Space Matters Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today 1st Edition Lukas Feireiss

Space Matters Exploring Spatial Theory and
Practice Today 1st Edition Lukas Feireiss pdf
download
https://ebookgate.com/product/space-matters-exploring-spatial-
theory-and-practice-today-1st-edition-lukas-feireiss/
Get Instant Ebook Downloads – Browse at https://ebookgate.com

Get Your Digital Files Instantly: PDF, ePub, MOBI and More
Quick Digital Downloads: PDF, ePub, MOBI and Other Formats
Spatial Cognition Spatial Perception Mapping the Self
and Space 1st Edition Francine L. Dolins
https://ebookgate.com/product/spatial-cognition-spatial-
perception-mapping-the-self-and-space-1st-edition-francine-l-
dolins/
Corporate Strategy in Construction Understanding Today
s Theory and Practice 1st Edition Steven Mccabe
https://ebookgate.com/product/corporate-strategy-in-construction-
understanding-today-s-theory-and-practice-1st-edition-steven-
mccabe/
The Blackpill Theory Why Incels Are Right and You Are
Wrong 1st Edition Lukas Castle
https://ebookgate.com/product/the-blackpill-theory-why-incels-
are-right-and-you-are-wrong-1st-edition-lukas-castle/
Africa Yesterday Today and Tomorrow Exploring the Multi
dimensional Discourses on Development 1st Edition
Nathan Andrews
https://ebookgate.com/product/africa-yesterday-today-and-
tomorrow-exploring-the-multi-dimensional-discourses-on-
development-1st-edition-nathan-andrews/

Exploring Developmental Psychology Understanding Theory
and Methods 1st Edition Margaret Harris
https://ebookgate.com/product/exploring-developmental-psychology-
understanding-theory-and-methods-1st-edition-margaret-harris/
Exploring Digital Libraries Foundations Practice
Prospects Karen Calhoun
https://ebookgate.com/product/exploring-digital-libraries-
foundations-practice-prospects-karen-calhoun/
Principles of nano optics Lukas Novotny
https://ebookgate.com/product/principles-of-nano-optics-lukas-
novotny/
Smarandache Multi Space Theory Second Edition Linfan
Mao
https://ebookgate.com/product/smarandache-multi-space-theory-
second-edition-linfan-mao/
Provenance Research Today Principles Practice Problems
Arthur Tompkins (Editor)
https://ebookgate.com/product/provenance-research-today-
principles-practice-problems-arthur-tompkins-editor/

SPAcE MAttErS
Exploring Spatialtheory
and Practicetoday
Edited by
Lukas Feireiss
space&designstrategies

Exploring Spatial Theoryand Practice Today

3
Exploring Spatial Theory
and Practice Today
Lukas Feireiss
Space Matters.
Exploring SpatialTheory
and PracticeToday
Space matters. It represents a prominent aspect of humanity’s
existential nature—as the primordial basis of architecture and
a basic prerequisite for our exploration of the world. Our entire
lives are literally embedded in space. We are constantly sur-
rounded, affected and shaped by it—whether consciously per-
ceived or unconsciously experienced.
Space is the context in which we live: it acts as storage
media of our historic situatedness and testimonial and symbol
of the respective historical and cultural fabric we live in. Space
is defined in individual, social, geographic, historical-temporal,
cultural and political terms. It is the primary space, the space of
dwelling, the individual and personal space, the social and col-
lective space, the space of architecture and the city, the space
of the informal and formal, the space of the exterior and the
interior, the fictional and visionary space, the artistic space—to
mention only a few. Indeed, the theme of space lends itself to
infinite descriptions and interpretations of which none can do
without the others. Each lives on an symbiotic complementar-
ity that alone give it meaning.
With this in mind Space Matters explores contemporary
languages of space in theory and practice, re-evaluating spatial
production modes beyond disciplinary boundaries and proto-
col. In a two-fold approach the book at hand thereby firstly
attempts to explain why the discussion of space does matter,

4
Space Matters. Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today
Space
Matters
and secondly what constitutes matters of space today.With this
intentional double meaning, Space Matters creates a bridge
between critical and creative approaches to the interdisciplin-
ary study and analysis of spatial matters. In what follows the
reader is presented with an collection of essays that explore the
notion of space in all its complex and diverging, contemporary
exposures: an eclectic panorama, an unorthodox assortment of
ideas, interpretations, hypotheses, and debate presented and
encouraged during a two day international symposium I curated
and moderated in my capacity as visiting-professor at the Bach-
elor and Master programme space&designstrategies, that was
graciously hosted by the University of Art and Design Linz in
spring 2012. The illustrious group of international speakers at
the symposium were called upon to reflect and speculate on the
multiple meanings and definitions of space in contemporary
culture, and to do so from the perspective of their own profes-
sional, academic, theoretical, or practical expertise. An intrigu-
ing series of talks and performances by theoreticians, practic-
tians, architects, artists, and curators alike succeeded over the
course of two days, that created a focused intellectual exchange
between disciplines, unleashing provocative argumentations
and inspiring discussions. Amongst all participants a stimulat-
ing, mutual curiosity about spaces of manifold differences and
similarities was felt.

Now presented in this book are the multiple outstanding con-
tributions to the symposium under four interconnecting the-
matic clusters that invite for reciprocal exchange as they remain
essentially open to actively foster the dialogue of ideas. Whilst
the first chapter Education: Pedagogics of Space focuses on con-
temporary examples of pedagogical and educational strategies
in the critical and creative discussion and design of spaces of
all kinds, the second chapter Theory: Semantics of Space brings

5
Space Matters. Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today
and Practice Today
together theoretical approaches that react to both historical
and contemporary contexts, ultimately turning a critical and
speculative gaze on complex scenarios that may have remained
unquestioned or seem straightforward at a first glance.With an
overall attentiveness towards the complex relationships of con-
text and site, the third chapter Practice: Performance of Space
examines examples illustrating the performative and transfor-
mational power of spatial interventions in the built environ-
ment. Last but not least, Curatorial: Mediation of Space looks
into the world of curators dealing with modes of spatial repre-
sentation and ways of translating spatial discourse, that raise
the bar of contemporary exhibition-making in both galleries
and public spaces.
Against the backdrop of these diverse accesses to the phe-
nomena of space, the book attempts to acknowledge the possi-
bility to comprehend and create spaces of knowledge that pres-
ent us with a prerequisite for identifying the broader reaches of
reality. Space Matters does not aim to reduce and idealize the
concept of space but rather promotes the preservation of com-
plexity as well as the study of space in all its historical and socio-
political mediation, interconnectedness and transformation. It
seeks out the common areas between differing approaches and
highlights the multitude of ways to approach seemingly-famil-
iar problems in radically new ways.○
and Practice Today

6
Space
Matters
Foreword and Introduction:
3 Lukas Feireiss
A Education:
Pedagogics of Space
10 Elsa Prochazka
flagship europe: space&designstrategies on Tour
16 Hubert Klumpner & Alfredo Brillembourg
Gran Horizonte: Curriculum for a New City
26 MarthaThorne
Real Space,Virtual Space:What Really Matters?
36 Annett Zinsmeister
The Art of Thinking and Designing Space
B Theory:
Semantics of Space
48 Jane Rendell
When Site-Writing Becomes Site-Reading
Or How Space Matters Through Time
60 Felicity D. Scott
Inhabiting Space
68 Thomas Macho
Hopper’sWindows
84 Bruno Latour
Some Experiments in Art and Politics
Table of Contents

7
and Practice Today
and Practice Today
C Practice:
Performance of Space
98 Marjetica Potr
AVision of the Future City and the Artist’s Role as Medi-
ator: Learning From Projects in Caracas and Amsterdam
108 Michael Obrist/feld72
Trojan Horses and Other Social Animals
120 Luis Berríos-Negrón
Manners, Parameters, and Other Gay Sciences:
Realities From the Paramennerist Treatise
138 IrisTouliatou
The CitiesWhere he Worked are no Longer There
D Curatorial:
Mediation of Space
148 Carson Chan
Measures of an Exhibition: Space, not Art,
is the Curator’s Primary Material
164 Markus Miessen
Critical Spatial Practice and the Role of the Crossbencher
174 Lilli Hollein
All Kinds of Spaces
182 Rani al Rajji
Fifty Percent
187 Appendix
189 Biographies
192 Imprint

Space Matters Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today 1st Edition Lukas Feireiss

9
Pedagogics
of Space
Education
Pedagogics of Space
Section
A
Pages 9–45
Pedagogics of Space focuses on contemporary examples of peda-
gogical and educational strategies in the critical and creative dis-
cussion and design of spaces and built environments today.

10
A
Education:
Elsa Prochazka
Flagship Europe:
Space&designstrategies
onTour
JustoneyearaftertheEUexpansioninMay2005,space&design-
strategies started an expedition downstream the Danube from
Linz, Austria to the Black Sea for two months.
They chartered an old vessel and transformed and rede-
signed it themselves into a mobile base for their special pur-
pose with accommodations for 6o persons: students, faculty,
and guests as well as workspace and a medialab.
Filling up the white spots
in the mental map
The prior topic was mobility and transportation as cultural
technique. Even though our university is located on the banks
of the Danube, the cultural and political phenomenon of this
river is still hidden for many of us.
There is no static result, but rather more of a process-
related series of events, which we transformed into a fluctu-
ating project. The outcome is the experience of travel prepa-
rations of a journey, and the ongoing documentation of the
trip. The number of ideas we create throughout will contain
an abundance of materials that we gather by drifting along
the Danube. The “Negrelli”—transformed into flagship_
europe—allows us to understand the condensed potential of
this stream of communication for the European community.
Pages 10–13

11
Pedagogics
of Space
Flagship Europe: Space&designstrategies on Tour
Moments we sometimes miss become extra important: reflec-
tion, slow-down, and refinement: developing things not force-
fully but slowly: attentive, awake, versatile and at the same
time disciplined, social and focused—all that during a “bor-
ing” cruise. The intersections within our program between
art, architecture, design and digital media allows us to process
our experiences in various ways.
Research: mobility — transportation —
mental mapping
The paths of “cultural mobility” are laid out anew. How can we
set up cooperation for the future? How do the ideas of mobility
and transformation affect the present society and cultural pro-
duction? The success of this expedition does not consist of the
results but a long-lasting process.
living eating media
room
workshop sanitary cooking crew

12
a
Education:
flagShip EuropE: SpacE&dESignStratEgiES on tour

13
pEdagogicS
of SpacE
flagShip EuropE: SpacE&dESignStratEgiES on tour

14
A
Education:
Strategies: workshop —
communication — documentation
The vessel as a floating university, the University of Art and
Design Linz, Austria allows workshops, events and perfor-
mances to come together with local artists, architects, cultural
organizations, universities and companies.
All these different results from research and workshops,
as well as the different impressions are documented continu-
ously and registered in the logbook, which is published in real
time on the Internet and communicated trough different media.
The low-budget situation comes as part of the program
and leads us to develop our own marketing strategies to cultivate
a sustainable way to master improvisation as a form of art with-
out diminishing our approach to the high quality of our activities.
The speed of our times transforms motion into a con-
densed dot—we slow it down and reconfigure it into a line
again—the Danube. ○
Flagship Europe: Space&designstrategies on Tour

A
Education: 16
Alfredo Brillembourg & Hubert Klumpner
with ETH Zürich research assistant Daniel Schwartz
Gran Horizonte:
curriculum for a new city
On December 7, 1972, a few hours into their mission, the crew
of the Apollo 17 spacecraft turned away from their destina-
tion—the moon—and looked back to where they had come
from—the Earth.They photographed what they saw, and their
photograph of a fully illuminated Earth has become one of the
most widely distributed images of all time. What captured the
world’s imagination on that day was not an image of what lay
in outer space, but a new image of our own world; a new way of
perceiving what we thought we understood.
Today, again, we are in need of a new picture of the world.
A broader, clearer understanding of just what our planet looks
like, and how it is changing. More than half the population of
the world today lives in cities. In India alone, it is estimated that
within the next two decades, 380 million people will migrate
from rural areas into metropolises. That would mean creating
twenty new cities the size of Mumbai. Because demographic
and geographic developments in Asia, Africa, and South Amer-
ica will inevitably lead to increased urbanization, one might
think that cities in these regions should prepare for the numer-
ous consequences that come with dramatic population shifts
to urban zones. Surprisingly, however, few politicians, bankers
and urban planners have found it necessary to take action.
After founding Urban-Think Tank [www.u-tt.com] more than
ten years ago, we began to explore the conditions that often
correlate with a city’s successful transition to a megacity. Cit-
ies must not only adapt to population increase, but also to the
Pages 16–25

