Solution Manual for Framework for Marketing Management 6th Edition by Kotler Keller ISBN 9780133871319
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- 5. Solution Manual for Framework for Marketing Management 6th Edition by Kotler Keller ISBN 9780133871319 Full link download Test Bank: https://testbankpack.com/p/test-bank-for-framework-for-marketing-management-6th- edition-by-kotler-keller-isbn-9780133871319/ Solution Manual: https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-framework-for-marketing- management-6th-edition-by-kotler-keller-isbn-9780133871319/ C H A P T E R 2DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING MARKETING STRATEGIES AND PLANS LEARNING OBJECTIVES In this chapter, we will address the following questions: 1. How does marketing affect customer value? 2. How is strategic planning carried out at different organizational levels? 3. What does a marketing plan include? 4. How can companies monitor and improve marketing activities and performance? CHAPTER SUMMARY The value chain is a tool for identifying key activities that create customer value and costs in a specific business. The value delivery process includes choosing (or identifying), providing (or delivering), and communicating superior value. Market- oriented strategic planning is the managerial process of developing and maintaining a viable fit between the organization’s objectives, skills, and resources and its changing market opportunities. Strategic planning occurs at multiple levels: corporate, division, business unit, and product. Corporate strategy includes defining the mission, establishing strategic business units (SBUs), assigning resources, and assessing growth opportunities. This is the framework within which divisions and SBUs prepare their strategic plans. The marketing plan summarizes what the firm knows about the marketplace and how well it will reach its marketing objectives, operating at both the strategic and tactical levels. Marketing implementation turns marketing plans into action assignments to achieve the plan’s objectives. Firms use marketing metrics, marketing-mix modelling, and marketing dashboards to monitor and assess marketing productivity. By applying marketing control, management can assess the effects of marketing activities and make improvements. OPENING THOUGHT This introduces several perspectives on planning and describes how to draw up a formal marketing plan. The formal marketing plan sample is an excellent resource because it provides an overview of the types of decisions a marketer might make in an effort to create customer value. Provide sufficient class time covering the distinctions between
- 6. strategy and tactics. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
- 7. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. ASSIGNMENTS Students should be encouraged to review selected companies’ annual reports to collect from these reports the corporations’ mission statements, strategy statements, and target market definitions. The collected material can be discussed in class comparing the company’s overall business, marketing, and customer strategies. Each student is in effect a “product.” Like all products you (they) must be marketed for success. Have each of your students’ write their own “mission statement” about their career and a “goal statement” of where they see themselves in 5 years, 10 years, and after 20 years. Select a local firm or have the students select firms in which they are familiar (current employers or past employers, for example) and have them answer the questions posed by the Marketing Memo, Marketing Plan Criteria regarding the evaluation of a marketing plan. Make sure the students are specific in their answers.
- 8. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. DETAILED CHAPTER OUTLINE Opening Vignette: Hewlett-Packard has been challenged in recent years, and is an example of how firms must constantly improve their strategies to adjust to changes in the marketplace. I. Marketing and Customer Value A. The Value Delivery Process i. The traditional view of marketing where a firm makes something and sells it only applies in economies with goods shortages ii. Marketing is placed at the beginning of business planning in economies with different consumer needs and wants iii. Three phases to the value creation and delivery sequence: 1. Choosing the value: homework; market segmentation, target market selection, value positioning 2. Providing the value: identification of features, prices, distribution 3. Communicating the value: use the Internet, advertising, sales force and other communication tools B. The Value Chain i. Every firm is a synthesis of activities performed to design, produce, market, deliver and support its product. ii. Primary activities 1. Inbound logistics: bringing materials into the business 2. Operations: converting materials into final products 3. Outbound logistics: shipping out final products 4. Marketing (includes sales) 5. Service iii. Support activities 1. Procurement 2. Technology development 3. Human resource management 4. Firm infrastructure iv. Firms examine costs and performance in each value-creating activity and benchmark against competitors to look for ways to improve v. Core business processes (increasingly reengineered and assigned cross-functional teams): 1. The market-sensing process: gathering and acting upon information about the product 2. The new-offering realization process: researching, developing, and launching new high-quality offerings quickly and within budget 3. The customer acquisition process: defining target markets and prospecting for new customers 4. The customer relationship management process: building
- 9. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. deeper understanding, relationships, and offerings to individual customers vi. Companies often partner with specific suppliers and distributors to create a superior value delivery network, or supply chain C. Core Competencies i. Three characteristics 1. Sources of competitive advantage that make a significant contribution to perceived customer benefits 2. Have applications to a wide variety of markets 3. Are difficult for competitors imitate ii. Accompanied by distinctive capabilities, or excellence in broader business processes: market sensing, customer linking, channel bonding D. The Central Role of Strategic Planning i. Marketers must prioritize strategic planning in three key areas 1. Managing the businesses as an investment portfolio 2. Assessing the market’s growth rate and the company’s position in that market 3. Establishing a strategy ii. A marketing plan operates on a strategic level and a tactical level 1. The strategic marketing plan lays out the target markets and the firm’s value proposition, based on an analysis of the best market opportunities. 2. The tactical marketing plan specifies the marketing tactics, including product features, promotion, merchandising, pricing, sales channels, and service. II. Corporate and Division Strategic Planning A. Corporate headquarters undertake four planning activities i. Define the corporate mission ii. Establish strategic business units iii. Assign resources to each strategic business unit iv. Assess growth opportunities B. Defining the Corporate Mission i. Over time, the mission may change to respond to new opportunities or market conditions ii. Classic questions: What is our business? Who is the customer? What is of value to the customer? What will our business be? What should our business be? iii. Clear, thoughtful mission statements are developed collaboratively with and shared with managers, employees, and often customers 1. Provides a shared sense of purpose, direction, and opportunity 2. Good mission statements focus on a limited number of goals. stress the company’s major policies and values, define the major competitive spheres within which the company will operate, take a long-term view, and are short, memorable and meaningful C. Establishing Strategic Business Units i. Established using three characteristics
