Systems Mapping, How to build and use causal models of systems Pete Barbrook-Johnson
- 1. Visit ebookmass.com to download the full version and explore more ebook or textbook Systems Mapping, How to build and use causal models of systems Pete Barbrook-Johnson _____ Click the link below to download _____ https://ebookmass.com/product/systems-mapping-how-to-build- and-use-causal-models-of-systems-pete-barbrook-johnson/ Explore and download more ebook or textbook at ebookmass.com
- 2. Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be interested in. You can click the link to download. Quantitative systems pharmacology : models and model-based systems with applications Davide Manca https://ebookmass.com/product/quantitative-systems-pharmacology- models-and-model-based-systems-with-applications-davide-manca/ System Architecture and Complexity Vol. 2: Contribution of Systems of Systems to Systems Thinking Printz https://ebookmass.com/product/system-architecture-and-complexity- vol-2-contribution-of-systems-of-systems-to-systems-thinking-printz/ Next Level Sales Coaching: How to Build a Sales Team That Stays, Sells, and Succeeds Steve Johnson https://ebookmass.com/product/next-level-sales-coaching-how-to-build- a-sales-team-that-stays-sells-and-succeeds-steve-johnson/ Securing Systems: Applied Security Architecture and Threat Models – Ebook PDF Version https://ebookmass.com/product/securing-systems-applied-security- architecture-and-threat-models-ebook-pdf-version/
- 3. Classification Made Relevant: How Scientists Build and Use Classifications and Ontologies 1st Edition Jules J. Berman https://ebookmass.com/product/classification-made-relevant-how- scientists-build-and-use-classifications-and-ontologies-1st-edition- jules-j-berman/ Intelligent Data Mining and Analysis in Power and Energy Systems : Models and Applications for Smarter Efficient Power Systems 1st Edition Zita A. Vale https://ebookmass.com/product/intelligent-data-mining-and-analysis-in- power-and-energy-systems-models-and-applications-for-smarter- efficient-power-systems-1st-edition-zita-a-vale/ Computational Frameworks. Systems, Models and Applications 1st Edition Edition Mamadou Kaba Traore (Eds.) https://ebookmass.com/product/computational-frameworks-systems-models- and-applications-1st-edition-edition-mamadou-kaba-traore-eds/ The Systems Work of Social Change : How to Harness Connection, Context, and Power to Cultivate Deep and Enduring Change Cynthia Rayner https://ebookmass.com/product/the-systems-work-of-social-change-how- to-harness-connection-context-and-power-to-cultivate-deep-and- enduring-change-cynthia-rayner/ Soil Mapping and Process Modeling for Sustainable Land Use Management 1st Edition Edition Paulo Pereira https://ebookmass.com/product/soil-mapping-and-process-modeling-for- sustainable-land-use-management-1st-edition-edition-paulo-pereira/
- 5. Systems Mapping How to build and use causal models of systems Pete Barbrook-Johnson Alexandra S. Penn
- 6. “Just about everywhere you look there are examples of interconnected networks of nodes, whether they be causal factors, people, organisms, or actors. The dynamic relationships between these define everything from how ecosystems function to political, social and financial networks. They are the stuff of both Nature and Society, and they often display complex, non-linear behaviour. If we are ever to be able to constructively manage these systems, we first need to be able to define their state and this involves a process of system mapping. This book is a welcome practi- cal guide to the ways in which it is possible to map systems. Anybody who manages systems—and that involves almost all of us—will benefit from the insights pro- vided in this book.” —Professor Sir Ian Boyd FRS, Professor of Biology (University of St Andrews) and former Chief Scientific Advisor at Defra “Those of us engaged with the complexity frame of reference in science have long recognized the need for the development of methods which put it to work. This is not just or even primarily for scientific investigation but even more importantly for addressing the interwoven social and environmental challenges facing us—crises is not too strong a word—and developing policy and practice to get things that have to be done, done. Systems mapping is a developing set of techniques, participa- tory/co-production in character, which provide ways of doing just that. The authors of this book, drawing on a long experience of practice informed by com- plexity thinking, give us what is not only a well thought out account of the approaches but also a practical manual for using them. Systems mapping is a com- bination of science, art and practical skill. It has enormous potential and this book will play an important part in getting people to use it and use it well.” —Professor David Byrne FAcSS, Emeritus Professor of Sociology and Applied Social Science (Durham University) “I thought I knew a thing or two about system diagrams … I now know an awful lot more. More importantly, I know I’m in safe hands when authors write about their own experiences so openly and freely. So it is here in this excellent, accessible, practical, readable and comprehensive book. I felt like I was being taken on a jour- ney with a really committed and experienced set of tour guides.” —Bob Williams; Author of System Diagrams; a Practical Guide. https://gum.co/systemdiagrams Systems Mapping
- 7. “‘Systems Mapping: how to build and use causal models of systems’ says it all. If you want to understand, in very pragmatic and practical ways, what this approach is all about and how to use it, then this is the book for you. Written by two of the leading experts in the field, Systems Mapping is based on the valuable lessons they have learned over the years—including which techniques work (or do not work) for a given situa- tion and how and why, which is massively helpful. While systems mapping tools are easy to run, co-producing a system map in practical, actionable, and participatory ways can be challenging at times, and rightly so—their purpose is to help us, as stakeholders, come to some agreement on how best to understand and improve the complex sys- tems problems we presently face, from the environment and economy to government and public policy. I highly recommend this book and will use it in my classes and policy evaluation workshops, as it offers a powerful approach for making sense of today’s complexity, but in a way that differs from and yet adds to the existing repertoire of computational, statistical, historical, and qualitative methods.” —Professor Brian Castellani, PhD, FAcSS, Director of the Durham Research Methods Centre and Co-Director of the Wolfson Research Institute for Health and Wellbeing, Durham University “Pete Barbrook-Johnson and Alex Penn have written the right book at the right time; finding their moment as the demand grows for making sense of pervasive complexity. The book is intensely pragmatic, informed by practitioners who have been ‘swimming in shark-infested waters’ as they describe it. The reader is eased in with welcome clarity and honesty, teeing up seven accessible method-specific chap- ters. Three further cross-cutting issues chapters treat the reader to wholly prag- matic insights on data and evidence; running a mapping process; and comparing, choosing and combining methods to suit the situation. Throughout the book, the authors make clear that systems mapping must, above all, be useful. This book clearly achieves that standard and will create durable value.” —Gary Kass, Deputy Chief Scientist, Natural England; Visiting Professor, Centre for Environment and Sustainability, University of Surrey; Vice-President, Institution of Environmental Sciences “Over the last few decades, there has been a major shift in policy thinking towards accepting that the social and economic world is not like a machine following a predictable path, but is complex, with feedback, tipping points and adaptation. With this has come an increasing need for better ways to understand social, eco- nomic and political systems as a whole. One of these ways is system mapping, but until now there has not been a comprehensive and easily understood guide about how to do it. This book is pioneering in bringing together a wide range of system mapping techniques, explaining with great clarity how they can be used and where each of them is appropriate. I congratulate the authors on writing a book that will be an invaluable guide for everyone interested in understanding a complex world.” —Professor Nigel Gilbert CBE, ScD, FREng, FAcSS, Professor of Sociology, University of Surrey. Director of the Centre for the Evaluation of Complexity Across the Nexus (CECAN)