17
Pedagogics
of Space
Gran Horizonte: curriculum for a new city
increased environmental pollution, traffic congestion, crime,
and poverty. Of the 3.45 billion people who live in cities today,
29 percent—a billion people worldwide—live in slums.
Can we, as architects, propagate the city as a model, when
the scale and dimensions are so new to us (even if we ourselves
live in cities)? Our early work grew into a fundamental research
project, questioning this central issue. Today, U-TT sees itself
as an agency for research and development and an instrument
for social change.
It became clear to us that greater simplicity in archi-
tectural concepts and construction details could improve the
design for our planet. Phrased another way, we became poi-
gnantly aware that to operate in poor urban zones, we would
have to overcome real limits in regard to land, money, and time.
Given this dilemma, as a design firm we decided to imple-
ment realizable micro-projects, rather than proposing grand
master plans that would end up in the dark recesses of a bureau-
crat’s drawer. Indeed, we decided that we could change mar-
ket interests and institutional priorities within cities and slums
through organic and rhizomatic development.Our project is not
philanthropy. It is an attempt to redefine design and our socio-
economic system in a more integrated way—to see the urban
planet in its interconnected entirety, not in fragmented parts.
Socially responsible urban planning begins with an exchange
between local conditions, populations, and multi-disciplinary
experts. For the ever-growing city, we need a form of architec-
ture that includes the lower strata of society and receives their
input and support. In this vein, we seek to implement a democ-
ratization of the planning process. Our office’s design approach
favors alternatives to the existing planning culture—we want
to move away from a maximization of consumption towards
a maximization of production. We believe in cities as centers
for learning, creativity, recycling, and distribution, though this

18
A
Education:
vision has not yet firmly taken root in the public’s imagination.
Our first task as designers is to catalyze the process of
turning the growing metropolises in the southern hemisphere
into a network of innovative nodes. Caracas, the city where
Urban-Think Tank has its roots, is a huge and ideal testing
ground. In the metropolitan region, two million social housing
units are needed, but only 50,000 to 80,000 are built annually,
despite continuing population growth. The slums of Caracas
are the result of three decades of politicians ignoring the real-
ity outside their offices. Population increases between 1958 and
1989 brought roughly four million new inhabitants to the city,
60 percent of who now live in slums.
The problems of city growth must not be delegated to an
undefined later date. Such political negligence in Venezuela is
illustrated by the caraqueño who pays more for a liter of drink-
ing water than a gallon of petrol. Crime is another frightening
aspect of this situation.The murder rate in the city is the high-
est in the whole of Latin America.Within this reality, one must
address the lack of alternatives facing residents—particularly
the young people—through the development of new building
types and spatial programs.
The house is often cited as a metaphor for the city and
the city as a metaphor for the entire planet. The identifica-
tion of simplicity within complex urban forms has led us, at
the beginning of the 21st
century, to develop the concept of an
“urban planet.”The idea embodied in this concept is of a mod-
ern “macropolis,” or one globally connected city. If we accept
the idea that we live on a unified, urban planet, we can reassess
development on the basis of our built city ecology.
The project for an ongoing process of urbanization can be
seen in two ways: on the one hand, the model of the global city
for metropolises like London, NewYork, andTokyo; and on the
other, the global slum for cities like Caracas, São Paulo, Lagos,

19
Pedagogics
of Space
etc. Today, we know that these two are intimately linked, like
the two sides of the same coin. The global metropolises are in
the process of linking up as hot spots—not just physically with
buildings, transport links and power lines, but virtually, too, by
means of radio, mobile phones and social, economic, and cul-
tural networks.
For the first time in the history of man, one does not have
to live in a city to live an urban lifestyle. Indeed, one can no lon-
ger flee the urban environment, as it has been transplanted into
pockets of suburbia, ex-burbia, and even rural lifestyles. That
is why we, within our 2003 Caracas Case project, proclaimed,
“Caracas is everywhere.” We no longer live on a planet full of
houses, but in a house the size of a planet.
The three megatrends—urbanization, globalization, and
informalization—have helped to spread gated communities,
which are often referred to as “islands” or “ghettos.” They are
the dominant expression of modern urbanization.In most cases,
they come about without the participation of architects.These
two urban species have become the focus of our research.Their
resilience and potential of informality have made them even
more interesting as a motor of urban production and change.
Informal practices are economically so successful that they
have aroused the interest of leading groups in the field of urban
planning and economic science.The Dharavi slum in Mumbai,
for example, shows that such areas are often considered the sole
remaining large-scale reserves of land in city centers.
What is lacking, in our opinion is a joint effort to link
“top-down” and “bottom-up” initiatives. In other words,
municipal administration and the general public must sit down
together to draw up an agenda for the planning of our environ-
ment. Only then can we meet the basic needs of the popula-
tion in terms of energy, transport, infrastructure, construction,
waste disposal, food, water, and social relationships.The cities

20
A
Education:
on our planet need more than office tower blocks, museums,
opera houses, airports, stadiums, etc. The Guatemalan archi-
tect Teddy Cruz put this concept of meaningless development
in a nutshell, when he remarked:“It’s time to put Marcel Duch-
amp’s urinal back on the wall.” We know that urbanization in
the form of prestigious and signature buildings attracts invest-
ment and creates wealth. However, this story too often seems
like an American or European fairy tale, imposed upon other
regions of the world where wealth does not flow, but rather
accumulates in bubbles. Cities in these “developing” regions
witness a marked increase in the income of a small segment of
the population, while the majority remains or sinks lower into
poverty.The consequences of this global trend are evident even
within the wealthier geographies such as the banlieues of Paris
or the shrinking cities of the American Midwest.
What we witness in contemporary slums is the result of
decades of neglect. In South America—and recently the Mid-
dle East—we have learned that delaying action in this state
of urban crisis leads to revolution. As Joseph Schumpeter pre-
dicted at the beginning of the 20th
century, creative destruction
will lead to greater problems for all of us.The base of the pop-
ulation pyramid living in slums gives hope for a new dialogue
in architecture through reforms on a small, yet comprehensible
scale.This is the line of thought and action we are pursuing at
U-TT. All our prototypes, from dry toilets to inner-city cable
cars, are assembled in our “urban toolbox.” Simplified forms of
construction are the only realistic design position possible for
architects operating in slums.The cities we imagine will not be
new, but rather retrofitted. Novel urbanisms will emerge on top
of existing models.The concept of planning an ideal city or new
town for the vast majority of people is unrealistic. It is a concept
grounded in the modernist denial of limits and diversity. It is a
mode of design that claims omniscience without proof.

21
Pedagogics
of Space
The lack of institutional structures, such as schools, hos-
pitals, post offices and police stations, along with the absence of
public buildings and traffic infrastructure, has led to a void of
responsibility in cities of the South.With spaces, programs and
typologies, we are trying to fill this void by inventing a city that
is in the process of acquiring a form.We seek to foster a city that
exists in a state of constant self-recognition.
In the Caracas San Agustín barrio, which extends over
a steep, 200-metre-high hill, some 40,000 local residents pro-
tested against a planned network of roads that would have
required the clearance of significant housing and communally
valued spaces. At the time, we urged the government to build
on the specific qualities of the barrio, arguing that this was not
a hill covered with houses, but a house the size of a hill. Verti-
cal lift, we identified, was missing. In order to avoid the road-
centric proposal, which would have been a typical slum eradi-
cation project based on the car city, we conceived a cable-car
line. The outcome was a minimal-intervention transport sys-
tem, with a maximum capacity of 1,200 persons per hour who
could be conveyed in both directions. With the collaboration
of the local authorities and other organizations, we looked for
suitable locations for the masts and stations so as to integrate
the system as delicately as possible. Inaugurated in 2010 with
five cable car stations, the system has been built by the Dop-
pelmayr/ Garaventa Group, an Austrian ropeway engineering
company.Two of the stations are situated at the foot of the hill
directly above existing underground stations. The three other
stations are laid out over the long slope and are combined with
recreation facilities for education, sport and music. In this way,
the connection points of the system have multi-use function-
ality and strengthen each element of the programming. The
Caracas Metro Cable shows how hillside communities can be
integrated into a metropolitan transport system that serves all

22
A
Education:
citizens, regardless of their income and the local topography.
This concept of a city without car traffic can be adopted as a
model for other metropolises. While technological innovations
are certainly crucial for such development, we see the design
process, in these contexts, as a matter of creativity and social
organizing.This is the turf of 21st-century urban design.
TheVertical Gym is a prototype for a sports complex com-
prising vertically stacked basketball courts, weightlifting areas,
a running track, a football pitch on the roof, a climbing wall and
relevant athletic facilities. Sports grounds are usually the only
remaining street-level spaces in cities left unbuilt or structure-
free. But these spaces are often insufficient—they can only host
one football field or a miniature baseball diamond. Thus, the
sole direction in which sports facilities can be extended is verti-
cally: layers create increased surface area. In this way, a ground
area of 1,000m² can be built up to provide facilities covering
3,800m² on four floors.To meet the needs for sports and recre-
ation in the barrios of the city, more than 100 of these vertical
gymnasiums would be needed.Therefore, in 2006, U-TT pro-
posed a plan for “100 Gimnasio-Verticales para Caracas.”The
project is based on a feasibility study that would closely link the
barrios to form a more cohesive citywide network.
The first model built in Santa Cruz is active day and night
and is used on average by some 15,000 visitors each month.
Since it’s opening, the crime rate in the area has decreased
by 30 per cent, and the building type has now become part
of a nationwide anticrime program bearing the name “180
Degrees.” We may not be able to stop drug usage and violent
crime, but we can offer alternative activities, such as football
leagues organized in an environment where concepts of fair
play and tolerance are communicated. We developed the pro-
totype of the vertical gym from the YMCA sports centers in
NewYork City. But in translating it to the Caracas context, we

23
pEdagogicS
of SpacE
THE CITIES
THE CITIES
ON OUR
ON OUR
PLANET NEED
PLANET NEED
MORE THAN
MORE THAN
OFFICE TOWER
OFFICE TOWER
BLOCKS,
BLOCKS,
MUSEUMS,
MUSEUMS,
OPERA HOUSES,
OPERA HOUSES,
AIRPORTS, STA-
AIRPORTS, STA-
DIUMS, ETC.
DIUMS, ETC.

24
A
Education:
determined that it must be a flexible design—adaptable to a
variety of urban spaces and needs. Now, in Caracas, one of
the new vertical gyms adjoins a cable-car station and is specifi-
cally tailored to the recreational activities of the San Agustín
community.To simplicity one can add the necessary complex-
ity and specificity. For example, different spatial programs for
the ground-floor zone necessitate individual planning. Shops
may be incorporated for local vendors; a swimming pool can be
added with seating for 500 spectators; or educational facilities
for younger visitors. All these variations are based on standard-
ized, simple plans, which U-TT makes available free of charge.
The prototype is in the Creative Commons, as we believe that
for this tool to be successful, it must be replicated and reinter-
preted, whether we are directly involved or not.
Urban-Think Tank is also working in Paraisópolis, São
Paulo’s second-largest favela. On a steep 6,000-m²-landslide
site a music center is taking shape.The Centro de Acçao Social
por Música (CASM) has existed as an institution for more than
36 years.The building we have designed for it is the first of its
kind and profits from the experience we gained in developing
the vertical gyms. It fits precisely in its unique urban situation
and contains a variety of spaces for musical education.Tangen-
tially, it offers a wide range of cultural activities. Here, we pro-
posed a new vertical organization. The actual “building” is a
space set between the terraced landscape and the stacked, spe-
cialized rehearsal and performance areas for music and dance.
The CASM is not based on any model, but it can serve as a
model for other communities.The scheme attracted the atten-
tion of the acoustic specialist Karl-Heinz Müller, who is now a
member of our planning team.
Driven by the need to create an appropriate environ-
ment in our cities for large sections of the population, we have
also studied the situation of children and senior citizens more

