Teaching and Learning of Science

COURSE GUIDE W ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBSC1103 Teaching and Learning of Science is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Teaching majoring in
Science (with Honours) programme. This module aims to impart the
fundamentals of the teaching and learning of science. This module should be able
to form a strong foundation for teachers to plan effective science lessons.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning
independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure you have the right
course materials and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain how children view science and what the nature of science is;
2. Demonstrate knowledge of basic concepts of childrenÊs ideas in science,
where do they come from and how they influence learning in science;
3. Describe how developmental and learning theories have contributed to
childrenÊs learning in science;
4. Demonstrate a knowledge of the constructivist approach to learning; and
5. Describe the inquiry approach in teaching science in primary school.

COURSE GUIDE W xi
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 8 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with a discussion on the concept of what science is, the nature of
science, the scientific method and scientific literacy. Lastly the discussion is about
the relationship between science and technology.
Topic 2 introduces the behavioural views of learning. The theories of Pavlov,
Thorndike and Skinner and their contributions to teaching and learning will be
discussed.
Topic 3 introduces the cognitive learning theories. Later the Piaget and Bruner
learning theories are discussed in detail. Then the application of these theories
will be discussed.
Topic 4 also discusses cognitive learning theories. AusubelÊs Deductive Learning
Theory, GagneÊs Theory of Mastery Learning and the Multiple Intelligences
Theory will be discussed.
Topic 5 examines the inquiry approach in the teaching of science. The
advantages, the types of inquiry and the conditions necessary for the successful
implementation of inquiry learning will be discussed. Questioning skills for
inquiry learning will be discussed at the end of the topic.
Topic 6 describes constructivism. Alternative conceptions and implications to
science learning are also explained. Constructivist learning approaches such as
the Learning Cycles Model, Predict-ObserveăExplain (POE) Model and
NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model in the teaching of science are discussed.
Topic 7 describes three approaches in teaching science ă science, technology and
society, contextual, and problem-based learning. For each approach, the concept,
its characteristics and how to teach using the approach will be discussed.
Topic 8 discusses teaching and learning methods such as experiments,
discussions, simulations, projects and visits; and how they are used to enhance
science learning.

x ii X COURSE GUIDE
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE
Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-sections.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Abruscato, J. (2004). Teaching children science: A discovery approach (5th ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Driver, R. (1983). The pupil as scientist. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (1985). ChildrenÊs ideas in science.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Driver, R., Leach, J., Miller, R., & Scott, P. (1996). Young peopleÊs images of
science. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Esler, W. K., & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th
ed.).Washington: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Fleer, M., & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for children: Developing a personal
approach to teaching (2nd ed.). Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach.
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Martin, R., Sexton, C., & Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching science for all children-
Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:
Harcourt Brace.

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix-xiii
Topic 1 Teaching and Learning Science 1
1.1 What is Science? 3
1.1.1 Science as a Process 5
1.1.2 Science as a Product 6
1.1.3 Science as Attitudes 7
1.2 The Nature of Science 8
1.3 The Scientific Method 10
1.4 Science and Technology 16
1.4.1 What is Technology? 16
1.4.2 Relationship between Science and Technology 17
Summary 18
Key Terms 19
References 19
Topic 2 Behaviourist Developmental Theories 21
2.1 Behavioural Views of Learning 22
2.2 PavlovÊs Theory 24
2.2.1 Pavlov and Classical Conditioning 25
2.2.2 Common Processes in Classical Conditioning 27
2.2.3 Applications of PavlovÊs Theory in the
Teaching of Science 28
2.3 ThorndikeÊs Theory 30
2.3.1 ThorndikeÊs Laws 31
2.3.2 Applications of ThorndikeÊs Theory in the
2.4 SkinnerÊs Theory 33
2.4.1 Skinner and Operant Conditioning 34
2.4.2 Reinforcement 35
2.4.3 Punishment 37
2.4.4 Reinforcement Schedules 37
2.4.5 Applications of SkinnerÊs Theory in the
Summary 41
Key Terms 43
References 43

i v X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Cognitive Developmental Theories 1 45
3.1 Cognitive Learning Theory 46
3.2 Cognitive Learning Theory Exponents 47
3.2.1 PiagetÊs Learning Theory 47
3.2.2 Identifying the Stages of Development 49
3.2.3 Applications of PiagetÊs Theory in Teaching Various
Children at Stages of Development 51
3.3 BrunerÊs Theories 56
3.3.1 Discovery Learning 57
3.3.2 Inductive Thinking 59
3.3.3 Stages of Cognitive Growth 61
3.3.4 Application of BrunerÊs Theories in the
Summary 66
Key Terms 66
References 67
Topic 4 Cognitive Learning Theories 2 69
4.1 AusubelÊs Deductive Learning 70
4.1.1 Meaningful Learning 71
4.1.2 Advance Organiser 72
4.2 Application of AusubelÊs Deductive Thinking
in Science Teaching 74
4.3 GagneÊs Mastery Learning 78
4.3.1 GagneÊs Categories of Learning 79
4.3.2 GagneÊs Hierarchy of Intellectual Skills 81
4.3.3 GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events 83
4.4 Application of GagneÊs Mastery Learning
4.5 Multiple Intelligences Theory 86
4.6 Application of Multiple Intelligences Theory
Summary 91
Key Terms 92
References 93
Appendix 1 94
Topic 5 Inquiry Learning 96
5.1 Inquiry and Discovery 98
5.1.1 Inquiry Cycle 99
5.1.2 Advantages of Inquiry Learning 102
5.2 Types of Inquiry Learning 104
5.3 Conditions for Inquiry Learning 108

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
5.4 Questioning Skills for Inquiry Teaching 110
5.4.1 Types of Questions 110
5.4.2 Ways to Facilitate Questioning from Students 115
Summary 117
Key Terms 118
References 118
Topic 6 Constructivism 120
6.1 What is Constructivism? 121
6.1.1 Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom 123
6.2 Alternative Conceptions: Science Learning Implications 124
6.3 Constructivist Teaching Approaches 128
6.3.1 5-E Learning Cycle Model 128
6.3.2 Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model 129
6.3.3 Needham's Five Phase Model 131
Summary 133
Key Terms 134
References 134
Topic 7 Teaching Approaches in Science 136
7.1 Science, Technology and Society Approach 137
7.1.1 Concept of STS 138
7.1.2 Background of STS Approach 139
7.1.3 Characteristics of STS Approach 140
7.2 Contextual Approach in Teaching and Learning of Science 142
7.2.1 Definitions and Concepts of CTL Approach 143
7.2.2 CTL Forms of Learning 146
7.3 Problem-Based Learning (PBL) 152
7.3.1 What is PBL? 152
7.3.2 PBL characteristics 153
7.3.3 PBL and Inquiry 155
Summary 160
Key Terms 161
References 162
Topic 8 Teaching and Learning Methods 164
8.1 Experiments 166
8.1.1 Discussion of Experimental Results 168
8.2 Discussion 170
8.2.1 Whole Class Discussions and Small
Group Discussions 170
8.3 Simulation 172
8.3.1 Types of Simulation Methods 172

v i X TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 Projects 175
8.4.1 Factors to Consider while Carrying Out Projects
in the Science Classroom 175
8.4.2 The Process of Doing a Project 176
8.5 Visits and use of External Resources 178
8.5.1 Planning a Visit or Field Trip 178
8.5.2 Virtual Field Trips 180
Summary 181
Key Terms 183
References 184
Answers 185

Topic
1
Teaching and
Learning
Science
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the three major components of science;
2. Describe the nature of science;
3. List the steps in a scientific method;
4. Explain the meaning of scientific literacy; and
5. Differentiate between science and technology.
INTRODUCTION
Why is it important for us to learn and understand what science is? Look at the
advertisement in Figure 1.1. What does scientifically tested mean?

2 TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE
Figure 1.1: An example of a bread advertisement
If we know science, we would not be fooled by this advertisement. We would
know how to evaluate information and make wise decision when it comes to our
health.
Before we go any further, do you think knowing science and knowing about
science are the same? They are different. Knowing science deals with the
theories, laws, generalisations, experiments and facts in science (Lee, Y. J. et al.,
2004). In the meantime, knowing about science or scientific literacy can be
described as thinking critically and reflectively about the cultural practices of
science, the philosophy, the motivations, influences and frameworks behind the
sciences.
As a science teacher, you certainly need to master both components in order to
facilitate effective teaching of this subject. Apart from that, you need to know
about the nature of science, so that, you can prepare relevant science-related
experiences for the development of science concepts and understanding.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Recall how science was taught when you were in primary school. Take
time to list down the characteristics of the science lesson. Share it with
your classmates.

TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE 3
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
What comes to your mind when someone mentions the word 'science'? Do you
picture someone in a white lab coat? Someone watching stars using a telescope?
A gardener tending to flowering bushes? Someone baking a cake? In spite of
these differences, all of them are related to science (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Images of science
Sources: http://www.majalahsains.com/
http://suddenvalley.com
http://www.astronomy2009.org
http://foodthought.org
1.1

Many people would associate science with a person in a white lab coat doing an
experiment but what about the person looking at the stars by using the telescope?
The gardener and the baker? The person looking at the stars by using the
telescope is studying what makes up the star, while, the gardener is monitoring
the growth of the plants. Meanwhile, the baker is trying to control the situation
so that the cake will rise beautifully. They are all doing science.
Science has many facets. Different individual would define science differently.
The layperson might define science as a body of scientific information, the
scientist might view it as procedures by which hypotheses are tested and a
philosopher might regard science as a way of questioning the truthfulness of
what we know. All of these views are valid, but each of them represents only a
partial definition of science.
If you explore the meaning of science, you may find the following definitions:
Science is everywhere, using it all the time, scary, can be lethal, discovery,
exploration, learning more, theories, hypothesis, interesting, exciting,
expensive, profitable, intelligent, status (Fleer Hardy, 1996)
Knowledge about the structure and behaviour of the natural and physical
world, based on facts you can prove (Oxford Dictionary)
Systematic knowledge which can be tested and proven for its truth (Kamus
Dewan)
Science is a set of attitudes and a way of thinking on facts (B. F. Skinner, 2005)
Science is the system of knowing about the universe through data collected
by observation and controlled experimentation. As data are collected,
theories are advanced to explain and account for what has been observed
(Carin Sund, 1989)
From the various definitions given above, you can conclude that science consists
of three major elements:
Processes (or methods)
Products
Human attitudes
Figure 1.3 shows the relationship among the three elements.

Figure 1.3: The relationship among the major elements of science
Now, let us read about each element in detail.
1.1.1 Science as a Process
Scientific knowledge does not come out from thin air. The body of knowledge is
produced through the observations and experimentation being done by the
scientist. This process has many different aspects and stages. For example, the
astronomer will first observe carefully and maybe take measurements while
gazing at the stars. Then, with the knowledge of the laws of physics, he or she
will provide the basis of our understanding of our universe.
Scientific skills are the tools used in doing the processes of science. Students will
conduct the processes just like the scientist. Students observe objects and
phenomena around them to understand the natural world. They will use
empirical procedures and analyse the data to describe the science concepts. The
science processes could also involve the formation of hypothesis, planning,
collecting data and data interpretation before making a conclusion.

1.1.2 Science as a Product
The product of science is the body of knowledge of science facts, concepts, laws
and theories. Figure 1.4 shows the relationships and the hierarchical order of the
science products.
Figure 1.4: The science products
Now, let us look at Table 1.1 which explains each component in detail.

Table 1.1: The Science Products
Science Products Descriptions
Science Facts
A scientific fact is the specific statement about existing objects or
actual incidents. We use senses to observe the facts.
There are two criteria that are used to identify a scientific fact:
(a) It is directly observable; and
(b) It can be demonstrated at any time.
Science Concepts
A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena that
seem to have certain properties or attributes in common. Birds,
for example, possess certain characteristics that set them apart
from reptiles and mammals.
Science Laws And
Principles
Principles and Laws also fall into the general category of a
concept but in a broad manner. These higher order ideas are
used to describe what exists through empirical basis. For
example, BernoulliÊs principle and Newton laws of motion.
Science Theories
Scientists use theories to explain patterns and forces that are
hidden from direct observation. The Kinetic theory explains
how the molecules in a solid, liquid and gas move.
1.1.3 Science as Attitudes
The third element in science is attitudes and values. Scientists are persons trained
in some field of science who study phenomena through observation,
experimentation and other rational, analytical activities. They use attitudes, such
as being honest and accurate in recording and validating data, systematic and
being diligent in their work.
Thus, when planning teaching and learning activities, teachers need to inculcate
scientific attitudes and values to the students. For example, during science
practical work, the teacher should remind students and ensure that they carry
out their experiments in a careful, cooperative and honest manner.
Teachers need to plan well for effective inculcation of scientific attitudes and
noble values during science lessons. They should examine all related learning
outcomes and suggested teaching-learning activities that provide opportunities
for the inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values. This can be referred to
in any School Science Curriculum Specification.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Re-read the definitions of science given by various sources. In
your own words, explain the meaning of science.
2. Is the statement „the earth rotates on its axis‰ a scientific concept,
principle or theory?
3. What are the three major elements of science?
ACTIVITY 1.2
With your partner, draw a mind map that summarises your definition
of science.
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
1.2
In this subtopic, we will briefly discuss the nature of science. It refers to the main
principles and ideas which provide a description of science methods and inquiry
as well as the characteristics of scientific knowledge or products. You should
read and understand all of these. Otherwise, it will result in your students
learning distorted views about how science is conducted.
Some points regarding the nature of science are as follows:
(a) Scientific knowledge is not absolute but tentative
The scientific knowledge we know today, may not be true in the future.
Change is inevitable because new observations may disprove the current
knowledge. For example, previously we learn that there are nine planets in
our solar system but now the scientist communities have agreed that there
are only eight planets.
(b) Scientific knowledge is durable
Although scientific knowledge is tentative, most scientific knowledge is
durable. As technology improves, new findings are added to the field and
this will lead to the modification of current ideas. Eventually the ideas
become more refine, precise and widely accepted by the scientific
community. So, we seldom see strong theories being rejected altogether.

(c) Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions
Science cannot answer all questions. Issues relating to moral, ethical,
aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions cannot be answered by science
method. Why? The reason is ideas and answers relating to science must be
supported by concrete evidence. Hence, there is no scientific method to
prove that belief on moral issues or metaphysical questions can be false.
(d) Scientists are particularly objective
Scientists are no different in their level of objectivity as other professions.
They have to be very careful and thorough when carrying out experiments,
collecting data, analysing the results and making a valid conclusion based
on the results. However scientists are human beings too and they can make
mistakes. So when they conduct experiments, the results may not always
give a valid explanation as mistakes can occur due to human error. For
example, when interpreting the data, bias can occur as the scientist may
interpret using his or her values and beliefs which may not be the values
and beliefs of the scientific communities.
(e) The world is understandable
In order to explain the phenomena that happen around us, scientists
presume that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent
patterns. Thus, the phenomena are comprehensible through careful and
systematic study. They also believe that through the use of the intellect, and
with the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover
patterns in all of nature.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Tick [ ] the correct statements.
(a) Scientific knowledge is static.
(b) Scientific knowledge is durable.
(c) Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions.
(d) Scientists are particularly objective.

1 0 TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1.3
The scientific method as shown in Figure 1.5 is a process for experimentation that
is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific
method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature.
Figure 1.5: The scientific method
Source: http://www.experiment-resources.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.html
Now, have a look at the following Table 1.2 that shows the steps of the scientific
method in detail.

Table 1.2: Steps of the Scientific Method
Steps of the Scientific
Method
Descriptions
Ask question You should start the experiment by asking questions about
the problem you want to investigate. Start the questions
with 5W and 1H what, when, who, which, where and how.
Finally you should summarise what you want to investigate
in the form of a testable question. Then only can you get the
answer through the scientific method.
Do background
research
In order to understand the questions that you want to
investigate, you probably need to collect information from
various sources.
This will help you to understand the concepts surrounding
your investigation, thus helping you to plan in solving the
problem.
Construct a
hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:
If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will
happen.
You should construct the hypothesis in a way to help you
answer your original question.
Test your hypothesis
by doing an
experiment
You then design your investigation to collect enough data.
You must remember to plan your experiment to be a fair
test.
You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only
one factor at a time, while keeping all other conditions
unchanged.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to
minimise error.
Analyse your data
and draw a
conclusion
Here, you analyse the data collected and relate your findings
with your hypothesis.
If the data support your hypothesis then you accept the
hypothesis. If not, then probably you need to re-examine
your hypothesis and start the entire process again.
Communicate your
results
Finally, you want to share your findings with your friends.
You should write your report to include all the various
elements in your experiment.
You should use various tools to display your data such as
data table, graphs and diagram, so that the findings are
clearly communicated to others.

You must remember that the steps in the scientific method described in Table 1.2
are cyclical, meaning that you do not just move from one step to another in a
linear way. The reason for this is that information or thinking always changes.
Thus, scientists sometime need to back up and repeat the steps at any point
during the process. This process is called an iterative process.
The scientific method is not only used to solve scientific problems. It can be
applied in solving problems that you encounter in your everyday life. The
systematic way of solving a problem could help you to make decisions in your
daily life. This is what we called scientific literacy as illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: A definition of scientific literacy
Source: Skamp (2004)
In other words, scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find or determine
answers to questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It
means that a person has the ability to describe, explain and predict natural
phenomena. A scientifically-literate person should be able to evaluate the quality

of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used to
generate it. Scientific literacy also implies the capacity to pose and evaluate
arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such arguments
appropriately (National Science Education Standards, page 22).
Why do you think we need to be scientifically literate? One of the main reasons is
that the society we live in depends on an ever-increasing application of
technology and the scientific knowledge that makes it possible. Decisions that we
make every day have the capacity to affect energy consumption, our personal
health, natural resources and the environment·ultimately the well-being of
ourselves, our community and the world. Individual decisions may not seem to
be critical. However, when they are multiplied by 300 million people nationwide,
or nearly 7 billion around the world, they have the power to change the face of
the planet (Scearce, 2007).
SELF-CHECK 1.3
You want to find out whether the amount of sunlight in a garden
affect tomato size. Use Figure 1.5 and Table 1.2 to help you to plan the
experiment and find the answer.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Do want to find out whether you are scientifically literate? Try
answering the test below. Answer the questions before looking at the
actual answers!
Test Your Scientific Literacy!
Richard Carrier (2001)
Answer each question with 'true' if what the sentence most normally
means is typically true and 'false' if it is typically false.
1. Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain
way.
2. Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change.