- 8. Pete Barbrook-Johnson • Alexandra S. Penn Systems Mapping How to build and use causal models of systems
- 9. ISBN 978-3-031-01833-6 ISBN 978-3-031-01919-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover pattern © Melisa Hasan This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Pete Barbrook-Johnson School of Geography and the Environment University of Oxford Oxford, UK Alexandra S. Penn Department of Sociology University of Surrey Guildford, Surrey, UK
- 10. v Pete would like to thank colleagues at CECAN and the University of Surrey, especially Alex, for the intellectual encouragement, stimulus, and support to pursue research on and using systems mapping. He would also like to thank colleagues at the Institute for New Economic Thinking and the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford for the encouragement and freedom to continue this line of research and for time to work on this book. Finally, he would like to thank Jen, Billy, Mart, and Doug for their love and support, and dedicates his part of this book to them. Alex would like to thank all colleagues, especially project partners and workshop participants, who have helped to develop our thinking on PSM and system mapping in general within the discipline of practice. In par- ticular, Martha Bicket, Jean Davies, Adam Hejnowicz, Caitlin Jones, Verena Knerich, Chris Knight, Fran Rowe, Helen Wilkinson, Anna Rios- Wilks, and Beth Wills. Particular thanks also go to Kasper Kok for intro- ducing Alex to system mapping, being such a generous collaborator, and exemplifying the participatory spirit! Thanks go to Colin for humour, sup- port, and wise advice. And most particularly to Pete for his enthusiasm, energy, intellect, and friendship over not just this project but many years of collaboration. We would both like to thank CECAN Ltd (www.cecan.co.uk), the consultancy- arm of CECAN, and especially Nigel Gilbert, for generous financial support towards producing this book. Finally, we would like to thank Dione Hills and Helen Wilkinson (ToC), Philippe Vandenbroeck (CLD), Simon Henderson and Stuart Acknowledgements
- 11. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Astill (BBN), Stephen Morse (RP), Kasper Kok (FCM), and Birgit Kopainsky (SD) specifically for the illuminating conversations they held with us about the methods in this book. We hope to release these conver- sations as podcasts/interviews via CECAN in the coming months. They all gave their time, expertise, and experience so generously. This book would not have been possible without them. Their openness stands as a real testament to the values and worldview which underpin participatory modelling approaches.
- 12. vii There is a growing need in a range of social, environmental, and policy challenges for a richer more nuanced, yet actionable and participatory, understanding of the world. Complexity science and systems thinking offer us hope in meeting this need, but in the past have often only offered either (i) highly technical ‘black-box’ modelling, (ii) appealing metaphors and language which don’t directly lead to action, or (iii) overwhelming and paralysing complexity. Systems mapping is a front runner in meeting this need, providing a key starting point and general-purpose resource for understanding complex adaptive systems in practical, actionable, and participatory ways. However, there is confusion about terms and methods, an underappreciation of the value they can bring, and a fundamental underestimation of the differ- ences between approaches and the resulting outputs of mapping processes and analysis. This book explores a range of new and older systems mapping methods focused on representing causal relationships in systems. In a practical man- ner, it describes the methods and considers the differences between them; describes how to use them yourself; describes how to choose between and combine them; considers the role of data, evidence, and stakeholder opin- ion; and describes how they can be useful in a range of policy and research settings. The book focuses on practical insights for causal systems mapping in real-world contexts, with tips from experienced practitioners, and a detailed guide on the realities and challenges of building and using these types of system maps. About the Book
- 13. ix Contents 1 Introduction 1 Why Did We Write This Book and Who Is It For? 2 What Is Systems Mapping? 3 What Systems Mapping Methods Are in This Book? 5 How Do These Methods Relate to One Another? 7 What Methods Are Not in This Book? 8 How Can Systems Mapping Be Useful? 14 Why Think About Systems Mapping Now? 16 What’s in the Rest of This Book? 18 References 18 2 Rich Pictures 21 What Are Rich Pictures? 22 How Do You Do Rich Pictures? 25 Common Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 27 What Are Rich Pictures Good and Bad At? 29 A Brief History of Rich Pictures 30 Getting Started with Rich Pictures 31 References 32 3 Theory of Change Diagrams 33 What Is Theory of Change Mapping? 34 How Do You Create Theory of Change Diagrams? 38 Common Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 41
- 14. x Contents What Are Theory of Change Diagrams Good and Bad At? 43 A Brief History of Theory of Change 43 Getting Started with Theory of Change Mapping 44 References 45 4 Causal Loop Diagrams 47 What Is a Causal Loop Diagram? 48 How Do You Create Causal Loop Diagrams? 51 Commons Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 54 What Are Causal Loop Diagrams Good and Bad At? 55 A Brief History of Causal Loop Diagrams 56 Getting Started with Causal Loop Diagrams 57 References 58 5 Participatory Systems Mapping 61 What Is Participatory Systems Mapping? 62 How Do You Do Participatory Systems Mapping? 68 Common Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 71 What Is Participatory Systems Mapping Good and Bad At? 73 A Brief History of Participatory Systems Mapping 74 Getting Started with Participatory Systems Mapping Yourself 75 References 77 6 Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping 79 What Is Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping? 80 How Do You Do Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping? 87 Common Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 90 What Is Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping Good and Bad At? 92 A Brief History of Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping 92 Getting Started with Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping Yourself 93 References 94 7 Bayesian Belief Networks 97 What Are Bayesian Belief Networks? 98 How Do You Use Bayesian Belief Networks? 103 Common Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 107
- 15. Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore a vast collection of ebooks across various genres, available in popular formats like PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading experience and effortlessly download high- quality materials in just a few simple steps. Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that let you access a wealth of knowledge at the best prices!