25
Pedagogics
of Space
closely. In the favelas, the bulk of the population is disadvan-
taged in one way or another. The lives of children with autism
or Down’s syndrome are particularly difficult, as few public
and private spaces are designed or adapted to fit their needs.
In locating the school for autistic children, known as FAVA, on
a sloping site, it was important for us to leave open as large an
area as possible for a park, which is something rare in the cen-
ter of the city. Therefore, we designed the building as a com-
pact volume and set it in one corner of the site. As a result,
the spatial program extended to a five-story structure. In Cara-
cas, however, lifts are service-intensive installations and would
make a building of this kind unsuitable for the students, many
of whom experience increased anxiety in elevators. Our solu-
tion was to build a long ramp around the outside of the build-
ing. Access to the first two floors is via the sloped topography.
The development was financed from a new tax conceived to
flow into structures with a social role. Companies can donate
up to 100 percent of their annual tax to finance such schemes.
We work in a complex environment that calls for simple
solutions.That means using available local materials and labor.
Most people believe that low-cost construction must be infe-
rior to expensive forms of building.We wish to overcome prej-
udices of this kind as well as outdated ideas regarding how a
project should be developed. Only if we shift our expectations
away from a product, to a process, and reconsider traditional
development strategies, will we be able to find economically
feasible solutions for the masses of people in the slums. And
only if we do that will we have vibrant cities for every stratum
of society that lives in them. Looking at our Earth as a whole,
we find a new vision for our urban planet, and for all of us who
live within it.○

26
A
Education:
MarthaThorne
Real Space, Virtual Space:
What Really Matters?
Dealing with a complex issue such as architecture and how to
teach architecture, is today almost like trying to hit a moving
target—even those with the best aim often miss the mark.The
difficulty has to do with important changes in recent decades,
especially in the areas of technology and globalization. Cur-
rently in the academic and professional communities, there is
great discussion about the boundaries and focus of the profes-
sion, as well as a questioning of what to teach within the frame-
work of an architectural degree.
Stan Allen, former Dean of Princeton’s School of Archi-
tecture spoke in detail about these issues and others in an arti-
cle titled “The Future is Now,”1 in which he reviewed the past
few decades of architectural education. By way of background,
a summary of some of his conclusions, which are especially
insightful and relevant to any discussion about architectural
education of the future are outlined here:
1 “When we look back over the past 20 years of
architecture education, three overriding tendencies
stand out.The first is the shifting relationship between
1 ‘The FutureThat Is Now’ appeared on the website: http://places.designob-
server.com/feature/architecture-school-the-future-that-is-now/32728/ and
is excerpted from a chapter of the same name in Architecture School: Three
Centuries of Educating Architects in North America, edited by Joan Ock-
man with the assistance of RebeccaWilliamson, and published by MIT
Press. Architecture School was commissioned by the Association of Colle-
giate Schools of Architecture to mark the centennial of the organization.
Pages 26–35

27
Pedagogics
of Space
Real Space, Virtual Space: What Really Matters
the profession and the schools. In many cases, passion-
ate academic debates have brought to light a deeper
anxiety about the changing role of the architect in soci-
ety. Architects, as Rem Koolhaas has pointed out, are
at once immensely arrogant and massively powerless.
That is to say, they are no longer effective in many
areas traditionally seen as the domain of the architect,
but potentially powerful in other, perhaps unantici-
pated arenas. One task of schools today is to identify
these new arenas and capacities.”
2 “We are in a climate of increasing pluralism.
Clearly, no single design direction dominates today,
and while it is possible to map shifting intellec-
tual agendas, the situation is not so much that one
agenda supplants another, as it is that one is layered
over another, multiplying the possibilities and points
of view. This can be confusing to a student, who is
often thrown back on his or her own resources. Young
architects need to cultivate intellectual independence,
but students need stable landmarks as well.”
3 “The leveling effect of new technologies (I would
say the enormous increase in the use of technology in
architecture and education) and the tensions between
the global and the local. Not only are there more
choices out there; the differences among them are ever
smaller. As information proliferates and the speed of
access accelerates, it is more difficult to identify spe-
cific local design cultures.Architects today work in dis-
tant locations, and students are highly mobile.”

28
A
Education:
Returning to the questions of How do we teach? and Where do
we teach? I would argue that the model of architectural edu-
cation has not evolved as much as one would have expected
from a “creative” discipline. In many cases, we are still using
an early 20th
century model of teaching and learning. Put sim-
ply, common models we often see are a lecture hall with fixed
seats and students listening to a professor. This format sup-
ports the idea of students as recipients ready to receive the truth
from a teacher. In studio courses, we often see the Beaux-Arts
model of master and disciples, working side by side in an atelier
where the master passes from table to table imparting advice
and knowledge.
Studio learning is a format almost unique to architecture.
It uses the coaching method and encourages student learning
by doing. It is problem based, usually without textbooks, but
rather with a goal to arrive at a design or project that responds
to a set of parameters, which have been previously defined by
the teacher. Many schools have a model of “studio” where stu-
dents work at the school or home for hours and hours with the
professor passing from table to table to suggest changes and
improvements.
Another standard model that goes hand in hand with the
studio is the process of review and correction. It is often the tra-
ditional “design crit” or presentation by a student for feedback
and judgment by a panel of experts.The aim of the design crit
is to provide ungraded oral formative or summative feedback,
and to comment on students’ work and to prepare them for
their careers as professional designers learning how to present
their designs to clients.
The design crit has, without a doubt, positive value,
but according to one study, “Redesigning the Design Crit”
by Christine McCarthy of Victoria University,2 the traditional
format of a jury with a student in front of a panel produces

29
Pedagogics
of Space
anxiety (nervousness, fear, intimidation) in about 45% of the
students prior to the session.
Other questionable aspects of the traditional crit include:
the student’s inability to learn from the feedback given due to
the heightened atmosphere of the crit, placing more empha-
sis on absorbing the professional culture rather than student
learning, fostering the imbalance of power between student and
teacher or the outside “experts,” and, as was previously men-
tioned, unnecessary student anxiety.
Several variations have been put forth, and often these, these
used in combination with the traditional crit have provided sig-
nificant learning opportunities and have also reduced the draw-
backs associated with the usual once or twice a semester jury
process. For example, the speed crit, whereby students pres-
ent their work to one other student in a very short time, which
could be as little as a minute, and then receive feedback from
their fellow student about the clarity and structure of the pre-
sentation. This type of exercise is repeated several times, with
the students changing partners, in an effort to practice, refine
and feel comfortable prior to the larger or more public crit.
Another technique is the blogging crit, which relies on software
and has students review and comment on each other’s work,
thus encouraging the participation of all, yet not requiring the
time or difficulties of public reviews.These and other variations
on the crit can lead to the more efficient use of time, provide
a greater variety of meaningful feedback, involve active learn-
ing techniques and engage students in the work of their peers.
While “learning by doing” is probably the most com-
mon method for design studio, there are additional ways that
2 http://akoaotearoa.ac.nz/download/ng/file/group-6/redesigning-the-design-
crit.pdf

30
A
Education:
could be contemplated for teaching architecture. If we look at
these methods as a continuum, it is possible so see an evo-
lution from the very formal rigid lecture hall where students
passively listen to one professor speak for a defined period of
time, to much more varied and interactive ways of teaching
and learning, where the student becomes increasingly the focus
and the structure becomes less formal. Some researchers have
listed learning models as environments for delivering, applying,
creating, communicating knowledge, and environments where
knowledge is used for decision-making.
A commonly held tenet related to physical space for teaching
and learning is that specific space can foster a certain type of
behavior. As teaching becomes more students centered, often
there is a call for more “brightly colored sofas to promote
communication.” It may be thought that a flexible classroom
that accommodates a range of activities and “promote” cer-
tain behaviors is the best option. It has, however, been shown
that this common sense “behaviorists” approach is flawed and
doesn’t necessary lead to the conclusions one expects and while
spaces can be designed with one intention, they may be inter-
preted by users in a completely different way.
Rather than review the literature on this, I would sim-
ply suggest that the characteristics of physical space can grant
message to those using it and can encourage or enhance behav-
ior, but not necessarily determine it. And, an oversimplification
of the relationship between physical space and behavior may
not always hold true.The key here is to accommodate a range
of activities and behaviors, recognizing that the boundaries of
behavior and space are fluid.
Without a doubt learning models are multiple and
depend not only on the space, but also on the processes used,
protocols, activities employed, as well the interpretation by the

31
Pedagogics
of Space
participants. In architectural education, the most common set-
ting for delivering knowledge is the formal classroom or lec-
ture hall. Applying knowledge could be achieved through pro-
totyping, model making or design built activities. Extending the
range of ways that learning for architecture can be achieved,
an example of creating and communicating knowledge among
the participants could happen through more cross disciplin-
ary activities and/or using multiple formats for discussion and
group work and relying less on a teacher and more on a facili-
tator. Finally, learning where a course of action is the goal or
called,“knowledge for decision making” needs the commitment
of all parties to pursue a goal and to follow through. Partici-
pants should feel engaged and that their opinions and actions
matter for the outcome. Innovation or thinking outside the box
should be regarded as a positive component of these exercises.
Real Space vs. Virtual Space
Increasingly institutions are looking into the possibilities of on
line learning for architectural studies. Powerful names such as
Harvard and MIT are entering this field, as well as other higher
education institutions from around the world are moving for-
ward in this direction.The first attempts at online learning have
been commonly associated with awkward attempts to provide
static information on line, have students read and study inde-
pendently, and then measure their knowledge through multi-
ple-choice tests. Clearly, from these first attempts, enormous
progress has been made, and the possibilities of technology are
being exploited and expanded in astonishing ways.
The experience of 45 year old IE Business School,
located in Madrid, for the past decades and subsequently,
the “younger” IE School of Architecture and Design present

32
A
Education:
interesting examples and point some directions for the future
possibilities of teaching and learning in virtual space.The first
point to be made is that online learning is not merely a rep-
lica of the classroom experience or techniques. Online learn-
ing must take into account the opportunities and limitations
of technology. It requires an investment in software and per-
haps even more importantly, an investment of time for teacher
training. Blended learning—meaning some face-to-face set-
tings and some online settings—seems to have the potential to
provide the best of both worlds. And finally, blended learning is
merely a reflection of the way we live our lives today. If we sim-
ply consider that, most teachers and students use a variety of
online and on site methods (or hard copy) for communicating,
researching, and for developing, producing, storing and pre-
senting information, ideas and projects means that we already
inhabit a “blended world.” If we take this a step further into the
professional realm, we can easily recognize that it is becoming
almost common to work remotely, at least during certain peri-
ods, or collaborate across the miles with clients, consultants,
branches of a firm, or associated firms.
At IE School ofArchitecture and Design,we have designed
and implemented a blended format of teaching/learning for
both undergraduate and graduate, post professional education.
During four months, undergraduates in their second, third and
fourth years of study of their 5-year bachelor degree, partici-
pate in internships at private firms, ngos, companies or maga-
zines while they also study online. These placements may be
located almost anywhere in the world. Graduate programs last-
ing slightly more than a year have three face-to face periods of
about three weeks each and the rest of the course is talk online.
The online components used at IE may be synchronous
(all connected at the same time in real-time), such as video con-
ferences with active participation by the students. Participation

33
Pedagogics
of Space
may take many forms such as, questions, surveys, responses
and commentaries by students and even student presentations
with feedback—written, drawn or spoken—by the professor.
Asynchronous learning takes place through focused discussion
forums, group work by the students using a variety of com-
munication tools, and individual work including the review of
case studies and multimedia resources, just to name two exam-
ples.What is truly exciting is that new developments, ideas and
experiments for online learning seem limitless. Surveys have
already shown us that online learning, if undertaken in a qual-
ity way, has the advantages of freedom for both the students
and teachers, allows a global reach, and embodies much greater
flexibility that standard course structures. Additionally, at IE
we have seen that the sense of community among online stu-
dents in courses of a limited size or among students undertak-
ing group projects is greater than students who are in traditional
settings. The participation of all students on equal footing is
also enhanced. No longer is the quiet person at the back of the
classroom ignored. Finally, tolerance and cultural understand-
ing is fostered as students from around the world are connected
and work together.
What is really important in
architectural education?
In my opinion, I believe there are four points that could be made
that could contribute to improving and enriching architectural
education in the future. 1 We need to use existing research
and develop research for proposing and testing new methods of
teaching architecture. Efforts already undertaken in other disci-
plines, especially educational psychology, can provide valuable
information as we move forward. We must innovate and not