ACTIVITY 1.3
3. Science has one uniform way of conducting research called
„the scientific method.‰
4. Scientific theories are explanations and not facts.
5. When being scientific, one must have faith only in what is
justified by empirical evidence.
6. Science is just about the facts, not human interpretations of
them.
7. To be scientific one must conduct experiments.
8. Scientific theories only change when new information becomes
available.
9. Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular
results.
10. Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final.
11. An experiment can prove a theory true.
12. Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions and the non-observable.
13. Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific
investigations.
14. Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works.
15. A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and
thoroughly confirmed.
16. ScientistsÊ education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus,
and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence
their perception and interpretation of the available data.
17. A scientific law will not change because it has been proven
true.
18. An accepted scientific theory is a hypothesis that has been
confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all
attempts to disprove it.

19. A scientific law describes relationships among observable
phenomena but does not explain them.
20. Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x
implies y).
21. Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities.
22. Scientists construct theories to guide further research.
23. Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have
never been directly observed.
24. Scientific laws are absolute or certain.
Source: www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/SciLit.html
Answers to Activity 1.3
1. T 9. T 17. F
2. F 10. F 18. T
3. F 11. F 19. T
4. T 12. T 20. F
5. T 13. T 21. T
6. F 14. F 22. T
7. F 15. F 23. T
8. F 16. T 24. F
How you score:
No wrong answer A+
1 wrong answer A
2 wrong answers A-
3 wrong answers B+
4 wrong answers B
5 wrong answers B-
6 wrong answers C
7 wrong answers D
8 or more wrong answers F

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1.4
Look at the two ships in Figure 1.7. Can you see the differences? Why did the
ship change from the traditional to the modern?
(a) Traditional ship (b) Modern ship
Figure 1.7: Ships from different ages
Source: http://scrapety.com
http://www.titanic-titanic.com
The answer is as people become more intelligent they use their knowledge to
improve the ship. They improved the engine, the type of the fuel and many other
aspects so that the modern ship performs much more efficiently than the
traditional ship. The use of knowledge to build and improve the modern ship is
one example of technology.
1.4.1 What is Technology?
Did you know the word technology originated from the Greek term technologia
which is made up of techne, meaning „craft‰, and logia, meaning „saying‰? The
definition has evolved throughout history and now the word technology means
different things to different people.
Technology is a term that covers both the products created by human beings and
the methods used to create those products. In simple term, technology refers to
the way of doing something whether a product, such as machine, or a means of
organisation. The products of technology have been around since a long time ago
such as the invention of the wheel. In modern times the products could be as
simple as a pen or more sophisticated like an iPhone.

The term technology is said to encompass a number of „classes‰ of technology as
shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Classes of Technology
Classes Descriptions
Technology as Objects Tools, machines, instruments, weapons, appliances the
physical devices of technical performance
Technology as Knowledge The know-how behind technological innovations
Technology as Activities What people do their skills, methods, procedures,
routines
Technology as a Process Begins with a need and ends with a solution
Technology as a Socio-technical
System
The manufacture and use of objects involving people and
other objects in combination
Source: http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html
The term science and technology always goes hand-in-hand, just like the horse
and the carriage. So, is there a relationship between science and technology?
1.4.2 Relationship between Science and Technology
In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks to understand
natural phenomena and to arrange these ideas into ordered knowledge.
Meanwhile, technology involves the design of products and systems that affect
the quality of life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.
Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, science
produces knowledge that results in useful applications through devices and
systems. We have evidence of this all around us, from microwave ovens, to
compact disc players, to computers.
However, the understanding of technology as the application of science
knowledge has been challenged by many people. Mayr (1976) said „. . . practical
usable criteria for making sharp neat distinctions between science and
technology do not exist.‰
Technology is marked by different purposes, different processes, different
relationship to established knowledge and a particular relationship to specific
contexts of activity. Change in the material environment is the explicit purpose of
technology but that is not the case with science. Science, is concerned with the

understanding of nature to bring about solutions that are more or less effective
from different points of view.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
In your own words, define technology.
ACTIVITY 1.4
In a group of three to four people, select two current inventions that
have been said to improve and benefit mankind. List the positive and
negative effects of using these inventions.
The three elements of science are products, processes and attitudes.
The product of science is the body of knowledge of science which comprises
facts, concepts, laws, principles and theories.
The product of science is as a result of its processes and while the processes are
carried out, the attitudes are practised.
The processes of science can be done using scientific skills.
Science problem can be solved using scientific method.
Nature of science refers to the main principles and ideas which provide a
description of science methods and inquiry as well as the characteristics of
scientific knowledge or products.
The scientific method is made up of a series of steps: ask question, do
background research, construct a hypothesis, test your hypothesis by doing an
experiment, analyse your data and draw a conclusion and communicate your
results.

Science is related to technology.
Technology involves the design of products and systems that affect the quality of
life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.
Nature of science
Science
Science and technology
Science attitude
Science process
Science product
Scientific literacy
Scientific method
Carin, A., Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Esler, W. K., Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.). USA:
Belmont, Wadsworth/Thomson.
Fleer, M., Hardy. T. (1996). Science for children. Australia Harcourt Brace:
Prentice Hall.
Lee, Y. J. et al. (2004). Knowing science and knowing about science: Teaching
primary science. Prentice Hall : Singapore.
Mayr, O. (1976). The science-technology relationship as a historiographics
problem. Technology and Culture 17.
Science Buddies. (2011). Steps of the scientific method. Retrieved April 20, 2011,
from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_scientific_
method.shtml
Shuttleworth, M. (2009). What is the scientific method? Retrieved April 21, 2011,
from http://www.experiment-resources.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.
html
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Washington.

The UK Technology Education Centre. What is technology? Retrieved April 22,
2011, from http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html
University of California Museum of Paleontology. Understanding science: What
is science? Retrieved April 20, 2011, from http://undsci.berkeley.
edu/article/whatisscience_01
Wolfs, F. L. H. (2004). Introduction to scientific method. Retrieved April 20, 2011,
from http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/ AppendixE.
html.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
Imagine there are two scenarios. In Scenario A, a teacher praises a student for his
excellent science project. While in Scenario B, a teacher praises a student for
giving a correct answer. What similarity can you see in both of these situations as
illustrated in Figure 2.1?
Scenario A Scenario B
Figure 2.1: Two classroom scenarios
Topic
2
Behaviourist
Developmental
Theories
1. Describe the behavioural views of learning;
2. Apply PavlovÊs theories in the teaching of science;
3. Apply ThorndikeÂs theories in the teaching of science; and
4. Apply SkinnerÊs theories in the teaching of science.

2 2 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
The scenarios in Figure 2.1 show the application of the principles of behavioural
approach to learning. Did you notice that there is an observable behaviour in
both of these situations?
In scenario A, the observable behaviour is a teacher praising a student for doing
an excellent science project. Meanwhile, in scenario B, the observable behaviour
is a teacher praising a student for giving a correct answer. There is also feedback
from the teacher, such as, „I am proud of you. Your science project was
excellent!‰ and „Very good!‰. Do you know that these are the essential elements
of behavioural approach to learning? The behaviourist theories emphasise the
study of observable measurable behaviours in order to influence learning.
In this topic, you will first be introduced to learning theories and behavioural
views of learning. You will then learn about the contributions of three
behaviourists namely Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner. For each of these
behavioural scientists, you will study their early experiments and the underlying
principles in each of their theories. Finally, you will explore the applications of
each of their theories in the teaching of science.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Observe a science lesson conducted by a teacher in your school. How
does the teacher reinforce good behaviours of the students? Write down
all the different feedback the teacher gives to the students. Do you think
the feedback that the teacher gives can bring about change in the
behaviour of the students? Discuss among your coursemates.
BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF LEARNING
2.1
First of all, let us have a look at what a learning theory is.
A learning theory is a set of principles which aim to explain the process of
learning.
Do you know why is it important for teachers to know about learning theories? It
is because, learning theories help us to understand how pupils learn and why
certain techniques encourage learning more than others. Learning theories can be
divided into four main schools of thought as shown in Figure 2.2. In this topic,

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 23
you will be learning about behavioural learning theories. Cognitive learning
theories will be covered later in other topics.
Figure 2.2: Classification of learning theories
For your information, behavioural learning theories were the earliest theories of
learning that were introduced. There are two main groups of behaviourist
theories as can be seen in Figure 2.2:
(a) Classical conditioning theories
(b) Operant conditioning theories
Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner are behavioural scientists who have made major
contributions in the field of behavioural learning. PavlovÊs theory is known as
classical conditioning theory, while Thorndike and SkinnerÊs theories are known
as operant conditioning theories.
This behavioural approach emphasises observable behaviours that can be
measured. Learning and behaviour are described in terms of stimulus and
response relationships (S-R). You will be learning more about the relationship
between stimulus and response as you read further.
Behaviourists describe individuals as being conditioned by the environment.
What does conditioning mean?

Conditioning is a process of teaching, where the learner associates behaviour
or the response with a stimulus (McInerney McInerney, 2006).
Conditioning occurs through interactions with the environment while learning is
said to have occurred when there is an observable change in behaviour.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
In your own words, describe the behavioural views of learning.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Behaviourism has its own set of specialised terms to describe the
learning process. It is worthwhile to be familiar with these terms. Can
you find the meaning of the following key behaviourist terms:
(a) Stimulus;
(b) Response; and
(c) Conditioning?
PAVLOV’S THEORY
2.2
Now, let us study PavlovÊs classical conditioning theory and its application in the
teaching of science. Have you heard of the famous experiment that is shown in
Figure 2.3?

Figure 2.3: PavlovÊs experiment on classical conditioning
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
This experiment was carried out by the Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936), to find out if a dogÊs behaviour could be conditioned. His theory is known
as classical conditioning.
2.2.1 Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is one of the first theories of behaviourism. Pavlov showed
the simple relationship between a stimulus and a response in teaching
(conditioning) an animal to modify its behaviour (McInerney McInerney,
2006). In his experiment, Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate to the sound of a
bell by linking a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus.
In order to better understand classical conditioning, let us look at the
observations studied by Pavlov on his dog as illustrated in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Schematic representation of classical conditioning
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
In reference to Figure 2.4, let us have a look at Table 2.1 for more information on
each phase in classical conditioning.
Table 2.1: Phases in Classical Conditioning
Phase Description
Before conditioning
(Figure 2.4 (1 and 2))
A dog salivates when presented with food. Pavlov called the food
an unconditioned stimulus (UC) resulting in an unconditioned
response (UR) (salivation). A neutral stimulus such as the ringing
of a bell did not bring about any response.
During conditioning
(Figure 2.4 (3))
To condition the response behaviour, Pavlov rang a small bell at
the same time as the meat was presented. He carried out many
practice sessions where the bell and meat were presented together.
After conditioning
(Figure 2.4 (4))
The dog eventually learned to salivate when the bell was rung
without the meat. The bell which originally had no meaning for
the dog, took on meaning and became the conditioned stimulus
(CS) because of repeated pairing or association with the food
which then became the conditioned response (CR) that is
salivation.

This early research demonstrated that a stimulus that readily leads to a response
can be paired with a neutral stimulus in order to bring about learning. This is the
essence of classical conditioning. We sometimes learn new responses as a result
of two stimuli being presented at the same time. As seen in Figure 2.4, it starts
with two things that are already connected with each other, which are, food and
salivation. Then, paired with a third thing, which is the bell with the conditioned
stimulus, which is the food over several trials. Eventually, this third thing may
become so strongly associated, that it has acquired the power to produce a new
behaviour. The animal is „conditioned‰ to respond to the third thing or stimulus.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Classical conditioning is often used in advertisements. In groups,
study advertisements on television or in print. Describe how classical
conditioning is used to sell the product. Use the following terms in
your description: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
2.2.2 Common Processes in Classical Conditioning
PavlovÊs work also identified three other processes in classical conditioning, as
shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Other Processes in Classical Conditioning
Other Processes Description
Generalisation Pavlov used bells of different tones. The dog still salivated even
though the tones of the bells were different. The dog responded even
though the tones of the bells were different or nearly the same. The
dog is capable of stimulus generalisation and is able to generalise
across different tones.
Discrimination The dogs could also respond to one tone of the bell and not to others
that were similar. Pavlov did this by making sure the food was only
presented with only that one tone and not others. He called this
stimulus discrimination. The dog is able to differentiate among
different tones.
Extinction Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus (bell) is presented
repeatedly but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (food).
The conditioned response (salivating) gradually fades away and
disappears. Pavlov continued ringing the bell and not following with the
food. The dog gradually did not salivate. Extinction had taken place.

ACTIVITY 2.4
In groups, discuss the situations in your science class where you can
use the following processes to facilitate learning:
(a) Generalisation;
(b) Discrimination; and
(c) Extinction.
2.2.3 Applications of Pavlov’s Theory in the Teaching
of Science
PavlovÊs theory helps to explain why children behave the way they do in certain
circumstances. Many childrenÊs attitudes are learnt through classical
conditioning. For example, some children learn to dislike science or mathematics,
not because the subject is difficult but because the subject has been paired with
fear producing stimuli such as strict teachers.
Once you understand the process of classical conditioning, you will be able to
understand the importance of creating a healthy classroom environment. For
example, if you treat your students with warmth and care each time during their
science lesson, the students will begin to associate the science class with a warm
and caring teacher. Your warm and caring attitude are the unconditioned stimuli.
The science class becomes the conditioned stimulus which the students have
associated with the warmth of the teacher. The unconditioned response is the
initial response to the teacher. The students develop a positive emotional
response to science. This is the conditioned response and the whole process is
illustrated in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Process of classical conditioning
Now, let us study the applications of PavlovÊs classical conditioning theory in
science classrooms. Think of how you can use them in your science lesson.
Applying PavlovÊs Classical Conditioning Theory
in a Science Classroom
1. Provide a safe and warm environment so that the science classroom will
be associated with a positive emotion or attitude.
2. Associate positive and pleasant events with learning tasks. For example,
make science experiments fun by having a relaxed and comfortable
atmosphere in the science room or laboratory.
3. Help students to risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily and
successfully. For example, pair an anxiety-provoking situation, such as
performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings and a non-threatening
atmosphere. This helps the student learn new associations.
Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the student will
stay relaxed and calm.
4. Help students recognise differences and similarities among situations,
so they can discriminate and generalise appropriately. For example,
assure students who are anxious about taking a major examination that
this test is like all other tests that they have sat for.
5. Use motivation to produce positive behaviour.
Source: Woolfolk (2001)

SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. What are the main principles in PavlovÊs theory?
2. Discuss with examples how you can use PavlovÊs theory to
teach science.
THORNDIKE’S THEORY
2.3
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) introduced a theory of learning called
connectionism. His theory viewed learning as forming „connections‰ between a
stimulus (S) and a response (R). He conducted experiments with various animals.
He placed a hungry animal in a puzzle box and food outside the box. He then
observed how it learnt to get out. He believed that learning occurred through
trial and error. His classic experiment with a hungry cat is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box
Source: http://www.csus.edu/indiv/w/wickelgren/psyc001/
ClassLectureThreeOperant.html
The puzzle box as shown in Figure 2.6 had a lever which opened the door. After
much trial and error, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (stimulus)
with opening the door (response). This S-R connection when established resulted
in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from box).
The same cat was placed in the box over and over again. Each time the cat was
placed back in the box, it took a shorter time to get out. The cat had made
connection between its behaviour and the reward. Thorndike concluded that cats

learn faster if they are rewarded for their behaviour and that learning is
incremental, that is, it occurred in small steps.
Can you see any differences between ThorndikeÊs theory and PavlovÊs classical
conditioning theory? Did you notice that the learner in classical conditioning is
seen to be passive and responding to the environment?
In the case of PavlovÊs dog, it responded to the stimulus of food. Whereas the
learner in ThorndikeÊs theory is seen actively responding to the environment.
The cat pressed the lever (response) to get to the food (stimulus). This means that
the learner plays an active part in the changes of behaviour. The learner also
operates on the environment by responding to the stimulus. This is known as
operant conditioning. Thorndike established the basis for operant conditioning
but the person thought to be responsible for developing the concept is Skinner.
We will learn about SkinnerÊs theory later.
2.3.1 Thorndike’s Laws
Based on his experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws as can be seen in
Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: ThorndikeÊs Laws
ThorndikeÊs Laws Description
Law of Effect Law of effect is the most famous of his laws. Any act that
produces a satisfying effect in a given situation will tend to be
repeated in that situation. For example, if a response (e.g.
answering a science question) is followed by a rewarding
experience (e.g. student gets right answer and is praised by the
teacher), the response will be strengthened and become a habit.
Law of Exercise The more frequent the S-R connection, the stronger it will be.
For example, the connection between a stimulus (e.g. getting
the right answer) and response (e.g. doing a science question) is
strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued.
Law of Readiness Readiness to do an act is satisfying. Individuals learn best when
they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready. If
students are ready, they will make more progress in learning.

