![53
• Specific rotation is a standardized physical constant for
the amount that a chiral compound rotates plane-
polarized light. Specific rotation is denoted by the
symbol [] and defined using a specific sample tube
length (l, in dm), concentration (c in g/mL), temperature
(250
C) and wavelength (589 nm).
Stereochemistry
Racemic Mixtures](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/stereochemistry-240809075720-7d713ad1/85/Stereochemistry-Basic-principles-Chirality-Enantiomers-53-320.jpg)
![54
• Enantiomeric excess (ee) is a measurement of the
excess of one enantiomer over the racemic mixture.
Enantiomeric excess and Optical purity: ee and op
ee = % of one enantiomer - % of the other enantiomer.
• Consider the following example: If a mixture contains
75% of one enantiomer and 25% of the other, the
enantiomeric excess is 75% - 25% = 50%. Thus, there is a
50% excess of one enantiomer over the racemic mixture.
• ee is numerically equal to Optical Purity.
• The optical purity can be calculated if the specific
rotation [] of a mixture and the specific rotation [] of a
pure enantiomer are known.
op = ([] mixture/[] pure enantiomer) x 100.
Stereochemistry](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/stereochemistry-240809075720-7d713ad1/85/Stereochemistry-Basic-principles-Chirality-Enantiomers-54-320.jpg)
Stereochemistry, Basic principles, Chirality, Enantiomers
- 1. 1 Stereochemistry Prof. Sarang D Kulkarni
- 2. Isomers – different compounds with the same molecular formula. Structural Isomers – isomers that differ in which atoms are bonded to which atoms. CH3 eg. C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3CHCH3 n-butane isobutane 2
- 3. 3 • Recall that isomers are different compounds with the same molecular formula. • The two major classes of isomers are constitutional isomers and stereoisomers. Constitutional/structural isomers have different IUPAC names, the same or different functional groups, different physical properties and different chemical properties. Stereoisomers differ only in the way the atoms are oriented in space. They have identical IUPAC names (except for a prefix like cis or trans). They always have the same functional group(s). • A particular three-dimensional arrangement is called a configuration. Stereoisomers differ in configuration. The Two Major Classes of Isomers: Stereochemistry
- 4. Stereoisomers – isomers that differ in the way the atoms are oriented in space, but not in which atoms are bonded to which atoms. eg. cis-2-butene trans-2-butene H C C H3C CH3 H H C C H3C H CH3 4
- 5. 5 A comparison of consitutional isomers and geometric stereoisomers Stereochemistry Stereoisomers may be geometric (cis/trans) or optical. Optical isomers are chiral and exhibit optical activity.
- 6. 6 • Although everything has a mirror image, mirror images may or may not be superimposable. • A molecule or object that is superimposable on its mirror image is said to be achiral (lacking-chirality). • A molecule or object that is not superimposable on its mirror image is said to be chiral. • Generally, a chiral carbon atom is sp3 with four different attachments. Stereochemistry Chiral and Achiral Molecules:
- 7. 7 • Some molecules are like hands. Left and right hands are mirror images, but they are not identical, or superimposable. Chiral and Achiral Molecules: Stereochemistry
- 8. 8 • We can now consider several molecules to determine whether or not they are chiral. Stereochemistry Chiral and Achiral Molecules:
- 9. 9 • A carbon atom with four different groups is a chiral center. • The case of 2-butanol. A and its mirror image labeled B are not superimposable. Thus, 2-butanol is a chiral molecule and A and B are isomers. • Non-superimposable mirror image stereoisomers like A and B are called enantiomers . Stereochemistry Chiral and Achiral Molecules:
- 10. 10 • In general, a molecule with no stereogenic centers will not be chiral. There are exceptions to this. • With one stereogenic center, a molecule will always be chiral. • With two or more stereogenic centers, a molecule may or may not be chiral. • Achiral molecules usually contain a plane of symmetry but chiral molecules do not. • A plane of symmetry is a mirror plane that cuts the molecule in half, so that one half of the molecule is a reflection of the other half. Stereochemistry Chiral and Achiral Molecules:
- 11. 11 Stereochemistry Chiral and Achiral Molecules: Two identical attachments on an sp3 carbon atom eliminates the possibility of a chiral center.