34
A
Education:
become complacent to teach as we were taught or perpetrate
traditional models without evaluating and challenging them.
2 We need to expand the repertoire of methodologies we use
and combine many types of teaching and learning to make sure
that the skills and knowledge that we are trying to impart is in
accordance with the methodologies and spaces we are using.
3 Online learning gives freedom to work, study, and under-
take other activities in more places, responding to many situa-
tions and many needs. 4 We have seen in our work related
to online learning at IE University that forming communities
is integral to learning and are very possible and at times even
heightened with online learning.Today those communities are
not limited by geography, a positive aspect of globalization.
In conclusion, the choices in education are not “either-or.”
Learning is not all directed from the teacher to the student, nor
is it all student self-discovery. Just as the panorama of architec-
ture is mixed and varied, the ways we learn and the places we
learn should also be many and different. At times, the spaces
may be specially designed for education, but other times, learn-
ing may occur in unexpected settings where groups gather in
more random ways. Likewise, the argument of face to face vs.
online education is no longer relevant. We learn in many and
varied situations, some flexible and some structured, some-
times alone or in groups, both in real space and in virtual ways.
Technology can assist us in opening the door to new opportuni-
ties.The key is to know what skills and knowledge we are trying
to foster and conceptually, which methodologies and settings
real and/or virtual are the most appropriate for our objectives.○

35
Pedagogics
of Space
Selected bibliography:
Boys, Jos. Towards Creative Learning Spaces: Re-thinking the Architecture of Post-Compulsory Edu-
cation. London: Routledge, 2011.
Iñiguez de Onzoño, Santiago. The Learning Curve: How Business Schools Are Re-inventing Educa-
tion. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
McCarthy, Christine, ‘Redesigning the Design Crit’ Ako Aotearoa, New Zealand. Pdf file online,
accessed June 1, 2012.
Ockman, Joan. Architecture School:Three Centuries of Educating Architects in North America.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012.
Stover, A. ‘Learning architecture online: New directions for distance education and the design studio?’
Unpublished master’s capstone project, University of Maryland University College, 2004. <http://
home.comcast.net/~abstover/learning_arch>

36
A
Education:
Annett Zinsmeister
The Art ofThinking and
Designing Space
Our way of living, our way of working, of communicating, of
learning and teaching, etc. changed radically in the past twenty
years. New technologies, the consolidation of a global market,
political impositions, and the continuous and massive accel-
eration of data and information flow is speeding-up our whole
day-life and is expanding our professional operating range.Vir-
tual trading and virtual social networks determine and control
a togetherness in parallel worlds apart from our real surround-
ing world and change our relation to real distances as well as
our perception of space. The boundaries between private and
public, between internal and external, between real and vir-
tual space are becoming blurred. These changes cause a deep
impact on our needs, on our way of understanding, reflecting
space and, last but not least, on the way of designing our daily
and future environment.
These far-ranging alterations are an essential topic in my
art practice and require fundamental considerations in thinking
and designing space. When I moved to Berlin after the fall of
the Berlin Wall in 1990 the quick dismantling of DDR culture
was omnipresent.The successive disappearance of cultural and
commercial goods, the racing changes of urban space in East
Berlin gave me a cause to confront myself with the parameters
of cultural identification and to explore the complexity, prob-
lems and potentials of such a unique situation of radical change.
The forceful transformation of Berlin, that continues to warp
its urban countenance in the most varied of ways, became an
important topic in my artistic work.
Pages 36–45

37
Pedagogics
of Space
Primarily I work with places of transition, whose past has
a strong impact on history and whose future is uncertain. The
search of evidence in different cities and studies about spatial
urban change is an attempt to get on the track of the particular,
the specific, the identity of spaces, places, cities—even though
these may at first glance seem so forbidding or unspecific. Sci-
entific research and studies of the environment as mapping,
photography, recording, etc. mark the first step of my artistic
investigations of space. I try to discover and unsheathe struc-
tures and patterns in urban space and architecture, let’s say,
spatial codes, find out their origins, meaning and function.
Like Roland Barthes’ definition of structural practice (L’activité
structuraliste), I disassemble the detected urban codes and spa-
tial elements and rebuild or sample them in different creative
ways, to know more about the relevance of the combination
system, the composition model and also about the complexity
of the complete texture and structure of the investigated archi-
tecture, city, space.
Thus, my understanding of experimental work with
space is characterized by conceptual considerations and ver-
satile studies on perception, motion, form, and space deter-
mination. Instead of the application of supposedly venerable
solutions, the experiment and the process are in the focus.
Theoretical analyzes and conceptual considerations build
an equally important basis for my art and design practice as
the experimental handling of different material, media and
its specific techniques. The development of new technolo-
gies broaches the issue, of how urban space constitutes virtual
space and how virtual spatial elements transform real spaces.
Installations like outside_in and virtual interiors represent this
engagement: one could say that this is a strategy of urban hack-
ing that stacks real and virtual space, or simply conjoins them.
These works address less the practical tweaking of structural

38
A
Education:
38
substance or the illegal appropriation of spaces; it rather allude
to the question how to identify urban and architectural struc-
tures and codes.
Art and Technology today
In his book, The Language of New Media, Lev Manovich sup-
ports the assumption that the design principles of the Bauhaus
and the avant-garde only attained wide-scale acceptance with
the development of digital media. According to his theory, the
Bauhaus is not only a historical role model haunting the build-
ings of all colleges of art and design, but in graphic form it also
encountered on every user interface. Indeed—what we know
as design today evolved with and in the combination of art and
industry at the Bauhaus.
The development of new technologies, especially the
computer, means that for the first time the technologies of art,
design, production, and distribution have come together in one
medium. Today, this link-up prompts the much-repeated, yet
altered question of innovation in production processes and its
significance for design competencies, since the innovation of
mass customization and design on demand is based on a merg-
ing of serial production technology and individual customer
wishes.This goes much further than what began in the Bauhaus
and has been common practice in the car industry for several
years now.
Le Corbusier once said: The problem is the form, not its
beginning. Due to Nietzsche’s once formulated insight of media-
theory that the instrument will always play its part in writing
our ideas, one could answer to Le Corbusier that today it is the
other way round. In contrast to the beginning of the 20th
cen-
tury and the idea of a universal artistic practice with higher art

39
Pedagogics
of Space
and design principles beyond human nature (like transforma-
tion of geometrical rules into perfect form e.g.), today we have
to deal with highly different individual tasks and living concepts.
There is no universal form we have to believe in or think about,
but we have to consider the content and the impact of formation
and new design tools and their potential for urban life.Technical
media, particularly digital tools, have developed a key function
in design, communication, production, and distribution. Media
competency is a wide-ranging ability, which we now have to con-
sider in a previously inconceivable form. Rather than adopting a
viewpoint that ignores history and identifies one single approach
as the correct, path-breaking approach, we need to consider a
wide spectrum of strategies, methods, and tools in our design
practice and teaching. Meaning when we refer to digital media,
we also need to be aware of the importance of analog media and
deal with and care about both competencies.
Instead of arguing about taste and the beauty of forms
we have to think about new concepts of life in a changing soci-
ety and environment, and its consequences for the design of
space to live in. Referring to this we need to understand the
quality and relevance of closeness and distance, of privateness
and publicity, of foreignness and security, of movement and
stagnancy, of the environmental value and the significance of
identity. Those essential questions and thoughts rise beyond
disciplinary boundaries and discussions about a perfect and
universal form.
There is no absolute space, space relates to our individual
perception. Concerning questions of design or Gestaltung that
is to say: there cannot be any perfect solution and any univer-
sal concept. If we want to handle current essential environmen-
tal questions and need to find innovative approaches, we have
to develop individual design strategies, which are based on our
individual understanding of space.

40
A
Education:
Architecture as hybrid discipline and
the change of knowledge
Architecture, as the so-called “Mother of Arts,” embraces differ-
ent artistic and scientific disciplines. It has always been a hybrid
discipline that demands and combines a broad spectrum of com-
petences from architects and has expanded in its scope of duties
in the last several years. The design and construction of space
does not only play a role that is literally supporting in constructed
environment but more and more in the design and construction
of virtual spaces as, for instance, with information architecture,
in virtual cities and computer games, but also in art, urban inter-
ventions, in exhibition design, in scenography, and so on. This
range of opportunities is a chance for graduates to apply their
talent and competence in designing space throughout the bor-
ders of the building industry in a market that constantly changes.
Teaching: Transfer of knowledge
—
Crossing the disciplines
These changes have an effect on gaining and transferring
knowledge and on consequently educational systems and strat-
egies. Training posts have to stay abreast of those changes,
because the content of teaching today is the groundwork for
an expert knowledge of tomorrow. So how to deal with these
changes, especially at art and architecture schools, which today
find themselves in a permanent dilemma: fluctuating between
maintaining and continuing an existing tradition and the desire
to break with this tradition. But before we may break traditions
we should be aware of them. What kind of traditions and cur-
rent models are we talking about? What can we learn from for-
mer avant-garde concepts, what should we deny?

41
Pedagogics
of Space
Annett Zinsmeister: Installation outside_in 2005
Annett Zinsmeister: Installation virtual interior 2005

42
A
Education:
Annett Zinsmeister: Installation urban hacking — container projekt, paraflows. Artfestival Vienna 2009

43
Pedagogics
of Space
Since 2002 I am teaching Gestaltung, Experimental
Design, as well as Design and Media Theory at the Bauhaus
University in Weimar, Kunsthochschule Berlin Weissensee,
University Wuppertal and at the Academy of Art and Design
in Stuttgart. My current class in the department of architec-
ture and industrial design is the only class at the whole acad-
emy where students from different fields are trained program-
matically together. Gestaltung is a genuine German expression
with a certain tradition and role in the education of applied arts.
The course Gestaltungslehre is a descendent of the Vorkurs at
the Bauhaus, in which artistic skills form the basic knowledge
for the applied arts like architecture and design. Gestaltungs-
lehre is an innovation of the avant-garde of the 20th
century
and in itself the most integrative and interdisciplinary subject
at the academies until today. The professors are mainly artists
and sometimes also related to applied art. Due to my educa-
tion and practice in fine arts, architecture, design and also cul-
tural and media science, I am able to resort to a wide-ranging
knowledge that is compulsory for an interdisciplinary teaching,
cause the design of architecture and living space does not only
touch questions of structural engineering, economy, and soci-
ology, but also of perception (psychology), of conceptual think-
ing and representation (artistic practice), and of media theory
(cultural technique).With the integration of these different dis-
ciplines into teaching, new perspectives are introduced: inter-
weavings and the blurring of boundaries of various approaches
and strategies uncover potentials to capture our environment in
an unfamiliar manner, to think about space differently and to
design it innovatively.
Their own practical and theoretical work is one of the
central basis for a range of knowledge teachers may con-
vey to the students. My teaching concept stands for the inte-
grative connection between different fields. It may point out

44
A
Education:
future-oriented niches in an occupational field that contin-
uously become more versatile, and may also convey compe-
tences that lead beyond a venerable architectural education.
Thereby, the interlocking of different disciplines is indispens-
able. My courses create links between free and applied arts by
pointing out specific differences and borders, as well as, analo-
gies, intersections, and possibilities. Each approach to design,
either in the free or in the applied arts, is a dynamic process.
In teaching, we convey design practice as a process which does
not primarily orient towards a static goal, but which reflects on
our perception and on the possible and feasible versatility of
places, spaces, and objects.The learning units are accompanied
by an interdisciplinary lecture series and symposia. At these
occasions/events, artists, architectures, designers, and scientists
present their work, as well as, the ideas, methods, materials, and
techniques that determine the design process.
An increasingly complex world means that the essential
spectrum of competencies is constantly expanding in all areas
of life and work. Contemporary teaching models, but above
all those tenable for the future are challenged to react to those
developments and, therefore, to offer and mediate an extended
range of content.
The future—or let’s say—the art of thinking and design-
ing space lies in the reflection on the possible and not in the
execution of the feasible. Unconventional settings of tasks and
questions allow unconventional approaches and solutions.
The concentration on the process and on the experiment sup-
plies the needed space for an intense analysis of the practice of
designing and drafting. Here, the journey as an individual dis-
covery of social and aesthetic practices is the destination.○
→p. 45
Installation Grid Architecture Museum of Contemporary Art Stuttgart 2012
All pictures © Annett Zinsmeister