2.3.2 Applications of Thorndike’s Theory in the
Teaching of Science
Thorndike stressed the importance of stimulus-response connections. So, the task
of the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning activities to enhance
connections between a stimulus and a response.
The following shows the various ways you can apply ThorndikeÊs theory in a
science classroom
Applying ThorndikeÊs Theory
in a Science Classroom
1. Give rewards or reinforcement for positive behaviour. This will
establish the stimulus-response connection.
2. Use drill practices to associate between a stimulus and a response. This
will strengthen the S-R connection.
3. Use routines to help students „practice‰ desired behaviours until they
become a habit. For example, give step-by step routines on how to write
science reports.
4. Get students ready to learn by creating interest in science with
interesting demonstrations and activities.
5. Make sure studentsÊ basic needs are satisfied. If students are hungry,
tired or troubled, they will have little interest in learning.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Discuss the implications of ThorndikeÊs theories on the teaching
and learning of science.

ACTIVITY 2.5
For each of the ways of applying ThorndikeÊs theory given before,
suggest examples you can use in your science lessons. Carry out your
suggestions in your science classes. Record your observations and
conclusions.
SKINNER’S THEORY
2.4
Have you ever tried to train your pet? How did you do it? Look at Figure 2.7
which shows trained animals performing.
Figure 2.7: Animals performing tricks
Source: http://drsophiayin.com/resources/cattricks, http:
http://www.insidethemagic.net/2011/04/highlights-one-ocean-makes-a-big-splash-at-seaworld-
orlando-debut-wetting-guests-with-shamu-size-fun/
The complex tricks performed by the cat and the dolphins shown in Figure 2.7
are the result of many hours of training. The training or conditioning that is
carried out is based largely on the principles of behavioural learning theories.
„Of all the theories of behavioural learning, operant conditioning probably
has the greatest impact on science teachers.‰ (Hassard, 1992).

As was mentioned earlier in this topic, Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) is
responsible for formulating the operant conditioning theory. Like Pavlov and
Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned
behaviour. Skinner thought that behaviour (R) is controlled by a stimulus (S) and
he called it operant behaviour.
Do you still remember what operant behaviours are? Yes. Operant behaviours
are behaviours that operate on the environment to receive reinforcement. That is
why SkinnerÊs theory is also known as operant conditioning.
2.4.1 Skinner and Operant Conditioning
SkinnerÊs early studies were on animals like rats and pigeons. He devised an
apparatus called the Skinner box as shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: SkinnerÊs box
Source: http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm
A hungry rat was placed in this box. The box contained a small brass lever that, if
pressed, delivered a pellet of food. Once it was left alone in the box, the rat
moved about exploring. At some point in time, it pressed the lever and a small
food pellet was released. The rat ate this and soon pressed the lever again. The
food pellet reinforced pressing of the lever.

Can you identify the stimulus and response in the example above? Yes, you are
right. The stimulus is the food pellet and the response is the pressing of the lever.
Which one occurred first the stimulus or the response? Yes, the response
occurred first, that is, the rat carried out the response (pressing lever) to get the
stimulus (food pellet). The rat operated on its environment. Can you see how the
rat in SkinnerÊs box is different from PavlovÊs dog?
What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellet? Skinner disconnected
the food dispenser. When the rat pressed the lever, no food was released. The rat
pressed the lever less and less and finally stopped. That is, the operant response
has undergone extinction with non-reinforcement just as in classical
conditioning.
Skinner progressively reinforced behaviour that came close to the goal behaviour
that is, pressing of the lever to get food. He called this shaping. In this way, the
animal is gradually taught to perform quite complex behaviour.
SkinnerÊs work resulted in the development of a number of principles of
behaviour that have direct implications on teaching. Reinforcement which is the
key principle in SkinnerÊs theory will be explored in more detail in the next
section.
2.4.2 Reinforcement
In psychology, reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens the behaviour
it follows. Consequences are simply environmental events that follow the
behaviour. This can be summarised as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Reinforcement
Consequences to a large extent will determine whether a person will repeat the
behaviour that led to the consequences. The type of consequences given and also
the timing of the consequences are important in determining if the behaviour is
to be strengthened or repeated. We will now look at different types of
reinforcement and reinforcement schedules.

There are two types of reinforcement as can be seen in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Types of reinforcement
The differences between both of these types of reinforcement are given in
Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Differences between Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
A pleasant consequence increases the
probability of that behaviour occurring in
the future.
Taking away something negative to
increase the probability of that behaviour
occurring again.
The pleasant consequence can be verbal
praise, good grades, tokens, motivating
words, winning certificates, earning
privileges, facial expressions or a feeling of
increased accomplishment or satisfaction.
Unpleasant consequences are removed
such as nagging or extra homework.
Example:
A student gives the correct answer as in
situation B in Figure 2.1. The teacher
praises the student. The student tries
harder to give the correct response the next
time.
Example:
A teacher announces to the class that they
have no homework for that day because
they have done an excellent science project.
Students work harder for the next science
project.

ACTIVITY 2.6
Study Table 2.2 again. Give another two examples of each of the
positive and negative reinforcement that you can use in your science
classroom. Discuss your answers in groups.
2.4.3 Punishment
Now, have a look at Figure 2.8 again. If every time the rat touches the lever, it
receives an electric shock it will eventually learn to stop pressing the lever. This
is punishment and can be summarised as in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Punishment
For example, a student gives the wrong answer and is punished by the teacher.
The teacher makes the student stand in front of the class. The student will then
try not to give the wrong answer the next time. The undesirable response is
reduced. What do you think of punishing students this way?
Generally, reinforcement is preferred over punishment in modifying behaviour
because punishment can bring about undesired emotional effects in the students.
Can you suggest another way you can try to solve the teacherÊs problem above?
2.4.4 Reinforcement Schedules
What do you know about reinforcement schedules?
Reinforcement schedules refer to the pattern and frequency in which a
particular response is reinforced.

In the beginning stages of conditioning, Skinner reinforced the animal each time
it turned the lever. This is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. After a
number of trials, the animal slowly learns the desired behaviour. At this point,
reinforcement is moved to an intermittent reinforcement schedule. An
intermittent schedule allows for behaviour to be repeated but without constant
reinforcement. This is shown in Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12: Reinforcement schedules
As can be seen in Figure 2.12, there are two types of intermittent schedules:
(a) Interval Schedule
In the interval schedule, reinforcers are given based on the amount of time
that passes between responses.

(b) Ratio Schedule
In the ratio schedule, reinforcers are given based on number of responses
the learner gives between reinforcements. Interval and ratio schedules may
be fixed or variable.
Now, let us read the following case study and try to solve Encik HamdanÊs
problem.
Case Study
Lisa is a student in Encik HamdanÊs class. She is always very excited during
the science lessons and just shouts out answers without raising her hand.
Encik Hamdan wants to reinforce LisaÊs appropriate behaviour that is raising
her hand to answer the questions with points that she can use to exchange for
play time. Look at the following reinforcement schedules. Identify which type
of schedule it is and decide which schedule or combination of schedules will
be the most effective to use with Lisa:
(a) Schedule A
Give Lisa points each time she raises her hands.
(b) Schedule B
Give Lisa points every third time she raises her hand.
(c) Schedule C
Give Lisa points after she raises her hand a variable number of times.
2.4.5 Applications of Skinner’s Theory in the Teaching
of Science
After learning about the principles of SkinnerÊs theory, let us look at how we can
apply it effectively in a science classroom. Study the following guidelines on
how you can apply SkinnerÊs theory in a science classroom.

Applying SkinnerÊs Theory
in the Science Classroom
1. Reinforce positive behaviours. For example praise students when they
complete their work well.
2. Determine what behaviours you want. For example, carrying out
science process skills correctly Reinforce these behaviours when they
occur.
3. Tell students what behaviours you want. Science teachers deal with a
complex classroom environment which involves safety issues.
Specifying behaviours that you expect in the classroom will ensure
responsible and independent learners.
4. Create „chains of desired student behaviours‰ by establishing
reinforcement for those desired behaviours. For example, give students
gold stars for each time they clean up after an experiment.
5. Reinforce expected behaviour as soon as it happens. For example, stars
or tokens are given as soon as students collect work materials and begin
experiments.
6. Give praise and other rewards to students who even get desired
behaviours partially right (SkinnerÊs shaping). This is rewarding them
for effort. Eventually, as students can do the desired behaviour correctly
you can remove the rewards. For example, writing science reports
neatly. When they exhibit these behaviours, reinforce them and tell
them why.
7. Reinforcement is best used at variable intervals (SkinnerÊ schedules). For
example, give rewards for following the rules for science group
discussions at intervals. You can also take pictures of students doing
projects and show these pictures once in a while to motivate students.
8. Develop your science lesson from simpler to more complex tasks. Give
reinforcements at every concept learnt and continue to more complex
ones.

SELF-CHECK 2.7
What are the main principles in PavlovÊs, ThorndikeÊs and SkinnerÂs
theories? Present your answers in the form of a mind map.
ACTIVITY 2.7
1. In groups, complete the following table to show what you have
learnt about SkinnerÊs operant conditioning theory.
Essentials of operant conditioning Explanation with examples
Operant
Shaping
Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement schedule
2. Discuss among your classmates what are any other ways can
SkinnerÊs theory be applied in the science classroom.
Behaviourism refers to the study of observable and measurable behaviour.
In behaviourism, learning and behaviour are described in terms of stimulus and
response relationships.
A stimulus is an event that activates behaviour; a response is an observable
reaction to a stimulus.
Behaviourists describe individuals as being conditioned by the environment.

There are two main groups of behaviourist theories: classical conditioning and
operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, is a theory that explains
how we sometimes learn new responses as a result of two stimuli being
presented at the same time.
Three other processes in classical conditioning are generalisation, discrimination
and extinction.
In operant conditioning, as presented by Skinner and Thorndike, the learner
actively „operates‰ on their environment to reach certain goals.
Thorndike stressed that learning involves stimulus-response connections.
He formulated three laws of learning: law of effect, law of exercise and law of
readiness.
SkinnerÊs theory focussed on operants or behaviours that are affected by what
happens after the reinforcement (consequences).
Reinforcement is the process of using a reinforcement to strengthen behaviour.
There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement schedules are the pattern and frequency in which a particular
response is reinforced.
The principles of the theories of Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner can be used in
the teaching of science.
The teacherÊs job is to create a science learning environment in which certain
behaviours (the acquisition of knowledge, concepts and skills) are increased and
reinforced.

Behaviourism
Classical conditioning
Conditioned responses
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioning
Connectionism
Consequences
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Discrimination
Extinction
Generalisation
Intermittent reinforcement schedule
Negative reinforcement
Operant
Operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedule
Response
Shaping
Stimulus
Unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus
Abruscato, J. (2000). Teaching children science A discovery approach. USA:
Allyn Bacon.
Borich, G. D., Tombari, M. L. (1996). Educational psychology: A contemporary
approach. New York: Allyn Bacon.
Culatta, R. (2011). Behavioral theories of learning. Retrieved May 8, 2011,
from http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/
behaviorism/webquest.html
EmTech. (2007). Learning theories. Retrieved May 7, 2011, from
http://www.emtech.net/learning_theories.htm
Hassard, J. (1992). Minds on science Middle and secondary school methods.
USA: Harper Collins.
Mclnerney, D. M., Mclnerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology-constructing
learning. Australia: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Northern College. (2003). Learning theories Classical conditioning. Retrieved
April 27, 2011, from http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NC
Material/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/Learningtheories.htm
Utah State University. (2000). Positive interaction procedures. Retrieved May 8,
2011, from http://www.usu.edu/teachall/text/behavior/LRBIpdfs/
Positive.pdf
Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA: Allyn Bacon.

Topic
3
Cognitive
Developmental
Theories 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the main features of cognitive learning theories;
2. Describe PiagetÊs theory;
3. Apply PiagetÊs theory in the teaching of science;
4. Describe BrunerÊs theories; and
5. Apply BrunerÊs theories in the teaching of science.
INTRODUCTION
In the last topic, you have learnt about behaviourist learning theories. What do
you think are the main limitation to these theories? According to behaviourist
theories, the respond that we show as a result of repetitive stimuli given to us is
called learning.
As can be seen in Figure 3.1, this theory assumes that a learner is essentially
passive in responding to environmental stimuli. The behaviour is shaped
through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement
and negative reinforcement will increase the possibility that the prior behaviour
will recur. Positive reinforcement indicates the application of a stimulus, while
negative reinforcement indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is
therefore defined as a change in behaviour in the learner. This however reduces
complex human behaviour to simple cause and effect. Actually, there are a lot of
factors that can influence learning other than just respond to the given stimulus.
We will learn about this in this topic.

4 6 TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1
Figure 3.1: Behaviourist Learning Theory
Source: http://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/
In this topic, we will learn about cognitive learning theory and how we can apply
this theory in the teaching of science.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
3.1
As a result of the limitation of behaviourist theory, a group of psychologists
propose a new approach to explain the process of learning. This new approach is
called the cognitive learning theory.
Figure 3.2: Cognitive learning theory
Source: http://psybibs.revdak.com
This approach recognises the vital role of the human brain in the process of
learning. Cognitive experts believed that a lot of thought processes happen in our
brain that help us to interpret, organise, store and receive information before we
could respond to the stimulus. These are called cognitive processes (see
Figure 3.2).
As we learn, our cognitive structures in our brain are changed or modified. These
structures enable us to interpret, store and retrieve information. Thus, according
to Ormrod (1999), there are two main features underlying this cognitive
approach:
(a) That the memory system is an active organised processor of information.
(b) That prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1 47
Kohler, Tolman, Lewin, Piaget and Bruner are among the psychologists who
contributed to the cognitive learning theory. Atherton (2011) summarised
cognitive theory as theories that are interested in how people understand
material. In order to fully understand this, we should also include the study on:
(a) Aptitude and capacity to learn;
(b) Learning styles; and
(c) Constructivism as these three aspects influences how people learn.
But we are not going to discuss them in this topic as the focus in this topic is
introducing you to the cognitive learning theories, specifically Piaget and Bruner
learning theories..
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Explain the difference between behavioural and cognitive theory.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
EXPONENTS
3.2
Just imagine that you are at your desk with a pen in your hand and staring at an
empty book. You are wondering the best approach for a lesson on „Basic needs of
living things‰ for Year 4 students. What is your basis for planning the lesson?
Learning theories could be one of the things that you could use to plan an
effective lesson. As a start, let us learn about PiagetÊs learning theory.
3.2.1 Piaget’s Learning Theory
Jean Piaget is a Swiss biologist and psychologist. After working with Alfred
Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children.
Based upon his observations of his children and their processes of making sense
of the world around them, he eventually developed a four-stage model of how
the mind processes the new information it encountered. These four stages are
illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: PiagetÊs theory on stages of human development
Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive processes and abilities. In
Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon
actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.
As seen in Figure 3.3, each stage is characterised by new abilities and ways of
processing information. Piaget believes that, all children pass through these
stages in this order and that no child can skip a stage, although different children
pass through the stages at different rates. The same individuals may perform
tasks associated with different stages at the same time, particularly at points of
transition into a new stage (Slavin, 2006).
You would have probably learned this theory in detail in your psychology
course. If not, you can gather a lot of information from various resources to read
and understand fully about this theory. This is necessary because soon we are
going to look at how to apply this theory in a science classroom.

3.2.2 Identifying the Stages of Development
There are four stages of human development as mentioned by Piaget. This means
that as a teacher, the first thing that you need to do is to identify at what stage
your students are. This is important because it allows you to plan suitable and
appropriate teaching and learning activities for your students.
Do you know how to identify your studentÊs stage of development? One way is
to look at the characteristics of your student and compare them to the list given
in Figure 3.3. You could also conduct simple experiments as Piaget had done
when he was doing his research. Take time to do Activity 3.1 to understand the
experiments that could be used to identify your students' stage of development.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Study the following situations. Determine the stage of development
described by the situation.
Situation What
stage?
1 Play with a child and then, disappear behind the paper.
The child becomes distressed at your disappearance.
2 Show a child four marbles in a row, then, spread them
out. The child says that there are now more marbles than
before.
3 If you take four one-inch square pieces of felt, and lay
them on a six-by-six cloth together in the centre, and then,
the same square spread out in the corner, the child says
that the squares cover the same area in both cases.

4 A set of cards have letters on one side and numbers on the
other. If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even
number on the other side.
Take a look at the cards below and tell me, which cards do I
need to turn over to tell if this rule is actually true?
5 You have two five inch sticks laid parallel to each other, and
then, move one of them a little. She says the two sticks are still
having the same length even though it now extends beyond
the other.
6 Fill a tall glass of water and a short glass of water of the same
volume and ask which glass has more. The child says the tall
glass.
Source: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html
Answers:
1. Sensorimotor period
2. Pre-operational period
3. Concrete operational period
4. Formal operational period
5. Concrete operational period
6. Pre-operational period
By looking at the stages, we could see that generally children in Year 1 and Year
2 could probably be still in the pre-operational stage, while Year 3 till Year 5
students would be in the concrete operational stage. By Year 6, they would start
to be in their formal operational stage. So, what should you do to teach them?

