Specifying a purpose, Purpose statement, Hypostheses and research questions
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The document outlines the importance of purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses in guiding educational research. It distinguishes between quantitative and qualitative approaches, emphasizing that purpose statements define the study's direction, while research questions and hypotheses specify the relationships and predictions being investigated. The text also elaborates on the types and roles of variables, emphasizing their relevance in statistical analysis and the formulation of research objectives.
Specifying a purpose, Purpose statement, Hypostheses and research questions
- 1. SPECIFYING A PURPOSE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS OR HYPOTHESES Presenter: Muhammad Naushad Ghazanfar Creswell, John W., (2012) Educational Research 4th ed., Delhi: Prentice Hall Inc., pp.109 to 136
- 2. Introduction: Purpose statements, Research Questions and hypotheses provides critical information about direction of a research study. They also raise questions that the research will answer through the data collection procedure.
- 3. The Purpose Statement A statement that advances the overall direction of focus for the study in one or more briefly formed sentences. It is used both in quantitative and qualitative research and is typically found in the “statement of the problem” section. Often appears as the last sentence of an introduction. Typically state it beginning with the phrase “The purpose of the study is ………….” In quantitative study usually examine the relationship between variables. In qualitative study it usually based on exploration of the phenomenon, behavior, attitudes, etc.
- 4. Research Questions Narrow the purpose statement to the specific questions that researchers seek to answer. Typically develop them before identifying the method of study. (i.e. type of data to be collected, analyzed and interpreted in the study. Researchers both in quantitative and qualitative research, states multiple research questions so that they can fully explore the topic, but their elements differ depending on the type of research being conducted.
- 5. In quantitative research, the questions relates attributes or characteristics of individuals or organizations called variables. In qualitative research, the questions include the central concepts being explored also called central phenomenon. A good presentation style to clarify both the general and specific direction of the study, in some studies both research questions and purpose statement are included. The research questions are typically at the end of the introduction of the “statement of the problem” section or immediately following the review of the literature.
- 6. Example: A quantitative research question “Do parent-teacher internet communications affect student performance in the classroom?” A qualitative research question “What type of internet experiences do parents have with teachers about the performance of the parents’ children?”
- 7. Importance of Purpose Statement & Research Questions These statements are signposts similar to theses statement or objectives in term papers. Without clear signposts will not know central idea addressed in your study. Author could also identify the most appropriate methods for collecting data from the purpose statement and the questions. Provides key components for understanding the results of a project. Good research links the purpose statement and questions to major results
- 8. Hypotheses In quantitative research, the statement in which the investigator makes a prediction or a conjecture about the outcome of a relationship among attributes or characteristics. Traditionally used in experiments, they serve, like research questions to narrow the purpose statement to specific predictions. Researcher base them on results from past research and literature where investigators found certain results and can now offer predictions as to what other investigators will found when they repeat the study with a new people or at new sites. Usually hypotheses stated at the beginning of the study, typically at the end of the introduction also place immediately after review of the literature or in a separate section titled “Hypotheses”
- 9. Example Students in high school in the district in which parents and teachers communicate through the Internet will have higher grades than students whose parents and teachers do not communicate through the internet.
- 10. Research Objectives: Statement of intent in quantitative research that specifies goals that the investigator plans to achieve in the study. Often subdivide objectives into major and minor objectives. They appear frequently in survey or questionnaire studies or in evaluation research in which investigators have clearly identified objectives. Like hypotheses and research questions, objectives are found at the end of the “statement of the problem” section, after the literature review or in the separate section of the study. The objectives in the study can look for phrase such as “ The objectives in this study are………..”
- 11. Example To describe the frequency of internet Communication between parents and teachers regarding the parenets’ children in high school social studies classes. To describe the types (or categories) on internet communication between parents and teachers. To relate (a) frequency and ( or types) of communication to student achievement in the class as measured by performance on tests.
- 12. How to design quantitative Purpose statement, research Questions and Hypotheses. To write purpose statements research questions and hypotheses, the understanding regarding importance and use of variables is necessary.