45
Pedagogics
of Space

Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics

Genus ——. Species ——.
Sacrum (Plate IX., Fig. 8).—This peculiar sacrum is composed of
only one true vertebra; there may have been one or more pseudo-
sacrals, but this is not certain.
The centrum is very long, strongly depressed, and straight on the
inner margin, not curved as in the sacrum of most mammals. The
anterior articular face is much depressed, and is one third larger
than the posterior. The neural canal is low and subtriangular,
resembling very much that of Canis. The pleuropophysial plates for
articulation with the ilia are large and stout. The laminæ are heavy
and concave on their upper side, supporting a very long, stout spine,
which is retroverted and decidedly tuberous at the end.
The pedicles are deeply notched behind; and on the fore part,
just inside the metapophyses, there is a deep fossa.
The chief features of this sacrum are decidedly carnivorous; but
to what genus or family it should be referred we are unable to say.
It has some of the characteristics of Canis, but the length and
retroversion of the spine, as well as the size of the centrum, prevent
this classification. In the general form of the pleuropophysial plates it
approximates to the seals; while in its angle and curvature, it
partakes of the character of the Ursidæ.
The chief point of interest in this fossil centres in the fact that it
was found only a few feet from the brain cast that is described
below.
Measurements of Sacrum.
M.
Length of centrum ·031
Long diameter of anterior articular face ·024
Long diameter of posterior articular face ·017
Width of neural canal ·019
Height of neural canal ·011

Length of neural spine ·036
Extreme width of sacrum ·052
MEGENCEPHALON.
Megencephalon primævus. Gen. et spec. nov.
In close proximity to the pelvis of the Uintatherium Leidianum, in
one of the upper beds we found an intracranial cast, separate from
the bone which had enclosed it, and in such preservation as to
warrant a partial determination, at least, of the type to which it
belonged. Wishing to obtain as full information as the nature of the
cast permitted, we put it in the hands of Dr. Spitzka, of New York,
who kindly undertook an examination, and sent us the following as
the result:
"Sir: The specimen submitted to me is the intracranial cast of
some species of Placental Mammals. The cranium had been
subject to the influences of the atmosphere, etc., for a
considerable period preceding the formation of the cast,
and therefore the cast reflects the sutural dislocations
which occurred in consequence. The base of the brain cast
it is not advisable to attempt to expose, on account of the
treacherous nature of the material. The convolutions
corresponding to the internal aspect of the Os temporale
have not been clearly demarcated by the bone surface. The
two narrow eminences on it are casts of the grooves of the
middle meningeal arteries. The convolutions of the occipital
surface had been well marked, but somewhat obliterated
through denudation, etc. The important region bordering
on each side of the median fissure, and corresponding to
the fronto-parietal suture, is unfortunately as good as
destroyed; and with this destruction the key to the
interpretation of the specimen is lost. However, this much
can be stated with absolute certainty, that the frontal
region is sufficiently well preserved to state that its

convolutions do not correspond to those of the brain of the
tapir, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephant, pig, horse,
hyrax, manatus, or any ruminant or cetacean.
"They also differ in important particulars from those of the
Canidæ, differ less from those of the Felidæ, still less from
the Ursidæ, although corresponding to none of them. The
outline of the cerebral cast is found in two living animals—
the marine otter and the seal. But in the seal the gyri show
the transverse interrupting series of sulci, characteristic of
extreme brachycephaly; and it therefore cannot belong to
any animal corresponding to the seal.
"The sea otter's convolutional details are unknown to me, and I
believe have not yet been studied. I therefore content
myself with stating that the outline of this cast corresponds
to the outline of the sea otter's cranium.
"It would help us a great deal if we could decide the existence
or non-existence of a bony tentorium. The sutures of this
cranium, as far as I can reconstruct them, ran as in the
diagram.
"We may state definitely that this was not an ursine, feline, or
canine brain, nor the brain of any terrestrial viverrine. It is
an open question between an aquatic carnivore and an
aquatic pachyderm; and although not placing my
conclusion on an exact basis, yet, in view of the general
outline, the course of the convolutions, and the course of
the sutures, I incline to the former view.
"It certainly corresponds to no known brain of a living creature.
In one point I was inclined to suspect it to be a pachyderm,
namely, the decided asymmetry of some of the sulci, but
this, by itself, is not decisive."
"Dr. Spitzka.

"308 East 123d street."
The interesting letter quoted in full above, contains as near a
determination of the character of the animal to which the brain
belonged, as the nature of the cast and the materials for comparison
would permit. In a later report, by means of more complete
comparative material, we hope to be able to reach a more
satisfactory conclusion. However, as Dr. Spitzka writes, the general
outline, the course of the convolutions, and the line of the sutures
offer strong presumptive evidence that the cast belongs to one of
the Aquatic carnivores. Not far from the brain was found a sacrum,
which is described above as belonging to some carnivore, though
further determination was impossible. Whether there was any
connection between the two is difficult to state. The presence of an
aquatic carnivore in the Bridger eocene is new to science; but, aside
from this, the brain is of a much higher order than previous
discoveries would lead us to expect in such an early formation.
Professor Marsh's researches have led him to form the opinion
that the eocene mammals had brains of a low character; but this
specimen shows that this is not true of all, if it is of most of them.
The convolutions are not only numerous and well marked, but they
are complicated, showing the transverse as well as the longitudinal
folds. To such an extent is this true that the brain will bear
comparison with the very highest modern carnivorous types.
We hope to be able to give further notes upon this interesting
specimen at a later date.

PERISSODACTYLA.
ANCHITHERIUM.
Von Meyer, Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, 1844, p. 298.
Anchitherium —— ?
A small calcaneum and astragalus of equine type are provisionally
referred to this genus until further material enables us to determine
them with certainty.
The astragalus has narrow and very oblique condyles, which are
more equal in size than in Orohippus; the neck is very short, the
internal condyle reaching to the face for the navicular; the posterior
projection of this condyle is much shorter than in that genus. The
articular face for the navicular is quadrate in shape and concave; the
cuboid face is very narrow. The articulation with the calcaneum is
made by a narrow, convex face. When the two are in position the
navicular face of the astragalus is in the same horizontal line as the
cuboid face of the calcaneum, thus resembling the arrangement of
the horse's tarsus rather than that of Orohippus.
The calcaneum is a short, slender bone, having the upper and
lower margins convergent toward the tuberosity, and not parallel as
in Orohippus. The tuberosity is especially small. The face for the
cuboid is very narrow.
From the articular facets of these two bones we can see that the
tarsus resembled very much that of the modern horse, with a broad,
short navicular, and a narrow cuboid. The strata in which these
remains were found were somewhat higher than those containing
the bones of Orohippus.
Measurements.

M.
Greatest length of astragalus 0·021
Greatest breadth of ditto ·018
Length of neck of ditto ·005
Width between the condyles ·010
Vertical diameter of face for navicular ·012
Transverse diameter of ditto ·012
Length of calcaneum ·046
Width of face for cuboid ·006
From Henry's Fork.
OROHIPPUS, Marsh.
Am. Jour. Sc. vol iv., p. 207, third series.
Generic Characteristics.—"The crowns of the upper true molars
are composed of a pair of external cusps similar to those of
anchitherium. There are two corresponding inner tubercles, from
which ridges extend obliquely to the anterior inner margin of the
outer cusps; but the anterior ridge is divided so as to form an
intermediate anterior tubercle. All the teeth preserved have a distinct
basal ridge."
Species Known.—
Orohippus pumilus, Marsh.
Orohippus major, Marsh.
Orohippus agilis, Marsh.
Orohippus gracilis, Marsh.
Orohippus pumilus? Marsh.
Specimen obtained. Penultimate and third superior molars, with
part of zygoma.
From Cottonwood Creek.

Orohippus major? Marsh.
Femur (Plate IX., Fig. 1).—The femur has a small, nearly
hemispherical head, developed on a long and slender neck; the head
is but slightly out of the axis of the shaft, and has a large pit for
ligamentous insertion. The shaft is long, simple, and curved slightly
forward. At the proximal end it is broad and flattened axially; below
this it becomes expanded fore-and-aft, but it thickens greatly at the
distal end, just above the condyles. The great trochanter is large and
retroverted, rising above the head, with two prominences rising from
it, one on top, the other back. The digital fossa is wide and deep,
penetrating far into the great trochanter. The second trochanter is a
small rounded ridge; the third trochanter is large and prominent,
curving slightly forward. The condyles are long and narrow,
projecting very far back, and are separated by a wide and deep
popliteal groove. From the external condyle a low ridge runs
obliquely, forming the upper border of the shallow popliteal space.
The trochleæ are long, very convex, deeply grooved, and
symmetrical.
Measurements of Femur.
M.
Width between head and great trochanter ·019
Width at third trochanter ·034
Diameter of head ·019
Width at condyles ·028
Width of trochlea ·015
Height of great trochanter ·015
Diameter fore-and-aft of shaft at middle ·018
The tibia (Plate IX., Fig. 3) is very long and heavy, with broad
proximal articular face, the inner borders of which are prolonged
upward and separated by a groove.
The shaft at the tuberosity is subtriangular, with strongly concave
sides. The tuberosity is prominent, with a deep pit on its upper

surface for the insertion of the ligament of the patella. The shaft
below becomes sub-cylindrical, and decreases regularly in size
downward. Its curvature is forward. The distal articular face is
divided by a smooth ridge into two deep facets. The malleolus is
long.
The fibula (Plate IX., Fig. 2) is distinct, straight, and very slender.
The distal end is but slightly expanded, and is strongly marked by a
vertical groove externally. The proximal end articulates with the
overhanging portion of the proximal face of the tibia.
Measurements of Tibia.
TIBIA.
Upper Jaw. M.
Length ·178
Width of proximal surfaces (transverse) ·032
Width of proximal surfaces (antero-posterior) ·019
Transverse diameter of shaft ·022
Antero-posterior diameter of distal articulation ·018
Transverse diameter of distal articulation ·018
The tarsus.—The astragalus (Plate IX., Fig. 5) has the condyles
asymmetrical and divided by a deep groove; the head is narrow,
with the neck elongate. The face for the cuboid is small, and
confined to the external border.
The calcaneum (Plate IX., Fig. 4) is long and compressed, with its
upper and lower margins straight and nearly parallel; its tuberosity is
large. The face for the cuboid is small.
The navicular (Plate IX., Fig. 6) is proportionately longer and
narrower than it is in the modern horse. The internal and middle
cuneiforms were probably separate.
Metatarsals (Plate IX., Fig. 7).—Three in number. Are very much
shorter proportionately than in the modern horse. In shape they are

compressed and arched forward. The distal ends are flattened
vertically, arched forward, and deeply grooved in the middle.
The phalanges (Plate IX., Fig. 7) are very short, rather stout, and
very smooth and convex above.
The ungual phalanges are very thin and crescent shaped.
Measurements.
ASTRAGALUS.
M.
Greatest width ·029
Greatest length ·022
Length of navicular facet ·017
Width of navicular facet ·012
Length of tibial trochleæ externally ·016
CALCANEUM.
M.
Total length ·058
Total width ·019
Depth in front ·022
Length of heel ·035
Depth of heel ·018
Length of cuboid facet ·014
NAVICULAR.
M.
Width ·009
Length ·010
PHALANGES.
M.
Length of first phalanx ·022
Width of first phalanx ·012

