Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected. Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate representation in the sample. Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by stratification & varying sampling fraction between strata as required.
- 26. STRATIFIED SAMPLING…… 26 Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different sampling approaches can be applied to different strata. Drawbacks to using stratified sampling. First, sampling frame of entire population has to be prepared separately for each stratum Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related to some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the utility of the strata. Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or those with a specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods
- 27. STRATIFIED SAMPLING……. 27 Draw a sample from each stratum
- 28. POSTSTRATIFICATION 28 Stratification is sometimes introduced after the sampling phase in a process called "poststratification“. This approach is typically implemented due to a lack of prior knowledge of an appropriate stratifying variable or when the experimenter lacks the necessary information to create a stratifying variable during the sampling phase. Although the method is susceptible to the pitfalls of post hoc approaches, it can provide several benefits in the right situation. Implementation usually follows a simple random sample. In addition to allowing for stratification on an ancillary variable, poststratification can be used to implement weighting, which can improve the precision of a sample's estimates.
- 29. OVERSAMPLING 29 Choice-based sampling is one of the stratified sampling strategies. In this, data are stratified on the target and a sample is taken from each strata so that the rare target class will be more represented in the sample. The model is then built on this biased sample. The effects of the input variables on the target are often estimated with more precision with the choice-based sample even when a smaller overall sample size is taken, compared to a random sample. The results usually must be adjusted to correct for the oversampling.
- 30. CLUSTER SAMPLING 30 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' . First stage a sample of areas is chosen; Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected. Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on geographical contiguity. Sampling units are groups rather than individuals. A sample of such clusters is then selected. All units from the selected clusters are studied.
- 31. CLUSTER SAMPLING……. 31 Advantages : Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame. This can reduce travel and other administrative costs. Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a simple random sample of same size. Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI
- 32. CLUSTER SAMPLING……. 32 • Identification of clusters – List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with their population falling in target area under study. – Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30, this gives sampling interval. – Select a random no. less than or equal to sampling interval having same no. of digits. This forms 1st cluster. – Random no.+ sampling interval = population of 2nd cluster. – Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster. – Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling interval
- 33. CLUSTER SAMPLING……. 33 Two types of cluster sampling methods. One-stage sampling. All of the elements within selected clusters are included in the sample. Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within selected clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.
- 34. CLUSTER SAMPLING……. 34 • Freq c f cluster • I 2000 2000 1 • II 3000 5000 2 • III 1500 6500 • IV 4000 10500 3 • V 5000 15500 4, 5 • VI 2500 18000 6 • VII 2000 20000 7 • VIII 3000 23000 8 • IX 3500 26500 9 • X 4500 31000 10 • XI 4000 35000 11, 12 • XII 4000 39000 13 • XIII 3500 44000 14,15 • XIV 2000 46000 • XV 3000 49000 16 • XVI 3500 52500 17 • XVII 4000 56500 18,19 • XVIII 4500 61000 20 • XIX 4000 65000 21,22 • XX 4000 69000 23 • XXI 2000 71000 24 • XXII 2000 73000 • XXIII 3000 76000 25 • XXIV 3000 79000 26 • XXV 5000 84000 27,28 • XXVI 2000 86000 29 • XXVII 1000 87000 • XXVIII 1000 88000 • XXIX 1000 89000 30 • XXX 1000 90000 • 90000/30 = 3000 sampling interval
- 35. Difference Between Strata and Clusters 35 Although strata and clusters are both non- overlapping subsets of the population, they differ in several ways. All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of clusters are in the sample. With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when elements within strata are internally homogeneous. However, with cluster sampling, the best results occur when elements within clusters are internally heterogeneous
- 36. MULTISTAGE SAMPLING 36 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded one in the other. First stage, random number of districts chosen in all states. Followed by random number of talukas, villages. Then third stage units will be houses. All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.
- 37. MULTISTAGE SAMPLING…….. 37 This technique, is essentially the process of taking random samples of preceding random samples. Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves more of the problems inherent to random sampling. An effective strategy because it banks on multiple randomizations. As such, extremely useful. Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of all members of the population not exists and is inappropriate. Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated with traditional cluster sampling.
- 38. MULTI PHASE SAMPLING 38 Part of the information collected from whole sample & part from subsample. In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase III Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more purposeful
- 39. MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING 39 A method of assigning participants to groups in which pairs of participants are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups. The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be briefed with the following contexts, Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or are matched explicitly by the researcher. For example, IQ measurements or pairs of identical twins. Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is measured twice on each subject, under different circumstances. Commonly called repeated measures. Examples include the times of a group of athletes for 1500m before and after a week of special training; the milk yields of cows before and after being fed a particular diet.