- 13. A variable (a characteristic or attribute) Can be measured And varies Can be assessed on an instrument Or observed and recorded on an instrument Can assume differnet values or scores for different individuals
- 14. Variables A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that a researcher can measure to observe and varies among individuals or organizations. Examples: Leadership style ( by administrators) Achievements in Science (by Students) Interpersonal communication skills (of counselor) Characteristics of individuals refers to personal aspects about them. Such as grade, income age experience etc. However represents how an individual/s feel, behave, think or react.
- 15. Measurement The researcher records the information in one or two ways Asking them to answer questions on a questionnaire. Observing an individual and recording scores. When attribute vary, it means score will assume different values depending upon types of variables being measured. Gender (male, Female) Self esteem (positive, negative, neutral)
- 16. Distinguish between variables measured as categories and a continuous scores. Researchers assign a score to each question asked from respondents. (5 Strongly agree to strongly disagree) The score measured using continuous and categorical scores. Researchers Scores variables by grouping them into a limited number of categories or by using them to represent a value of some degree on a continuum, ranging from low to high level.
- 17. Categorical/ discrete or Nominal variable: Measured in small number of groups or categories. Continuous variables: variable measured in a continuum of scores, from low to high scores. It also called interval, rating or scaled score. Example age, height.
- 18. Distinguish variable from construct A construct is an attribute or characteristics expressed in an abstract, general way; A variable is an attribute or characteristics stated in a specific, applied way. Example: student achievement is a construct, while the more specific term grade point average is a variable. The trend in educational research is to use variables rather than construct in purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses.
- 19. Variable family Family of variables requires learning the definition of each type of variable and understanding its role in providing direction for a study. The most important variables are Independent variables Dependent variables Intervening variables. A useful way to think about organizing these variables is to consider a cause and effect relationship
- 20. Influence of variable on outcomes 1. What outcomes in my study am I trying to explain ( the dependent variables) 2. What variables or factors influence the outcomes (the independent variables) 3. What variables do I need to also measure (i.e. Control) so that major factors influence outcomes and not other factors. (control and mediating variables) 4. What variables might influence the outcomes but cannot or will not be measured ( the confounding Variables)
- 21. Dependent Variable An attribute or characteristics that is dependent on or influenced by the independent variables as the outcomes, effects, criterion, or consequence variable. Researcher typically investigate multiple dependent variables in a single study. Dependent variables are typically of central interest Measured using continuous or categorical scores. To locate dependent variables in study, examine purpose statement, research questions and hypotheses for outcomes that researchers whishes to predict or explain. Examples; Achievement scores on test Organizational climate of a junior high school The leadership skills of a principals
- 22. Independent Variables An attribute or characteristics that influences or affects an outcomes or dependent variables. Researchers measure this type of variable distinctly (or independently) for the dependent variables. In research studies independent variables called factors, treatments, predictors, determinants or antecedents. Researchers study independent variables to see what effect or influence they have on the outcomes. Some times independent variables influences dependent variables through the intervening variables Example Independent variable: Time on math instruction Dependent variable: Math scores
- 23. Locating independent variable Independent variables are located in purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses. To find them, look for the variable that exercises influence or predicts an outcomes. They may be described in categories or on a contiguous scales of scores(control variable) or have specific application to experiments. (treatment variable and moderating variables)
- 24. Types of Independent variables 1. Measured Variable 2. Control Variable 3. Treatment variable 4. Moderating Variable
- 25. 1. Measured Variable: The standard independent variable influences the outcomes and is measured by the researcher and consists of a range of continuous or categorical scores. 2. Control variable: another type of independent variable that researcher measure for the purpose of elimination it as possibility, but it is not a central variable of concern the dependent variables or outcomes. 3. Treatment Variable: in an experiment, researcher treats one group of practitioners to specific activities and withholds them from another group. Treatment variable is measured in categories (received of denied activities) to determine its effect on an outcome. 4. Moderating Variable: new variable constructed by researchers by taking one variable times another to determine the joint impact of both variables together. This impact is called an interaction effect.