Length of second phalanx ·013
Width of second phalanx ·010
Length of ungual phalanx ·005
Width of ungual phalanx ·010
PALÆOSYOPS, Leidy.
Hayden's Geological Survey of Montana, 1871.—Proceedings
Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1871, p. 118.—
Limnohyus.—Marsh, American Journal Science and Arts,
1872, p. 124.
Generic characters.—The dentition is full, I. 3, C. 1, Pm. 4, M. 3;
the same in lower jaw. The internal cones of the superior molars
isolated from the crescentoid crests. One inner tubercle on the last
three premolars. One internal cone on the last superior molar. In
lower jaw, true molars with four acute tubercles alternating in pairs
and connected by oblique crests. The last molar adds a fifth
posterior tubercle. The last premolar lacks the posterior inner
tubercle. The canines are in continuity with the incisors.
A broad, triangular forehead. A wide zygoma. Long, projecting
nasals. Large temporal fossæ. High sagittal crest. Prominent and
nearly vertical occiput.
Palæosyops major, Leidy.
Survey of Wyoming, 1871, p. 359.—Limnohyus robustus.—
Marsh, American Journal Science and Arts, 1872, p. 124.
Specific characters.—Sagittal crest short and thick. Temporal
fossæ not very deep. Frontals diverge rapidly. Occipital condyles
wide and low; the same is true of the foramen magnum. Meatus
auditorius high and deep. Glenoid cavity shallow; no internal
process. As compared with P. Paludosus, post-glenoid process not so
much compressed. Occipital region comparatively higher and not so

concave. The occipital condyles are more prominent. The zygomas
are lighter. Head larger than Paludosus, perhaps not so large as
Vallidens.
Description from (i) a head, complete, but distorted, with
complete dentition, upper and lower. (2) A head somewhat crushed,
and lacking some portions, with full set of upper molars and canines.
(3) A great number of fragmentary specimens of different parts of
the body.
Dentition.—In the upper jaw the incisors are arranged in a semi-
circle as in P. paludosus; they have long fangs and short, conical
crowns, with a decided basal ridge, which is very strong in the third.
They increase from first to third, which is very large and pointed.
The canines have very large and long fangs (longer than the
crowns). The crowns are very stout and pointed, constituting
formidable weapons. In section they are nearly circular, with a
distinct hinder margin and a slight recurve. A rudimentary anterior
margin is sometimes present, and of the faces thus marked off, the
inner is much smaller and flatter. The general direction is forwards,
downwards, and slightly outwards. There is a diastema of about half
an inch between the incisors and canines.
Premolars.—The first is very small, about half an inch from the
canine, simple and conical, with an obscurely marked basal ridge,
and two heavy fangs.
Further description of the upper dentition is unnecessary, owing
to the complete work of Dr. Leidy upon the subject.
The lower incisors are placed in a semi-circular row, and are
somewhat procumbent, though hardly as much so as in the tapir.
They are much as in P. paludosus, but are relatively smaller, and
have not such distinct basal ridges; features which indicate a
departure from the carnivorous type, and a nearer approach to the
herbivorous type. The lateral incisor, though the largest of the series,

is not so large nor so pointed as in P. paludosus. There is no
diastema.
The canines are about equal in size to those of the upper jaw,
growing from stout fangs and permanent pulps. The margins of the
crowns are more decided, and are smooth, leaving a very narrow
and flat inner face. A feeble basal ridge. When the jaw was closed,
the lower canines passed inside and in front of the upper.
The first premolar stands immediately behind the canine, is
longer than that of the upper jaw, consisting of a single pointed lobe
implanted by one fang, slightly recurved with a flat inner and convex
outer face. Passing in front of the first upper premolar, it leaves a
considerable diastema between this and the second premolar.
The mandible approximates in form that of the tapir; the lower
border is less curved fore and aft, the alveolar border is slightly
concave antero-posteriorly. The molars converge in front, presenting
a very different arrangement from that in Sus. The ramus is heavy,
contracting in depth forward, and very slightly in section. Below the
alveolus, on the interior side, the ramus is greatly swollen for two
thirds of its depth, to accommodate the very long and strong molar
fangs.
The rami converge to the second premolar, where they expand
laterally to the canine alveolus. The symphysis is shorter relatively
than in P. paludosus, and the chin is regularly rounded in front. The
mental foramen is below the second premolar. The dental foramen is
small, very high up, and far behind the molars. The alveolar border
ascends rapidly behind the last molar, expanding laterally into two
ridges.
The coronoid is slender and recurved. The condyle is broad, flat
behind, inclines forward internally; there is scarcely any depression
between the condyle and the coronoid. The masseteric fossa is very
wide and deep. The angle of the ramus is broken, but evidently has

no such posterior extension as in P. paludosus. It thins out rapidly
behind.
Measurements.
P. pal. P. major.
UPPER JAW. M. M.
Length of entire molar series ·147 ·170
Length of three true molars ·085 ·102
Length of three premolars ·058 ·068
Diameter of last molar, transverse ·039 ·047
Diameter of last molar, antero-posterior ·036 ·036
Diameter of second molar, transverse ·036 ·040
Diameter of second molar, antero-posterior ·033 ·036
Length of incisor series ···· ·075
Fore-and-aft diameter of canine at base ·016 ·021
Length of crown of canine ···· ·033
Diastema between canines and incisors ···· ·013
Diastema between canines and molars ···· ·010
P. pal. P. major.
LOWER JAW. M. M.
Incisor series ···· ·073
Median incisor fang, length ···· ·034
incisor crown, length ···· ·012
Diameter of median incisor crown, transverse ···· ·009
Diameter of lateral incisor crown, transverse ···· ·011
Diameter of lateral incisor crown, antero-
posterior
···· ·012
Length of fang of canine ·055 ·052
breadth of fang of canine ·023 ·024
Crown of canine, length ···· ·034
Crown of canine, fore-and-aft diameter at base ·019 ·021
Diameter of first premolar, antero-posterior ·015 ·010

Diameter of first premolar, transverse ·009 ·007
Diastema between first and second premolars ···· ·014
Length of entire molar series ·164 ·186
Length of molar series, omitting first premolar ·132 ·163
Diameter of last molar, antero-posterior ·017 ·050
Diameter of last molar, transverse ···· ·027
Depth of jaw below last molar ·068 ·075
Among other specimens obtained at the divide between Henry's
Fork and Cottonwood Creek, was a nearly complete but somewhat
shattered skeleton of a Palæosyops major, found contiguous to the
head of the same, parts of which are just described. Portions of
these are figured on a one fourth scale in Plate II. The description is
from a nearly perfect atlas and axis, several cervical, dorsal, and
lumbar vertebræ, more or less complete, and a portion of the
sacrum and pelvis, in addition to several bones of the limbs.
The atlas has a broad inferior arch, contracted antero-posteriorly,
and deeply notched for the prominent odontoid of the axis. The
heavy superior arch, inclosing a large and depressed neural canal, is
capped by a low tuberosity. It slopes into a flat, and very broad
transverse process, which thickens backwards, and is perforated by
the vertebraterial canal. Forwards the transverse process is notched
for the exit of the first spinal nerve. The anterior or condylar faces
are continuous, deeply concave from above downwards; and slightly
so from side to side; while the posterior faces are oval, nearly flat,
and directed backwards and inwards.
The axis is proportionately small, with a long opisthocœlous
centrum, depressed, and produced forwards into a stout conical
odontoid process, and marked below by a strong hypapophysial keel,
which, developed on the latter half, thickens backwards. The wide
and thin pedicles inclose a high neural canal, support the posterior
zygapophyses and a prominent and peculiar neural spine. The latter
is flattened, broad, and recurved posteriorly, thinning rapidly
forwards into a prow-shaped recurved edge. The transverse

processes arising from the latter half of the centrum are undersized
and widely perforated at base. The anterior faces are very broad,
directed outwards, and slightly rounded from above downwards;
they expand as they diverge (see Fig. 2). The post-zygapophyses are
small convex faces, projecting at the base of the neural spine.
The remaining cervicals, five in number, are short, all carinate,
except the seventh, and opisthocœlous; with the faces expanding
only slightly beyond the body of the centrum. A peculiar feature is a
small pit upon the convex anterior face, indicating either a
ligamentous attachment with the antecedent vertebra, or a remnant
of the notochord. This is a feature we have not noticed elsewhere. A
long and heavy transverse process supports a large and widely-
perforated inferior lamella. The pedicles are quite wide at base,
inclosing a large neural canal. The entire upper part of the arch is
unfortunately wanting.
The dorsal centra are smaller than the cervical, slightly
opisthocœlous, and carinate. They are sub-cylindrical anteriorly, with
decided costal surfaces before and behind; approaching the lumbar
region they become subtriangular. A high neural arch supports a
stout, but never very high neural spine; this projects backwards,
keeled in front, expanding and deeply grooved behind. The
zygapophyses are small and nearly vertical. There is a short and
thick transverse process.
The lumbar vertebræ are long, decidedly opisthocœlous,
becoming wider and more depressed as they approach the sacrum.
The first sacral vertebra presents the same characteristics as the last
lumbar, only the body of the centrum is slightly shorter. It has a very
broad pleuropophysial plate. The remaining sacral vertebræ are
broad, and very greatly depressed, rapidly decreasing in size. The
transverse processes are slender. The very low neural spines
anchylose into a long ridge. The number cannot be ascertained,
owing to the fragmentary state of the sacrum. The caudals indicate
a tail of not very great length; as the neural canal is small and
persists in only a few of the anterior vertebræ.

Measurements of Vertebræ.
Pal, major.
M.
Atlas, width, including transverse processes ·195
Atlas, length of inferior arch ·082
Atlas, height, including superior and inferior arches ·078
Axis, width, anterior articular faces ·110
Axis, length, excluding odontoid process ·058
Axis, height of neural spine ·096
Axis, length of odontoid process ·025
Seventh cervical, length of centrum ·037
Seventh cervical, width of posterior face ·043
Dorsals, anterior region, length ·038
Dorsals, anterior region, width, articular face ·034
Lumbar, width of posterior face ·058
Lumbar, length of centrum ·056
First sacral, width of anterior face ·059
The ribs, of which great quantities of fragments remain, were
slender and not of very great width.
The femur, which is figured in Plate I., has a small head,
supported by a short neck. The shaft, very broad below the head,
supports the third trochanter one third of the way down; below
which it takes a cylindrical form, and expands slightly above the
trochlea. The two condyles, separated by a wide and deep popliteal
groove, are nearly subequal in size—the internal somewhat the
larger, while the trochlea is long, narrow, and symmetrical. The great
trochanter rises slightly above the head, and overhangs a long and
quite deep digital fossa. The second trochanter is small. The
popliteal space is slightly concave.
Tibia.—The proximal end of the tibia is very large, with massive
rugosities for muscular attachment. The two proximal faces are
subequal, slightly convex, and separated by a prominent spine,

which is grooved at the top. The shaft is long, straight, and
compressed antero-posteriorly; the anterior ridge on upper third is
very high, and expands into the tuberosity, which is enormous; while
on the posterior face is a deep fossa just below the head. The distal
end of the shaft is remarkably small, with two concave faces—the
internal the smallest—with a low oblique ridge dividing them. There
is a prominent malleolus.
The fibula (which is a distinct bone) has a small proximal end,
and expands slightly below, with a large external malleolus.
Measurements of Limbs.
M.
Femur, total length ·420
Femur, transverse diameter at distal end ·098
Tibia, length ·310
Tibia, transverse diameter, proximal articular face·090
Tibia, transverse diameter, distal articular face ·077
The pelvis is described from the right and left ilia, which are
broken as they expand towards the crest; the acetabulum is
fragmentary, but all the parts remain. The ischium and pubis are
only represented by fragments. As figured in Plate V., the
acetabulum is restored from a somewhat smaller specimen. The
most striking feature of the ilium is the long and somewhat
constricted neck. The acetabular border is long and curved forward,
thinning gradually as it approaches the crest; and marked on the
iliac surface, near the acetabulum, by a slight rugosity for the rectus
muscle.
The ischial border, while less arched, is probably longer; and the
sacral surface, distinctly defined, indicates that the rounded upper
border of the ilium rarely reached above the sacral spines. There is a
deep groove between the ischial and pubic borders, the latter
disappearing about half way up the iliac surface. The gluteal surface

near the acetabulum is much depressed; above it expands into a
broad, flat, thin plate.
The ischium has a stout neck and thick expansion below; the
upper border is very heavy. From what remains of the ischium and
pubis we can infer a large elliptical obturator foramen, a short pubic
symphysis, a narrow and rather slight pubis, with a small nearly
cylindrical neck. The acetabulum is deep, with a thick well-raised
border, and a large, oblong, and very deep pit for the ligamentum
teres.
Measurements of Pelvis.
M.
Ilium, transverse diameter above acetabulum ·062
Ilium, long diameter (estimated) ·232
Acetabulum, greatest diameter ·050
Ischium, transverse diameter below acetabulum·041
Pubis, diameter at obturator foramen ·035
The tarsus is arranged in the usual Perissodactyle order. The
calcaneum is stout, of good length, tuberous, but not expanding
much at the extremity; presenting two faces for the astragalus, of
which the internal is the largest, and a large distal face for the
cuboid. The astragalus is wide, with less asymmetry in the two
articular facets than is common. It articulates with both the cuboid
and navicular.
Measurements of Tarsus.
M.
AAstragalus, total width, tibial facets·048
Astragalus, total length ·056
Astragalus, length, navicular facet ·046
Astragalus, width, navicular facet ·035
Calcaneum, total length ·120

Calcaneum, total breadth ·057
Calcaneum, length of tuber calcis ·050
All the above were found at Henry's Fork Divide. In another
locality, in connection with a fine head of P. major, was found the
lower half of a humerus.
The shaft is cylindrical and twisted, expanding widely at the distal
end. Of the two condyles the external is the largest; and, to quote
from Dr. Leidy, "a deep supra-condylar fossa occupies the front of
the humerus, opposed by a deeper and more capacious anconeal
fossa." The greatest breadth between the supracondyloid eminences
is ·091 m.
Palæosyops paludosus, Leidy.
Cont. to Ext. Vert. Faun, P. lævidens Cope. U. S. Geol. Survey of
Terrs, 1872, p. 591.
Specific characters.—Second superior molar has but one outer
tubercle. The cones are low as compared with P. major. The cingula
are much less developed. The angle of the lower ramus is much
longer. The zygoma is massive and wide. An internal process on the
glenoid cavity. Temporal fossæ very deep. Crest of occiput nearly in
same vertical line as occipital condyles.
The full details of P. paludosus, which follow, may seem
somewhat unnecessary, to one familiar with the comprehensive work
of Dr. Leidy upon the subject. Care has been taken not to retrace
any of his steps; and the descriptions given below are of those parts
of the animal which he did not possess at the time of writing. They
include (1) a cranium perfect posterior to the orbits; (2) a right
ramus mandibuli, with full dentition, except the first premolar; (3)
portions of the fore-limbs, scapula, and pelvis, pes and manus, and
many fragments of other parts.