- 40. QUOTA SAMPLING 40 The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60. It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non- random. For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many years
- 41. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING 41 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling. A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and convenient. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough. For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing. In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.
- 42. 42 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING……. Use results that are easy to get 42
- 43. Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling 43 - The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched
- 44. PANEL SAMPLING 44 Method of first selecting a group of participants through a random sampling method and then asking that group for the same information again several times over a period of time. Therefore, each participant is given same survey or interview at two or more time points; each period of data collection called a "wave". This sampling methodology often chosen for large scale or nation- wide studies in order to gauge changes in the population with regard to any number of variables from chronic illness to job stress to weekly food expenditures. Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about within-person health changes due to age or help explain changes in continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction. There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel sample data, including growth curves.
- 45. Questions??? 45
- 46. What sampling method u recommend? 46 Determining proportion of undernourished five year olds in a village. Investigating nutritional status of preschool children. Selecting maternity records for the study of previous abortions or duration of postnatal stay. In estimation of immunization coverage in a province, data on seven children aged 12-23 months in 30 clusters are used to determine proportion of fully immunized children in the province. Give reasons why cluster sampling is used in this survey.
- 47. sampling 47 In some cases the sample designer has access to an "auxiliary variable" or "size measure", believed to be correlated to the variable of interest, for each element in the population. This data can be used to improve accuracy in sample design. One option is to use the auxiliary variable as a basis for stratification, as discussed above. Another option is probability-proportional-to-size ('PPS') sampling, in which the selection probability for each element is set to be proportional to its size measure, up to a maximum of 1. In a simple PPS design, these selection probabilities can then be used as the basis for Poisson sampling. However, this has the drawbacks of variable sample size, and different portions of the population may still be over- or under-represented due to chance variation in selections. To address this problem, PPS may be combined with a systematic approach.
- 48. Contd. 48 Example: Suppose we have six schools with populations of 150, 180, 200, 220, 260, and 490 students respectively (total 1500 students), and we want to use student population as the basis for a PPS sample of size three. To do this, we could allocate the first school numbers 1 to 150, the second school 151 to 330 (= 150 + 180), the third school 331 to 530, and so on to the last school (1011 to 1500). We then generate a random start between 1 and 500 (equal to 1500/3) and count through the school populations by multiples of 500. If our random start was 137, we would select the schools which have been allocated numbers 137, 637, and 1137, i.e. the first, fourth, and sixth schools. The PPS approach can improve accuracy for a given sample size by concentrating sample on large elements that have the greatest impact on population estimates. PPS sampling is commonly used for surveys of businesses, where element size varies greatly and auxiliary information is often available - for instance, a survey attempting to measure the number
- 49. Event sampling 49 Event Sampling Methodology (ESM) is a new form of sampling method that allows researchers to study ongoing experiences and events that vary across and within days in its naturally-occurring environment. Because of the frequent sampling of events inherent in ESM, it enables researchers to measure the typology of activity and detect the temporal and dynamic fluctuations of work experiences. Popularity of ESM as a new form of research design increased over the recent years because it addresses the shortcomings of cross-sectional research, where once unable to, researchers can now detect intra-individual variances across time. In ESM, participants are asked to record their experiences and perceptions in a paper or electronic diary. There are three types of ESM:# Signal contingent – random beeping notifies participants to record data. The advantage of this type of ESM is minimization of
- 50. Contd. 50 Event contingent – records data when certain events occur Interval contingent – records data according to the passing of a certain period of time ESM has several disadvantages. One of the disadvantages of ESM is it can sometimes be perceived as invasive and intrusive by participants. ESM also leads to possible self-selection bias. It may be that only certain types of individuals are willing to participate in this type of study creating a non-random sample. Another concern is related to participant cooperation. Participants may not be actually fill out their diaries at the specified times. Furthermore, ESM may substantively change the phenomenon being studied. Reactivity or priming effects may occur, such that repeated measurement may cause changes in the participants' experiences. This method of sampling data is also highly vulnerable to common
- 51. contd. 51 Further, it is important to think about whether or not an appropriate dependent variable is being used in an ESM design. For example, it might be logical to use ESM in order to answer research questions which involve dependent variables with a great deal of variation throughout the day. Thus, variables such as change in mood, change in stress level, or the immediate impact of particular events may be best studied using ESM methodology. However, it is not likely that utilizing ESM will yield meaningful predictions when measuring someone performing a repetitive task throughout the day or when dependent variables are long-term in nature (coronary heart problems).