- 26. Intervening Variables An attribute or characteristics that “stands between” the independent and dependent variables and exercises an influence on dependent variable apart from the independent variable. Intervening variables transmit (or mediate) the effects of the independents variables on the dependent variables. They are also called mediating variables. In some quantitative studies intervening variables are controlled using statistical procedures. Confounding Variables; Attributes or characteristics that researchers cannot directly measure because their effects cannot be easily separated from those of other variables, even though they influence the relation between the independent and the dependent variables.
- 27. Theories and testing of variables In quantitative research we seek to test whether the independent variable influence the outcomes or dependent variable. This is based on past research that suggests that this relationship edxists. Some researchers go ahead and found a theory that predicts the likely impact of the independent variable on the dependent variables and they seek to test a theory. Probable causation: In social sciences theories deals with humans in unpredictable situations, so we say that independent varialbles “ probably cause the dependent variables. The idea of Probable causation is that researchers attempt to establish a likely cause-and-effect relationship between variables, rather than prove the relationship
- 28. A Theory in quantitative Research Explains the predicts and probable relationship between independent and dependent variables. Theory is a bridge that connects the independents and dependents variables. Theories are no more than the broad explanations for what we would expect to find when we relate variables. Example: Boys scouts in church, in middle schools in high schools and I other settings. Repeatedly the relationship of a positive effect holds true. Investigator locate a theory in the literature , examine the predicted relationship among variables in the theory and than test the relationship with new participants and new sites.
- 29. To test the theory, Researchers write purpose statements research questions and hypotheses that advance the predicted relationships. Not all quantitative studies employ a theory, to test, but doing so represents the most rigorous form of quantitative research. It is certainly better than basing variables on your own hunches that are subject to challenge by other students and professors.
- 30. Different types of explanations in quantitative research. Hunches: Some researchers have hunches or educated guesses as to why two variables might be related. From personal experience, one researcher might feel that Hispanic children succeed in elementary school because the teacher is sensitive to cultural issues. It is an unsophisticated approach based on the experience of the researcher. At more rigorous level: educators can draw on a theoretical rationale- a logical statement for relating the variables- mentioned by the authors inn other studies. Assume that Jones, for example, found that Hispanic students learned best when teachers celebrated Hispanic holidays in class. With this theoretical rationale, we probably have more confidence in understanding the relationship between cultural sensivity and performance in class. (e.g. learning best)
- 31. More sophisticated level: Assume that five different authors have studied this relationship and found cultural sensitivity to relate to performance. Smith for instance developed a conceptual framework predicting this relationship to hold true. Others tested all found the relationship true for different groups of Hispanic children. Now we are more confident that researchers have tested it multiple times with different Hispanic children. Theory level: Assume that the relationship between cultural sensivity and students performance is tested with many groups of different cultural orientations (e.g. Americans, Asians, Africans etc.) in all these a positive relationship exists between teachers sensitivity and students performance. Typically theories are located in the literature review section or in the research questions and hypotheses. They may be called a theoretically rationale or a theory base for the study.
- 32. Writing Quantitative Purpose statements After clarity of the background about variables and theory, now it is easy to write down quantitative purpose statement, research questions and hypotheses. First you specify the elements that go into a god purpose statement. Display a script that you can complete to help you design this statement, and illustrate the use of this script using examples.
- 33. Guidelines A quantitative purpose statement identifies the variables, their relationship, participants and the site for research. Write Purpose statement in single sentence Begin “ The purpose of the study” to clarify the readers If you plan to use a theory, introduce it in this statement by stating that you plan to test a “theory”. Three options exists for using variables in this statement: Seek to relate two or more variables Compare a variable compose of two or more groups in terms of the dependent variables Or to describe one variable Use the words relate or compare, or describe to indicate whether variable will be related, groups will be compared or variables will be described.
- 34. Guidelines (Continued) If variables are related or groups compared, specify the independent and dependent variables or any control or intervening variables. State independent variable first, followed by the dependent variable, if control or mediating variables are used, state them last. The placement is very important because quantitative researchers often view variables as related from left to right. Identified the participants to be studied and the research site at which they will be studied.