SELF-CHECK 3.2
What are the four stages of human development according to Piaget?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Do you think the classification of ages by Piaget still apply in the
present time? Discuss with your coursemates.
Now, read the following guidelines which could help you to develop suitable
tasks based on PiagetÊs theory. What would your classroom look like if you apply
PiagetÊs theories in your teaching and learning?
3.2.3 Applications of Piaget’s Theory in Teaching
Children at Various Stages of Development
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures or schemes.
Children learn by observing and try to understand their experiences by
comparing their experiences to their existing schemes in their mind. When
children encounter a new experience in their environment, they will try to
explain their experience based on their cognitive structures or schemes. If their
new experience is similar to their schemes, they will add the new information
into their previously existing schemes. This process is called assimilation.
However, if the new experience is different from their existing schemes
(according to their perception), they would alter their existing schemes or new
schemes may also be developed during this process. When the existing scheme is
modified or altered, then learning has also taken place. The process whereby
children has to modify the new experiences before incoprorating it into their
scheme is called accomodation. This procceses is summarised in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Reaching equilibrium through assimilation and accommodation processes
Source: http://eprints.oum/edu.my/411/1/enriching_nantha.pdf
In short, you as the teacher should present the new knowledge as close as
possible to the childrenÊs prior knowledge. As a result, the children could
assimilate rather than take time to accomodate the new experiences or
information in order for learning to take place.
Bearing in mind on the principles mentioned earlier, you could use the following
guidelines or tips so that your childrenÊs schemes will develop through time. Let
us start with the pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and finally,
formal operational stage.

Pre-operational Stage (Age 2 - 7 years)
1. Provide natural objects such as leaves, stones, twigs and real animals for
the children to manipulate. This is important at this stage as children
learn through their senses.
2. Provide opportunities for the children to begin grouping things into
classes, such as, living/non-living and animal/plant. When doing this,
they are studying the attributes of the objects and noting the similar and
different attributes at the same time.
3. Provide experience that gives children an opportunity to lessen some of
their geocentricism. For example, have them listen to other childrenÊs
stories about what was observed on a trip to the zoo.
4. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible as the aids help
the children to 'seeÊ what you try to explain.
5. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words. For
example, add one spoonful of salt to the beaker of water. Then stir.
6. Be sensitive to the possibility that children may have different meanings
for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Children
may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented.
7. Plan a lot of hands-on activities so that they have enough practice with
the skills that will serve as building blocks for more complex skills. For
example, make sure you give them plenty of practice in observing as
observation is the most basic science process skill but this is the
foundation for all subsequent skills.
8. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for
concept learning and language. This is important as different children
have different learning styles.

Concrete Operational Stage
1. Reinforce and continue using concrete and hands-on materials. Prepare a
lot of concrete teaching aids to help the children to understand the
concept. For example, give children the opportunities to observe real
animals when you want to explain about physical characteristics of
animals. Bring fish, butterfly or bird to the class so that the students could
use their senses to observe the physical characteristics of these animals.
You should not be satisfied by just bringing in animal pictures and ask
students to study the pictures and learn about the physical characteristics
of animals. They can manipulate ideas mentally, but they need props as
the ideas presented to them continue to become more abstract.
2. Organise the materials and concepts presented. Give short and precise
instructions when you want them to do the activities. The experimental
procedures must consist of only a few steps. If the procedures are long,
break them up into a few sections. Be concise and brief when you are
explaining concepts. The attention span of these students is longer than for
pre-operational children, but they often want to focus on something new.
3. Always allow students to relate their prior experiences before
presenting a new topic. For example, if you want to introduce the
concept of food chain, you should use animals familiar to your students,
so that they know the types of food that those animals eat. Then only,
can they build a food chain. When they have understood the concept of
food chain, you can extend or elaborate with other less familiar animals.
4. Let the children classify or group things. Use graphic organisers like
matrices, charts, diagrams and table to make it easier. This would
improve and develop their logical ability. You could also use crossword
puzzles and word mazes. Give more divergent questions rather than
convergent questions because the former give children more opportunity
to think and stimulate imagination. Give them opportunities to classify
objects and ideas into increasingly complex groupings. Without doing
this, they would never become formal operational.
5. Offer children many experiences to use their acquired abilities with
respect to the observation, classification and arrangement of objects
according to some property. Any science activities that include
observation, collection and sorting of objects should be able to be done
with some ease. You should use activities involving living things and
non-living things that are familiar and concrete to them. You should be
able to successfully introduce many physical science activities that
include more abstract concepts such as space, time and number.

6. Use familiar objects and ideas to explain more complex concepts. They
need practice at logical thinking as well as motivation towards starting
really abstract thinking.
7. Present problems that require logical thinking of a relatively non-abstract
level. They need practice dealing with abstractions. What they
cannot do is abstractions on abstractions.
Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 through Adulthood)
1. Even if at this stage the students can visualise abstract concepts, you
could still continue to use strategies that are effective with concrete
operational thinkers. Why? Reason for this is because at this stage
concrete thinking is still easier. Let say, you ask someone to describe to
you how to go from your school to the shopping mall. Would you be
able to visualise the route or would you get a map so that you could
reach the mall easily without getting lost?
2. Build abstractions upon solidly understood concrete concepts.
Abstractions are essential for complex ideas, but the concrete ideas
would help in the early stage of transition from concrete to formal
operational stage.
3. Give them opportunities to explore hypothetical questions. Students at
this stage could formulate their own hypothesis on problems that they
encounter and plan investigations to test their hypothesis. If you do not
give them opportunities and encouragement, the students would not be
able to progress beyond concrete operational stage to formal operational
stage. In other words, you should give them the opportunities to
experiment on their own rather than conducting experiments that you
have planned.
4. Give them opportunities to solve problems that seem impossible to
solve. Students take pride and build self-confidence when they are able
to solve problems that they could not solve when they were less mature.
5. Integrate concrete concepts with broad concepts and encourage them to
apply concepts in numerous settings. This could be done by
encouraging them to generalise the conclusions from their experiments
by linking the concepts in real life setting. In this way, the learning is
meaningful and more importantly, they will apply their learning in their
lives, as that is the purpose of learning science.

6. Respect and encourage lateral thinking that involves insightful
hypothetical reasoning. Even when they are incorrect, their attempt at
hypothetical thinking may be a productive step in the right direction.
7. Model effective formal operational thinking to them. You are probably
capable of formal operational thinking yourself and children can use
you as a productive model while developing their own skills.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Imagine that you want to introduce the concept of transparent,
translucent and opaque materials to your students. What are some
example of objects that you will use?
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Select a topic from Year 1, Year 3 and Year 6 from a primary
science curriculum specification and discuss two learning-teaching
activities that suit PiagetianÊs learning theory.
2. Compare the activities for the different steps of human
development. How are they different? Give reasons based on
PiagetÊs theory. Share your answer with your classmates.
BRUNER’S THEORIES
3.3
We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but
rather to get a student to think . . . for himself, to consider matters as an
historian does, to take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is
a process, not a product.
(Bruner, 1966)
Jerome Bruner is another influential psychologist who introduced many theories
that could be applied in the science classroom. In this subtopic, we are going to
discuss some of his theories and how to apply them in the science classroom.

Bruner introduced many ideas in explaining the process of learning. His work
includes the significance of categorisation in learning, the ideas of readiness for
learning, motivation for learning, intuitive and analytical thinking, inductive
thinking, discovery learning and spiral curriculum. We are not going to discuss
all of his ideas. Instead, we are only going to discuss his theory on discovery
learning, inductive thinking and the three stages of cognitive growth.
3.3.1 Discovery Learning
The notion of discovery learning had been discussed by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and
Dewey. Nevertheless, modern discovery learning environments were initiated by
Jerome Bruner (Mukerji, 2002). He believes that for learning to be meaningful,
students must actively be engaged in identifying principles and rules for
themselves, rather than relying on the teacher's explanations. Therefore, learning
environments must provide situations, in which students are called upon to
question, explore or experiment. In typical discovery learning environments,
information and examples are presented to students and the students work with
the information and examples until they discover the interrelationships.
As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge
discovered on their own. Models that are based upon discovery learning
includes:
(a) Guided Discovery
The student receives problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints and
directions about how to solve the problem to keep the student on track.
Guided discovery may require more or less time depending on the task, but
tends to result in better long term retention and transfer as the students are
involve actively while learning takes place. Unlike true discovery, the
instructor directs what problems the learners will learn and sets the pace
that they will learn at. The students do, however, have to figure out how to
solve the problems that they are given. Generally, the students first
discover specific topics and then move to more general ones.
(b) Problem-based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to
learn through engagement in a real problem. It challenges students to seek
solutions to real-world (open-ended) problems by themselves or in groups,
rather than learn primarily through lectures or textbooks. You are going to
learn this approach in detail later.

(c) Simulation-based Learning
Simulation is a technique to replace and amplify real experiences that
mirror substantial aspects of the real world in a fully interactive fashion.
Simulation makes imitated situations available to the learner to practice and
refine necessary skills, rather than having them jump right into the real
experience. It also provides an immersive learning experience, where skills,
process, and knowledge can all be enhanced in a way reality cannot.
(d) Case-based Learning
Using a case-based approach engages students in discussion of specific
situations, typically real-world examples. This method is learner-centered,
and involves intense interaction between the participants. Case-based
learning focuses on the building of knowledge and the group works
together to examine the case. The instructor's role is that of a facilitator and
the students collaboratively address problems from a perspective that
requires analysis. Much of case-based learning involves learners striving to
resolve questions that have no single right answer.
(e) Incidental Learning
Incidental learning describes the process in which a child's knowledge is
gained from interactions with the environment. This learning process lacks
a formal structure or objectives, and is guided by real-world experiences.
Through incidental learning, children learn fundamental skills that they
will use throughout life.
Discovery learning is a learning method that encourages students to ask
questions and formulate their own tentative answers, and to deduce general
principles from practical examples or experiences (Thorsett, 2002). It is a learning
situation in which the principal content of what is to be learned is not given but
must be independently discovered by the student. In other words, discovery
learning can be defined simply as a learning situation in which the principal
content of what is to be learned is not given, but must be independently
discovered by the learner, making the student an active participant in his
learning.
Ormrod (2000) defines discovery learning as an approach to instruction through
which children interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating
objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.
There are certain principles that you need to follow if you want to use discovery
learning in your class and make it work. Among others, the instructions:
(a) Must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).

(b) Must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organisation).
(c) Should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).
If the principles are not adhered to, it would only:
(a) Cause confusion to the student if no initial framework is available.
(b) Lead to inefficiency and be time consuming.
(c) Result in student frustration.
(d) Make you fail to detect problems and misconceptions.
ACTIVITY 3.4
In a group, discuss the meaning of:
(a) Guided discovery;
(b) Problem-based learning;
(c) Simulation-based learning;
(d) Case-based learning; and
(e) Incidental learning.
3.3.2 Inductive Thinking
Bruner believes classroom learning should take place through inductive
reasoning. This reasoning is done by forming generalisations based on the
specific examples given. This is an important cognitive strategy in discovery
learning environments. It encourages students to actively use their intuition,
imagination and creativity. It also relies more on providing students with a range
of experiences, which gradually increase their familiarity with new concepts
before attempting to draw them together into a coherent understanding of the
new concept. If you are going to teach concepts inductively means you do not
define or explain the concept in the beginning of the lesson. You should provide
various activities so that the students will use their reasoning to gradually
understand the concept that you want the students to form. This can be seen in
Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Inductive approach to instruction
For example, if the students are presented with enough examples of triangles and
non-triangles (as shown in Figure 3.6), they will eventually find out what the
basic properties of a triangle must be.
Figure 3.6: Forming a concept a triangle
Source: http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/c_bruner.htm

Do you realise that discovery learning encompasses the scientific model?
Children identify problems, generate hypotheses, test each hypothesis against
collected data and apply conclusions to new situations. Due to this reason,
discovery learning should be used in the teaching and learning of science as it fits
to the nature of science itself. We have already discussed about scientific method
and the nature of science in Topic 1 of this module.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Discuss the concept of discovery learning by using a mind map.
3.3.3 Stages of Cognitive Growth
In the previous subtopic, we have identified the stages of cognitive development
suggested by Piaget. According to him, we progress from sensorimotor to pre-operational,
concrete operational and finally formal operational. Like Piaget,
Bruner believes in stages of instruction based on development. There are three
stages according to BrunerÊs theory as can be seen in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: The Three Stages of Cognitive Growth According to Bruner's Theory
Stage Description
Enactive (birth
to age 3)
In this stage, children learn by observing and manipulating real or
concrete objects. For example, if you want to teach about flowers,
you must let children observe real flowers so that they can see, touch
and smell the flowers. Knowledge is acquired through senses. This is
also true if you want to teach a new skill. Let say you want to teach
students on how to use a thermometer. Get a thermometer and let
them touch and observe the apparatus.
Iconic (age 3 to
8)
In this stage, knowledge is represented by using models and
pictures. So, if you want to teach them about flowers, you can use
pictures of flowers for the children to list the components of a flower
and classifying flowers based on their characteristics. If you want to
teach about how the lungs work, you could use a model to explain
how the size of lung changes when we breathe in and out. In short,
you do not need to show them the real object as cognitively they are
ready to understand the concepts with the help of pictures or
models.

Symbolic (from
age 8)
Learners can think in abstract form. So, abstract terms and symbol
systems can be used to represent knowledge like numbers,
mathematical symbols, letters, music and language. The precise
timing of when to use it depends on the child, particularly his or her
language ability. For the first time, the child can categorise, think
logically and solve problems.
Each stage as shown in Figure 3.7 is dominant at different phases of development
but they are always present and accessible (Johnson, et al.).
Figure 3.7: Learning stages according to BrunerÊs theory
Source: http://jaylordlosabia.blogspot.com/2010/05/constructivism-jerome-bruners.
html
According to Waring (2011), Bruner rejects the idea of stages as popularised by
Piaget and to a lesser extent Vygotsky. Rather than looking at the ages of
developmental changes, Bruner concentrates more on how knowledge is
represented and organised as the child develops. For Bruner, the earlier ways of
thinking are still used later in life where they can be very useful for some tasks.
Teachers, according to Bruner, should be able to speed up the rate of cognitive
development, primarily by improving language acquisition thereby assisting the
transition from iconic to symbolic modes of representation. In short, if you plan
activities in accordance to each stage as Bruner describes it, your children can
learn more effectively.

Say for instance you want to teach them about the concept of animals. If you
teach younger children, you should use real animals to explain the concept.
However if your students are older, you could use pictures or models of animals,
and when they are in the symbolic stage, you could simply use text to teach them
about animals.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
‰Learning subtraction by showing six items and physically removing
four of them‰.
To which stage does this classroom activity belong to?
ACTIVITY 3.6
Imagine that you want to teach about the different parts of plants.
Discuss the teaching activities for each of Bruner's stage theory.
3.3.4 Application of Bruner’s Theories in the Teaching
of Science
How do you use BrunerÊs theory in a science classroom? Since discovery learning
represents or follows the scientific method, you should always try to use this
method when you teach science. The question is, which model of discovery
learning should you use? Should you apply guided discovery, free discovery,
problem-based learning, simulation-based learning or case-based learning?
Let us look at Table 3.2 which shows some of the suggestions on how we can use
BrunerÊs theories in the science classroom.

Table 3.2: Suggestions on How BrunerÊs Theories Can Be Used in Science Classroom
BrunerÊs Theories Explanation
1 Present both examples
and non-examples of the
concepts that you are
teaching.
When teaching about mammals, include people,
kangaroos, whales, cats, dolphins and camels as
examples. Besides that, use chicken, fish, alligators,
frogs and penguins as non-examples.
Ask children for additional examples and non-examples.
When presenting an explanation of the phases of
the moon, have the children to observe the phases
in a variety of ways. For instance, direct
observation of the changing shape of the moon in
the evening. A demonstration of the changes can be
shown by using a flashlight and sphere, and also
diagrams.
2 Help children see
connections among
concepts.
Ask questions such as, „What else could you call
this apple?‰ (Fruit). „What do we do with fruit?‰
(Eat). „What do we call things we eat?‰ (Food).
Use diagrams, outlines and summaries to point out
conclusions.
3 Design inductive
activities.
Provide them with specific cases or situations.
Children will need to observe, classify, making
inferences and prediction in order to make
conclusion based on the situation given.
4 Design activities that are
problem-oriented.
Children need to be given enough practice to solve
problem so that they will learn the heuristics or
rules of discovery.
5 Emphasise the basic
structure of the new
material.
Use demonstrations that reveal basic principles.
For example, demonstrate the law of magnetism by
using similar and opposite poles of a set of bar
magnets. Encourage children to make outlines of
basic points made in textbooks or discovered in
activities.
6 Help children construct
coding system.
Coding system helps children make connections
between objects and phenomena.
For example, ask the students to invent a game that
requires children to classify rocks and have
children to maintain scrapbooks in which they
keep collected leaf specimens that are grouped
according to observed characteristics.

7 Pose a problem to the
children and let them
find the answer.
Ask questions that will lead naturally to activities.
For example, why do you need to wear a helmet
when riding a bicycle? What are some ingredients
that most junk foods have?
Do a demonstration that raises a question in the
childrenÊs minds. For example, lift a washer using
magnet or mix two-coloured solutions to produce a
third colour.
8 Encourage children to
make intuitive guesses.
Intuitive guesses allow children to be able to build
meaning, significance or structure to a problem
without explicit evidence.
For example, ask children to guess the amount of
water that goes down the drain each time they get
a drink of water from a water fountain.
Give the children magazine photographs of the
evening sky and have them guess the locations of
some constellations.
Instead of defining a particular object, tell your
students, Let us guess what it might mean by
looking at the words around it.
Do not comment after the first few guesses. Wait
for several ideas before giving the right answer.
Use guiding questions to help children focus when
their discovery has led them astray.
There are many resources in the Internet if you want to use the discovery
learning approach in the teaching of science. Here is just one of the websites you
can use: http://www.discoverysciencelearning.com/
ACTIVITY 3.7
1. In a group, choose a topic. Describe how you would teach the
topic using discovery learning.
2. Use a suitable graphic organiser to compare and contrast PiagetÊs
and BrunerÊs stages of cognitive growth.

Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts to explain
human behaviour by understanding the thought processes.
Piaget identified four stages in human cognitive development. They are
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational.
Piaget also explained how the cognitive structures or schemes change through
the process of assimilation, accommodation and mental equilibrium.
The application of PiagetÊs stages of cognitive growth is when you plan to teach
science based on students' abilities in each stage.
Generally primary school students are in the concrete operational stage. Thus,
concrete materials need to be used in the teaching of science concepts or skills.
In BrunerÊs discovery learning model, studentsÊ involvement plays a vital role in
the learning process. The teachersÊ role is as a guide and advisor in students'
quest for information rather than as a giver of information.
Bruner also identified three stages of cognitive growth: enactive, iconic and
symbolic.
The application of BrunerÊs stages of cognitive growth is when you plan to teach
activities suited for each stage, whether to use concrete, pictures or models, or
just use text or description when explaining concepts or skills.
Cognitive development growth
Cognitive learning theories
Cognitive structures or schemes
Concrete operational
Discovery learning
Enactive
Formal operational
Iconic
Inductive reasoning
Pre-operational
Sensorimotor
Symbolic

Abruscato, J. (2004). Teaching children science: A discovery approach (5th ed.).
Boston: Allyn Bacon.
Atherton, J. S. (2011). Learning and teaching: Cognitive theories of learning.
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learning/cognitive.htm
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp
Press.
Johnson, C., Maiden, K., McDonald, R., McGuire, A. (n.a.). Retrieved May 19,
2011, from http://tiger.towson.edu/~cjohns26/Jerome%20Bruner.ppt
Learning Theories. (2008). Discovery learning (Bruner). Retrieved May 22, 2011,
from http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html
Lindgren, H. C., Suter, W. N. (1985). Educational psychology in the classroom.
California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Martin, R., Sexton, C., Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching science for all children
Ormond, J. (2000). Educational psychology: Developing learners (3rd ed).
Belkapp Press.
Slavin, R. E. (2006). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (8th ed.). Upper
Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.
Subramaniam, N. K. (2010). Enriching blended pedagogy through Piagetian
learning model: A case study. Retrieved 19 May 2011 from
http://eprints.oum.edu.my/411/1/enriching_nantha.pdf
Thorsett, P. (2002). Discovery learning theory. A primer for discussion. Retrieved
May 19, 2011, from http://general.utpb.edu/fac/keast_d/Tunebooks/
pdf/Bruner%20and%20Discovery%20Learning.pdf
Tomei, L. (2004). Learning theories: A primer exercise. Retrieved May 19, 2011,
from http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/c_bruner.htm
Waring, P. (2011). Cognition and development. Retrieved May 22, 2011, from
http://psychology4a.com/cognitive_development.htm#Jerome_Bruner_N
orthern College. (2003). Learning theories Classical conditioning.
Retrieved April 27, 2011, from http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NC
Material/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/Learningtheories.htm

Utah State University. (2000). Positive interaction procedures. Retrieved May 8,
2011, from http://www.usu.edu/teachall/text/behavior/LRBIpdfs/
Positive.pdf
Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA: Allyn Bacon.

Topic
4
Cognitive
Learning
Theories 2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the main principles of AusubelÊs learning theory;
2. Apply AusubelÊs deductive thinking in teaching science;
3. Explain the main principles of GagneÊs Mastery Learning;
4. Apply GagneÊs Mastery Learning in teaching science;
5. Discuss the main principles of the Multiple Intelligences theory; and
6. Apply Multiple Intelligences theory in teaching science.
INTRODUCTION
We will continue exploring cognitive learning theories in this topic. Can you
remember what these theories are? Yes, cognitive learning theories focus on the
mental processes of learning. The cognitive theorists focus on the workings of the
human brain. They view people as active processors of information and study
how learners acquire and reorganise mental structures as they process and store
information.
The cognitive learning theories that will be discussed in this topic are AusubelÊs
Deductive Learning theory, GagneÊs theory of Mastery Learning and the
Multiple Intelligences theory. We will look at the main elements of each theory
and study how they can be applied in the teaching of science.

7 0 TOPIC 4 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES 2
AUSUBEL’S DEDUCTIVE LEARNING
The first theory that we will be looking at is AusubelÊs Theory, which uses the
deductive approach. A deductive approach is different from an inductive
approach as used by Bruner in Topic 3. Look at Figure 4.1 to see the steps in
deductive science teaching.
Figure 4.1: Deductive science teaching
Now, study the three sentences given in the box below. Close this module and
try to remember the three sentences. Which one do you find the easiest to
remember?
Adapted from Slavin, R.E. (1994)
4.1
(a) Enso flrs hmen matn snoi teha erso iakt siae otin tnes esna rae .
(b) Easier that nonsense information to makes then sense is learn.
(c) Information that makes sense is easier to learn than nonsense.

TOPIC 4 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES 2 71
You would have found sentence (c) easiest to remember. Why is this so? It is
because sentence (c) is the one that would have made sense to you. You could
remember (c) because it was meaningful to you.
It is the same with AusubelÊs deductive learning which stresses the importance of
meaningful learning. Let us read further to learn more.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Study Figure 4.1. What is the difference between the inductive and
deductive approaches in teaching science? Explain your answer using
a specific science example.
4.1.1 Meaningful Learning
David Ausubel stressed on the importance of meaningful learning in his learning
theory. Any material that needs to be learned such as concepts, principles and
ideas should be presented in an organised way so that the learners can make
connections to existing knowledge and understand it better. To remember
sentences (a) and (b) you would be required to memorise them because the
sentences would have had no meaning to you. Ausubel calls this type of learning
rote memorisation. Rote memorisation is not considered meaningful learning
because the material is not connected to existing knowledge.
Ausubel suggests an Expository Teaching Model to encourage meaningful rather
than rote learning. „Expository‰ means „explanation‰ or the presentation of
ideas and concepts. Expository teaching methods present information in an
organised form rather than having students discovering it for themselves.
So, what do you think would be the difference between BrunerÊs theory and
AusubelÊs theory? According to Ausubel, students acquire knowledge mainly
through reception rather than discovery. He calls his approach reception
learning. Here, the teacher needs to organise all the required information
logically, systematically and meaningfully so that the students can receive it in
the most efficient way.
Can you see now that AusubelÊs teaching approach is deductive in nature? The
teacher plays the role of an organiser of subject matter and presents information
through lectures and tasks. Materials are presented from general to specific or
from a rule or principle to specific examples.

ACTIVITY 4.2
1. Explain in your own words what you understand by
‰meaningful learning‰Ê.
2. What is the role of the teacher in meaningful learning?
4.1.2 Advance Organiser
According to Ausubel, for meaningful learning to occur, students must relate
new knowledge to what they already know. Ausubel suggests the idea of an
advance organiser as a way to help students link their ideas with the new
material that will be presented. An advance organiser is a general statement or
analogy given in the beginning of the lesson to relate new information to prior
knowledge of students.
What is the purpose of an advance organiser? It provides the structure for a new
topic by relating it to what students already know. It helps the learner place the
material to be learned in context. Read the introduction for Topic 4 again. Is there
an advance organiser for this topic?
Yes No If Yes, which one?
An advance organiser is a set of ideas or concepts presented before the material is
learned. It is meant to provide a stable cognitive structure to which new learning
can be anchored. This means that an advance organiser acts like an intellectual
scaffolding.
Advance organisers provide an overview that shows students what to expect and
summarises all aspects of the unit or lesson in advance. Advance organisers can
be charts, concept maps, definitions or generalisations and need not be very long.
For example, you can list, pronounce and discuss science terms like „producers‰
and „consumers‰ before starting the lesson on „Food Chain‰.
Concept maps can be used as advance organisers. Figure 4.2 shows a concept
map for the topic on „The Five Senses‰. You can start the lesson by using this
organiser which shows students what they will be learning for the lesson.

Figure 4.2: Concept map for a topic on „The Five Senses‰
Source: http://nikilavoie.blogspot.com/2007/10/exploring-concept-mapping-with.html
Another example of an advance organiser is shown below:
The teacher says:
„Do you remember that during the last lesson we measured the temperature
of a glass of water? Well, today we are going to add ice to the water and see
what happens to the temperature.‰
As you can see, even if this advance organiser is short it is effectively linked to
the prior knowledge of the students.

ACTIVITY 4.3
Choose a learning area from the primary science curriculum.
1. Prepare an appropriate advance organiser.
2. Discuss the effectiveness of your advance organiser with your
coursemates during the tutorial session.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. What are the main elements of AusubelÊs theory?
2. Discuss when it is appropriate to apply AusubelÊs theory in
your science classroom.
APPLICATION OF AUSUBEL’S DEDUCTIVE
THINKING IN SCIENCE TEACHING
4.2
You have studied the main elements of AusubelÊs Theory. Let us now look in
detail how you can use this theory in the teaching of science.
Joyce and Weil (1986) explain that a lesson using AusubelÊs model of teaching, or
an expository approach, consists of three principal phases:
(a) The presentation of an advance organiser;
(b) The presentation of a learning task or material; and
(c) The strengthening of cognitive organisation.
The three phases are shown in Table 4.1 with explanations on what happens at
every phase.

Table 4.1: AusubelÊs Model of Teaching
Phase 1 Phase II Phase III
Presentation of the
Advance Organiser
Presentation of Learning
Task or Material
Strengthening Cognitive
Organisation
Clarify the aim of the
lesson. The learners
should be presented
with a set of learning
objectives.
Present the advance
organiser which will
prepare learners for
the new information.
The advance organiser
must relate the ideas
to be presented in the
lesson to information
already in studentsÊ
minds.
Present new material by
means of lectures,
demonstrations,
discussions or student
tasks.
The material is presented
clearly, sequentially and
logically.
Engage and maintain
studentsÊ attention in
meaningful learning.
The teaching should be
accompanied with good
examples following
every explanation.
Relate new
information to the
advance organiser.
Promote active
reception learning by
questioning students
or giving them
opportunities to ask
questions.
Review or sum up at
the end of the lesson
in order to check the
students'
understanding of the
new information.
Source: Joyce et. al (1986)
As you can see in AusubelÊs theory, the teacher presents the lesson, sequentially,
logically and systematically. An advance organiser is presented at the beginning
of the lesson. Student interest is maintained with interactive questioning and lots
of examples. Finally, the teacher closes the lesson by reviewing the concepts
presented and checking for studentsÊ understanding.
A summary of how you can use AusubelÊs ideas in your classroom is shown in
the following Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: AusubelÊs ideas for your science classroom
AusubelÊs approach is often thought to be a traditional way of teaching.
However, this approach can be effective for the teaching of science especially if
you want to present a broad range of subject matter and if information is not
easily accessible. You can also use this approach if you want to present difficult
concepts your students might have difficulty understanding.

ACTIVITY 4.4
1. A science teacher wants to teach the topic „Magnets‰
deductively using AusubelÊs Theory. The steps the teacher is
using are given in the box but they are not in order. Arrange
them in order according to the three phases below:
Steps used by the teacher to teach „Magnets‰
1. Teacher asks students for other examples of materials that are
attracted to magnets
2. Teacher demonstrates how magnets attract materials made of
iron and steel
3. Teacher tells students that the lesson is about materials that are
attracted to magnets
4. Teacher writes on the board „Magnets are attracted to metals,
mostly those that are made of iron and steel‰
5. Teacher explains all words and ensures all students understand
them
6. Teacher gives students materials and magnets and asks students
to predict which materials will be attracted to magnets
Phase 1: Presentation
of the Advance
Organiser
Phase II: Presentation of
Learning Task or
Material
Phase III:
Strengthening
Cognitive Organisation
2. Choose a topic from the primary science curriculum.
Plan the steps you will use to teach the topic using AusubelÊs
Model of Teaching as shown in Table 4.1. Present your answer in
the tutorial session.

SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Explain briefly how you can use AusubelÊs Learning theory in
your classroom.
2. The purpose of an advance organiser is to
(a) map out new information.
(b) make new information meaningful.
(c) provide an overview of new lesson content.
(d) present new information in the form of analogies.
GAGNE’S MASTERY LEARNING
4.3
Have you heard of the term „„mastery learning‰? What do you understand by this
term? You might be thinking of someone who has mastered what he or she is
supposed to learn. That is in essence what mastery learning is all about. Mastery
learning is based on the assumption that all students, if given appropriate
instruction and time, can master any learning outcome (Bloom, 1968). That
should be the goal of all teachers.
Robert Gagne (1916-2002) was a psychologist who was concerned with learning
and instruction. He believed that learning must proceed from the simple to the
more complex in well-defined stages. According to him, mastery learning can be
designed into the instructional process. Let us now study GagneÊs theory to see
how this can be done.
GagneÊs learning theory incorporates three distinct components: categories of
learning, hierarchy of intellectual skills and the nine events of instruction. This is
summarised in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Components of GagneÊs learning theory
4.3.1 Gagne’s Categories of Learning
Gagne identified five major categories or domains of learning, which are:
(a) Intellectual skills
(b) Cognitive strategies
(c) Verbal information
(d) Attitudes
(e) Motor skills
Each category has different abilities and performances and is learned in different
ways. The significance of this is that different categories of learning require
different types of instruction. For example, if you want to teach your students an
intellectual skill like the „properties of light‰, you will instruct them in a different

way as compared to teaching them an attitude like „honesty‰. Figure 4.5 shows
GagneÊs categories of learning.
Figure 4.5: GagneÊs categories of learning
ACTIVITY 4.5
Gagne identified five categories of learning as shown in Figure 4.4.
For each of these categories, provide examples using the primary
science curriculum. Think about how you will teach these categories
in your science classroom. Discuss your answers during the tutorial
class.

4.3.2 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Intellectual Skills
Gagne focused on one category, that is, „intellectual skills‰. He suggested that
these skills be arranged in a hierarchy from the simple to the more complex. For
learning to occur, the student would need to learn the more simple tasks before
the more complex tasks. This means the simpler tasks become prerequisites or
building blocks that should be completed before higher level learning can occur.
Study Figure 4.6 which shows how the different learning types are arranged in a
hierarchy.
Figure 4.6: GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning
Learning hierarchies can help teachers plan their teaching or instruction. So the
first question you should ask is, „What are the intellectual skills that are needed
in order to master the learning outcomes?‰ Once you know the final objective,
you can plan backwards and make sure the simpler skills are mastered first
before teaching a new skill. Table 4.2 shows examples of GagneÊs Hierarchy of
Learning Skills.

Table 4.2: Example of GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning Skills
GagneÊs hierarchy
of learning What is it? Examples
Problem Solving Applying rules to the solution
of a problem and learning
something new.
Experimenting on the effect of
heat on solubility.
Rule Learning Chain of two or more concepts
that make up knowledge.
Water when heated will boil.
Concept Learning Grouping and categorising. Characteristics of animals and
plants or metals and non-metals.
Discrimination
Learning
Learning to make different
responses to different stimuli.
Using our five senses to
identify substances.
Verbal Association Verbalisation e.g. naming,
reciting.
Mg magnesium,
Fe iron.
Chaining Learning of chains or
connection. Requires stimulus
response learning sequences.
How to reduce and increase
the bunsen burner flame to
suit experiment.
Stimulus-Response
Learning
Ability to perform a particular
behaviour when a certain
stimulus is present.
When the bunsen burner heat
is too high, reduce it.
Signal Learning Learning how to make a
response to a signal.
When a bunsen burner is
lighted, ask students to give a
response.
ACTIVITY 4.6
GagneÊs theory states that learning hierarchies can be constructed by
working backwards from the final learning objective.
Choose a concept, rule or principle from the primary science
curriculum. What are the intellectual skills your students need to
master first in order to learn the concept that you have chosen?

4.3.3 Gagne’s Nine Instructional Events
Gagne introduced nine instructional events that need to be part of the learning
situation. The nine instructional events are shown in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.7.
Table 4.3: GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events
INSTRUCTIONAL EVENT LESSON ACTIVITY
Gain attention Use multimedia technology to grab attention.
Tell a story.
Inform learner of objectives Make learners aware of what to expect so they are
aware and prepared to receive instruction.
Recall prior learning Ask questions or do activities that help students
recall prior knowledge.
Present stimulus material The learning content is meaningfully organised
and explained and then demonstrated.
A variety of strategies should be used.
Provide learning guidance Teacher facilitates the learning process by giving
hints and cues when needed.
Elicit performance Teacher asks students to demonstrate new
knowledge using questions, worksheets or
activities
Provide feedback Teacher gives feedback to students.
Assess performance Provide exercises to assess students.
Provide test to check if learning outcomes were
achieved.
Enhance retention and transfer Provide activities where students can transfer
their learning and review lesson.
Applying learning in real-life situations is a step
towards mastery learning.

Figure 4.7: GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events
Source: http://eet.sdsu.edu/eetwiki/index.php/Gagne's_Nine_Events_of_Instruction
ACTIVITY 4.7
Choose a topic from the primary science curriculum.
1. Plan how you will teach the topic you have chosen using GagneÊs
Nine Instructional Events.
2. Specify clearly the activities you will carry out for each event.
Prepare your answer in the form of a table.