- 16. xi Contents What Are Bayesian Belief Networks Good and Bad At? 108 A Brief History of Bayesian Belief Networks 109 Getting Started with Bayesian Belief Networks 110 References 112 8 System Dynamics113 What Is System Dynamics? 114 How Do You Do System Dynamics? 120 Common Issues and ‘Tricks of the Trade’ 123 What Is System Dynamics Good and Bad At? 124 A Brief History of System Dynamics 125 Getting Started with System Dynamics 126 References 127 9 What Data and Evidence Can You Build System Maps From?129 Defending the Use of a Participatory Process to Build and Use Your Map 130 Using Qualitative Data to Build Your Map 133 Using Existing Evidence to Build Your Map 136 Using Quantitative Data to Build Your Map 137 Using Different Types of Data and Evidence in Practice 140 References 141 10 Running Systems Mapping Workshops145 Planning Workshops 146 Venue, Materials, and Technology for Workshops 147 Facilitating Discussion 149 Capturing and Recording Workshops 151 Post-workshop 152 Common Issues 152 Running Online Workshops 155 Getting Started Yourself 158 References 158
- 17. xii Contents 11 Comparing, Choosing, and Combining Systems Mapping Methods161 Comparing Systems Mapping Methods 163 Choosing Systems Mapping Methods 169 Combining Systems Mapping Methods 172 Getting Started with Choosing and Combining Methods 175 References 176 12 Conclusion179 What Have We Learnt Writing This Book? 180 Our Final Take-Home Messages 180 Final Thoughts 182 Index183
- 18. xiii Pete Barbrook-Johnson is Departmental Research Lecturer in the Economics of Environmental Change in the Environmental Change Institute (ECI) and the Smith School for Enterprise and the Environment, both in the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford. He is also a member of the Institute for New Economic Thinking at Oxford and a research associate at St Catherine’s College. Pete’s core research interests sit at the crossroads of social science and economics, complexity science, and environmental and energy policy. He uses a range of methods in his research including agent-based modelling, network analysis, and systems mapping. He regularly uses these, and other methods, to explore applied social, economic, and policy questions, and to support complexity-appropriate policy evaluation, but is equally interested in more theoretical aspects of complex adaptive systems. Pete teaches on a range of undergraduate and masters’ courses across the School of Geography and the Environment, specialising in the eco- nomics of environmental change, and the use of complexity and systems sciences in environmental issues. He has conducted research with and for the likes of UK government departments/agencies such as Defra, BEIS, the Environment Agency, and the Health and Safety Executive, and businesses such as Anglian Water and Mott Macdonald. Internationally, he has collaborated with research insti- tutes and government in China, South Africa, Italy, and Ethiopia. Pete is also a member of the Centre for the Evaluation of Complexity Across the Nexus (CECAN) and a Visiting Fellow at the Centre for Research in Social Simulation (CRESS) and Department of Sociology at About the Authors
- 19. xiv ABOUT THE AUTHORS the University of Surrey. He sits on the editorial boards of both the International Journal of Social Research Methodology and Humanities and Social Science Communications. Previously, Pete was a UKRI-ESRC Innovation Fellow and senior research fellow working on public-private partnerships and collaboration, a ‘Knowledge Integrator’ in CECAN, a research fellow at the Policy Studies Institute, and a PhD student and then research fellow at CRESS. Prior to his PhD, Pete studied Economics at the University of East Anglia, before completing his MSc in Environmental Technology (specialising in Environmental Economics and Policy) at Imperial College London. Pete is on twitter @bapeterj and his personal website is https://www. barbrookjohnson.com/ Alexandra S. Penn is a complexity scientist working on combining par- ticipatory methodologies and mathematical models to create tools for stakeholders to understand and ‘steer’ their complex human ecosystems. As a senior research fellow at the University of Surrey, she has developed participatory complexity science methodologies for decision makers to explore interdependencies between social, ecological, economic, and political factors in ‘industrial ecosystems’, in particular, looking at the transition to bio-based economy in a region of heavy industry and fossil fuel energy generation in the Humber Estuary, UK. She is a principal member of CECAN, a collaboration between academics, policy profes- sionals, and the UK government to generate novel, cutting- edge methods for evaluating policy for complex systems. Alex has an academic background in physics and evolutionary ecology, training at Sussex University and as a junior fellow at the Collegium Budapest Institute for Advanced Study, followed by a Life Sciences Interface fellowship in the Science and Engineering of Natural Systems Group, University of Southampton. She is also a strong inter-disciplinarian, with a track record of working across disciplines, with a broad variety of stakeholders from policymakers to industrialists and with members of the public as a science communicator. She was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Arts for her work in the novel application of whole-systems design to bacterial communities, is a frequent visiting researcher at ELSI, the Institute for Earth and Life Sciences at Tokyo Tech University, and is Societal Impact Editor of the Journal of Artificial Life and Associate Editor of the Journal of Adaptive Behaviour.
- 20. xv Fig. 1.1 The methods in this book placed on a ‘system focus— intervention focus’ axis (i.e. does the method emphasise more focus on the whole system or on an intervention), and a ‘qualitative—quantitative’ axis. Source: authors’ creation 7 Fig. 1.2 The methods in this book placed on an ‘emphasis on participation’ spectrum, and an ‘intuitive, easy to start— formal, harder to start’ spectrum. Source: authors’ creation 8 Fig. 1.3 The methods in this book positioned in a Venn diagram by the types of outputs and analysis they produce. Source: authors’ creation9 Fig. 2.1 A Rich Picture of the National Health Service in the UK (Source: Bell and Morse, 2013a) 23 Fig. 2.2 A Rich Picture of the influence of indicators on sustainable development in Slovakia (Source: Bell and Morse, 2013a) 24 Fig. 3.1 Theory of Change diagram for a child support grant programme in South Africa. Source: DSD, SASSA, and UNICEF (2012) 35 Fig. 3.2 Theory of Change diagram for an education improvement programme in Ethiopia. Source: Vogel and Stephenson (2012) 36 Fig. 4.1 A Causal Loop Diagram of the tensions between business activity and social action in a social enterprise. Note, double bar (//) symbols indicate a time delay. Three feedback loops are emphasised (B1, R1, and R2). Source: Moizer and Tracey (2010)50 List of Figures
- 21. xvi List of Figures Fig. 4.2 A Causal Loop Diagram of the obesity system in the UK. Source: Produced by ShiftN for Government Office for Science (2007). The core feedback loops are emphasised in the centre51 Fig. 5.1 Participatory System Map of the water and agricultural system in a river catchment in north-east England. Green nodes are system functions, blue nodes are policies, green arrows are positive causal connections, red arrows are negative causal connections, and blue arrows are complex or unclear causal connections. Source: Authors’ creation based on Bromwich et al. (2020) 63 Fig. 5.2 Ways to generate a submap from a starting point. In each network, a submap is created starting from the node A using the mode annotated above each network. Nodes and edges in red are those that will be included in the submap, those in black will be removed/hidden. Source: Authors’ creation 65 Fig. 6.1 Fuzzy Cognitive Map of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. (Source: Kok (2009)) 83 Fig. 6.2 Fuzzy Cognitive Map of the UK Humber region bio-based economy. (Source: Penn et al. (2013)) 84 Fig. 6.3 Example outputs from an FCM dynamic analysis. (Source Kok (2009)) 85 Fig. 7.1 An example simple BBN. (Source: Bromley (2005)) 99 Fig. 7.2 An example BBN, now with nodes states and probability distributions. (Source: Bromley (2005)) 100 Fig. 7.3 An example dynamic BBN with a feedback between ‘wood extraction’ and ‘wood stored’. (Source: Authors’ creation based on an example in Landuyt et al. (2013)) 105 Fig. 8.1 A System Dynamics stock and flow diagram of pollution and tourism in the Maldives. (Source: Kapmeier and Gonçalves (2018))115 Fig. 8.2 Number of tourists under different policy scenarios. (Source: Kapmeier and Gonçalves (2018)) 118 Fig. 9.1 Types of information for building system maps, and their overlaps. Source: authors’ creation 130 Fig. 11.1 Influences on the choice of most appropriate method. (Source: Authors’ creation, inspired by Stern et al. (2012) and Befani (2020)) 170 Fig. 11.2 Some of the potential sequential combinations of systems mapping methods. (Source: Authors’ creation) 173