Among the first discoveries on Cottonwood Creek, in a stratum of
fine green sand, was a head of P. paludosus, complete posteriorly,
and broken off just behind the orbit. A rear view of this has been
admirably figured in Plate I.
General appearance.—The base of the cranium is of great width;
the occiput is high, inclined very slightly backwards, and deeply
concave from side to side. The forehead is triangular and narrow.
The temporal fossa is of immense size and depth, leaving a small
intracranial cavity. The zygomas are heavy, and arching widely
outwards give this part of the head a strong resemblance to the
Felidæ.
Description in detail.—The narrow but prominent basioccipital
segment is broadest posteriorly and tapers forwards; divided by a
median ridge, which expands anteriorly into a large tuberosity; a
feature also characteristic of the tapir. About half an inch in advance
of the condyles are the condylar foramina. The condyles are formed
of the exoccipitals, which are low and of great lateral expansion.
Their junction with the mastoids is marked by a large foramen. The
par-occipitals are short and styliform. The supra-occipital region is
very large, high, and deeply concave from side to side, much wider
than in the tapir, with a marked interparietal suture. The condyles
are wide, but not very deep, approaching each other very closely
below. The basisphenoids are long and narrow, tapering forwards.
The alisphenoids are mutilated, but indicate large vertical ridges
joining the parietals, and heavy pterygoid processes, perforated at
the base by the alisphenoid canal. They are again perforated by the
foramen ovale three fourths of an inch behind this. This completes
the base of the skull.
The parietals are very large, they form nearly the whole of the
temporal fossil; which, deep and wide, enclosing a small cranial
cavity, contrast strongly with the long and shallow temporal fossæ of
the tapir. The parietal crest is very broad, and grooved at the top.
This high crest and deep adjacent temporal fossæ we at first
mistook as pointing to an exclusively carnivorous type. The forehead

has a triangular appearance, from the divergence of the two side
ridges of the sagittal crest. The postorbital processes are very large,
but do not reach the opposing processes of the malar. The orbit is
thus left incomplete posteriorly, while in form it greatly resembles
that of the Sus. The squamosal encroaches considerably upon the
temporal; and sends outwards and downwards a great zygomatic
process, which arches outwards from the skull as in the Felidæ, and
is more powerful than in any living carnivore (Leidy.) A strong
downward direction is especially characteristic, the whole describing
a sigmoid curve. The mastoids are of great size vertically, and
transversely they are confluent with the par-occipitals. A low, thick
process on the internal side of the glenoid cavity prevents lateral
motion.
The nasals are long, broad, and thick, convex from side to side,
narrowing slightly anteriorly. They are straight, as in Sus, which they
resemble more than they do either tapir or rhinoceros. The anterior
borders are rounded, and do not reach as far forward as the
symphysis of the premaxillary. The malar is broad and thick,
probably forming but little of the face, being directed downwards
and backwards to meet the zygoma. The postorbital process is short,
and rather larger than Dr. Leidy has indicated. The maxillaries,
smaller proportionately than in Sus, form posteriorly the floor of the
orbit; while the infraorbital foramen is situated over the last
premolar. The premaxillaries fail to reach the nasals.
Comparative Measurements of Head.
P.
paludosus.
P.
major.
P.
Tapir.
M. M. M.
Height of occiput ·122 ·148 ·120
Breadth of occiput at post tympanic
processes
·160 ·166 ·110
Breadth of cranium at ends of post-
glenoid processes
·172 ·210 ·126

Transverse diameter of occipital
foramen
·031 ·049 ·040
Vertical diameter of occipital foramen ·027 ·033 ·027
Depth of occipital condyles ·033 ·039 ·029
Breadth of occipital condyles ·040 ·049 ·041
Breadth at occipital condyles together ·082 ·100 ·082
Width of basioccipital at anterior
condyloid foramina
·038 ·039 ·028
Width of basioccipital at junction with
basisphenoid
·025 ·032 ·020
Width of crest dividing the temporal
fossæ posteriorly
·011 ·020 ·011
Breadth of cranium outside of
zygomata
·262 ·280 ·180
Depth of zygoma ·046 ···· ·036
Lower jaw of P. paludosus described from another specimen.
The peculiar feature of this jaw is its remarkable extension back
of the molar series (a feature which has not been noticed
heretofore), the distance from the last tooth to the angle being
greater than the length of the entire molar series. From beneath the
last molar, the lower margin curves gently up to the symphysis. The
alveolar border is but slightly curved. Behind the last molar the lower
margin forms a sigmoid curve, much more decided than in P. major
(first upwards and then downwards), and the ramus thins out rapidly
to the angle, where it has a slightly raised border; at the diastema
the ramus curves outwards so as to throw the canines out of the line
of the molars. The symphysis is long.
Dentition.—The incisors, three in number, from length and shape
indicate a semi-circular arrangement, as in most Perissodactyles.
They increase from first to third. The crown of the first resembles
very much that of the ruminants, but has a straight posterior basal
ridge. Its forward edge is worn so as to expose a small tract of
dentine. The second is larger, but very much like the first in

conformation; while the third has an acute conical crown with a
strong basal ridge.
Of the premolars the first is wanting in this specimen. The
second is bilobed, the anterior lobe much the larger. It has a small
accessory tubercle on its anterior slope. The outer face is rounded,
the inner nearly flat. The posterior lobe is very small and obtuse,
and with the inner face slightly grooved. In third and fourth the
valley between the lobes and the groove on their faces enlarge;
while the anterior lobe becomes relatively smaller.
Measurements of Lower Jaw.
M.
Diastema between canine and first premolar ·024
Length of entire molar series ·143
Distance between last molar and extremity of angle·147
Depth of jaw at last molar ·070
Among the first discoveries on Cottonwood Creek, in connection
with the lower jaw of P. paludosus just described, were an ulna and
radius, and part of the manus and scapula of the same. These have
been figured, together with other fragments belonging to the same
species, in Plate III., and form an interesting complement to the
nearly complete hind limb of P. major previously described.
The scapula has a shallow oval glenoid cavity, which is concave
longitudinally. Separated from it by a narrow notch is a strongly
recurved coracoid, placed on the inner side of the bone. Above the
coracoid the border is thin, and arches inwards and then forwards;
while the glenoid border is much straighter, rising from a slight
tuberosity. The spine rises gradually from the glenoid, and does not
bear any indication of an acromion.
The humerus is represented by proximal and distal extremities.
The latter presents the same characters on a smaller scale as in P.
major. Upon the proximal end there is a deep bicipital groove. The

greater tuberosity has a hooked anterior projection, and runs back
into a ridge behind. (See Fig 7, Plate III.)
The proximal end of the ulna (of median breadth anteriorly)
narrows into a prominent ridge behind. This gives a trihedral
character to the shaft. This is persistent, but is less marked as the
fore-and-aft diameter decreases. The remaining features of note are
a high tuberous olecranon expanding behind; a shallow sigmoid,
divided by a deep fossa into two long divergent articular faces; a
trihedral shaft tapering slightly, but distinct from the radius; a
narrow distal extremity, with a small irregular face for the cuneiform.
The radius has a rather short shaft, curved forwards, expanding
below, and placed immediately in front of the ulna. A strong ridge
runs from the external tuberosity up the posterior face of the shaft,
disappearing two inches from the top. The proximal end, fitting
against the ulna by two small faces, forms the greater part of the
elbow-joint, a strong median ridge dividing the proximal face into
two subequal surfaces with well-raised borders. The distal end of the
shaft is rugose, and more prominent than the proximal. It has an
oblong transverse face, which is slightly concave fore and aft. The
position of the radius, immediately in front of the ulna, and its
manner of articulation, remove any possibility of rotation, a feature
in strong contrast with what we should expect from the character of
the head.
Measurements of Ulna and Radius.
M.
Ulna, length, excluding olecranon ·224
Ulna, length of olecranon ·080
Ulna, transverse diameter, proximal surfaces ·041
Ulna, diameter of shaft at median line ·038
Ulna, fore-and-aft diameter, distal face ·025
Ulna, transverse diameter, distal face ·017
Radius, proximal face, transverse ·048

Radius, proximal lace, fore-and-aft ·030
Radius, median diameter, shaft ·019
Radius, median diameter distal face, transverse ·043
Radius, median diameter distal face, fore-and-aft·016
The manus is described from the third and fourth metatarsals,
with three phalanges. The metatarsals are short, with a wide, stout
shaft, flat in front and slightly arched forwards behind. The proximal
ends unite and form a continuous articular face, concave from side
to side; while upon the exposed sides are smooth facets, indicating
the presence of two additional toes of less size. (See Plate III.) The
convex distal faces are marked behind by a slight groove.
The phalanges are very short and broad, the lower facets marked
by a shallow median groove. The ungual phalanx is wide and short,
with a crescentic outline.
Measurements.
M.
Third metatarsal, total length ·090
Third metatarsal, transverse diameter, proximal face·017
Third metatarsal, transverse diameter, distal end ·019
Second phalanx, length ·024
Third phalanx ·014
Total estimated length of manus (6 inches) ·155
Palæosyops vallidens, Cope.
Proceedings Am. Phil. Society, 1872, p. 487; Hayden's Survey,
1872, p. 572.
Specific characters.—Founded on details of dental structure.
Superior size. In the upper molars two strong transverse ridges
connect the inner tubercle with the outer crescents, inclosing a pit
between them. In the premolars the outer crescents fuse almost into
a single ridge. These united crescents are relatively narrower. The

inner molars are also narrower, and the posterior tubercle of the last
is an elevated cone.
Fragment of a lower jaw containing the two posterior molars.
The measurements of the teeth are identical with those given by
Professor Cope. The depth of the ramus below the last molar is
three and one third inches, and it is slightly heavier below than in P.
major.
Restoration of Palæosyops.—The elevation of Palæosyops major,
which is taken as a type, was approximately the same as that of
Palæotherium magnum as restored by Cuvier.
The nearly complete ilium, femur, tibia, and tarsus of P. major in
our possession, enable us to make the following estimate of the
elevation of the hind quarters.
INCHES.
Pelvis, height of ilium above acetabulum 9
Femur and tibia by actual measurement, allowing for bend
at the knee
26
Tarsus, from astragalus, and cuboid 3
Metatarsus and phalanges (estimated from manus of P.
paludosus)
8
46
It is probable that the fore-shoulders were of the same height.
From the atlas, axis, and from other cervicals, several dorso-lumbar
vertebræ, and part of the sacrum, a rude estimate places the length
of the animal at sixty-seven inches, or nearly six feet, including the
head, and excluding the tail.
In general features it strongly resembled the tapir, with stout
body, slender tail, and very short neck, compensated by a proboscis
of considerable length. In comparing the heads of the ancient and
modern representatives of this class of Perissodactyles, the points of
contrast are the wide stout zygomas, the deep temporal fossæ, the