- 10. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 1. Single business or collection of related businesses that can be planned separately from the rest of the company 2. Own set of competitors 3. Manager responsible for strategic planning and profit performance and controls most factors affecting profit D. Assigning Resources to Each SBU i. Resources assigned using shareholder value analysis; value assessed on potential of business based on growth opportunities from global expansion, positioning or retargeting and strategic outsourcing E. Assessing Growth Opportunities i. Intensive growth: within current businesses; product-market expansion grid is helpful 1. Market-penetration strategy: more market share with current products in current markets 2. Market-development strategy: develop new markets for current products 3. Product-development strategy: develop new products for current markets 4. Diversification strategy: develop new products for new markets ii. Integrative growth: acquire related businesses 1. Use backward, forward or horizontal integrations within the industry 2. May not reach desired sales volume; challenges with integration iii. Diversification growth: identify opportunities for growth from adding attractive, unrelated businesses iv. Downsize or divest older businesses: Prune, harvest or divest to release resources or reduce costs F. Organization and Organizational Culture i. A company’s organization is its structures, policies, and corporate culture, all of which can become dysfunctional in a rapidly changing business environment. ii. Corporate culture is “the shared experiences, stories, beliefs, and norms that characterize an organization.” iii. Scenario analysis develops plausible representations of a firm’s possible future using assumptions about forces driving the market and uncertainties III. Business Unit Strategic Planning A. The Business Mission i. Develop a specific mission for the strategic business unit B. SWOT Analysis i. External Environment (Opportunity and Threat) Analysis: monitor key macroenvironmental forces 1. Opportunity: area of buyer need and interest that a company has a high probability of satisfying a. Offer something in short supply b. Supply existing product or service in a superior way i. Problem detection: ask consumers for
- 11. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. suggestions ii. Ideal method: ask consumers to imagine an ideal version of the product or service iii. Consumption chain method: chart steps in acquiring, using, disposing of product c. Above methods lead to new product or service 2. Benefit from converging industry trends/introduce hybrid products or services to the market 3. Make buying process more convenient or efficient 4. Meet the need for more information and advice 5. Customize a product or service 6. Introduce a new capability 7. Deliver a product or service faster 8. Offer product at a much lower price ii. Market opportunity analysis (MOA) questions 1. Can we articulate the benefits convincingly to the defined target market(s)? 2. Can we locate the target market(s) and reach them with cost- effective media and trade channels? 3. Does our company possess or have access to the critical capabilities and resources we need to deliver the customer benefits? 4. Can we deliver the benefits better than any actual or potential competitors? 5. Will the financial rate of return meet or exceed our required threshold for investment? iii. Environmental threat is a challenge posed by an unfavorable trend or development that, in the absence of defensive marketing action, would lead to lower sales. iv. Internal Environment (Strengths and Weaknesses) Analysis C. Goal Formulation i. Goals are objectives that are specific with respect to magnitude and time ii. Management by objectives meets four criteria 1. They must be arranged hierarchically, from most to least important 2. Objectives should be quantitative whenever possible 3. Goals should be realistic 4. Objectives must be consistent iii. Trade-offs include short-term profit versus long-term growth, deep penetration of existing markets versus development of new markets, profit goals versus nonprofit goals, and high growth versus low risk. D. Strategy Formulation i. Strategy is a game plan for getting what you want to achieve ii. Porter’s generic strategies 1. Overall cost leadership 2. Differentiation 3. Focus
- 12. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. iii. Competing firms directing the same strategy to the same target market constitute a strategic group iv. There is a distinction between operational effectiveness and strategy: operationally effectiveness can be copied; strategy develops a unique and valuable position v. Strategic alliances complement a firm’s capabilities and resources 1. Product or service alliances 2. Promotional alliances 3. Logistics alliances 4. Pricing alliances vi. Firms use partner relationship management to form and manage partnerships E. Strategy and Implementation i. Strategy addresses the what and why of marketing programs and activities ii. Implementation addresses the who, where, when and how of marketing programs and activities iii. Strategy is one of seven elements of business success: 1. Hardware: strategy, structure, and systems 2. Software: style, skills, staff and shared values A. A marketing plan is a written document that summarizes what the marketer has learned about the marketplace and indicates how the firm plans to meet its marketing objectives B. The most frequently cited shortcomings of current marketing plans, according to marketing executives, are lack of realism, insufficient competitive analysis, and a short-run focus C. Contents of a Marketing Plan i. Executive summary and table of contents ii. Situation analysis (relevant background data on sales, costs, the market, competitors and the macroenvironment) iii. Marketing strategy (mission, marketing and financial objectives, needs the marketing offering is intended to satisfy and its competitive positioning) iv. Marketing tactics (marketing activities that will be undertaken to execute the marketing strategy) v. Financial projections include a sales forecast, an expense forecast, and a break-even analysis. vi. Implementation controls: outlines the controls for monitoring and adjusting implementation; spells out the goals and budget for each month or quarter so management can review results and take corrective action as needed. D. From Marketing Plan to Marketing Action V. Marketing Implementation, Control, and Performance A. Marketing implementation is the process that turns marketing plans into action assignments and ensures they accomplish the plan’s stated objectives i. Schedules show when tasks were supposed to be completed vs. when they actually were