- 22. xvii Table 1.1 Different terminologies for the methods covered in this book 10 Table 1.2 Methods often referred to as systems mapping which are not in this book 11 Table 5.1 Analysis starting points for Participatory Systems Mapping. Source: Authors’ creation 66 Table 5.2 Software options for PSM. Source: Authors’ creation. 75 Table 6.1 Comparing the ‘causal’ and ‘dynamical’ approaches to analysing FCMs 82 Table 7.1 An example conditional probability table based on the reservoir storage node in the BBN in Figs. 7.1 and 7.2 100 Table 7.2 Simple hypothetical conditional probability table for two interventions and an outcome 102 Table 7.3 BBN software overview 111 Table 11.1 Overview comparison of systems mapping methods in this book164 Table 11.2 Most appropriate methods given different project and system properties171 Table 11.3 Non-exhaustive list of potential hybridised elements of methods174 List of Tables
- 23. 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction Abstract This chapter introduces the book and the topic of systems mapping. We explain our motivation for writing the book, what ‘systems mapping’ means to us, our focus on causal approaches, and what methods are included, and which are not, in the book. We also explore how these methods are related to one another. We begin to consider how systems mapping can be useful in research and practice, before making the case for why we believe it is worth thinking about now. Keywords Systems mapping • Modelling • Complexity • Policy • Systems This book introduces systems mapping and outlines seven methods that allow us to develop causal models of systems. We focus on the practical realities of how and when to use these methods and consider wider issues such as what types of evidence and data to use in their construction, how to run workshops, and how to compare, choose, and combine methods. We do not cover all types of systems mapping, we almost entirely ignore those which do not focus on cause and influence in systems, nor do we delve into the deeper philosophical ideas underpinning their use. Writing this book feels a bit like swimming in shark-infested waters. Not least because several people have told us that is indeed what we are © The Author(s) 2022 P. Barbrook-Johnson, A. S. Penn, Systems Mapping, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_1
- 24. 2 doing! Some of these systems mapping methods, and the underlying ideas, have been around for some time and there are many people with strong views on them. Despite this, we believe there is much confusion around these methods. There is an underappreciation of their value, but also the large differences between methods. We do not wish to attempt to declare for once and for all what should or should not be called ‘systems map- ping’, nor offer the definitive definition of any specific method. But we do hope to make the landscape of methods clearer, to help people find, understand, and use these methods more easily. Our paths to systems mapping were not straightforward, neither were they similar. Pete was looking to broaden his methodological expertise after spending nearly six years using agent-based modelling in academic research; he wanted to find methods which were more accessible and usable in a range of contexts, that were less reliant on lots of data for vali- dation, or lots of time or money to do. Whereas, Alex, moving from the natural to the social sciences, but with experience in participatory systems design, was looking for participatory methods that could be used in proj- ects taking a complex systems approach. She was also looking for approaches that could work quickly under the pressure of expectant proj- ectpartners,withoutempiricaldata,andwithalargemulti-disciplinaryteam. Our relationships with systems mapping since have also not been sim- ple. We have become frustrated at times, but we have always found our- selves drawn back, either through our own intellectual curiosity (or inertia!), or through the needs of stakeholders and research users. What has been consistent throughout is the ability of systems mapping approaches to provide us with academically stimulating ideas and to do this in an intuitive way which generates usable and timely insights, and value to the people we work with. Why Did We Write This Book and Who Is It For? At times, it has been hard to work with systems mapping. Some people see it as one simple method and miss the wealth of different approaches and what they can do. Others see the detail of one or two approaches and go deep into only those. Systems mapping is also often subsumed into the world of ‘systems thinking’, somewhat hidden by that wider philosophy on how to understand, be, and act in the world. Put simply, systems mapping is a hard space to navigate. As we learnt and applied our knowledge, we often felt a little lost, without the right P. BARBROOK-JOHNSON AND A. S. PENN
- 25. 3 tools to guide us. This book is an attempt to solve that. In one sense, it is written for our former selves; it is what might have helped us accelerate our learning and practice more quickly. It is also hopefully for you. For people who are thinking that systems mapping might be useful in their work but who are not sure where to start. Or people who want to use a particular method but need to ground this in a wider context, need some help to get started, and don’t want to miss any opportunities to do it well. It is also for those who are familiar with one method but who would like an overview of what others exist or might be useful in different problem contexts. Or for those who have heard about systems mapping and would like to get a sense of what it is about. This book is intentionally practical and pragmatic. We are not preach- ing from the ‘High-Church of systems mapping’ but pounding the streets. We are looking for ways forward, trying to shine some light on dark alleys, looking for ways to improve ourselves. This introductory chapter asks, ‘what is systems mapping?’ and ‘why look at it now?’ and tries to be honest about the breadth and noise in the answers to these questions. From here, we embark on seven mini-adventures, exploring systems mapping meth- ods in detail. What Is Systems Mapping? Let’s be honest, systems mapping means lots of different things; it is broad and ill-defined. We are not going to ‘fix’ that here (if we even think it needs fixing). We support inclusive and broad definitions in general, and think they are inevitable when it comes to systems mapping. But that breadth and inclusivity should not come at the cost of clarity. We still need to know where we are at, and what is on either side of us. In time-honoured academic fashion, let’s start by breaking this down into its component parts, and first asking what is a ‘system’? There is no simple answer to this question. We regularly see arguments about whether something is a system or not, whether a system mapping exercise has taken enough care thinking about what the system it is mapping, or even whether we should be mapping problems not systems at all. While these concerns are important, it is possible to define almost anything as a system with enough mental gymnastics. Moreover, what the ‘right’ system definition for you is will always be context dependent. This means we would rather proceed with thinking about what your system is, rather than dwelling on 1 INTRODUCTION
- 26. Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore a vast collection of ebooks across various genres, available in popular formats like PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading experience and effortlessly download high- quality materials in just a few simple steps. Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that let you access a wealth of knowledge at the best prices!