protruding nasals, and the narrow gaps in the dental series of the
older type.
There are also strong points of resemblance in the structure of
the Palæosyops and Palæothere. Some of the cranial homologues
have been detailed by Dr. Leidy. The femur of the Palæothere is
shorter, the tibia longer; they are both much stouter. The tarsus of
the Palæosyops is narrower, while the remainder of the Pes is very
similar. The pelvis, and particularly the ilium and acetabulum of
Palæosyops, is more palæotheroid than tapiroid. The similarity of the
fore-shoulder in the two types is also striking. The neck of the
Palæosyops was probably shorter.
In the descending series of Palæotheres terminating in the
diminutive P. minus, and characteristic of the upper eocene of
France, we have an interesting counterpart in the large family of
Palæosyops, of equal diversity of size and characteristic of our lower
eocene, and it is hoped that future discoveries will render a complete
discussion of this interesting coincidence possible.
LIMNOHYUS, Leidy.
Proceedings Academy Natural Sciences, Phil., 1872, p. 242;
Palæosyops; Marsh, American Journal Sci. and Arts, 1872,
p. 122; Hayden's Survey, 1872, p. 592, Cope.
Generic characters.—Resembles Palæosyops in general features.
Distinction founded on the possession of two conic tubercles, of the
inner series, on the last superior molar instead of one.
Limnohyus laticeps, Marsh.
Palæosyops Laticeps. Am. Journ. of Sc. v. iv. p. 122.
Specific characters.—"Cranium is broad. The zygomatic arches
much expanded. The nasals are narrow and elongated, and more

like the corresponding bones in Hyrax than those in the larger
pachyderms."
Fragments of the upper molar and premolar series. The species is
determined by measurements given by Dr. Leidy of the second upper
molar.
LEUROCEPHALUS, Gen. Nov.
Established on a specimen having a nearly complete dentition,
and portions of the cranium.
Dental Formula: (I. 3/3, C. 1/1, Pm. 4/4, M. 3/3,) × 2 = 44.
Upper incisors acute, with strong posterior ridges, lower incisors
compressed and laniariform, canines compressed, with serrated
cutting edges; first upper premolar with rudimentary anterior lobe,
last upper molar with rudimentary postero-internal cusp. Molars
constructed as in Palæosyops, but higher, with sharper cones and
more erect external lobes. Internal median valley very much deeper.
Little or no depression at the forehead; zygomatic arch round,
comparatively straight and does not project outwards, and with
obscure postorbital process. Premaxillaries short and straight.
Mandible with nearly straight lower margin, and shallow masseteric
fossa; mental foramen single.
Leurocephalus cultridens, Sp. Nov.
This species was considerably larger than Palæosyops major,
with which it shows affinities, as also with Titanotherium Proutii. See
Plate IV.
The Frontal is narrow and flat, or slightly arched. It sends out a
strong curved postorbital process, which projects outwards, but not
so much outwards as in Palæosyops. The sagittal crest runs back
from the postorbital in a low rounded ridge, rising but little as it

recedes. The superciliary ridge is distinct, and is pierced by two
small venous foramina. The shape of the entire bone is much as we
find it in the dog, except that it does not arch so much. One of the
most marked differences between this genus and Palæosyops is here
shown. In the latter the forehead rises abruptly from behind the
orbit, while in the former there is only a slight rise for some distance
behind the orbit. As the bone is broken here, it is impossible to state
whether there is any rise at all. Probably not, however. Below the
postorbital process, on the lateral aspect of the bone, there is a low
ridge which separates the orbit from the temporal fossa. The under
surface of the frontal is smooth.
The Nasal, of which but a small portion is preserved, is flat on
top, but bends downward at the angle.
The Maxillary is long and stout, over the last and penultimate
molars it broadens to form the floor of the orbit, which is of unusual
size. Between the canine and the malar the maxillary arches
inwards, forming a perceptible concavity, at this point it reaches its
greatest vertical height, as it rises to join the nasal. The alveolar
border is curved in two directions, one with the convexity outwards,
and the other downwards. It exhibits no emargination in the
diastema between the canines and molars. The palatine plate is
long, thick, and narrow; it is flat fore-and-aft, but concave
transversely, owing to the elevation of the alveolus; the suture also
is raised slightly. In thickness it varies; being thickest between the
canine and the second premolar, and beyond this becoming thinner.
Its forward termination seems to be obtuse, running for a short
distance along the premaxillaries. The infraorbital foramen is large,
situated over the fourth premolar, lower down, and nearer to the
malar than in Palæosyops.
The Premaxillary is rather short and stout; it is slightly
compressed, and ends in a sharp keel on top. Although not so thick
as in Palæosyops, it is much larger vertically. The inner surface is
ridged; it has no palatine process, and no spine, so that the incisive
foramen is large and undivided. There was no symphysis between

the two premaxillaries, they do not show even any articular faces for
each other, so that they may not have been in contact during life.
The animal was adult, but not old. The incisive alveolus is short and
straight, and is but little out of the line of the molars. There is a very
long diastema between the incisors and the canine, and here the
premaxillary is deeply notched to allow the passage of the lower
canine.
The Malar is very different in shape and size from the same bone
in Palæosyops. Its facial extent is greater, as it articulates with the
maxillary as far forward as the first molar. It is not so broad from
above downwards, but is considerably thicker; the articulation with
the squamosal is by flat surfaces. The postorbital process is small
and indistinct. The orbit is of great size; its breadth, shown by the
maxillary floor is unusual, but its fore-and-aft diameter is extreme,
being nearly twice as great as in a large Palæosyops major.
The Squamosal is a short, slender, and trihedral bone; it is not at
all like the squamosal of Palæosyops. It is smaller even than that of
P. paludosus; its outer margin is not turned up, making the upper
surface concave; it does not project much outward, and scarcely at
all downwards, as this is rendered unnecessary by the flatness of the
forehead. The chief difference, in the size of this bone, between this
genus and Palæosyops is found in the much greater vertical and
lateral diameter of the latter; in length they are about equal. The
glenoid cavity is large, shallow, and transverse.
As a whole, the zygomatic arch is comparatively slender; it is
rounded, and does not project much laterally from the side of the
head; but its chief peculiarity consists in the fact that it is nearly
horizontal. It is thus altogether different from the arch of
Palæosyops.
The Occipital Condyles are different from those of that genus.
They are flatter, shorter from above downwards, and proportionately
much smaller; but are expanded laterally in much the same manner.
At the border of the foramen magnum they are gently rounded

instead of having a sharp angle. These borders are segments of
circles, but as the condyles are broken from the rest of the occiput,
we cannot infer from this the shape of the foramen.
The Mandible is long, stout, but comparatively shallow. It is of
nearly uniform thickness throughout, and does not exhibit the
thickening of the alveolus and thinning, of the lower margin, which is
shown in Palæosyops, especially in P. major; and the downward and
inward arching of the alveolar border is not marked to the same
extent as in that species. The lower border is nearly straight, and
has but one slight emargination just behind the symphysis. The
ascending portion of the ramus rises near the last molar quite
abruptly, and makes an angle of nearly 90° with the horizontal
portion. The masseteric fossa is shallow and obscure, and the
anterior bounding ridge is almost obsolete. This part of the jaw is
very different from any of the species of Palæosyops. The symphysis
is quite long, and extends back as far as the second premolar; the
chin is probably rounded. The dental foramen is situated high up in
the ascending portion of the ramus; the mental foramen is placed
below the second premolar; it is large and single.
Cranial Measurements.
M.
Breadth of frontal at postorbital process ·045
Breadth of frontal in front of postorbital ·030
Breadth of nasal just in front of orbit ·032
Length from angle of nares to end of premaxillary ·1235
Length of premaxillary ·056
Length of maxillary ·230
Breadth of palatine process at canine ·026
Breadth of palatine process at second premolar ·029
Vertical height of maxillary at angle of nares ·064
Breadth of maxillary across floor of orbit ·058
Fore-and-aft diameter of orbit ·054

Length of malar along maxillary ·094
Vertical diameter of malar behind maxillary ·029
Transverse diameter of malar behind maxillary ·033
Fore-and-aft diameter of glenoid cavity (about) ·029
Vertical diameter of squamosal at end of malar articulation ·032
Transverse diameter of squamosal at end of malar articulation ·0325
Length of ramus mandibuli from symphysis to ascending
portion
·177
Depth of jaw at last molar ·068
Depth of jaw at second premolar ·061
DENTITION.
Upper Jaw.—The incisors, three in number, are placed close
together in a nearly straight line, which does not make so great an
angle with the line of molars as in Palæosyops. They increase
regularly in size from the first to the third, which is very large. They
all have stout rounded fangs, and sharp pyramidal crowns, with
strong basal ridges separated from the acute blades by deep clefts.
Between the incisors and the canine there is a long diastema.
The canine is of great size; it has a swollen fang, and a long
recurved crown which is much compressed, and has sharp serrated
cutting-edges. The external face is the more convex, the internal has
a well-marked basal ridge, and both are longitudinally striated. The
canine is separated from the premolars by a short diastema.
Premolars.—The first premolar stands by itself, separated by a
short interval from the second. It is implanted by two fangs, and has
a compressed crown with sharp cutting-edges. It is nearly twice the
size of the corresponding tooth in Palæosyops, which is simple and
conical. In the specimen under description there is, besides the
principal lobe of the tooth, a rudimentary anterior lobe which gives
the crown an elongate shape. The basal ridge is shown on the inner
side only. The second premolar has a crown which is oval in section.

The external part consists of two sharp-pointed cusps, separated by
a valley, but confluent at base; while the internal division is a low
ridge (not a pointed cone as in Palæosyops) with a tubercle
developed behind it. The basal ridge is marked all around, and sends
up a buttress along the antero-external lobe; as is also the case in
the third and fourth premolars. These are enlarged copies of the
second; but have the internal lobe elevated into a sharp cone, and
showing a much stronger basal ridge and deeper median valley.
These teeth differ in several respects from the premolars of
Palæosyops. The crowns are higher and the lobes sharper; the basal
ridge is more distinct, and is not interrupted at the internal cusp; the
external ascending buttress is stronger; and there is no fold between
the external lobes of the fourth.
The molars are constructed in a manner which resembles that of
P. paludosus rather than of P. major, but its resemblance to the form
shown in Titanotherium is stronger than to either. They have broad,
square crowns, which increase progressively in size from first to last.
There is a convexity running up the median line of the external
lobes, and the two posterior lobes are connected together at their
bases. The first molar does not exhibit such a decided increase in
size over the last premolar as is seen in Palæosyops; the two
external lobes are more erect and sharper than in any form of that
genus. The cingulum is complete even across the internal cones, and
the median valley is very deep, as in Titanotherium. There is a
conspicuous fold at the junction of the external lobes, and a minute
tubercle between the two anterior lobes; this tubercle is present only
in the first molar, and not throughout the series, as in Palæosyops.
The second molar in general form is like the first; but is larger, has a
deeper median valley, more conspicuous external folds, and a
stronger basal ridge. There is also some change in the proportions of
the crown; the first measuring the same in both directions, while the
second is wider than it is long. The last molar has but one internal
cone; the second is represented by a tubercle; which however is a
true rudimentary lobe and not a development of the basal ridge. In

this tooth, the external fold is very large and the median valley very
deep.
Lower Jaw.—The lower molars and premolars are very much like
those of Palæosyops, but are longer, narrower, and higher. The
incisors are not at all like Palæosyops, but are compressed and
laniariform, with acute crowns and sharp cutting-edges. The canine
is not present in our specimen; but that it was large, is shown by the
long diastema between the upper canine and incisors.
Premolars.—The first is small, simple, and implanted by a single
fang close to the canine. The diastema between it and the second
premolar is about one half of that in P. major. The second premolar
is the most peculiar tooth in the lower series; as it carries the
development of the anterior lobe at the expense of the posterior
lobe, to a still greater extent than in Palæosyops., forming a crown
like the blade of the carnivorous sectorial. The third lobe of the last
molar is no longer a simple cone, but a functional lobe, with two
crests running from it, which bound a median valley.
Teeth Measurements.
UPPER JAW. M.
Length of entire dental series ·275
Length of incisor series ·375
Length of diastema between canine and incisors ·018
Fore-and-aft diameter of canine ·019
Transverse diameter of canine ·015
Length of diastema between canine and
premolars
·0145
Length of premolar series ·083
Length of first premolar ·016
Width of first premolar ·009
Length of second premolar ·021
Width of second premolar ·017
Length of third premolar ·022

Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!
ebookgate.com

Space Matters Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today 1st Edition Lukas Feireiss

More Related Content

Similar to Space Matters Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today 1st Edition Lukas Feireiss (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Space Matters Exploring Spatial Theory and Practice Today 1st Edition Lukas Feireiss