- 13. Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. ii. Metrics track actual outcomes of marketing programs to see whether the company is moving towards its objectives iii. Two complementary approaches to measure marketing productivity are: 1. Marketing metrics – assess marketing effects 2. Marketing-mix modeling – estimate causal relationships and measure how marketing activity affects outcomes iv. Marketing dashboards are structured to disseminate insights from these two approaches B. Marketing Metrics i. Set of measures that help marketers quantify, compare and interpret their performance ii. Short-term results often reflect profit-and-loss concerns as shown by sales turnover, shareholder value, or a combination iii. Brand-equity measures include customer awareness, attitudes, behaviors, market share, relative price premium, number of complaints, distribution and availability, total number of customers, perceived quality, and loyalty and retention C. Marketing-Mix Modeling i. Marking-mix models analyze data from a variety of sources ii. They help isolate effects, but are less effective at assessing how marketing elements work in combination 1. Focused on incremental growth instead of baseline sales or long-term effects 2. Limited integration of metrics related to customer satisfaction, awareness and brand equity 3. Fails to incorporate metrics related to competitors, trade or sales force D. Marketing Dashboards i. A concise set of interconnected performance drivers to be viewed in common throughout the organization ii. Customer-performance scorecard: how well the company is doing on customer-based measures iii. Stakeholder-performance scorecard: the satisfaction of various constituencies who have a critical interest in and impact on the company’s performance E. Marketing Control i. Annual-plan control ensures the company achieves sales, profits and other goals established in its annual plan ii. Profitability control determines whether to expand, reduce, or eliminate any products or marketing activities iii. Efficiency control helps the company look at better ways to manage marketing spending and investments iv. Strategic control periodically reassesses the strategic approach to the marketplace using a marketing audit, which covers the macroenvironment, task environment, marketing strategy, marketing organization, marketing systems, marketing productivity, and marketing functions
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- 15. leather porous, and prevents it carrying a proper quantity of grease in currying. On the construction of drying-sheds, see pp. 243-54.
- 16. CHAPTER XII. DRESSING LEATHER. Hides which are intended for purposes where softness and flexibility are required, as for instance, for the upper-leathers of boots, and for saddlery purposes, are called "dressing" or "common" hides, or, if they are shaved down to reduce their thickness before tanning, they are denominated "shaved" hides. Hides for this purpose are limed much in the same way as has been described for butts; but if they are required very soft and flexible, a somewhat longer liming is permissible. After unhairing, fleshing, and washing in water, they are usually transferred to a "bate," composed of pigeon- or hen-dung, in the proportion of about 1 peck to 25-30 hides. In this they are retained for some days, being handled frequently. They completely lose their plumpness, and become soft and slippery; the caustic lime is entirely removed; and the remaining portions of hair-sheaths and fat-glands are so loosened that they are easily worked out by a blunt knife on the beam. This final cleansing process is called "scudding." The theory of the action of the "bate," or "pure," as it is sometimes called, is somewhat imperfect. It is frequently attributed to the action of ammonia salts, and phosphates, contained in the fermenting dung. Ammonia salts certainly will remove caustic lime, free ammonia being liberated in its place, and weak solutions of ammonia sulphate or chloride will rapidly reduce hides, and remove or neutralise the lime. The phosphates in dung are mostly, if not entirely, in the form of lime phosphate, which is quite inert. In point of fact, the process seems to be a fermentive one, the active bate swarming with bacteria; to this, rather than to its chemical constituents, its action must be attributed. The bacteria act not only on the organic constituents of the dung, but on those of the hide, producing sulphuretted hydrogen, together with tyrosin and leucin, and other weak organic acids, which neutralise and remove the lime, and, at the same time, soften the hide by dissolving out the coriin, and probably also portions of the gelatinous fibre. The truth of this theory is supported by the fact that, in warm weather, the activity of the bate is greatly increased, and that, if one pack of hides is over-bated, the next following is much more severely affected, the hides having in fact
- 17. themselves furnished food for the multiplication of the bacterian ferment from the destruction of their own tissues. It also explains the effective use (as a substitute) of warm water with a very small portion of glucose, which, in itself, would be insufficient to dissolve the lime, but with a small quantity of nitrogenous matter, forms an excellent nidus for the multiplication of these organisms. An American invention for bating is the use of old lime- liquor neutralised with sulphuric acid, an idea which is much more scientific than would at first sight appear. Old lime-liquors, as we have seen (p. 143) contain much ammonia and weak organic acids, such as caproic, amidocaproic (leucin), and tyrosin. On adding sulphuric acid, the lime forms an inert sulphate, and the sulphate of ammonia and the weak organic acids which remain dissolved are just what are required in a chemical bate. The lime-liquor should of course be filtered or settled clear before using, and enough acid added barely to neutralise the lime, and the liquor again settled or filtered. By this means both the dissolved gelatin and the iron of the acid will be got rid of. The liquor might then be slightly acidified before use. The writer has no experience of the method, but imagines that used as described it might be worth trying, although it would have a very unpleasant smell. In this connection may be mentioned the fact that, when bran drenches are used, in which lactic acid is developed, the butyric fermentation is liable, in hot weather, to take its place, and as butyric acid is a powerful solvent of gelatinous tissue, and the dissolved tissue itself feeds the fermentation, rapid destruction of the skins is the result. Cleanliness, scalding out of the drench vats, and washing the bran before using with cold water to remove adhering flour, are useful precautions. If the removal of the lime be the only object aimed at in bating, the ordinary process is most wasteful, as well as disgusting, from the loss of pelt it entails. It is easy to find chemical reagents which will remove the lime; but the resultant leather has been found wanting in softness, and it is probable that the solution of the inter-fibrillar matter is in many cases advantageous. Probably one reason for the non-use of such chemicals is their expense. Maynard has patented the use of sulphurous acid for the purpose. If sugar, glucose, or ammonia salts be used, and the alkalinity of the solution nearly neutralised after each lot of hides by common vitriol, the same liquor may be used again and again. In this case, if iron is contained in the acid it will be precipitated by the ammonia and must be settled out. The writer is convinced, from his own experience, that with suitable tannage such bating would yield better weights and quite as satisfactory leather for many purposes as the ordinary mode. French tanners, by the