- 27. Other documents randomly have different content
- 28. CHAPTER IV. IN THE ATLANTIC VALLEY. It was but a moment’s work for Frank to spring out on deck. Then he reached the sands below. Swinging the ax aloft, he rushed to Von Bulow’s assistance. He was not a moment too soon. Captain Bell had already attacked the monster. But Frank’s arrival saved the day. The young inventor swung the ax over his head and made a slashing blow at the monster’s head. It struck the enormous hawk-like beak and slashed off part of it. Quick as thought Frank repeated the blow. The monster writhed and made an effort to encircle Frank with another of its long arms. But the young inventor this time buried the ax to the head in the creature’s cat-like eye. This was the telling stroke. It penetrated the brain, and the octopus straightened in death throes. The battle was over. Barney and Pomp were watching the contest from one of the windows of the submarine boat.
- 29. “Golly!” cried Pomp, cutting a pigeon wing. “Marse, Frank am done fixed dat critter for suah!” “Bejabers! when Misther Frank goes for to do a thing, he does it up in illegant shape!” declared Barney. “Yo’ am right, I’ish.” Prof. Von Bulow was extricated from the embrace of the octopus, and all returned to the boat. The adventures detailed by the captain and the professor were thrilling, indeed, and the others listened to them with interest. “It will be hardly safe to repeat that sort of thing!” said Frank; “the next time you gentlemen go out on an exploring expedition, I think that one of us who is more experienced in that sort of thing had better go with you.” “We shall not demur,” said Captain Bell, with a laugh. “I am afraid we are hardly qualified to face such risks.” After Frank had concluded his inspection of the machinery it was decided to at once continue the journey into the Atlantic Valley. So the machinery was put in motion, and the boat dove into the dark depths to be lost from the world for many months. The searchlight showed all about for a great distance as plain as day. But the boat passed over immense depths where all was darkness far below, and into which the boat could not descend on account of the enormous pressure. There was an automatic gauge on the pilot-house which registered this pressure and determined the depth to which it was safe to go. Below this the boat would be crushed like an egg shell. But as a general thing the Dart was enabled to keep in view of the bed of the ocean. This was now much diversified by hills and even mountains.
- 30. There were innumerable caves, many of which were of enormous depth. In fact the Dart once sailed into one of these nearly half a mile before it was discovered by the voyagers that they were in a cave. Then, of course, it was in order to turn about and sail out, but before this was done a thrilling experience was had. Prof. Von Bulow was greatly interested in this wonder of the ocean depths—this submarine cave of the great Atlantic Valley. “There is nothing like it on top of the earth,” he declared. “I would like very much to examine its structure, which has the appearance of being quartz.” “Quartz!” exclaimed Captain Bell. “Yes.” “Not of the gold-bearing species?” “It is not impossible.” At once everybody was interested, even Frank himself. “You shall have your desire, professor,” he declared. Accordingly the Dart was brought to a stop and rested upon the bed of the cavern. The diving suits were brought out. It was decided that Frank and Barney should accompany the professor this time. Pomp and Captain Bell were to remain on board the Dart. The searchlight illumined the walls of the cavern in beautiful style. They were of great beauty. Overhead they were crystal-like in their character, and the declaration by the professor that they were of quartz did not by any means seem far fetched. The diving suits were donned, and the three explorers, well armed with ax and knife, left the Dart.
- 31. The floor of the cavern was tolerably smooth. They easily made their way over it, and Von Bulow was soon at work. It did not take the professor long to get to work with his hammer. In a very short time he had chipped off enough of the quartz to reveal a curious yellow vein which seemed to extend an indefinite distance into the ledge. The professor appeared excited. Seeing this, Frank put his helmet close to his and shouted: “Well, Von Bulow, what do you make of it?” “Gold!” shouted the excited scientist. Frank was astounded. “Gold?” he repeated. “Yes.” “A submarine gold mine?” “Exactly.” Barney had also placed his helmet close to the others and heard this. “Bejabers!” he cried; “then it’s a moighty fortune we’ve found.” “I think it would assay heavily,” declared the professor; “if it was only on the surface, now, what it would be worth!” Frank saw the point. “But it is of no value here?” The professor nodded. “Exactly. How could a stamp mill be operated down here at this depth? It would cost more than the ore is worth to mine it.” “But perhaps we might find some nuggets hereabouts.”
- 32. “No,” replied Von Bulow, decidedly. “It is not likely. It is probable that all the gold hereabouts is secreted in these quartz walls. It is only a question of getting it out.” “Which is impracticable.” “Exactly.” The thought that they were really in a mighty submarine gold mine was a most thrilling one. However, the professor had other points to gain now, so he left the gold vein and began some further explorations of the submarine cave. This extended an unknown distance into the bowels of the earth. The party did not venture to go far beyond the rays of the searchlight. There would be great danger of getting lost in the labyrinth of passages, and certainly there would be no pleasure in this. In view of the experiences of the professor and the captain, this was an issue to be avoided. However, they carried the exploration as far as seemed safe. This was a number of hundred yards from the submarine boat, and they began to think of returning when Barney stumbled upon an exciting adventure. Suddenly he espied a curious-looking round body lying close to the wall of the cavern, and extending out of sight into dark depths. The Celt was nothing if not curious. It looked like a strange formation of some aquatic growth, and unthinkingly Barney jabbed the point of his knife into it. The result was thrilling. The round body instantly contracted and then rebounded, throwing Barney backward with great force.
- 33. And then out of the darkness of a cavern passage came a great flat head with horrid jaws. It was a species of sea serpent. The huge coils were thrashing the water of the cavern furiously, and the divers stood for a moment paralyzed with terror. The sea serpent was undoubtedly the habitue of the ocean cavern. He seemed also disposed to resent this invasion upon his chosen territory. The situation was critical. Frank saw at once that quick action must be made, or serious consequences would be the result. The young inventor, therefore, at once signaled the others to follow him, and began a retreat for the Dart. But the sea serpent was following, and was certain to overtake them. Already Frank felt the creature right behind him. And he turned to see those horrid jaws wide open above him. If they should strike him, doubtless it would be a death blow. So Frank quickly dodged and made a blow at the monster with his ax. It missed the mark, and the next moment the creature’s jaws were right over Frank. It was a horrible moment. Only the young inventor’s rare presence of mind saved him then. Quick as a flash he drove the ax into the serpent’s jaws and down its throat. Then he was hurled half senseless to the floor of the cavern. The ax disappeared down the serpent’s throat instantly. It was undoubtedly not averse to a diet of the sort, for it did not seem to affect his snakeship. But Frank was for the nonce safe.