- 35. Sample Script To apply these guidelines consider completing the following script by filling in the blanks: (Researchers relates variables) The purpose of this study is to test Fine’s theory (1996){the theory} by relating the leadership style {independent variable} to autonomy {dependent variable} for teachers {participants} in high schools in X state. {research site} (Researchers compare two groups) The purpose of the study is to test Smart’s theory (1999){the theory} by comparing autocratic leaders {group I} with consensus building leaders {group II} in terms of satisfaction of teachers {dependent variable} in college in state X {research site}
- 36. Writing quantitative Research Questions Research question narrow and focus the purpose statement and restate the purpose in specific questions that researchers seek to answer. Research question describe the participant’s reaction to a single variable, compare groups on an outcome, or relate two variables. Research questions are found in all designs in quantitative research, such as in experiments, correlational studies and surveys. Pose a question begin with “how” “what” or “why” Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control variables. Use the words describe, compare, relate to, indicate the action or connections among the variables. Indicate the participants and the research site of the study.
- 37. Three popular forms of research questions Descriptive questions Relationship questions Comparison questions
- 38. 1. Descriptive Questions Descriptive Questions: to identify participants’ responses to a single variable or question. That single variable may be an independent, dependent, or an intervening variable. How frequently do African Americans(participant) feel isolated (variable) on college campuses (research Site).
- 39. 2. Relationship questions In most research studies, investigators seek to learn more than responses to a single variables. They may examine the relationship between two or more variables Seek to answer the degree and magnitude of the relationship between two or more variables. These questions often relate different types of variables in a study, such as independent variables to dependent variables or dependent variables to control variables. The most common case occurs when researchers relate the independent variable to the dependent variables. How do feeling of isolation (independent Variable) relate to (or influence ) the ethnic identity (dependent variable) of African Americans (participants) in the United States (the site)
- 40. 3. Comparison Questions Ask to find out how two or more groups on an independent variable doffer in terms of one or more outcomes variables. Experiments employ comparison questions and the researchers provides some intervention to one group and withholds from the second group. How do African American (group I) and Euro American (group II) compares in their perceptions of ethnic identity (dependent variable) students of universities (participants) in USA (Site)
- 41. Writing a Quantitative Hypotheses Hypotheses narrow the purpose statement in quantitative research but advance a prediction about what the researcher expects to find. Researcher can make these predictions on the basis of literature that suggests certain outcomes. Hypotheses are not used to describe a single variable as found in the case of research questions. They also not used as frequently as research questions because they represent a formal statement of relationships and the predication of the relationship is not be known. Researchers narrow the focus of the study to at least one hypotheses that provides a prediction about the outcomes of the study.
- 42. Guidelines for writing Quantitative hypotheses. State the variables in this order: independent (first position) dependent (second position) and control (third position) While comparing groups in hypotheses, explicitly states the groups, if variables are related, specify the relationship among the variable. Make the prediction about changes you expect in your groups, such as less or more favorable or no changes (e.g. no difference) you will than test this prediction using statistical procedure. You may state information about the participants and the site of the study, but this information may not be necessary
- 43. Types of Hypotheses Null Hypotheses Alternate Hypotheses Directional or non-directional hypotheses
- 44. Null hypotheses Most traditional form, make predictions that all possible people whom researches might study (i.e. called general population) There is no relationship between independent and dependent variables and no difference between groups of independent variables and dependent variables. It starts with the phrase “there is no difference between” groups or “There is no relationship between or among” variables. There is no difference between at risk (independent variable group I) and non risk (independent variable group II) in terms of students achievement on math test scores (dependent variable) for third grade students (participants)in the Midwast School (research site) Form and language: null indicating no difference.