- 18. free use of water, and careful working at the beam, and the employment of very weak liquors at the commencement of tanning, make excellent dressing leather without bating and this is also true of the celebrated French calf. The bating required may be shortened, and probably with advantage, by washing the hides with warm water in a "tumbler," or rotating drum, Fig. 49, prior to putting them into the bate, or the whole bating may be done in the tumbler. After a short bating, also, the hides may be softened and cleansed by stocking for 15-20 minutes. Warm bates act much more rapidly than cold ones. Fig. 49. Various machines have been proposed to take the place of hand-labour in the beam work, and, at least as regards the smaller skins, with considerable success. As a type of these, may be mentioned Molinier's hide- working machine, Fig. 29, which consists of a drum covered with helical knives, rotating at a speed of about 500 rev. a minute, over a cylinder coated with india-rubber. The skin is allowed to be drawn in between these drums, and the two being pressed together by a treadle, it is drawn out by a mechanical arrangement in a direction contrary to the rotation of the knives, which scrape off the flesh, or work off the hair. After bating, "shaved" hides are reduced in thickness in the stronger parts by a shaving-knife, on an almost perpendicular beam. The workman stands behind the beam, and works downwards. The knife is represented at A, Fig. 26, and is a somewhat peculiar instrument. The blade is of softish steel, and after sharpening, the edge is turned completely over by pressure with a blunt tool, so as to cut at right angles to the blade. There is an
- 19. obvious economy in shaving before tanning, since the raw shavings are valuable for glue-making, while, if taken off by the currier, they are useless for this purpose. The hide also tans faster. Instead of shaving, the untanned hide is frequently split, by drawing it against a rapidly vibrating knife. The piece removed is tanned for some inferior purpose, if sufficiently perfect. In sheep-skins, which are split by a special machine, the grain-side is tanned for French morocco or basil, while the flesh-side is dressed with oil, and forms the ordinary chamois or wash- leather (see p. 210). Such a machine is shown in Fig. 50. Fig. 50. Tanned leather is frequently split by forcing it against a fixed knife, as in the American "Union" machine, Fig. 51. This is however being gradually superseded by the band-knife splitting machine, Fig. 52, in which an endless steel blade travels over two pulleys like a belt, and is kept constantly sharpened by a pair of emery-wheels seen below the machine. I am indebted for the block to Messrs. Haley and Co., who have made great numbers of these machines.
- 20. Fig. 51. After bating, scudding, and shaving, the hides are taken into the tan- house, where they are grained, either by frequent handling, or by working in a paddle-tumbler (a vat agitated with a paddle-wheel, and known in America as an "England wheel"), with a liquor of suitable strength. What this strength should be depends on whether a well-marked grain is required or not. The stronger the liquor, the more it contracts the hide, wrinkling the surface into a network of numberless crossing furrows, which form the well- known marking of "grain-leather." In bark tannage, the after management is much like that described with sole-leather, except that weaker infusions are employed, and acid liquors, which would swell the hide and produce a harsh leather, are avoided. In old-fashioned country yards, which produce some of the best bark-tanned shaved hides, the liquors rarely range above 10°-15° of the barkometer, and the time employed is 3-6 months. The hides, after passing through a set of handlers, of gradually increasing strength, in which they are at first moved every day, are laid away with bark liquor and a good dusting of bark, receiving perhaps 4-5 layers of 2-4 weeks each. Unfortunately, these tannages are so unprofitable that they are rapidly being supplanted by quicker and cheaper methods. Fig. 52.
- 21. These more rapid and cheap tannages mostly depend on the use of "terra" (block or cube gambier) in combination with bark, valonia, mimosa, and myrobalanes. Liquors warmed to 110° or even 140° F. (43°-60° C.) are frequently employed, and a bright colour is finally imparted by handling in a warm sumach or myrobalanes liquor, which dissolves out much of the colour imparted by terra or extracts. The tannage is helped forward by frequent handling, by working in tumblers, or sometimes by suspension on rocking or travelling frames, after the American fashion. To this class of tannage belongs that of East India kips, which is largely carried on in the neighbourhood of Leeds. These kips are the hides of the small cattle of India, and are imported in a dried condition, and with their flesh-side protected (and loaded) with a coat of salt and whitewash or plaster. They are usually softened in putrid soaks, and unhaired with lime, and are used in England for many of the purposes for which calf-skins were formerly employed. A variety of East India kips, called "arsenic kips," are treated (instead of plastering) with a small quantity of arsenic before drying, to prevent the ravages of insects, which are often very destructive to these goods. Many kips tanned in India have also been imported of late years, and have greatly interfered with the profits of English tanners. In yards where the leather is intended to be sold uncurried, it is taken up into the drying-sheds, well oiled on the grain with cod-liver oil, and either simply hung on the poles to dry, or stretched with a "righter," a tool shaped somewhat like a spade-handle, and finally set out with it to a smooth and rounded form. As in the case of sole-leather, too much light or wind must be avoided, and it is very difficult to use artificial heat successfully in the early stages of the process. It is, however, now very common for the tanner who produces such leather also to curry it, and, as this effects a considerable economy, both in labour and material, it is likely to become universal. When leather is to be sold rough, it is necessary to tan it in such a way as to give it a white appearance, from the deposit of "bloom" already mentioned; this being regarded by curriers as an essential mark of a good tannage, although the first step in the currying process is to completely scour it out. When the tanner curries his own leather, he of course aims at putting in as little bloom as possible, thus economising both tanning material and labour. In addition, the leather goes direct from the tan-house to the currying-shops, thus saving both drying and soaking again, and, it is said, giving better weight and quality. The tanner, too, is enabled to shave his hides or skins more completely, utilising the material
- 22. for glue-stuff, which, had the leather been for sale in the rough, must have been left on to obtain a profitable weight.