- 34. He had been hurled into a small recess in the wall of the cavern, and the serpent passed on. It was now after Barney and Von Bulow. But Frank’s fracas with it had given them a chance to get a good lead. They were now quite near the Dart, and were enabled to reach it in time. On to the deck and into the vestibule they dashed. The next moment the submarine boat received a terrific shock. The sea serpent struck it full force, and for a moment it seemed as if the fate of the Dart was sealed. But, as good luck had it, the steel work of the boat was harder than the serpent’s head. It resisted the shock. But Pomp and Captain Bell were thrown across the cabin. They had seen the serpent coming in pursuit of Von Bulow and Barney, and it had given them a thrill. “Golly!” screamed Pomp. “De debbil am after dem. Shuah nuff dat big snake will swallow us all up!” “Great heavens!” gasped Captain Bell, “the creature means to strike us.” “Look out fo’ yo’sef!” Into the vestibule darted Barney and Von Bulow. Then came the shock. But the Dart was not demolished. On the contrary the sea serpent seemed for a moment stunned. Then it was that Barney recovered his senses. He remembered that Frank had been left behind, and with an inward cry darted out of the vestibule.
- 35. “Bejabers! it’s not mesilf as will go off and lave Misther Frank in such a heap av trouble,” he muttered. “I’ll niver cum back widout him!”
- 36. CHAPTER V. THE SUNKEN WRECK. Frank had recovered quickly and emerged from his place of safety just in time to see the sea serpent strike the Dart. The young inventor had seen and realized the awful risk which this entailed, and muttered: “My goodness! We are all lost!” But the result of the serpent’s attack was indeed gratifying. And he also saw what he believed to be his opportunity. Drawing his knife he darted after the monster. It was lying half dormant on the floor of the cavern from the shock which it had received. But as Frank ran toward the Dart he saw Barney coming toward him. Barney fairly embraced his young master, as he cried, placing his helmet close to Frank’s: “Och hone, Misther Frank, an’ I thought it was kilt entoirely ye was!” “I had a close call,” replied Frank. “But where is the captain?” “Shure, he’s safe aboard, sor.” “Good! Now, Barney, we’ve got to kill that monster some way.” The Celt looked at the dormant serpent a moment, and then swung his ax aloft, saying:
- 37. “Shure, an’ it’s wid yez I am, Misther Frank. Say the worrud an’ I’ll go up on this side of him an’ cut his head off.” “Let me take your ax,” said Frank, resolutely. Barney complied and drew his knife. Frank made a motion for him to follow. The serpent was quickly recovering from his stupor. Frank saw that there was no time to lose, and at once made a bold attack. When near the monster’s head he rushed forward. The serpent reared its horrible jaws and seemed about to strike Frank; but the young inventor struck first. The keen blade of the ax swung around and took the serpent full in the jaw. It was a telling blow. It fairly sliced away a portion of the monster’s jaw and filled the water with blood. Again Frank swung the ax aloft. Barney attacked the body of the serpent, trying to cut the huge coil in two. The attack was a success. Again Frank’s ax struck the serpent full in the neck, cutting a huge gash. Then the maddened reptile made a savage blow at Frank. It just missed him by a narrow margin and proved the end of the struggle. Frank saw his opportunity, and gave the reptile a blow which almost severed its head from its body. The monster’s huge coils went writhing and twisting into the depths of the cavern. The struggle was over.
- 38. Frank and Barney, somewhat exhausted by the struggle, climbed aboard the Dart. They were joyfully welcomed by the others, and mutual congratulations were exchanged over the success of the fight. “Begorra, I thought shure it was the ind av Misther Frank!” cried Barney. “Shure, it wud have been a sorry day for the loikes av us!” “Golly, if I had jes’ been out dere I would hab been happy!” declared Pomp. “I was jes’ itching fo’ to git a crack at dat ar big rapscallion of a snake.” “Well, as for me,” said Von Bulow, with a laugh, “I quite distinguished myself by running away. But I was never cut out for a fighting man anyway.” “And I stayed at home,” rejoined Bell. “Frank, you and Barney are the heroes.” All were intensely hungry, and Pomp served up a steaming repast. There was lovely steak from the swordfish, crabs on toast, fresh and nice, and many other saline delicacies, which were easily procured in the sea. The explorers regaled themselves sumptuously, and then all turned in for a sleep. Frank had decided to spend some hours longer in the cavern. When they awoke six hours later, Frank went into the pilot-house and started the Dart for the mouth of the immense ocean cavern. In due time this was reached, and soon they were not so very far from the spot where Captain Bell’s treasure ship had sunk. All were now eagerly on the lookout for the wreck. The searchlight’s rays were sent in every direction through the ocean depths. Suddenly Captain Bell, who was forward on the lookout, shouted:
- 39. “Wreck ahoy!” The announcement went through the boat with startling force. Everybody was at once on the qui vive. And now dead ahead was seen a huge black mass looming up through the water. It was a sunken ship. Of course all believed it to be the Vestal Virgin. But the wreck was so covered with silt and seaweed that its character could not well be identified. The submarine boat sailed around it twice, then Frank allowed it to come to a rest on the ocean floor of white sand. “What do you make of it, skipper?” asked Captain Bell, as Frank came out of the pilot-house. “I hardly know,” replied Frank. “It looks to me, though, like a ship of more modern build than the pirate vessel.” “It’s mighty hard to tell for the seaweed over it.” “Yes.” “But I think it’s the Virgin!” “You do?” “Yes; she’s in about the right location. It must be her.” “I hope so.” Preparations were now made to go out and inspect the submarine wreck. This fell to the lot of Frank, Von Bulow and the captain. Barney and Pomp remained behind. They were very quickly equipped for the expedition; armed with axes and saws and such tools as were deemed necessary, they left the Dart. It was an easy matter to climb over the kelp-strewn rocks until the sunken vessel was reached.