- 45. Alternative Hypotheses Make predictions that there will be no statistically significant difference between the independent variable and dependent variable. In contrast to the Null Hypotheses, you may write an alternative hypotheses, you will use an alternative hypotheses if you think there will be no difference based on results from past research or an explanation or theory reported in the literature. There are tow types of alternative hypotheses Directional Non directional
- 46. Directional Alternative Hypotheses: The researcher predicts the direction of a change, a difference, or a relationship for variables in the total population of the peoples. A researcher selects a sample of people from a population and predicts that scores will be higher, better, or changed in some way. Example: Students who participate in direct learning in four elementary schools will have higher achievement scores than students who participate in whole-language learning. Independent Variable: direct and whole language Dependent variable: achievement test scores. Participants: third-grade students Research site: four elementary schools Key indicator: directional, a predication is implied
- 47. Nondirectional Hypotheses The researcher predicts a change, a difference, or a relationship for variables in a population but does not indicate whether the direction of this prediction will be positive or negative, or greater or less. Example: There is a difference between varsity athletes in high schools who smoke and those who do not smoke in terms of athletics accomplishments. Independent Variable: use of tobacco (smokers and nonsmokers) Dependent variable: athletics accomplishments Participants: varsity athletes Research site: high schools Key indicator: the word “a difference .” but the direction is not specified
- 49. Quantitative Hypotheses used, researchers test hypotheses using statistics Identifies multiple variables and seek to measure them Often test theories, broad explanations that predict the results from variables. Select close ended stance by identifying variables and selecting instrument to collect data Qualitative Hypotheses not use, statistics is not used, hypotheses is not appropriate Term variable is not used Seek together information on a single concept- a central phenomenon- a concept Theories are typically not tested Get ideas from participants and build general themes based on those ideas.
- 50. Research questions and hypotheses do not change during study More deductive Seek differences and magnitude of the differences among two of more groups Measure changes over time in individuals Use open ended sentence and often changes the phenomenon being studied or at least allow it to emerge during study. Research question may change on the basis of responses More inductive Don’t compare groups or relate variables Seek a deep understanding of the views of one group or single individual
- 51. Central Phenomenon in Qualitative Research Is the concept or a process explored in qualitative research. Example: “The process of negotiation by a female superintendent with her principals.” Show that expression of central phenomenon in few words Focus on a single concepts or process rather than relating two or more ideas as found in quantitative research. Researchers may not explore comparisons or relationships in qualitative inquiry. Qualitative inquirer begins with a single idea, focus or concept to explore before gathering data.
- 52. Rather than using cause and effect logic as in quantitative research, the qualitative research seek and understand one single phenomenon. Require considering all of multiple external forces that shape this phenomenon. The researcher in the start cannot predict nature of external forces. Consider a central phenomenon to be a single variable that you would like to explore.
- 53. Emerging Process in Qualitative Research Purpose statement and research questions may change in during research process. Emerging process indicates that that the purpose of a study and the questions asked may change based on the inquiry or feedback from participants. Because the qualitative inquirer allows the participants to set the direction. Researcher learns the participants views and rather than imposing his own view on the situation. The purpose of qualitative study is to develop central phenomenon not to develop consensus of opinion.
- 54. Process of Asking Question: Start with initial question Shape them during initial data collection Further change them according to responses. Revision may continue throughout both data collection and analysis. During study overall direction will change. The author will rewrite their purpose statement and research questions. Qualitative research establish the detailed meaning of information rather than to generalized the results. Standardized the responses from all participants in research.
- 55. Writing Qualitative Purpose Statement. Care needs to be given to writing a good purpose statement that reflects the direction of the study. Indicates the intent to explore or understand the central phenomenon with specific individuals at a certain research site. Inquirer write this purpose statement as a single sentence and typically include it in a study at the end of the introduction.
- 56. Guidelines Use key identifier words to signal the reader, such as “The purpose of this study is…………………..” Mentioning that the study is “qualitative” since audience may not be familiar with qualitative research. Become familiar with qualitative research designs, and indicate the type of research you plan to use in your study. State the central phenomenon you plan to explore. Use words that convey intent about the exploration, such as explore, discover, understand and describe. Mention the participants in the study. Refer to the research site where you will study the participants.