- 23. CHAPTER XIII. CURRYING. In general terms, the process of currying consists in softening, levelling, and stretching the hides and skins which are required for the upper-leathers of boots, and other purposes demanding flexibility and softness, and in saturating or "stuffing" them with fatty matters, not only in order to soften them, but to make them watertight, and to give them an attractive appearance. It is obvious that great differences must be made in the currying process, according to the character of the skin and the purpose for which it is intended, since the preparation of French calf for a light boot, and of the heaviest leather for machine belting, equally lie within the domain of currying. In this case, however, as in that of tanning, the clearest idea of the general principles involved will be gained by taking a typical case, and afterwards pointing out the different modifications needed for other varieties. The French method of currying waxed calf is selected as an example, since the well-known excellence of this leather makes it interesting to compare the details with the methods ordinarily in use in this country. After raising the skins from the pits, and beating off the loose tan, they are hung in the sheds till partially dry (essorage), great care being taken that the drying is uniform over the whole skin. In modern shops, this drying is usually accomplished at once, and in a very satisfactory manner, by means of a hydraulic press. If dried in the air, they must be laid in pile for a short time to equalise the moisture, and then brushed over on flesh and grain. The next process consists in paring off loose flesh and inequalities (dérayage). This is done on a beam, and with a knife similar to that used in bate-shaving, and shown in A, Fig. 26. This knife has the edge turned by rubbing with a strong steel, and is called couteau à revers. Next follows the mise au vent. The skins are first placed in a tub with water or weak tan-liquor for 24 hours; they are then folded and placed in a tub with enough water to cover them, and beaten with wooden pestles for
- 24. 1 /4 hour. At the present day, stocks (foulon vertical), or a "drum-tumbler" (tonneau à fouler), a machine on the principle of the barrel-churn, usually take the place of this hand-labour. The skin is next placed on a marble table, flesh upwards, and with one flank hanging somewhat over the edge, and is worked with a "sleeker" or stretching-iron (étire), B, Fig. 26. The first 2 strokes are given down and up the back, to make the skin adhere to the table, and it is then worked out regularly all round the side on the table, so as to stretch and level it. The flesh is then washed over with a grass-brush (brosse à chien-dent), the skin is turned, and the other flank is treated in the same way. It is lastly folded in 4, and steeped again in water. The next process is the cleansing of the grain. The skin is spread again on the table, as before, but grain upwards, and is worked over with a stone (cœurse), set in handles, and ground to a very obtuse edge. This scours out the bloom; after washing the grain with the grass-brush, it is followed by the sleeking-iron, as on the flesh. The next step is resetting (retenage). For this, except in summer, the skins must be dried again, either by press or in the shed. This is another setting out with the sleeker, and, the skin being dried, it now retains the smoothness and extension which is thus given to it. The skins are now ready for oiling in the grain, for which whale-oil or cod-liver oil is generally employed. Olive-oil, castor-oil, and even linseed-oil may, however, be used, and are sometimes made into an emulsion with neutral soap and water. After oiling the grain, the skins are folded and allowed to lie for 2-3 days before oiling the flesh. The oiling on the flesh is done with a mixture of dégras and tallow, in such proportions as not to run off during the drying. Dégras is the surplus oil from the chamois-leather manufacture, which in France is effected by daily stocking the skins with oil, and hanging in the air for oxidation. The dégras (toise, moëllon) is obtained, not by washing the skins in an alkaline lye, as in the English and German method, but by simple pressing or wringing. This oil, altered by oxidation, is so valuable for currying purposes that skins are frequently worked simply for its production, being oiled and squeezed again and again till not a rag is left. It is generally mixed in commerce with more or less of ordinary fish-oil. Eitner recommends, where the dégras is of indifferent quality, a mixture of 65 parts dégras, 20 of neutral soap (i. e. soap without the usual excess of alkali), and 15 of soft tallow. After oiling the flesh, which is accomplished by extending the skin on the marble table with the sleeker, and applying grease with a sheep-skin
- 25. pad, it is hung to dry at a temperature of 65°-70° F. (18°-21° C.). After drying, the surplus oil is removed by a fine sleeker from both flesh and grain, and the skins are ready for "whitening" (blanchissage). This consists in taking a thin shaving off the flesh, and was originally accomplished by the shaving-knife on the currier's beam, and some curriers are still in favour of this method. It is now, however, usually done by a sleeker with a turned edge. The grain then undergoes a final stoning and sleeking, to remove the last traces of adhering oil, and the skin is grained by rubbing it in a peculiar way under a pommel covered with cork. It is then coated on the flesh with a mixture, of which the following is a specimen:—5 parts of lamp-black are rubbed with 4 of linseed-oil, and 35 parts of fish-oil are added; 15 parts of tallow and 3 of wax are melted together and added to the mixture; and, after cooling, 3 parts of treacle. This compound is put on with a brush, and allowed to dry for some days. Finally, the skins are sized over with a glue- size, which is sometimes darkened by the addition of aniline-black. The preceding account will give some idea of the care and labour expended on these goods in France. In England, cheaper productions are more in vogue, and almost every process is accomplished by machinery. An illustration of the Fitzhenry or Jackson scouring-machine, which is largely employed both for scouring and setting out, is given in Fig. 53. This is a simple and efficient machine, and has been largely used, both here and in America.