- 40. It lay half upon its side, and its port rail was nearly on a level with a drift of hard, white sand. This made it an easy matter for the explorers to reach the deck. They simply walked up the sandy slope and climbed over the rail. In the glare of the electric light, the deck was seen to be in a state of wild disorder. Rotting spars and heaps of debris covered it from stem to stern. It was easy to see that the vessel had passed through a terrible experience at sea. The storm which sent it to the bottom must have been a fearful one. It required no further examination to satisfy the party that this was not the treasure ship. Captain Bell saw at once that it was not the Vestal Virgin, and putting his helmet close to Frank’s, shouted: “This is not the ship.” “It looks like a merchantman,” replied Frank. “It is.” “Moreover, it was never sent to the bottom by shotted guns. It went down in a fearful storm.” “Without a doubt. But the Virgin must have gone down in this vicinity.” “Yes.” “We will probably find her not far from here.” “Well,” said Frank, doubtfully, “is it worth while to explore this hulk? She probably did not carry money.” Von Bulow, however, was in favor of exploring the sunken merchantman. “For curiosity, if nothing else,” he explained. “I’m quite anxious.”
- 41. “Very well,” agreed Frank. “It shall be so.” With which the young inventor crossed the deck. He reached the companionway which led into the cabin. This was closed, but a blow with an ax forced it in. The stairs that led downward into the cabin were crumbling with decay. Frank led the way down. The light upon his helmet was sufficiently bright to reveal objects below quite plainly. Von Bulow and the captain followed. All stood at the foot of the companion ladder. The cabin was in a fearful state of dissolution. The elegant furnishings were all rotten and in shreds, and even the cabin table was shredded by sea worms. But the explorers did not pause here long. They passed through and into the forward cabin. Here was the long mess table, and upon it were dishes and eating utensils, just as the men had been served, which was the last ever eaten on board the ship. Frank took up one of the plates. In the china was the imperishable mark usually placed upon all ships’ ware with the name: “Ship Tempest, Baltimore.” This was all that could be learned of the identity of the vessel or of its mission. Yet it was reasonable to suppose that she was a merchantman. Little more of interest was found aboard her. A few skeletons of the members of the crew and some corroded coins. This was all of value.
- 42. The party retraced their steps to the deck. Frank was the first to spring up out of the companionway, and as he did so he was given a startling shock. Until now the wreck had been flooded with a brilliant light from the searchlight of the Dart. But this was no longer so. All was the darkness of the ocean depths about. Nothing could be seen beyond the slight radius made by the light on their helmets. The Dart had left them. What did it mean? For a moment the explorers were appalled with the most startling realization. Left at the bottom of the ocean, upon a sunken wreck. There was no possible way of ever reaching the surface. That is unless the Dart should return from where it had gone, and why it should have left them in this manner was a mystery. Frank knew that Barney and Pomp would not leave the vicinity for any light reason. “Something has happened!” he exclaimed in dismay. “The Dart has met with a mishap.” “My goodness!” exclaimed Von Bulow; “then we are lost!” “What could have happened?” asked Bell in horror. Their three helmets were close together at this moment. The only logical conclusion that Frank could arrive at was that the Dart had received some fearful shock and had gone to the surface. If this was the case it would perhaps shortly return. But the one horrifying thought which oppressed Frank was that possibly Barney and Pomp would lose their bearings and would not
- 43. be able to find the three divers.
- 44. CHAPTER VI. IMPRISONED IN A WRECK. In this case their fate was certainly sealed. Lost at the bottom of the sea; lost in the great Atlantic Valley. What an awful thing to consider! Frank knew, however, that they could stay death for a number of days. There was enough material in the generators to keep them alive that length of time. But if the Dart should not return in that interval they were truly lost. It was some while before any one ventured to speak again. Then Bell said, despairingly: “How far is it to the land?” “Fully a thousand miles in any direction,” replied Frank. “We can hardly walk then?” “No, I think not.” “Is there any possibility of the Dart returning?” “We can only hope that it will. Our only way is to wait here.” Von Bulow sat down upon the rail of the sunken vessel, Captain Bell paced the deck, Frank tried to pierce the gloom of the ocean depths for some sign of the Dart.
- 45. And now, at this critical moment, a new and thrilling peril confronted the trio. Suddenly Frank saw a long, sinuous body flash through the water some fifty feet distant. He saw its outlines and its shining silver scales, and at once recognized a deadly foe. “A swordfish,” he muttered. Then he made a motion of warning to the others. They leaped out of the way, but were not a moment too soon. The huge fish, with its keen lance of sharpest bone, had made a dive for them. As it dodged past him Frank struck at it with his ax. The blow nearly severed one of the fins of the huge fish and a cloud of blood spurted into the water. But instantly the swordfish turned and came again to the attack. And now the critical moment had come. In those depths the swordfish was a fearful foe. If he should strike any one of the party with his lance, it would mean instant death. The monster seemed savagely aggressive as well. On it came again at fearful speed and accuracy straight at Frank Reade, Jr. The young inventor waited until the fish had almost reached him; then quick as a flash he dodged under it. And as he did so he threw up his right hand, clutching the knife with the point upward. By the sheerest of good luck the knife struck the fish and ripped his abdomen open to a great length.
- 46. This settled the contest. The fish’s entrails dropped out, and the monster lay upon the deck of the ship dead. But this did not by any means dispose of the fearful peril which surrounded the divers. A literal school of swordfish were seen bearing down upon the party. It was useless to think of coping with them in such numbers. It was necessary to make quick and definite action. Frank sprang toward the companionway and motioned the others to follow him. They were not a moment too soon in this, as the fish came about in a cloud, hovering over the hatchway, and trying to force an entrance. But the divers were safe for the nonce in their retreat, and it was deemed best to remain there until the fish should disperse. But they seemed in no disposition to do this. Indeed, they remained above the deck, besieging the party quite effectually. The position was by no means a pleasant one. “Well,” cried Frank, as they put their helmets together, “I don’t see but that we are obliged to stay here whether we will or no.” “That’s so,” agreed Bill. “I wish the beastly critters would clear out.” Von Bulow was getting depressed. “The most of us better make our peace with the Almighty,” he declared. “We shall never get out of this scrape.” And there the three divers were held imprisoned in the cabin of the sunken ship, while a rescue seemed indeed a hopeless thing. But let us return to the Dart, and learn the fate which had overtaken it. Barney and Pomp were faithful and reliable servants.