APPLICATION OF GAGNE’S MASTERY
LEARNING IN SCIENCE TEACHING
You have just studied the three main components of GagneÊs theory namely
categories of learning, hierarchy of intellectual skills and the nine events of
instruction. As a teacher, you need to first determine the category of learning as
the type of instruction you will use will depend on this. Then, plan your
instruction based on the nine events of instruction. If you want to teach
intellectual skills, then determine the prerequisite skills needed and make sure
students have mastered them before teaching the new skill.
As a summary, keep the following principles in mind on how you can apply
GagneÊs Mastery Learning in science teaching (see Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8: Application of GagneÊs mastery learning in science teaching
4.4

SELF-CHECK 4.3
Answer the following questions.
1. „Students are able to solve problems using the formula for
speed‰.
According to Gagne, what type of learning category is shown
in the learning outcome above?
(A) Verbal information
(B) Intellectual skills
(C) Cognitive strategies
(D) Attitude
2. Which of the following is NOT one of GagneÊs instructional
events ?
(A) Present material
(B) Enhance retention and transfer
(C) Promote discrimination learning
(D) Stimulate recall of prior knowledge
3. According to GagneÊs theory, what is the first event of
instruction teachers should use?
(A) Stimulate prior learning
(B) Enhance retention
(C) Present the stimulus
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
4.5
Howard Gardner suggests a new way of thinking about intelligence. According
to him, there are eight different intelligences that he believes everyone has in
different degrees (Figure 4.9). These intelligences make people perceive and
understand the world differently. One or more of these intelligences may be
more dominant for different individuals.

Figure 4.9: Gardner's eight intelligences
Study Table 4.4 to understand the main characteristics and skills for each
intelligence.
Table 4.4: Multiple Intelligences the Characteristics and Associated Skills
Intelligence Characteristics Skills
Logical /
Mathematical
Ability to use reason, logic and
numbers. These learners think
conceptually in logical and
numerical patterns making
connections between pieces of
information.
Problem solving, classifying and
categorising information, working
with abstract concepts,
performing complex mathematical
calculations, working with
geometric shapes.
Verbal /
Linguistic
Ability to use words and
languages. These learners have
highly developed auditory
skills and are generally good
speakers. They think in words
rather than pictures.
Listening, speaking, writing,
storytelling, explaining, teaching,
using humour, remembering
information, convincing someone
of their point of view.

Musical
Ability to produce and
appreciate music. These
musically inclined learners
think in sounds, rhythms and
patterns.
Singing, whistling, playing
musical instruments, recognising
tonal patterns, composing music,
remembering melodies.
Visual / Spatial
This intelligence is the ability
to perceive the visual. These
learners tend to think in
pictures and need to create
vivid mental images to retain
information.
Puzzle building, reading, writing,
understanding charts and graphs,
a good sense of direction,
sketching, painting, manipulating
images, constructing, fixing,
designing practical objects,
interpreting visual images.
Bodily /
kinesthetic
Ability to control body
movements and handle objects
skilfully. These learners
express themselves through
movement. They have a good
sense of balance and eye-hand
co-ordination.
Dancing, physical co-ordination,
sports, hands-on experimentation,
using body language, crafts,
acting, miming, using their hands
to create or build, expressing
emotions through the body.
Interpersonal
Ability to relate and
understand others. These
learners try to see things from
other people's point of view in
order to understand how they
think and feel.
Listening, using empathy,
understanding other people's
moods and feelings, counselling,
co-operating with groups, noticing
people's moods, motivations and
intentions.
Intrapersonal
Ability to reflect and analyse
oneself. These learners try to
understand their inner
feelings, dreams, relationships
with others, strengths and
weaknesses.
Recognising their own strengths
and weaknesses, reflecting and
analysing themselves, awareness
of their inner feelings, desires and
dreams, evaluating their thinking
patterns.
Naturalist Ability to identify and classify
patterns in nature. These
learners have a sensitivity and
appreciation for nature.
Good at nurturing and growing
things, ability to care for and
interact with animals, enjoys
gardening and keeping pets, likes
to camp and hike, conscious of
environmental issues.
Source:
http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm#Multiple%20Intelligences%20Explained

Are you interested to find out what intelligences you have? Visit the website
below and try doing the test to find out how your mind works:
http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_i
nt/questions/choose_lang.cfm.
If you have difficulty accessing the Internet, try the test given in Appendix 1 at
the end of this topic.
Have you discovered how your mind works? The intelligence that you scored the
highest will generally be the best way that you study or do things. Look at the
intelligences where your score was low and think of how you can increase that
particular intelligence.
APPLICATION OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
THEORY IN SCIENCE TEACHING
According to GardnerÊs theory, each child can be viewed as having these eight
intelligences in different degrees. What does this mean to you as a science
teacher? It means your teaching should have experiences for as many of the
multiple intelligences as possible so every student has an opportunity to learn.
First, you need to find out the multiple intelligences your students have. You can
do this by observing students when they are studying, observing activities
students like to do during their free time, looking at studentsÊ achievement
records and reports, or using the above link to test your students.
How can you incorporate multiple intelligences in the teaching and learning
process? Look at each of the intelligences and think of what activities will help
each of these intelligences. A few ways you can incorporate multiple intelligences
in your science classroom are given below:
Ways to Incorporate Multiple Intelligences in The Science Classroom
(a) Multiple Intelligence Stations
You can set up different multiple intelligence stations in your classroom.
Each station can have certain elements for each intelligence. The stations can
be created using themes or intelligences in rotation if the space is not enough.
E.g.: Naturalist station can have flora and fauna.
The Intrapersonal Station should be away from noise and disturbance.
Pupils can be given ear plugs so it is quiet and they can read, write,
think and do self-reflection.
4.6

(b) Classroom Decorations
You can decorate the classroom with information that can be appreciated
by each intelligence. Get the students involved in this activity.
E.g.: Verbal-linguistic students can prepare posters about science concepts
and definitions.
Logical-mathematical students can prepare models of shapes and
formulas.
(c) Field Trips
You can take students out for trips to different places to observe and
understand nature.
E.g.: For naturalist learners, you can ask them to collect and classify leaves.
Musical learners can be asked to compose and sing science-themed
songs during the field trip.
(d) Classroom Resources
You can incorporate many different types of resources in a lesson to
increase studentsÊ interest.
E.g.: For kinesthetic learners, you can use balls, building kits, stop watches,
robotic kits.
For interpersonal learners, you can use board games, role play cards
and science games.
ACTIVITY 4.8
1. Identify a science topic from the primary science curriculum.
Discuss activities you can use to teach the concepts using the
different multiple intelligences.
2. There is now a ninth multiple intelligence, that is, existentialist
intelligence. Research this and discuss the implications for
science teaching.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
What are the advantages of using multiple intelligences theory in the
classroom? What are some of your concerns? Discuss.

Cognitive theories view learning as involving the mental processes through
which humans acquire, process and store information.
Ausubel suggests that teachers use a deductive approach. That is, they
should introduce a topic with general concepts, and then gradually include
specific examples.
Information that makes sense and has meaning to the student is more
meaningful than unrelated information learned by rote memorisation.
The expository teaching model stresses on a teacher-planned, systematic
presentation of meaningful information.
The purpose of expository teaching is to transmit knowledge and skills from
those who know (e.g. teacher and workbook) to those who do not know (e.g.
students).
Reception learning is a teaching method in which the teacher structures the
learning situation to select materials that are appropriate for students and
then presents them in well-organised lessons that progress from general to
specific details.
An advance organiser is an initial statement or an outline about a subject to
be learned that provides a structure for the new information and relates it to
information students already possess.
The purpose of an advance organiser is to activate as much of the studentsÊ
existing knowledge to help them understand new information.
AusubelÊs model of teaching or an expository approach consists of three
principal phases: the presentation of an advance organiser, the presentation
of a learning task or material and strengthening the cognitive organisation.
Mastery learning means that all students if given appropriate instruction and
time can master any learning objective.
The three main components of GagneÊs theory are categories of learning,
hierarchy of intellectual skills and the nine events of instruction.
Gagne identified five major categories or domains of learning, which are:
verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes.
Different categories of learning require different types of instruction.

Intellectual skills can be arranged in a hierarchy; with the simpler tasks being
prerequisites for the more complex tasks.
Nine instructional events that need to be part of the learning situation are
gaining attention, informing learner of objective, recalling of prior
information, present stimulus material, provide learning guidance, elicit
performance, provide feedback and assess performance.
Howard GardnerÊs Multiple Intelligences theory consists of eight different
intelligences.
The eight multiple intelligences are logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic,
visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical and
naturalist.
Each child can be viewed as having these eight intelligences in different
degrees.
The teacher should provide experiences for as many of the multiple
intelligences as possible so every student has an opportunity to learn.
Ways to incorporate multiples intelligences in the classroom include having
multiple intelligence stations, classroom decorations, field trips and using a
variety of learning resources.
Advance organiser
Bodily-kinesthetic
Categories of learning
Deductive learning
Expository Learning
Hierarchy of intellectual skills
Instructional events
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Logical-mathematical
Mastery Learning
Meaningful Learning
Multiple intelligences
Musical
Naturalist
Reception Learning
Rote memorisation
Verbal-linguistic
Visual spatial

Abruscato, J. (2000). Teaching children science: A discovery approach. USA.
Allyn Bacon.
Bloom, B. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation Comment 1(2). Los Angeles:
University of California, Center for the Study of Evaluation of Instructional
Programs.
USA. Harper Collins.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., Showers, B. (1992). Models of teaching (4th ed.). USA. Allyn
Bacon.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., Showers, B. (1986). Models of teaching (3rd ed.). Allyn and
Bacon. USA.)
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Retrieved 1/6/11 http://questgarden.com/12/56/4/060120212752/credits.htm
Retrieved 12/5/11.http://surfaquarium.com/MI/
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28465
Retrieved 20/5/11. Presents http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html
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ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/what.cfm
Retrieved 31/5/11 http://lth3.k12.il.us/rhampton/mi/lessonplanideas.htm#
Naturalist
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Intelligences%20Explained
Santrock, J. W. (2001). Educational psychology. USA. McGraw-Hill.
Slavin, R. E. (1994). Educational psychology. Theory and Practice. USA. Allyn
and Bacon.
Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA. Allyn and Bacon.

APPENDIX 1: EVALUATING MYSELF ON
GARDNER’S EIGHT TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
Read the following items and rate yourself on a 4-point scale. Each rating
corresponds to how well a statement describes you:
1 = Not like me at all
2 = Somewhat unlike me
3 = Somewhat like me
4 = A lot like me
Verbal Thinking 1 2 3 4
1. I do well on verbal tests
2. I am a skilled reader and read a lot
3. I love the challenge of solving verbal problems
Logical / Mathematical Thinking
4. I am a very logical thinker
5. I like to think like a scientist
6. Maths is one of my favourite subjects
Spatial Skills
7. I am good at visualising objects and layouts from
different angles
8. I have the ability to create maps of spaces and
locations in my mind
9. If I had wanted to be, I think I could have been an
architect
Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills
10. I have great hand-eye coordination
11. I excel at sports
12. I am good at using my body to carry out an
expression, as in dance
Musical Skills
13. I play one or more musical instruments well
14. I have a good „ear‰ for music
15. I am good at making up songs

Interpersonal Skills
16. I am very good at „reading „ people
17. I am good at working with other people
18. I am a good listener
Intrapersonal Skills
19. I know myself well and have a positive view of
myself
20. I am in tune with my thoughts and feelings
21. I have good coping skills
Naturalist Skills
22. I am good at observing patterns in nature
23. I excel at identifying and classifying objects in the
natural environment
24. I understand natural and man-made systems
Scoring and Interpretation
Total your scores for each of the eight intelligences and place the totals in the
blank that follows the label for each kind of intelligence. Which areas of
intelligence are your strengths? In which area are you the least proficient? It is
highly unlikely that you will be strong in all eight areas or weak in all eight areas.
By being aware of your strengths and weaknesses in different areas of
intelligence, you can also identify which areas of teaching will be easiest or
hardest for you.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
Teacher Areena started the
lesson by telling a story about
two best friends going to the
sea using the `Wayang kulitÊ
prop. She asked her students
to discuss about the story and
what they can learn from the
story.
Topic
5
Inquiry
Learning
1. State the main difference between discovery and inquiry;
2. Describe the advantages of inquiry learning;
3. Explain the inquiry process;
4. Discuss the conditions needed for inquiry learning
5. Explain the types of questions needed for inquiry learning; and
6. Construct questions that are relevant to inquiry learning.

TOPIC 5 INQUIRY LEARNING 97
Later she asked her students:
Teacher : How did the shadow form?
Aiman : It is because of the light behind the puppet.
Teacher : Yes, Aiman! Do all kinds of objects form shadows if a light is shone on
them?
Kumari : I donÊt think so. Only opaque objects form shadows.
Teacher : Good!
Then she asked them to draw a diagram to explain how the shadow is formed.
Teacher : What if I want to make the shadow bigger? What should I do?
Aina : I know! I will show you.
Teacher Areena gave a puppet and a torchlight to Aina to demonstrate it to the
class.
Teacher : Yes! You can move the torchlight closer to the puppet.
She then asks her students to discuss other ways of changing the size of the
shadow formed on the screen.
How would her class look like? Can you imagine a class where the children
actively pose questions, seek answers to questions, demonstrate a strong interest
in outcomes, and discuss their theories and ideas with others? If you do, then you
do have some understanding of inquiry learning. Her approach involves her
students learning science using the inquiry approach.
In this topic, we will be discussing the concept of inquiry teaching and learning;
the steps involved; its advantages; the environment; and the types of questions
asked in the process.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Recall your own classroom. Does it resemble AreenaÊs class? How
does it differ?

9 8 TOPIC 5 INQUIRY LEARNING
INQUIRY AND DISCOVERY
5.1
The word inquiry has many interpretations. It ranges from a simple question,
such as How many different kinds of fish are in the aquarium?, or as complex
as understanding the nature of science itself (Pratt and Hackett, 2000).
If you look up the Webster dictionary, to „inquire‰ is to ask about something; to
search into it, especially by asking questions; and to investigate something. This
is the heart of inquiry learning. Children play the role of active learner; when
challenged with a problem, they will determine how to find the solution to the
problem through investigation.
Martin, et. al (1994), quoting Birnie Ryan, said that „those who inquire exert an
effort to discover something to the inquirer though not necessarily new to the
world‰. Children will be able to inquire when they are given the following:
(a) Hands-on activities;
(b) Materials to manipulate;
(c) Enough structure to help them focus or maintain a productive direction; and
(d) Enough freedom to make a personal learning discovery.
They further explain that if a child is able to acquire a new fact, concept,
principle, or solution through the inquiry process, the student is making a
discovery.
In simple terms, inquiry is a means to an end the discovery. What the student
acquires is not only content knowledge, but skills on how to approach a problem,
identify important resources, both design and carry out hands-on investigations,
analyse and interpret data, and perhaps most importantly, recognise when they
have answered the question or solved the problem. The goal of inquiry is to help
them gain a better understanding of the world around them through active
engagement with real-life experiences.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. State in your own words what inquiry learning is.
2. What is the main difference between discovery and inquiry?
Discuss with your coursemates.

5.1.1 Inquiry Cycle
To conduct inquiry learning, we will explore using the Inquiry Cycle.
Different people describe inquiry cycle differently. The simplest is based on
DeweyÊs philosophy. The spiral path of inquiry is shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: DeweyÊs inquiry cycle
Source: http://www.cii.illinois.edu/InquiryPage/
Based on DeweyÊs inquiry cycle, you begin the class by asking your students
questions based on a problem presented. Besides that, you can also encourage
your students to state the question that need to be investigated. When the
question is clear, students can then plan different ways to find the answer to the
question. After that, the students will do investigations to test their ideas or
solution to the problem. When data have been collected, they will analyse and
interpret the data, thereby creating new knowledge. Later, they will discuss their
finding about new discoveries and experiences, and finally reflect on their new-found
knowledge.
Another inquiry cycle worth discussing is from Warner and Myers, as shown in
Figure 5.2. Comprising six stages, their model is more comprehensive than
DeweyÊs:
(a) Inquisition stating a what if or I wonder question to be investigated;
(b) Acquisition brainstorming possible procedures;
(c) Supposition identifying an I think statement to test;

(d) Implementation designing and carrying out a plan;
(e) Summation collecting evidence and drawing conclusions; and
(f) Exhibition sharing and communicating results.
Figure 5.2: Warner and Myers Inquiry Cycle
Source: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/wc076
Does the Warner and Myers' cycle sound familiar? Yes, their model corresponds
to the description of the scientific method described in Topic 1. That is why
inquiry learning is very suitable in the science classroom. The process of inquiry
not only enhances students' understanding of natural phenomena, but also
develops their science processing skills. Composed of the same basic
components, both the scientific method and the inquiry process require students
to conduct research investigations by formulating a question, developing a
hypothesis, conducting an experiment, recording data, analysing data and
drawing conclusions.

Teachers play a vital role in adapting the inquiry process to the knowledge and
ability level of their students. When using inquiry-based lessons, teachers are
responsible for:
(a) Starting the inquiry process;
(b) Promoting dialogue among students;
(c) Ensuring the smooth transition from small groups to classroom discussions;
(d) Intervening to clear misconceptions or developing studentsÊ understanding
of content material;
(e) Modelling scientific procedures and attitudes; and
(f) Utilising studentsÊ experiences to create new content knowledge.
Based on the objectives of the lesson and the abilities of the students, teachers
must decide how much guidance they will provide. Regardless of the amount of
assistance that teachers provide, the fundamental goal of inquiry is for the
students to be engaged during the learning process.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Robert Suchmann also suggested a strategy that can be used to teach
using the inquiry approach.
1. Collect information about his strategy.
2. Compare his strategy to Warner and MyersÊ cycle. Discuss your
findings with your tutor and coursemates.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. State whether the following statement about inquiry learning is
true or false.
(a) Inquiry learning is an example of a student-centred
approach.
(b) The teacher plays an important role in inquiry learning.