- 26. Fig. 53. Fig. 54 shows the improved tool-carriage introduced by C. Holmes of Boston, in which the brush and sleekers or stones are controlled by handles which are stationary instead of moving rapidly with the slide, as in the older form. Spiral springs are also substituted for the older elliptical ones. Fig. 54.
- 27. Fig. 55. The Fitzhenry machine has also been constructed so as to work in any direction over a fixed table, being driven by a small direct-acting steam- cylinder supplied by jointed pipes. But probably the most perfect scouring and setting machine which has yet been introduced is the Lockwood Automatic Scourer, which may also be regarded as a development of the Fitzhenry machine. This has been some years in use in America with great success, and has received considerable improvements, but has only very recently been introduced into England by Messrs. Schrader and Mitchell of Glasgow, who have kindly furnished the annexed illustration (Fig. 56). In this machine the table is fixed, and the tool-carriage can be moved over it in every direction. The large projecting carriage, or cross-head, which supports it, travels on a horizontal rail, which may be observed below and behind the table. Motion is given to it by a screw which is driven in either direction by the pulleys at each side of the cross-head. In a similar way the tool-carriage is traversed forwards or backwards by a second screw at right angles to the first, and by a most ingenious interlocking arrangement both screws are controlled by a single handle. The tool-carriage or "trundle frame" can also be turned like a turntable, so as to deliver its stroke in any direction, the tool-holder being driven by a horizontal crank in the centre of the frame, and immediately above the tools. Though the machine is complicated, and necessarily expensive, it has not been found either in America or Scotland difficult to work or liable to get out of order, while both the quantity and quality of its work are all that can be desired. Fig. 55 is Gläser's scouring machine. Fig. 57 illustrates the latest English scouring machine, Messrs. Haley and Co.'s Climax Scourer, which is also ingenious and effective. In it the table instead of the tool-holder is movable by screws
- 28. driven by belts thrown into gear by a handle, and it is provided with two tables of which one is in work while the hides are being changed and spread on the other. The oscillating tool-holder, instead of being actuated by the rise and fall of the connecting-rod, is moved by an adjustable eccentric. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. In the case of strap-butts, the currying is, of course, far less elaborate. They are well scoured out, heavily stuffed, and stretched in screw-frames, to prevent their giving afterwards when in use.
- 29. In Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a method of stuffing strap-butts is frequently employed, which, so far as I am aware, is not in use in England. It is called Einbrennen or "burning in," and consists in applying very hot tallow to the dry leather. The butts are washed free from liquor in a tumbler, boarded to soften them thoroughly, scoured, set out with a sleeker, nailed on laths, and air-dried. They are then very completely dried in a room heated to 104°-113° F. (40°-45° C.), as if any moisture remains in the hide, the fibre will be destroyed by the heat of the melted tallow. The tallowing generally takes place in the same room, as a high temperature is required to allow it to soak in, and the leather would greedily reabsorb moisture if exposed to damp air. The tallow is heated, generally by steam in a jacketed pan, to 167°-212° F. (75°-100° C.). There are two ways of applying it. The melted tallow may be applied on a table to the flesh side of the butt with a ladle, and rubbed on with a brush or rag. In this case, as soon as the tallow has sufficiently soaked in, the butts are placed in water to prevent its striking through to the grain. The second way is to have the pan of sufficient size and suitable shape, and for two men to draw the butt through the melted tallow with tongs, and more or less rapidly according to the quantity it is desired that the leather should absorb; and in some cases the process is repeated once or more. In this case, it is useless to wet in water, and the butts are allowed to cool gradually in pile. The leather is now impregnated with grease, but it is far from being properly stuffed. Instead of the grease being spread over the finest fibres in a minute state of division, it simply fills the spaces between the larger fibres. To remedy this, the butts are well softened in water (which, if they have been drawn through the tallow and allowed to cool, must be tepid), and are then worked in a damp condition in a drum tumbler, by which they brighten in colour and become uniformly stuffed. They are then allowed to lie in a pile a day or two, are stoned and worked out with the sleeker, and hung up to dry. When in right temper they receive a final setting out with the sleeker, and when dry are either rolled or glassed. For further details, Nos. 256 and 257 of 'Der Gerber,' 1885, must be consulted, where the matter has been exhaustively treated by Eitner, in his papers on "Extract- Gerberei."
- 30. Fig. 58. In England, curried leathers are generally sold by weight, which leads to the use of glucose and other materials to add to the weight. In America, all upper leathers are sold by measure, and this is now ascertained by a very ingenious machine (Fig. 58). The skin is laid on a latticed table, and a frame, from which rows of bullets are suspended, is let down upon it. The total weight of the frame is indicated by a spring balance, and as the bullets which are over the skin are supported by it, the diminution of weight indicates the measurement. Several modified forms of this machine are now made.