- 12. 12 Summary of the Basic Principles of Chirality • Everything has a mirror image. The fundamental question is whether the molecule and its mirror image are superimposable. • If a molecule and its mirror image are not superimposable, the molecule and its mirror image are chiral. • The presence of a plane of symmetry makes a molecule achiral. Stereochemistry
- 13. 13 • To locate a stereogenic center, examine each tetrahedral carbon atom in a molecule, and look at the four groups— not the four atoms—bonded to it. • Always omit from consideration all C atoms that cannot be tetrahedral stereogenic centers. These include CH2 and CH3 groups Any sp or sp2 hybridized C Stereogenic Centers: Stereochemistry
- 14. 14 • Larger organic molecules can have two, three or even hundreds of stereogenic centers. Stereochemistry Identifying of Stereogenic Centers:
- 15. 15 • To draw both enantiomers of a chiral compound such as 2-butanol, use the typical convention for depicting a tetrahedron: place two bonds in the plane, one in front of the plane on a wedge, and one behind the plane on a dash. Then, to form the first enantiomer, arbitrarily place the four groups—H, OH, CH3 and CH2CH3—on any bond to the stereogenic center. Then draw the mirror image. Stereochemistry Drawing Stereogenic Centers - the wedge diagram:
- 16. 16 Three-dimensional representations for pairs of enantiomers Stereochemistry Drawing Stereogenic Centers - the wedge diagram:
- 17. 17 • Stereogenic centers may also occur at carbon atoms that are part of a ring. • To find stereogenic centers on ring carbons, always draw the rings as flat polygons, and look for tetrahedral carbons that are bonded to four different groups. Stereochemistry Contains a plane of symmetry Identifying of Stereogenic Centers:
- 18. 18 • In 3-methylcyclohexene, the CH3 and H substituents that are above and below the plane of the ring are drawn with wedges and dashes as usual. Stereochemistry Drawing Stereogenic Centers - the wedge diagram:
- 19. 19 • Identify the chiral carbons in the compounds below. Stereochemistry Identifying of Stereogenic Centers:
- 20. 20 • In a Fischer projection of a chiral carbon and its mirror image: horizontal bonds project toward the viewer and vertical bonds project away from the viewer. • The test for non-superimposability is to slide one on top of the other or rotate 180o and attempt the same. • Fischer projections of the two enantiomers of 2-butanol: Stereochemistry Drawing Stereogenic Centers – the Fischer Projection: CH3 CH2CH3 H OH CH3 CH2CH3 HO H The chiral carbon atom is at the center of the crossed lines.
- 21. 21 • Fischer projections of a compound with 2 chiral carbons, (two pairs of enantiomers). • The maximum number of optical isomers is 2n . (where n = the number of chiral carbon atoms.) The pairs are diastereomerically related. Stereochemistry Drawing Stereogenic Centers – the Fischer Projection: CH3 OH OH COOH H H CH3 H H COOH HO HO CH3 OH COOH H H CH3 OH COOH H H HO HO
- 22. 22 • However, there may be severaI different Fischer projections for the same compound depending upon the direction from which is is viewed. Are these structures the same or different ? Stereochemistry Drawing Stereogenic Centers – the Fischer Projection: CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH2CH3 CH3CH2 CH2CH3 CH2CH3 CH2=CH CH2=CH CH2=CH CH2=CH OH OH OH HO a b c d
- 23. 23 • The three dimensional arrangement about a tetrahedral carbon atom is referred to as its configuration. • Early workers in the late 1800s including Fischer used the terms D and L to label the two molecules in a non- superimposable mirror image pair. • D and L assignments were chemically related to the structures of glyceraldehyde. • More recently Cahn, Ingold and Prelog developed the R and S system of assignment which is more convenient. Labeling Stereogenic Centers: Stereochemistry
- 24. 24 • Since enantiomers are two different compounds, they need to be distinguished by name. This is done by adding the prefix R or S to the IUPAC name of the enantiomer. • Naming enantiomers with the prefixes R or S is called the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog system. • To designate enantiomers as R or S, priorities must be assigned to each group bonded to the stereogenic center, in order of decreasing atomic number. The atom of highest atomic number gets the highest priority (1). Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S: Stereochemistry