(c) Inquiry is the process of defining and investigating
5.1.2 Advantages of Inquiry Learning
In a traditional science classroom, the teacher will first explain science concepts
to students. If the student are involved in doing the investigations, the
investigation will be planned by the teacher. In inquiry learning however,
students are allowed to learn and experience science firsthand, by taking on the
roles of scientists. This benefits students in many ways. According to the Institute
for Inquiry (2005), students who do inquiry-based science will have the following
characteristics:
(a) View themselves as scientists in the process of learning;
(b) Accept an „invitation to learn‰ and readily engage in the exploration
process;
problems, formulating hypotheses, designing
experiments, gathering data and drawing conclusions
about problems.
(d) The teacher’s roles are to ask open-ended and high level
questions, solicit and accept divergent responses and
probe and redirect questions.
(e) Do not allow your children to make their own correction
as far as possible.
(f) Let the children make their own conclusions.
2. The following table lists the characteristics of inquiry and
traditional learning. Fill in the blanks.
Inquiry Aspect Traditional
Constructivism Principle learning theory Behaviourism
Student participation Passive
Increased
responsibility
Student involvement in
outcomes
Problem solver Student role
Teacher role Director/transmitter

(c) Plan and carry out investigations;
(d) Communicate using a variety of methods;
(e) Propose explanations and solutions and build a store of concepts;
(f) Raise questions;
(g) Use observations; and
(h) Critique their science practices.
Thus, opportunities to think and behave as scientists provide relevancy and
credibility to students understanding of science. They learn that it is appropriate
to ask questions and seek answers. In addition, students learn the challenges and
pitfalls of investigations.
Inquiry-based learning has other advantages as well:
(a) The approach is flexible so you can use it in different ways. It could be a
simple and short project that can be done in a lesson, or a more
comprehensive type that lasts a week or a month. The complex project
could be an interdisciplinary project that reinforces multiple skills or
knowledge areas (you will learn this type of project in Topic 7). The inquiry
could involve students just researching the answers from various resources,
or students to research and then test their ideas in the laboratory. In doing
the projects, they will develop competencies in problem solving as well as
in critical and creative thinking.
(b) It could benefit those students that have different learning styles. Some
students do not like just sitting down and listening to you. They like to do
things, and find out the answers for themselves rather than being told. This
is especially true for gifted students. They learn rapidly compared to their
peers and would not be patient to wait for the others to catch up with them.
So you could be giving this student a project to be carried out on their own
while you concentrate on the other students who need more of your
attention.
(c) It is an approach that is very suitable if you are thinking of using
cooperative and collaborative learning. You could assign different
problems to different groups; different groups working on the same
question; or on different aspects of the same question. They are not just
finding solutions to the problem but they are developing their social and
emotional skills as well. Of course you cannot expect the skills to happen
automatically when they are working in a team. You need to plan
purposely the skills that you want to incorporate into the lesson.

(d) An inquiry-based approach can work with any age group. Even though
older children will be able to pursue much more sophisticated questioning
and research projects, build a spirit of inquiry into activities wherever you
can, even with the youngest, in an age-appropriate manner.
(e) It also teaches students to develop self-directed learning skills when they
are assigned individual tasks. For some students, they may need more
guidance initially; but as they gain skills and confidence, they can do the
inquiry on their own. These skills are important as they can apply them in
their daily lives.
(f) It develops studentsÊ ownership of their inquiry and enhances their interest
in science. When they find the answer to a problem on their own, they
would feel very proud. This then strengthens their confidence and will act
as an intrinsic motivation for them to learn.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
Based on the points given earlier, create a mind map to summarise
the advantages of inquiry learning.
ACTIVITY 5.3
What do you think are the challenges faced by teachers in conducting
inquiry learning? Discuss with your tutor and coursemates.
TYPES OF INQUIRY LEARNING
5.2
Alan Colburn, in An Inquiry Primer, defines inquiry as the creation of a
classroom where pupils are engaged in essentially open-ended, pupil-centred,
hands-on activities.
However, there are other types of inquiry learning, that are structured and
guided besides being open-ended as mentioned by Colburn. They are classified
based upon the role of the teacher and students in the inquiry process. The types
of inquiry learning can be represented in a continuum as shown in Figure 5.3. It
ranges from teacher-led to student-led processes. The teacher plays a dominant
role in the structured type but only facilitates learning in the other continuum,
known as the open type. Students play an active role in open-type inquiry as

they will determine the problem and the way to solve it; whereas, they usually
wait for the teacher to determine what they will learn in a structured type of
inquiry. Meanwhile, in guided inquiry, the situation is a compromise between
open and structured inquiry.
Figure 5.3: Types of inquiry continuum
There is debate as to which type of inquiry is best. The general consensus is that
any form of inquiry (structured, guided or open) can be useful to children when
taught appropriately and well.
Now let us discuss each type of inquiry on the continuum.
(a) Structured inquiry
In this strategy, the teacher has prepared questions as well as procedures
and materials necessary to complete the inquiry. The teacher leads students
step-by-step through the scientific process. Students discover relationships
between variables or generalise from the data collected, which in essence
leads to the discovery of expected outcomes. Certain topics can only be
explored through structured inquiry, particularly those that involve
answering standard-based questions using a method which is not intuitive,
or which involve the use of specialised instruments. For example:
(a) Do plants lose water through their leaves?
(b) What does fire need to burn?
(c) What is the relationship between inertia and momentum?
These lessons will familiarise students with the inquiry method and allow
them to develop scientific processing skills. In other words, structured
inquiries provide students with common learning experiences that can be
used in guided or open inquiry.

(b) Guided inquiry
In this strategy, the teacher poses a question and provides the students only
with the materials to be used in their investigation. Guided inquiry requires
students to be familiar with the main steps of scientific inquiry as they then
need to design the experiment themselves. Examples of questions a teacher
might ask include:
(a) What happens to a balloon if it moves from a hot to a cold place?
(b) What structures must these objects have for them to be stable?
(c) How will a change in temperature affect the solubility of a solution?
Another example of guided inquiry could also be getting students to create
a model. You provide them with the criteria that you want and the students
have to think critically and creatively in order to best fit your criteria.
(c) Open inquiry
This type of inquiry is the opposite of structured inquiry. It requires the
least amount of teacher intervention and is student-led. Students formulate
not only their own problem, but also the procedures. Open inquiry is
analogous to doing science. For example, the teacher might provide
students with the following objects and ask them to formulate questions
about the objects:
(a) Primary coloured paints and materials they can use to mix together;
(b) A variety of objects that may sink or float at a water table; and
(c) A bag of marbles with a few marbles of different sizes.
Since students follow their own paths of questioning, it is more difficult to
sometime connect it to the topics in the curriculum. In order to ensure
learning takes place and you can complete the syllabus at the same time,
you would probably need to consider the following guidelines:
(a) Provide carefully planned inquiry-based assessments;
(b) Create well-established classroom rules for interaction and the
handling of materials;
(c) Offer guidance to students who show frustration; and
(d) Prepare guided questions following the activity that tie into
standards.
You should start introducing the inquiry approach to your class by first using the
structured inquiry before the guided, and finally when your students are ready
you could use the open or free inquiry (Figure 5.4). Just like going up the stairs

step by step, you only proceed to the next step when your students are ready.
Teachers and students may need more practice to get comfortable with the
learning experience that require less guidance and teacher intervention.
Figure 5.4: Stages of inquiry learning
SELF-CHECK 5.4
Construct a graphic organiser to differentiate among structured,
guided and open inquiry. Compare yours with your coursemates.
ACTIVITY 5.4
This website below can provide you with many examples of a science
lesson using the structured, guided or open inquiry learning:
http://www.justsciencenow.com/inquiry/index.htm
Choose one and present it in the next tutorial.

CONDITIONS FOR INQUIRY LEARNING
5.3
Can you now picture the differences between traditional learning and inquiry
learning? In inquiry learning , the students will be actively involved doing
hands-on activities, asking questions and busily interacting with each other. In
order for the lesson to run smoothly, there are conditions that need to be met.
Moll (2005) suggests that the keys to a good inquiry-based activity are as follows:
(a) Hands-on with simple materials;
(b) Pairs or small groups;
(c) Questioning checkpoints for longer activities;
(d) Well-structured handouts with lots of place for students to write their
answers;
(e) Lots of questions asking students to describe their observations in their
own words;
(f) Answer questions with questions (point out things that do not make sense,
try to identify misconceptions, ask whether each observation fits their
theory), try not to tell them anything;
(g) Flexible, allowing students to investigate things they are interested in, even
if it strays from the worksheets or topic;
(h) Lots of time; and
(i) Aim to convey scientific concepts (the big picture) and not details.
Meanwhile, Schuman proposes six rules that teachers need to consider in
successful inquiry teaching and learning. The six procedures are as shown in
Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Conditions for Inquiry Teaching
Rule Procedure
Questions Students must ask questions that are phrased in such a way
that they can only be answered by Yes or No. This is to
ensure that the teacher is not giving out the answer.
Freedom to ask
questions
A student may ask as many questions as desired once the
teacher begins the class. This encourages the student to use his
or her previous questions to formulate new ones to pursue a
reasonable theory.
Teacher response to
statements of theory
When students suggest a theory, the teacher should refrain
from evaluating it. The teacher might simply record the theory
or ask a question about the studentÊs theory.
Testing theories Students should be allowed to test their teories at any time.
Cooperation Students should be encouraged to work in groups in order to
confer and discuss their theories.
Experimenting The teacher should provide materials, texts and reference
books so that the students can explore their ideas.
Source: Rashid Johar, Lilia Halim, Kamisah Othman (2004)
ACTIVITY 5.5
Go to this website. Analyse the conditions upon which the lessons are
conducted:
http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/threads.html
Then, discuss with your tutor and coursemates.

QUESTIONING SKILLS FOR INQUIRY
TEACHING
5.4
As mentioned above, inquiry means asking questions. Thus, if your students do
not know how to ask questions, then the inquiry process will not be effective. If
you as the teacher do not know how to help your children to develop their
questioning skills, then you will have problems in carrying out this approach.
Teachers need to have a clear understanding of the kinds of questions that
support inquiry learning, and also how to facilitate children's questioning skills.
In inquiry teaching, skillful questioning allows the teacher to foster high-level
discussions; either with the whole class, in small groups, or with individual
children.
5.4.1 Types of Questions
Different types of questions accomplish different tasks and help us to build up
our answers in different ways. One way to classify the type of question is based
on how open the question is. This can be classified as follows:
(a) Convergent questions
This type of question requires „Yes‰ or „No‰ answers. For example, what is
the shape of this box? Children do not have to think too long. Convergent
questions focus on specific, teacher acceptable answers, and reinforce the
„correct‰ answers you may be looking for.
Use convergent questions to guide the student and to evaluate what he or
she sees, knows, or feels about the event. Convergent questions help direct
the studentÊs attention to specific objects or events. They also sharpen the
studentÊs recall or memory faculties. These questions evaluate the studentÊs
observational and recall skills, allow you to adjust your teaching to present
ideas again, or go back to less complicated ideas.
(b) Divergent questions
This is an open-ended type of question (Figure 5.5). These questions
encourage a broad range of diverse responses. It allows different answers
from your students, invites opinions, thoughts and feelings, and stimulates
discussion. All these will encourage student participation in the learning
activities.
For example, how do you prove your idea? Children need to justify or
explain their answers. Pursuing studentsÊ divergent questions and
comments is one of the central elements of inquiry teaching. It not only

engages students in classroom discussions, but also allows them to think
independently, creatively and more critically. It also teaches them to take
ownership of their own learning, while also feeling a shared responsibility
for the learning of the entire class.
Figure 5.5: Divergent questions
TodayÊs technologically advancing society has complex problems which
need more than one solution. Therefore, divergent thinking is a particularly
important skill. Using divergent questioning will broaden and deepen your
studentsÊ responses and involve them in thinking creatively and critically.
Divergent questions stimulate students to become better observers and
organisers of the objects and events you present. Many of these questions
guide them in discovering things for themselves; help them to see
interrelationships; and make hypothesis or draw conclusions from the data.
(c) BloomÊs Taxonomy
As a teacher, you should be very familiar with BloomÊs taxonomy of asking
questions (Figure 5.6). The system consists of six levels, which are arranged
in hierarchical form, moving from the lowest level of cognition to the
highest level of cognition (or from the least complex to the most complex).

Figure 5.6: BloomÊs Taxonomy
Source: http://blogs.pupillife.utoronto.ca/deliberatepractice/
Each of the levels has its purpose and should be used at different stages of
the inquiry process. At the beginning of the inquiry process, you should
probably use higher level questioning so that the inquiry can be
accomplished. When the students are interpreting the data, you should be
using knowledge or comprehension questions so that they are more
focused. At the end of the inquiry process, you should ask evaluative
questions so that they can reflect on their discoveries.
Questions should also promote the mental processes involved in inquiry
learning. These questions would help students develop their scientific
processing skills. Some examples are shown in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Examples of Questions to Promote Mental Processes in Inquiry Learning
Science processing skills Examples of questions
Observing What are the features of these animals that you can
observe?
Classifying What features do these animals have in common?
Inferring Why do you think the temperature dropped?
Formulating hypothesis What do you think will happen to the solubility of the salt
when you heat the solution?
Experimenting How would you determine the factors affecting the
period of the pendulum?
(d) Productive and Unproductive Questions
In their study, Harlen and Qualter (2004) discussed productive and
unproductive questions. The latter are questions that are asked when you
want to know the studentsÊ understanding of facts or reasons where there is
clearly a right answer. Productive questions are useful in helping them to
investigate and think. Table 5.3 shows you the productive questions
introduced by Elstgeest (1985).
Table 5.3: ElstgeestÊs Types of Productive Questions
Type Purpose
Attention-focusing Drawing childrenÊs attention to features that might
otherwise be missed; for example, Have you noticed?,
What do you think of that? - are the kinds that children
often supply for themselves and the teacher may have to
raise them only if observation is superficial and attention
fleeting.
Comparison
In what ways are these leaves different?, What is the
same about these two pieces of rocks? These questions
draw attention to patterns and lay the foundation for using
keys and categorising objects and events.
Measuring and counting
How much?, How long? Are particular kinds of
comparison questions that take observations into the
quantitative sphere.
Action
What happens if you shine the light from a torch on to a
worm?, What happens when you put an ice cube into
warm water?, What happens if ? Are the kinds of
questions that lead to investigation.

Problem-posing
Give children a challenge and leave them to work out how
to meet it. Questions such as Can you find a way to make
your string telephone sound clearer? and How can you
make a coloured shadow? require children to have
experience or knowledge that they can apply in tackling the
problem. Without such knowledge, the question may not
even make sense to the children.
Source: Harlen and Qualter (2004)
It does not matter what classification of questions you use in conducting the
inquiry lesson, each type of question has its own purpose. It should be used at
different points of the inquiry lesson , depending on your purpose or depending
on the phase of the inquiry cycle.
SELF-CHECK 5.5
1. Look at the table below. Identify whether the following
questions are convergent or divergent. Then, change the
convergent questions into divergent questions.
Questions Convergent/Divergent
1. What do you think I am going to do with this
material?
2. What conclusions can you make from the data?
3. Can anything else be done to improve the
design?
4. Is baking powder a producer of gas?
5. Do you think heat caused the plant to wilt?
6. What can you tell me about pollution in this
area from the photograph?
7. Which of these animals would you like to be
and why?
8. Would you say you have sufficient information
to come to that conclusion?
9. How can you make the bulb light up with the
wire, switch and battery?
10. How would you describe the world during the
time of the dinosaurs?

2. Which of these are good questions for an inquiry lesson? Give
your reasons.
(a) How does a siphon work?
(b) Are all big trees of the same size, shape and age?
(c) Look at the culture plates. What do you see?
5.4.2 Ways to Facilitate Questioning from Students
If you want your students to continue asking questions, you should give them
feedback. They would want to know if their inquiries are acceptable or logical.
To respond to their questions effectively, you may find the following guidelines
useful:
(a) Wait for children to think and formulate responses
Researchers have found that you have to wait at least 5 seconds before you
rephrase the question. This period, called wait-time, is for the students to
think about the answer.
(b) Do not interrupt childrenÊs answers
Sometimes you interrupt because you think you know what the children
are going to say, or they are not giving you the expected answer. You
should be patient and listen to their full response before you decide they
have understood or not.
(c) Show that you are interested in their answers, whether right or wrong
You could acknowledge their answers by saying „yes‰, nod your head, use
facial expressions that show you are listening and interested in their
answers.
(d) Develop responses that keep children thinking
Do not immediately accept an answer from a student. Ask other students to
give their responses, or ask the same student to elaborate further.

(e) If a student gives an incorrect or weak answer, point out its weakness, but
ask the student a follow-up question that will lead to the correct or stronger
answer
For example, note that the studentÊs answer overlooks the most important
conclusion of the study you are discussing. Then, ask the same student to
recall what that conclusion is. If he or she does not recall the conclusion,
open this question up to the class.
(f) Give feedback in terms of explicit criteria
Be clear, specific and personal when giving the feedback. This will help the
student to continue with that kind of question or answer if it is good, or if it
isn't improve on it.
(g) Only give feedback on one aspect of their work at a time
This will help them to focus on one aspect, improve on it, and move on to
the next. This is easier than trying to improve on so many aspects at the
same time.
Using different kinds of questions to facilitate your studentÊs questioning, needs
practice and planning. You cannot just enter a classroom without knowing what
to ask at the beginning, middle and end of the lesson. Remember, practice makes
perfect!
ACTIVITY 5.6
Choose a topic from the curiculum.
1. Plan a lesson using the inquiry learning method.
2. Ask a senior colleague to critique your lesson plan.
3. Replan it.