- 31. CHAPTER XIV. ENAMELLED, PATENT, OR JAPANNED LEATHER. These are terms used to designate those leathers, whether of the ox, the horse, the calf, or the seal, which are finished with a waterproof and bright varnished surface, similar to the lacquered wood-work of the Japanese. The name "enamelled" is generally applied when the leathers are finished with a roughened or grained surface, and "patent" or "japanned" are the terms used when the finish is smooth. Though generally black, yet a small quantity of this leather is made in a variety of colours. In America, large thin hides are principally used for the purpose. They are limed and bated in the usual way, stoned after bating, and tanned with hemlock and oak barks in a paddle tumbler, which is run for 10-15 minutes in each hour. When one-third tanned, they are levelled on the flesh, and split with the belt-knife splitter, Fig. 52. After splitting, the portions are drummed with strong gambier liquor for 1 /4 hour, and then tanned out with bark. The grains are scoured with the Fitzhenry or Lockwood machine (Figs. 53 and 56). They are then lightly oiled and stretched on frames which can be enlarged by screws or a sort of knuckle-joint at the corners. When quite dry, they are grounded with a mixture of linseed-oil with white lead and litharge, boiled together and thickened with chalk and ochre. This is dried in closets heated by steam, into which the frames are slid face downwards, the heat being gradually increased from 80° to 160° F. (27° to 71° C.). If it be desired to employ a higher temperature, the leather is first saturated with a solution of 2 oz. each of borax and alum in 1 gal. water, when temperatures of 230°-250° F. (110°-120° C.) may be used. The remaining treatment is much as above described, but a little turpentine is used to make the paint work freely. The final varnish is composed of 20 parts spirit of turpentine, 20 linseed oil, 10 thick copal varnish, and 1 of asphaltum or other colouring material. This must be mixed 2-3 weeks before use, and applied with a brush. The splits are also often enamelled, and as a preparation receive a dressing of linseed-oil boiled to a jelly and thinned with turpentine or
- 32. naphtha. This is applied with a stiff brush after the splits are stretched on the frames and are still damp, so that it does not penetrate the leather, but forms a sort of artificial grain. Leather destined to be finished in this way requires to be curried without the use of much dubbing, and to be well softened. The English practice is to nail the skins thus prepared, and quite dry, on large smooth boards, fitted to slide in and out of stoves maintained at a temperature of 160°-170° F. (71°-77° C.), coating them repeatedly with a sort of paint composed (for black) of linseed-oil, lamp-black, and Prussian blue, well ground together. Each coating is allowed to dry in the stoves, before the next is applied. The number of coatings varies with the kind of skin under treatment, and the purpose for which it is intended. The surface of every coat must be rubbed smooth with pumice; finally, a finishing coat of oil-varnish is applied, and, like the preceding coats, is dried in the stove. The exact degrees of dryness and flexibility, the composition of the paint, and the thickness and number of the coats, are nice points, difficult to describe in writing. This branch of the leather industry, so far as it relates to calf-skins, is carried on to a larger extent, and has been brought to greater perfection in Germany and France than in England. In the former countries, the heat of the sun is employed to dry some of the coatings. The United States have also brought this style to a high degree of excellence, especially in ox-hides. There, use is said to be made of the oils and spirits obtained from petroleum, and without doubt, French and German emigrant workmen have materially assisted in attaining this high standard. Leather finished in these styles is used for slippers, parts of shoes, harness, ladies' waist-belts, hand-bags, &c., and has now maintained a place among the varieties of leather for a long period of years.
- 33. CHAPTER XV. MOROCCO LEATHER. Morocco leather is produced from goat-skins. Rough-haired or "blue- back" seal-skins are also used, and produce an excellent article; while an inferior description, called "French morocco," is produced from sheep-skins. The skins are unhaired by liming in the usual way, and are then baited with a mixture of dogs' dung and water. The tanning is done chiefly with sumach, at first in paddle-tumblers, and then in handlers, lasting about a month in all. Sheep-skins are usually tanned through in about 24 hours, by being sewn up into bags, grain-side outwards, and nearly filled with strong sumach infusion. A little air is then blown in, to completely distend the skin, and they are floated in a sumach bath, and kept moving by means of a paddle. After the first day's immersion, they are thrown up on a shelf, and allowed to drain; they are then again filled with sumach liquor; when this has a second time exuded through the skin, they are sufficiently tanned, and the sewing being ripped open, they are washed and scraped clean, and hung up to dry, making what are called "crust-roans." The dyeing is sometimes done by brushing on a table, grain-side upwards, but more usually the skins are folded closely down the back, flesh-side inwards, so as to protect it as much as possible from the influence of the colour, and then passed through the dye-bath, which is now generally of aniline colours. The original oriental method of manufacture for red morocco was to dye with cochineal before tanning, and this is still customary in the East, but is quite obsolete in this country. A grain or polish is given to the leather, either by boarding, or by working under small pendulum rollers, called "jiggers," which are engraved either with grooves or with an imitation of grain. A well- cleaned sumach-tanned skin is capable of being dyed in the finest shades of colour; and this branch of the manufacture of leather has been brought to great perfection.