- 47. They were well familiar with the workings of the craft, and no ordinary accident would have troubled them long. But the accident which befell the Dart was not an ordinary one. Left aboard the boat, Barney and Pomp fell to skylarking. They were as full of fun as a nut is of meat. After jibing each other for a while they got to wrestling. “Hi, dar, chile, don’ yo’ put yo’ han’s on me!” cried Pomp, as Barney closed with him. “If yo’ does yo’ shuah nuff get de wuss ob it!” “Begorra, I’ll have the best av yez or me name’s not O’Shea!” cried Barney, hilariously. “Shure, I’ll niver be downed by a naygur!” “Clar away dar, I’ish!” But Barney was in for a ruction. “Whurroo!” he cried. “Here’s at yez!” Then they went madly whirling about the cabin in a lively tussle. It was hard to say which had the best of it. It was certainly a lively contest, and honors were even until suddenly Barney tripped over a rug. Then down went Pomp’s head, and plump into the Celt’s stomach it went. Barney went down, and Pomp was on top of him. The darky hung to his man like a leech. “Ki, dar! Yo’ am not in it wif dis chile!” he shrieked. “Yo’ am beat, I’ish!” “Divil a bit!” screeched Barney. “I’ll have yez off yet!” But just at that moment something happened which terminated the friendly wrestle almost instantly. There was a sudden severe shock, and the two jokers were thrown half-way across the cabin.
- 48. When they picked themselves up, both were dumbfounded to hear the electrical machinery buzzing furiously. The submarine boat was swaying madly, and they had hard work to keep their feet, so violent was the motion. “Massy Lordy!” gasped Pomp; “wha’ am de mattah, chile?” “Matther!” ejaculated Barney. “Shure, the divil is carrying us away.” “I don’ fink dat am jes’ a fac’!” Barney sprang into the pilot-house instantly. He tried to press the lever which shut off the speed current. It would not answer to his touch. The submarine boat was shooting like lightning through the water. How far they had run from the sunken wreck neither knew, but it was very likely several miles. Here was a fearful situation. The two looked at each other aghast. What was to be done? The risk was something awful. The Dart was not far from the bottom of the ocean. At any moment she might strike some projecting hillock or eminence. It would mean utter destruction. Barney was pale as a ghost, and Pomp’s eyes bulged like moons. “Golly, fo’ massy sakes!” wailed the affrighted darky. “We am done fo’!” “Begorra, it’s kilt we’ll be if we don’t sthop the boat!” “An’ Marse Frank am lef’ all alone behind dar. Mebbe we kain’t nebber find him no mo’.” It was a horrible thought which oppressed the two jokers. But they were not the kind to remain inactive. Something must be done.
- 49. Barney realized this. If the machinery was out of order the cause must be found and remedied. He rushed down into the engine-room and began to examine it. At once he saw the trouble. One of the heavy dynamos had become unshelved, and the lever wire was twisted and broken. Barney instantly shouted: “Come down here, naygur!” Pomp at once responded. With their united effort the dynamo was relocated and the lever wire connected. Then Barney operated the lever and it worked all right. The boat came to a stop. And not a moment too soon. Just ahead was a mighty eminence, and the Dart would certainly have struck it at full speed. “Golly!” gasped Pomp. “Dat am jes’ de berry closest call I ebber knowed ob!” “Begorra, a miss is as good as a mile,” said Barney. “Shure, we must go back now.” “Does yo’ fink yo’ kin fin’ yo’ way back, chile?” This was quite a problem. The Dart had undoubtedly run many miles, and to find the way back, as no note had been taken of their course was all a matter of chance. “But fo’ de Lor’ sakes, whatebber struck the boat in de fust place?” asked Pomp. “Howebber did it git started?” “I’ll show yez,” said Barney. He led the way to the pilot-house. Upon the vessel’s bow was a huge specimen of fish. It was a swordfish.
- 50. The monster had dashed against the vessel with such force that a part of the bulwark had been carried away, and the swordfish had been caught in the wire hamper of the rail. It was certainly the shock given the vessel by the huge fish which had dislocated the dynamo and disarranged the mechanism of the Dart. As the heavy body of the fish sagged the boat, Barney donned a diving suit, and going out, cut away the incumbrance. The damage was repaired as much as possible, and then the boat was turned about. The return course, as nearly as could be guessed, was taken. The Dart sailed on rapidly. But though miles were passed, not sign of the sunken wreck was seen. Barney doubled back on his course and sailed for miles. Hours passed and the anxious searchers were unrewarded. “Massy sakes!” gasped Pomp. “I done fear dat Marse Frank am done fo’ dis time. I jes’ fink he nebber come back no mo’!” “Begorra, he was a good, kind masther!” “Dat am so, honey!” “On me worrud, I’ll niver give up looking for him if I have to sail through these seas fer all me loife!” “I’m wid yo’, I’ish!” So they kept sailing about at random for a full day. Then Barney suddenly cried: “Look yonder, naygur. Phwat do yez call that?” It was a little star of light twinkling through the gloom. There was but one explanation for its presence in those depths. It was an electric light, and doubtless came from the helmet lamp of one of the lost divers.
- 51. Barney at once shaped the course of the Dart for it. The two jokers anxiously awaited the result.
- 52. CHAPTER VII. A CLOSE CALL. The three divers in the cabin of the sunken derelict were in by no means a cheerful or agreeable frame of mind. The swordfish would yet persist in hovering above the deck. They were apparently hoping that their would-be victims would come out. But they did not. Hours passed slowly by. Captain Bell sank down upon the rotting stairs and went to sleep. But Frank and the professor kept unwearying vigil. They were waiting for the welcome glare of the Dart’s searchlight. Should that appear they would know that they were saved. But it did not come. The Dart was far from the spot at the moment. The likelihood was not strong for an immediate return. But the state of siege was suddenly raised in an unexpected manner. There is a small fish which is a habitue of the ocean depths called the torpedo. It has all the power and characteristics of a powerful electrical battery, and can give a stunning shock to anybody which comes in contact with it. All manner of fishes, large and small, even the monster whale, stand in dread of the torpedo.
- 53. It was a school of these odd fish which now proved the means of raising the siege. They came down upon the school of swordfish with demoralizing effects. In less time than it takes to tell it, every swordfish was far from the spot, and speeding for their lives to other depths. Prof. Von Bulow saw the torpedoes coming and realized their nature. He put his helmet against Frank’s and shouted: “Look out! If those little fiends hit one of us they will knock the breath away.” Frank aroused Captain Bell. Some loose planks were brought and the hatch covered. This was to prevent the torpedoes from entering; but the latter did not seem at all inclined to attack the divers. They were of a species which will not attack unless attacked. This was fortunate for our friends. Neither did they remain long in the vicinity. In fact they departed very soon, and with a breath of relief Frank opened the hatch and climbed out on deck. It was at this moment that Barney caught sight of the distant star of light, and this was Frank’s helmet. At almost the same moment Frank saw the distant glare of the searchlight on the Dart. A great cry burst from him. He rushed to the companionway and made excited signs to the others. At once they rushed upon deck. The excitement was intense.
- 54. Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to specialized publications, self-development books, and children's literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system, we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading. Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and personal growth! ebookmass.com