- 57. Sample Script The purpose of this qualitative study will be to (explore/discover/understand/ describe) (the central phenomenon ) for (participant) at (research site) The purpose of this qualitative study is to describe classroom learning using the internet for five high school students participating in a sign language class. If we Analyze this example we find The central phenomenon: Classroom learning using the internet The Participant: five high school students The research site: a class in sign language at X high school
- 58. Writing Qualitative Research Questions Research questions narrow the purpose of the study into specific questions. Are open ended, general questions that the researcher would like answered during the study. Guidelines: Expect your qualitative research questions to change during a study to reflect the participants views of central phenomenon and growing and deeper the understanding of it. Five to seven questions are enough to permit the participants to share information. Emphases on learning information from the participants rather than what the researcher seeks to know. Use neutral, exploratory language refrain from conveying and expected direction. Design and write two types of two types of qualitative research questions: the central and sub questions.
- 59. The Central Question The overarching question researcher explore in his study. The intent of this approach is to open up the research for participants to provide their perspectives and not to narrow the study of your perspective. Place it at the end of the introduction to your study and state it as brief question. From a quantitative perspective, consider it as a single descriptive question such as single dependent variable.
- 60. Different Strategies Begin with the word how are what rather than why so that you don not suggest probable cause and effect relationships as in quantitative research.(why something influence something.) but instead suggest exploration in qualitative studies. Specify the central phenomenon you want to explore Identify the participants in the study Mention the research site in the study.
- 61. A sample script What is (the central phenomenon) for (participants) at (research site) Example: What is creativity for five students at Roosevelt High School. Beginning : “What” The central phenomenon: Creativty The Participant: five students The research site: Roosevelt High School
- 62. Problems Typically Found in Central Questions in Qualitative Research Problems Poor Example of a Central Question Better Example of a Central Question Too general What is going on here? What is the process being used by the general education committee at the liberal arts School? Too Focused How did committee make a curriculum decision about a course on the environment? What is the process of the curriculum committee in making decisions about courses? Too laden with assumptions How did the curriculum address its alienation from the college administration? What was the role of the college administration in the curriculum committee’s deliberations?
- 63. Sub questions In addition to a central question researchers pose sub questions. These sub questions refine the central question in to sub questions to be addressed in the research. These sub questions poses the qualities of as central question. (i.e. open ended, emerging, neutral in language and few in number) They provide greater specificity to the questions in the study.
- 64. Sub Questions Types Sub questions into two types: 1. Issue Sub Questions 2. Procedural Sub Questions ISSUE SUB QUESTIONS That narrow the focus of the central questions into specific question (or issues) the researcher seeks to learn from participants. State the sub questions immediately just after the central question Example 1. What is self esteem for high school students? (Central question) 2. What is self esteem as seen through friends? (Sub question) 3. What is self esteem for the participant’s family? (Sub question) 4. What is self esteem as experienced in extracurricular activities in school. (Sub question)
- 65. PROCEDURAL SUB QUESTIONS Indicate the steps to be used in analyzing the data in qualitative study. Less use in than issue question, because the procedures for a qualitative study will evolve during a study. To write them researchers needs to know what these steps of analysis will be. If researcher knows the general steps to be taken later in the analysis, procedural sub questions can be written. They provides those reviewing a study with a more precesie understanding of the steps than do issue sub questions.
- 66. TYPES OF SUBQUESTIONS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ISSUE SUBQUESTIONS PROCEDURAL SUBQUESTIONS Intent To subdivide the central questions into detailed questions To subdivide central questions into steps for data collection during the study Example Central Question Central Question What does it mean to be a professional teacher? What is the change process in the revision of a general education curriculum on a college campus? Issue subquestions Procedural subquestions What do professionals teachers do? How did the process unfold? What is difficult/easy about being a professional educator? Who were the people involved? When did the teacher first become aware of being a professional? What events occurred? What was the outcomes?
- 67. Distinguishing Qualitative Research Questions form Data Collection Questions The core questions you ask might be the issue questions in your study. You would not ask your central question because that is the overall question you seek to answer with your research. You would also not limit your data collection questions to only issue subquestions Two additional set of questions that you need to ask, especially in qualitative research Ask the participants about themselves as your opening question. In this way you break the ice and encourage them to answer your questions. At the conclusion of your interview, you might ask them to suggest individuals that you might visit to gather additional data.