- 25. 25 • If two atoms on a stereogenic center are the same, assign priority based on the atomic number of the atoms bonded to these atoms. One atom of higher atomic number determines the higher priority. Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 26. 26 • If two isotopes are bonded to the stereogenic center, assign priorities in order of decreasing mass number. Thus, in comparing the three isotopes of hydrogen, the order of priorities is: Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 27. 27 • To assign a priority to an atom that is part of a multiple bond, treat a multiply bonded atom as an equivalent number of singly bonded atoms. For example, the C of a C=O is considered to be bonded to two O atoms. • Other common multiple bonds are drawn below: Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 28. 28 Figure 5.6 Examples of assigning priorities to stereogenic centers Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 29. 29 Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 30. 30 Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 31. 31 Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 32. 32 Figure 5.7 Examples: Orienting the lowest priority group in back Stereochemistry Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S:
- 33. 33 • For a molecule with n stereogenic centers, the maximum number of stereoisomers is 2n . Let us consider the stepwise procedure for finding all the possible stereoisomers of 2,3- dibromopentane. Stereochemistry Diastereomers:
- 34. 34 • If you have drawn the compound and the mirror image in the described manner, you have only to do two operations to see if the atoms align. Place B directly on top of A; and rotate B 180° and place it on top of A to see if the atoms align. • In this case, the atoms of A and B do not align, making A and B nonsuperimposable mirror images—i.e., enantiomers. Thus, A and B are two of the four possible stereoisomers of 2,3-dibromopentane. Stereochemistry Diastereomers:
- 35. 35 • Switching the positions of H and Br (or any two groups) on one stereogenic center of either A or B forms a new stereoisomer (labeled C in this example), which is different from A and B. The mirror image of C is labeled D. C and D are enantiomers. • Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are called diastereomers. For example, A and C are diastereomers. Stereochemistry Diastereomers:
- 36. 36 Figure 5.8 Summary: The four stereoisomers of 2,3-dibromopentane Stereochemistry Diastereomers:
- 37. 37 • Let us now consider the stereoisomers of 2,3-dibromobutane. Since this molecule has two stereogenic centers, the maximum number of stereoisomers is 4. Meso Compounds: • To find all the stereoisomers of 2,3-dibromobutane, arbitrarily add the H, Br, and CH3 groups to the stereogenic centers, forming one stereoisomer A, and then draw its mirror image, B. Stereochemistry
- 38. 38 • To find the other two stereoisomers if they exist, switch the position of two groups on one stereogenic center of one enantiomer only. In this case, switching the positions of H and Br on one stereogenic center of A forms C, which is different from both A and B. • A meso compound is an achiral compound that contains tetrahedral stereogenic centers. C is a meso compound. Stereochemistry Meso Compounds:
- 39. 39 • Compound C contains a plane of symmetry, and is achiral. • Meso compounds generally contain a plane of symmetry so that they possess two mirror image halves. • Because one stereoisomer of 2,3-dibromobutane is superimposable on its mirror image, there are only three stereoisomers, not four. Stereochemistry Meso Compounds:
- 40. 40 Figure 5.9 Summary: The three stereoisomers 2,3-dibromobutane Stereochemistry Meso Compounds:
- 41. 41 • When a compound has more than one stereogenic center, R and S configurations must be assigned to each of them. R and S Assignments in Compounds with Two or More Stereogenic Centers. One stereoisomer of 2,3-dibromopentane The complete name is (2S,3R)-2,3-dibromopentane Stereochemistry
- 42. 42 • Consider 1,3-dibromocyclopentane. Since it has two stereogenic centers, it has a maximum of four stereoisomers. Disubstituted Cycloalkanes: • Recall that a disubstituted cycloalkane can have two substituents on the same side of the ring (cis isomer, A) or on opposite sides of the ring (trans isomer, B). These compounds are stereoisomers but not mirror images. Stereochemistry
- 43. 43 • To find the other two stereoisomers if they exist, draw the mirror images of each compound and determine whether the compound and its mirror image are superimposable. • The cis isomer is superimposable on its mirror image, making the images identical. Thus, A is an achiral meso compound. Stereochemistry Disubstituted Cycloalkanes:
- 44. 44 • The trans isomer is not superimposable on its mirror image, labeled C, making B and C different compounds. B and C are enantiomers. • Because one stereoisomer of 1,3-dibromocyclopentane is superimposable on its mirror image, there are only three stereoisomers, not four. Stereochemistry Disubstituted Cycloalkanes:
- 45. 45 Figure 5.10 Summary—Types of isomers Stereochemistry
- 46. 46 Figure 5.11 Determining the relationship between two nonidentical molecules Stereochemistry
- 47. 47 • The chemical and physical properties of two enantiomers are identical except in their interaction with chiral substances. • The physical property that differs is the behavior when subjected to plane-polarized light ( this physical property is often called an optical property). • Plane-polarized (polarized) light is light that has an electric vector that oscillates in a single plane. • Plane-polarized light arises from passing ordinary light through a polarizer. Optical Activity Stereochemistry
- 48. 48 • Originally a natural polarizer, calcite or iceland spar, was used. Today, polarimeters use a polarized lens similar to that used in some sunglasses. • A polarizer has a very uniform arrangement of molecules such that only those light rays of white light (which is diffuse) that are in the same plane as the polarizer molecules are able to pass through. • A polarimeter is an instrument that allows polarized light to travel through a sample tube containing an organic compound and permits measurement of the degree to which the light is rotated. Optical Activity Stereochemistry
- 49. 49 • With achiral compounds, the light that exits the sample tube remains unchanged. A compound that does not change the plane of polarized light is said to be optically inactive. Optical Activity Stereochemistry
- 50. 50 • With chiral compounds, the plane of the polarized light is rotated through an angle . The angle is measured in degrees (°), and is called the observed rotation. A compound that rotates polarized light is said to be optically active. Optical Activity Stereochemistry
- 51. 51 • The rotation of polarized light can be clockwise or counterclockwise. • If the rotation is clockwise (to the right of the noon position), the compound is called dextrorotatory. The rotation is labeled d or (+). • If the rotation is counterclockwise, (to the left of noon), the compound is called levorotatory. The rotation is labeled l or (-). • Two enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light to an equal extent but in opposite directions. Thus, if enantiomer A rotates polarized light +5°, the same concentration of enantiomer B rotates it –5°. • No relationship exists between R and S prefixes and the (+) and (-) designations that indicate optical rotation. Optical Activity Stereochemistry
- 52. 52 • An equal amount of two enantiomers is called a racemic mixture or a racemate. A racemic mixture is optically inactive. Because two enantiomers rotate plane-polarized light to an equal extent but in opposite directions, the rotations cancel, and no rotation is observed. Racemic Mixtures Stereochemistry
- 53. 53 • Specific rotation is a standardized physical constant for the amount that a chiral compound rotates plane- polarized light. Specific rotation is denoted by the symbol [] and defined using a specific sample tube length (l, in dm), concentration (c in g/mL), temperature (250 C) and wavelength (589 nm). Stereochemistry Racemic Mixtures
- 54. 54 • Enantiomeric excess (ee) is a measurement of the excess of one enantiomer over the racemic mixture. Enantiomeric excess and Optical purity: ee and op ee = % of one enantiomer - % of the other enantiomer. • Consider the following example: If a mixture contains 75% of one enantiomer and 25% of the other, the enantiomeric excess is 75% - 25% = 50%. Thus, there is a 50% excess of one enantiomer over the racemic mixture. • ee is numerically equal to Optical Purity. • The optical purity can be calculated if the specific rotation [] of a mixture and the specific rotation [] of a pure enantiomer are known. op = ([] mixture/[] pure enantiomer) x 100. Stereochemistry
- 55. 55 • Since enantiomers have identical physical properties, they cannot be separated by common physical techniques like distillation. • Diastereomers and constitutional isomers have different physical properties, and therefore can be separated by common physical techniques. Physical Properties of Stereoisomers: Figure 5.12 The physical properties of the three stereoisomers of tartaric acid. Stereochemistry
- 56. 56 • Two enantiomers have exactly the same chemical properties except for their reaction with chiral non-racemic reagents. • Many drugs are chiral and often must react with a chiral receptor or chiral enzyme to be effective. One enantiomer of a drug may effectively treat a disease whereas its mirror image may be ineffective or toxic. Chemical Properties of Enantiomers: Stereochemistry