- 34. CHAPTER XVI. RUSSIA LEATHER (Ger., Juchtenleder). This is tanned in Russia with, the bark of various species of willow, poplar and larch, either by laying away in pits, or handling in liquors, much like other light leathers, the lime being first removed by bating, either in a drench of rye- and oat-meal and salt, by dogs' dung, or by sour liquors. After tanning, the hides are again softened and cleansed by a weak drench of rye- and oat-meal. They are then shaved down, carefully sleeked and scoured out, and dried. The peculiar odour is given by saturating them with birch-bark oil, which is rubbed into the flesh-side with cloths. This oil is produced by dry distillation of the bark and twigs of the birch. The red colour is given by dyeing with Brazilwood; and the diamond-shaped marking by rolling with grooved rollers. Much of the leather now sold as "Russia" is produced in Germany, France, and England. It is tanned in the customary way, occasionally with willow, but more generally with oak-bark, and probably other materials. Economy would suggest the use of such materials as, from their red colour, are objectionable for other purposes, and therefore cheap. The currying is in the usual manner, care being taken that the oil used does not strike through to the grain, which would prevent it taking the dye. The colour is given by grounding with a solution of chloride of tin (100 parts tin perchloride, 30 parts nitric acid, 25 parts hydrochloric acid, allowed to stand some days, and the clear solution poured off, and mixed with 12 volumes of water). The dye-liquor may be composed of 70 parts rasped Brazilwood, 3 parts tartar, and 420 parts water, boiled together, strained, and allowed to settle clear. The grounding and dyeing are done on a table with a brush or sponge (see Glove-kid dyeing, p. 229). The odour is communicated by rubbing the flesh-side with a mixture of fish-oil and birch-bark oil, which sometimes contains no more than 5 per cent. of the latter. Pl. VII.
- 35. E. & F. N. Spon, London & New York. "INK-PHOTO." SPRAGUE & CO. LONDON. TREADING AND DYEING THE SKINS.
- 36. CHAPTER XVII. CHAMOIS OR WASH-LEATHER. This leather, which is remarkable for its soft felty texture, which it retains even after wetting, although perfectly porous and free from greasiness in its finished state, is prepared by the action of oil on the raw skin. Wash-leather was formerly manufactured from sheep- and calf-skins, and from those of the chamois, and various deer (hence the name), from which, after liming, the grain was removed (frized) with a sharp knife, either with the hair, or after unhairing. The flesh-splits of sheep-skins are now generally employed for ordinary wash-leather, and of course no such process is needed, though buff-leather for belts and military purposes is still so manufactured. The skins receive a thorough liming, which, where softness is desired, is so conducted as very thoroughly to remove the cement-substance (coriin) from between the fibres; and this removal is frequently carried still further by a short bran-drench, which also secures the complete absence of lime. After the usual beam-work, the skins are pressed or wrung out to remove surplus water, and while still moist are oiled on a table and folded in cushions. Fish-, seal-, or whale-oil is generally used, and vegetable oils do not seem to answer even in mixture, with the exception perhaps of olive-oil. The skins are next stocked for 2-3 hours, shaken out, and hung up for 1 /2-1 hour to cool and partially dry. They are then again folded in bundles, and stocked for a short time, taken out, oiled again, and returned to the stocks; and this process is repeated, until the skins lose their original smell of limed hide, and acquire a peculiar mustard-like odour, and the water at first present has been entirely replaced by oil. The later dryings are frequently conducted in a heated room, and when the oiling is complete, the skins are piled on the floor, and the oxidation of the oil, which has already commenced during the fullings and dryings above described, is completed by a sort of fermentation, in which the skins heat very considerably. During this process, they are carefully watched, and if the heat rises so high as to endanger the quality of the leather, the pile must be turned over, so as to cool the skins, and bring those which were originally outside to the centre. When the fermentation comes to an end, the skins are no longer
- 37. susceptible of heating, and are of the well-known yellow or chamois colour. Where this colour is objectionable, the oxidation is sometimes completed by hanging the leather in a heated room instead of by piling. It is now necessary to remove the surplus oil, and this in France is done by oiling with any sort of oil, throwing into hot water, and wringing or squeezing. The oil obtained in this way forms the moëllon or dégras so much prized for currying purposes. The unoxidised oil still retained by the skins is removed by washing with soda or potash lye. In England and Germany, the whole of the uncombined oil is removed in this way, and is recovered from the lye, in which it exists in a partially saponified state, by neutralisation with sulphuric acid. It forms the "sod" oil of commerce. About half the oil employed is obstinately retained by the skin, and cannot be removed even by boiling with alkalies, while no gelatin is obtained by boiling water, to which the chamoised skin is much more resistant than ordinary leather. The nature of the tanning process does not seem to be well understood. It is generally stated that the fibres of the skin are unaltered, but are merely coated with the oxidised products of the oil. It is hard, however, on this hypothesis to understand their extraordinary indifference to water, even at a boiling temperature, which speedily converts kid and other tawed leathers into a solution which gelatinises on cooling; and it seems more probable to the present writer that some actual chemical combination is formed. Lietzman ('Herstellung der Leder,' p. 164) supposes that the whole of the gelatigenous tissue has been removed by liming and bating, and that only the very indifferent yellow elastic fibres (see p. 21) remain. This view, however, is quite untenable, in consideration of the very small proportion of these fibres originally present in the skin. Müntz, in his researches (see p. 17), showed that the fibres insoluble in boiling water scarcely exceeded 3 per cent, of the dried pelt. Dry gelatigenous fibre has a considerable resistance to heat, and it is possible that the action of the oil may consist in preventing the absorption of water. This, however, will not explain its resistance to alkalies. Cotton or other vegetable fibres moistened with oil, readily undergo oxidation, with so much evolution of heat as sometimes to cause spontaneous combustion; but the oxidation products are easily and completely removed by alkaline solutions, leaving the fibre in its original state, as indeed is noted by Lietzman (loc. cit.). The finishing processes consist in staking during drying to retain softness, and in whitening and smoothing the flesh (or sometimes both sides) on the fluffing wheel. Skins for gloves, &c., are bleached like linen, by sprinkling and exposure to the sun; or more rapidly by treatment with a
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