Study guide
- 1. STUDY GUIDE Survival guide to TOK midterm
- 2. Chapter 1: Problem of Knowledge Common Sense Confirmation bias Evidence Gullibility Mental Map Open-mindedness Paradox of cartography
- 4. Consists of little more than general and untested beliefs, which are based on narrow-mindedness, believing what you hear, and desiring authority.
- 5. Mental Map (p.5)
- 6. The way people view reality; consists of what we find true and false, unreasonable and reasonable. *your everyday understandings !
- 7. Paradox of cartography (p. 7)
- 8. “If a map is to be useful, then it must of necessity be imperfect.” The imperfections in the map make it useful.
- 10. Willing to believe everything that you read, see, or hear.
- 11. Evidence (p. 14)
- 12. In order to call something reasonable, there should be positive evidence to support it.
- 14. The tendency we have to notice the evidence that ONLY supports our beliefs.
- 16. We have to be open-minded enough to allow that there is a possibility of a strange thing being true.
- 17. Chapter 2: The nature of knowledge Justified true belief Knowledge by authority News media Primary knowledge Second-hand knowledge
- 18. Justified belief (p. 24)
- 19. Preliminary definition of knowledge is to say that it is a justified true belief. The three elements that make it up: truth, belief, justification (*primary knowledge)
- 21. Accepting knowledge from other people; accepting the beliefs and practice passed on from one generation to yours.
- 22. Knowledge by authority (p.30)
- 23. Another name for second-hand knowledge and knowledge by testimony, which are made up of cultural tradition, school, the internet, expert opinion and the news media.
- 24. News Media (p.34)
- 25. Shapes our picture of the world with bias in selection and presentation. a. Bad news B. Extraordinary news C. It’s relevant news
- 26. Chapter 3: Language Ambiguity Connotation Denotation Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Euphemism Stereotypes Idiom Weasel words Irony Linguistic determinism Metaphor
- 27. Ambiguity (p. 56)
- 28. The meaning of words and phrases that have different meanings (misleads people).
- 30. Denotation: the primal meaning (the dictionary’s definitions). *general Connotation: the associations that surround a word. *Varies b/w people Euphemisms: sugar coat harsh words (He died = he passed away)
- 31. Metaphor (p.57)
- 32. Metaphorical truth differs from literal truth. Dead metaphors are in our language; examples: We broke it off.
- 33. Irony (p.58)
- 34. The saying of one thing in order to mean the opposite. (adds to the ambiguity to language)
- 35. Idioms (p.62)
- 36. A conversational expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from the meanings of the words it contains… example: It’s raining cats and dogs. *Doesn’t make sense when translated.
- 38. Labels on people that hardened; statements which prove that assumptions were made of a group. (biased)
- 40. A hypothesis which states language determines our experience of reality, and we can see and think only what our language allows us to see and think.
- 41. Linguistic determinism (p.68)
- 42. Form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Example: A government who changes language to limit and restrict the way his people think. language shapes thought?!
- 43. Weasel Words (p. 73)
- 44. Examples: many, should, probably Words used by people to allow them to escape a task etc. “This will work if you simply follow the instructions.”
- 45. Chapter 4:Perception Context Empiricism Expectations Figure and ground Optical illusions Sensation Selectivity Visual grouping
- 47. The belief that all knowledge is ultimately based on perceptual experience. (experiences dealing with senses)
- 48. Context (p.87)
- 49. The way we see something depends on the context in which we see it. We make contextual judgments unaware that we are doing it. “He looks bigger than Mike”… etc.
- 51. Influence how we see things because we perceive things the way we expect them to appear; therefore, we miss things that are right in front of us.
- 52. Figure and ground (p.89)
- 53. We have the tendency to highlight certain aspects of what we see (figure) and treat other parts of it as background (ground). Example :
- 54. Visual grouping (p.89)
- 55. We naturally look for meanings in things we see in order to figure out a connection between one image and another. A few patches of black can look like a dog to us because we want to create meaningful pictures.
- 56. Optical illusions (p.87)
- 57. Interpretation (what is provided by our minds) is put to a test when dealing with visuals illusions, for we create the illusions with the interpretation we put on them. A. Context B. Visual Grouping C. Figure and Ground D. Expectations
- 58. Sensation (p.87)
- 59. Component of perception Is provided by the world; flood into our senses to experience something
- 60. Selectivity of perception (p.91)
- 61. We need to be careful with our senses, for they are selective. Certain aspects engage our attention and stand out, and the rest fade away. What grabs attention- contrast, intensity, interest What shapes perception: mood, feelings, emotions.
- 62. Chapter 5: Reason Ad hominem Belief bias Circular reasoning Deduction Fallacy False analogy False dilemma Hasty generalization Induction Lateral Thinking Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy Premise Rationalism Venn diagram
- 63. Premises, rationalism, fallacies (p.113)
- 64. Premise – No if’s of but’s about it, the root of an argument. Rationalism- discovering important truths about reality through the use of reason alone. Fallacies- invalid patterns of reasoning.
- 66. Reasoning from general to particular Example: All metals expand when heated. A is a metal; therefore A expands when heated. Certain but not informative
- 68. Reasoning from particular to general Example: Metal A expands when heated; metal B expands when heated; metal C expands when heated. Therefore all metals expand when heated. More informative but not certain.
- 69. Belief bias (p.116)
- 70. The tendency we have to believe that an argument is valid simply because we agree with the conclusion. We have to be cautious because agreeing with a conclusion doesn’t make the argument a good one.
- 72. Is helpful when deciding whether or not a syllogism (deductive argument) is valid. Overlapping circles do not always make the argument valid.
- 73. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (p.124)
- 74. Deadly fallacy Confusing a connection with a causal connection Assuming that because one thing, follows another thing, A, then A must be the cause of B.
- 76. Generalizing from insufficient evidence Deadly fallacy
- 77. Ad hominem (p.129)
- 78. Deadly fallacy Attacking/ supporting the person rather than the argument
- 79. Circular reasoning (p.125)
- 80. Deadly fallacy Assuming the truth of what your are supposed to be proving
- 81. False analogy (p.127)
- 82. Assuming that because two things are alike in some aspects they are exactly alike Deadly fallacy
- 84. Deadly fallacy Assuming that only two alternatives exist when there is in fact wider ranger of options Ex: binary (black v. white)
- 85. Lateral thinking (p.135)
- 86. Thinking outside the box since we cannot rely on traditional logic. Edward de Bono says we need to come up with creative ways of thinking to come up with better solutions to problems.
- 87. Chapter 6: Emotion Emotional coloring Emotive language James-Lange theory Primary emotions Wheel of rationalization
- 88. Primary emotions (p.147)
- 89. Six basic inborn (not learned) emotions: Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust
- 90. James-Lange Theory (p.148)
- 91. A psychologist who claims that emotions share a connection with our bodies. Emotions are physical in nature; body movements come before feeling sad etc.
- 92. Wheel of Rationalization (p.153)
- 93. Powerful emotions biased perception fallacious reasoning emotive language “When we are in the grip of strong emotions, we tend not to reason…”
- 94. Emotional coloring (p.151)
- 95. Our perception of things can be colored by strong emotions (“love is blind”). Make us aware of some aspects of reality and keeping out the other aspects.
- 97. A person in deep emotion usually uses emotive and biased language. Talking in a way because you feel a certain way (language that derives from emotions).
- 98. Chapters 3 to 6 were the ways of knowing.