Inquiry is the process of defining and investigating problems, formulating
hypotheses, designing experiments, gathering data and drawing conclusions
about problems.
Discovery is the product of the inquiry process.
Inquiry is a student-centred approach.
DeweyÊs inquiry cycle consists of ask, investigate, create, discuss, and reflect.
Marner and Myers' inquiry cycle consists of inquisition, acquisition,
supposition, implementation, summation and exhibition.
The advantages of inquiry learning are: students can develop critical and
creative thinking; scientific skills; and social and intra-personal skills.
Students can also become independent learners as inquiry learning could
give them the opportunity to develop their self-directed learning skills. This
is a useful skill if we want students to adopt life-long learning.
The three types of inquiry learning are structured, guided and open inquiry.
Structured inquiry is the first stage where most of what is needed for the
inquiry process is prepared by the teacher.
Guided inquiry is the intermediate phase where, the teacher poses a question
and provides the students only with materials to be used in their
investigation.
In open inquiry, students formulate their own problem to solve and
determine the procedures to inquiry.
The questioning skills of the teacher as well as the students are central to
inquiry learning.
Different types of questions should be used at different stages of the inquiry
process.

Questions can be categorised as convergent and divergent; as six levels of
cognition in BloomÊs taxonomy; or as productive and non-productive
questions.
Productive questions will enhance inquiry learning.
BloomÊs taxonomy
Convergent
Discovery
Divergent
Guided inquiry
Inquiry cycle
Inquiry learning
Open inquiry
Productive questions
Structured inquiry
Asking Questions. (n.d.). Retrieved June 1, 2011, from
http://www.youthlearn.org/learning/teaching/techniques/asking-questions/
asking-questions
Colburn, A. (2000). An inquiry primer. Science scope. March 2000. Retrieved June
15, 2011, from http://www.experientiallearning.ucdavis.edu/module2/
el2-60-primer.pdf.
Hackett, J., Pratt, H. Teaching science: The inquiry approach. Principal (Reston,
Va.). 78 no2, p20-2 N '98. Retrieved June 2, 2011, from
http://www.library.unesco-iicba.org/English/PRIMARY_SCIENCE_
SERIES/SCIENCE_PAGES/science_articles/teaching_science_the_inquiry_
approach.htm
Harlen, W., Qualter, A. (2004). The teaching of science in primary schools (4th
ed.). London: David Fulton Publishers.
Institute for Inquiry. (1995, MarchApril). Inquiry based science: What does it
look like? Connect Magazine, 13. Retrieved June 12, 2011, from
http://www.exploratorium.edu/ifi/resources/classroom/inquiry_based.h
tml

Martin, E. M., Sexton, C., Wagner, K., Gerlovich, J. (1994). Teaching science for
all children. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Moll, R. (2005). Teaching elementary science using inquiry-based or activities.
Retrieved June 12, 2011, from http://www.ubclts.com/docs/Inquiry-
Based_Learning.doc.
Rashid Johar, Lilia Halim, Kamisah Othman. (2004). SBSC3403 Methodology in
Teaching Science Module. Kuala Lumpur: UNITEM Sdn. Bhd.
Retrieved June 2, 2011, from http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/Inquiry/
inquiry1text.html.
Retrieved June 15, 2011, from http://www.justsciencenow.com/inquiry/
index.htm
Retrieved June 2, 2011, from http://teachingcenter.wustl.edu/asking-questions-improve-
learning
Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Sydney: Pearson.

Topic
6
Constructivism
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of constructivism;
2. Describe the characteristics of a constructivist classroom;
3. Discuss the implications of alternative conceptions in the learning of
science; and
4. Apply constructivist teaching approaches such as 5-E Learning
Cycle Model, Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model and
NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model in the teaching of science.
INTRODUCTION
As a start, let us look at the definition of a student according to this proverb:
What do you think is the teacherÊs role based on the proverb? Are students seen
as active or passive learners?
Based on the proverb, the teacher is not viewed as a transmitter of information
who just pours knowledge into studentÊs heads, but rather as someone who
guides students to build their own knowledge. Students are not empty vessels;
they are learners with prior knowledge who participate and take part actively in
their own learning. These are the main principles of constructivism.

TOPIC 6 CONSTRUCTIVISM 121
Constructivism is an approach to learning in which learners are provided an
opportunity to construct their own ideas of what is being learnt by building
internal connections or relationships among the ideas and facts being taught
(Borich Tombari, 1997).
In this topic, you will learn about the meaning of constructivism and the
characteristics of a constructivist classroom. You will then explore alternative
conceptions and implications to science learning. You will also learn how you
can apply constructivist learning approaches such as Learning Cycles Model,
Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model and NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model in the
teaching of science.
ACTIVITY 6.1
„In the constructivist view, children actively construct knowledge by
continuously assimilating and accommodating new information.‰
What do you understand by this statement? This statement can be
linked to whose theory? Discuss with your tutor and coursemates.
WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?
6.1
(Anderson, 1989).
Constructivism is derived from cognitive psychology. It is based largely on
PiagetÊs and VygotskyÊs work, both of whom emphasise that cognitive change
only takes place when previous conceptions go through a process of
disequilibration when new information is received. Do you remember reading
about disequilibration and adaptation in Topic 3? You will remember that new
information has to be either assimilated or accommodated into the existing
schemata during learning.
The basic idea of constructivism is that learners are not „„blank slates‰ or „„empty
cups‰ to be filled with knowledge but that they already have a huge body of
knowledge and experience. This means there is already existing schema in their
minds. Since knowledge is a structured network rather than a disconnected
bundle of facts, new knowledge has to be built on the foundation of existing
knowledge and integrated with it either through assimilation or accommodation.
In constructivism, learners construct knowledge for themselves as shown in
Figure 6.1. This means that teachers cannot simply „pour‰ knowledge into
studentsÊ heads. Students need to construct knowledge in their own minds. The

1 22 TOPIC 6 CONSTRUCTIVISM
constructivist learners are active creators of their own knowledge. What does
this mean to you as a science teacher?
Figure 6.1: Constructivist view of learning
Source: http://syifadanmpt1393.wordpress.com/page/3/)
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Define constructivism in your own words.
2. Discuss with your tutor and coursemates why there is a change
of emphasis to constructivism in the teaching of science.

6.1.1 Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom
How can you practice constructivism in your science classroom? What
characteristics should your science classroom have? Figure 6.2 shows the main
characteristics of a constructivist classroom.
Figure 6.2: Main characteristics of a constructivist classroom
Study each of the characteristics carefully. Does your science classroom have
these characteristics? Do the following activities and then continue reading the
next sections to learn more on how you can practise constructivism in your
science classroom.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Compare and contrast a traditional science classroom with a
constructivist science classroom. Present your answer in the form of a
table. Then, discuss it with your tutor and coursemates.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Which of the following statements is correct about
constructivism?
(A) Meaning is created by students, not acquired.
(B) Strategies used include reinforcement and practice.
(C) Teacher delivers information systematically.
(D) Students learn basic skills before they move on to more
complex processes.
2. In a science classroom, how can the lesson be conducted with a
constructivist approach?
(A) By following the curriculum strictly.
(B) View students as thinkers with ideas about the world.
(C) Present the curriculum in parts with emphasis on basic
skills.
(D) Rely less on experimental data and manipulative materials.
ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTIONS: SCIENCE
LEARNING IMPLICATIONS
6.2
How do you present a science concept to your students? What do you do if they
have the wrong concept of science? Figure 6.3 shows some students might have
misconceptions in primary school might have about science.

Figure 6.3: Student misconceptions about science
Source: http://www.peter-ould.net/2011/02/23/what-is-marriage-children/
As you can see from the picture above, the children have the wrong idea about
certain science concepts. These ideas are known as alternative conceptions. What
do alternative conceptions mean? Let us read the definition of alternative
conceptions given below:
Alternative conceptions are „experience-based explanations constructed by a
learner to make a range of natural phenomena and objects intelligible‰.
(Wandersee, 1994)
As you can see, alternative conceptions are ideas learners have constructed for
themselves based on their experiences to make sense of phenomena around
them. Sometimes these ideas might be different from scientific concepts and
principles taught in science instruction as shown in Figure 6.3. Other terms used
to describe these ideas are alternative frameworks, preconceptions,
misconceptions or naive conceptions.
Educational research shows that students enter the classroom with their own
ideas about concepts the teacher wants them to learn. This is especially so with
science. In fact, students have had prior experiences about many topics in

science. For example, they might have seen the sun „changing‰ its position.
Based on these experiences they would make conclusions as shown in Figure 6.3.
Scientists will readily dismiss these misconceptions but that may not be easy for
young students to do so. Children might prefer these false conceptions over
scientific knowledge and this can hinder their understanding of accepted
scientific explanations. It is important that you, as a teacher, are aware of these
alternative conceptions and take appropriate steps to correct them.
Misconceptions should not be viewed as wrong as it is natural for children to
form ideas from their daily experience. This is how they make sense of the world.
It is your responsibility to work with this existing knowledge and understanding
and to develop it (Farmery, 2002).
How can you go about doing this? You need to first identify alternative concepts
that your students have with regards to the science concepts that you want to
teach. You can do this through observation or assessment. For example, you can
give a pre-test, or interview them, or give them a concept mapping exercise or
give them questionnaires to answer. Once you know your studentsÊ
misconceptions, you can prepare hands-on activities for students to learn the
correct concepts. Finally, you can provide exercises in the forms of worksheets or
quizzes where students can consolidate and apply their new learning. These
steps are summarised in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: Steps to correct studentsÊ alternative conceptions
Adapted from Edwards and Knight, 1994
ACTIVITY 6.4
Choose a concept from the primary science curriculum:
1. Use an appropriate technique to identify your studentsÊ
alternative conceptions.
2. Plan an activity you can carry out to correct your studentsÊ
alternative conceptions.

CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING APPROACHES
Looking back at your own style of teaching, do you think you adopt the
constructivist teaching approaches? Do you know any of the approaches? To
teach using a constructivist approach, you need to provide opportunities for
students to explore and involve themselves directly in activities that require them
to think or reflect. There are many models that have been developed using the
constructivist approach. Three of the them are:
(a) 5-E Learning Cycle Model;
(b) Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model; and
(c) NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model.
6.3.1 5-E Learning Cycle Model
In the 5-E Learning Cycle model, teaching is divided into a sequence of steps or
phases. This sequence is known as a learning cycle. They are 5 steps/phases in
5-E Learning Cycle. Further elaboration on the model is shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: The 5-E Learning Cycle Model
Phase / Step Aim TeacherÊs Actions
Step 1:
ENGAGE
Elicit prior knowledge.
Motivate.
Get attention.
Assesses students' prior knowledge.
Reads a story, asks questions.
Does a demonstration.
Shows a video clip.
Step 2:
EXPLORE
Get students involved
in the topic.
Provide students a
chance to build their
own understanding.
Gives students time to work with one
another to explore ideas through
activities.
Act as a facilitator by encouraging,
listening, observing and questioning
students.
Step 3:
EXPLAIN
Provide students with
an opportunity to
communicate what
they have learnt and
explain their ideas.
Teaches students to construct
explanations of the concepts they are
exploring.
Clarifies students' understanding of
concepts and helps them to develop
skills.
6.3

Step 4:
ELABORATE
Allow students to use
their new knowledge
and continue to
explore.
Help students to apply what they
have learned to a new situation.
Help students to extend what they
have learned.
Step 5:
EVALUATE
Determine how much
learning and
understanding has
taken place.
Assesses the students' understanding
of the concept by observing and
asking them open-ended questions.
Also uses journals, drawings,
models, projects, portfolios and other
performance tasks to evaluate
students.
Adapted from Trowbridge, L. W., Bybee, R. W., Powell, J. C. (2000)
ACTIVITY 6.5
1. Choose a topic from the primary science curriculum. Plan
appropriate activities for each phase of the 5-E Learning Cycle
Model.
2. Then, carry out the lesson in your class. Discuss the effectiveness
of your lesson with your coursemates during the tutorial session.
6.3.2 Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model
The Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model is another constructivist approach
which can be used in the teaching of science. It is good if this approach can be
accompanied by demonstration as it is suitable in teaching about the physical
and material world in the science curriculum.

Figure 6.5: Demonstration to show heating causes expansion of gases
Source: http://www.online.bcelearner.ca/login/index.php
For example, you could show the apparatus in Figure 6.5 to your students first
and ask them to predict what will happen if hot water is poured into the pan.
After students have made their predictions, you carry out the demonstration by
firstly pouring hot water into the pan. Students are asked to observe and write
down the results of the demonstration. Finally, the students are asked to compare
their initial predictions with what they see in their observations. These steps are
summarised in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: The Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Learning Model
Step Details
Step 1:
PREDICT
Ask the students to predict the outcome of an experiment.
Step 2:
OBSERVE
Carry out the demonstration.
Ask students to write down what they see.
Step 3:
EXPLAIN
Ask students to rectify their explanation if their prediction is
different from their observation.
After students have written their explanations on paper, ask
them to discuss their ideas with the class.

1. Prepare an appropriate activity to teach any science concept
from the primary science curriculum using the Predict-Observe-
Explain (POE) Model.
2. Carry out the activity in your classroom. Discuss the
effectiveness of your activity with your coursemates.
6.3.3 Needham's Five Phase Model
NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model is another important constructivist approach. It is
shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Needham's Five Phase Model
Phase Aim Activities
Orientation Teacher tries to stimulate
studentsÊ interest.
Laboratory practical work,
solving problem, demonstration,
film clips, video, newspaper
articles.
Elicitation of
ideas
Teacher finds out studentsÊ
prior knowledge and
determine whether there are
any misconceptions there .
Practical, group discussion,
concept map, report.
Restructuring
of ideas
Teacher carries out activities to
help students correct their
misconceptions and learn new
concepts.
Discussion, reading, teacherÊs
input, practical work, project,
experiment, demonstration.
Application of
ideas
Teacher gives student the
opportunity to use their
developed ideas in a variety of
situations, both familiar and
different.
Application in similar situations
such as in daily life, solving
problems, writing project reports.
Reflection Teacher asks students to reflect
on their ideas which might
have changed from the
beginning of the lesson with
that at the end of it.
Writing of reflective journals,
self-reflection, group discussion
of outcomes of lesson.
ACTIVITY 6.6

Constructivism is a theory in which individuals construct knowledge through
experience, and prior knowledge. It requires hands-on learning. Teachers and
students need to play active roles in the teaching learning process. The
constructivist approach to learning takes into consideration ideas that children
have so that suitable activities can be prepared to correct their alternative
conceptions.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What do you understand about constructivism?
2. List the characteristics of constructivist learning.
3. Discuss two benefits of constructivism.
4. Discuss the roles of the teacher and student in constructivist
learning.
5. Explain why the 5-E Learning Cycle Model, Predict, Observe and
Explain (POE) Model and NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model are
known as constructivist models.
ACTIVITY 6.7
Study NeedhamÊs Five Phase Constructivist Model carefully. Then
choose a topic from the primary science curriculum and plan a lesson
using NeedhamÊs Model. Carry out your lesson. Write a brief report of
your lesson.

Constructivism is a theory in which individuals construct knowledge
through participation experience, and prior knowledge.
Students are not empty vessels. They have prior knowledge and can
participate and take part actively in their own learning. The teacherÊs role is
that of a facilitator.
The main characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows: it is
student centred and the teacher acts as a facilitator. There is cognitive
exploration through suitable activities. Students have autonomy that is they
are in charge of their own learning. There are discussion of ideas that allow
students to interact with one another.
Alternative conceptions are ideas learners have constructed by themselves
based on their experiences, that is, in their effort to make sense of the
phenomena around them. Sometimes these ideas might be different those of
from scientific concepts and principles taught in science class.
Students do not easily get rid of their beliefs and might choose alternative
conceptions over scientific knowledge. This can affect their understanding of
the latter.
It is important for teachers to be are aware of alternative conceptions and take
appropriate steps to correct them.
Models which make use of constructivist approach are the 5-E Learning Cycle
Model, the Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model and NeedhamÊs Five Phase
Model.
There are 5 steps/phases in 5-E Learning Cycle. They are engage, explore,
explain, elaborate and evaluate. Each phase has a specific function.
The Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) requires students to first predict, then
observe demonstrations and then explain the differences in the prediction
and actual occurences.
There are also 5 phases in NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model. They are
orientation, the elicitation/generation of ideas, restructuring of ideas,
application of ideas and reflection.

5-E Learning Cycle Model
Alternative Conceptions
Cognitive Exploration
Constructivism
Hands-on Activities
Minds-on Activities
Misconceptions
Naive Conceptions
NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model
Preconceptions
Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model
Student Autonomy
Student-centred
Anderson, L. M. (1989). Learners and learning. Slavin, R. E. (1994). Educational
Psychology. Pg 48. (1994). Massachusetts. Allyn and Bacon.
Borich, G. D., Tombari, M. L. (1997). Educational psychology: A contemporary
approach. New York: Allyn Bacon.
Esler, W. K., Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.).
Washington: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Farmery, C. (2002). Teaching science 3-11. The essential guide. Great Britain:
Biddles Ltd, Guildford, and KingÊs Lynn.
Martin, R., Sexton, C., Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching science for all children-
Retrieved 27 June 2011 http://enhancinged.wgbh.org/research/eeeee.html
Retrieved 27 June 2011 http://www.palmbeachschools.org/qa/documents/
Handout3-5EModelofInstruction.pdf
Retrieved 28 June 2011 http://arb.nzcer.org.nz/strategies/poe.php
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article=1019context=teachlearnfacpub
Retrieved 29 June 2011-06-29 http://www.apa.org/education/k12/alternative-conceptions.
aspx
Harcourt Brace.

Trowbridge, L. W., Bybee, R. W., Powell, J. C. (2000). Teaching secondary
school science strategies for developing scientific literacy. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.

Topic
7
Teaching
Approaches in
Science
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Desribe the science, technology and society approach in teaching
science;
2. Describe the contextual approach in teaching science; and
3. Describe the problem-based teaching approach in science.
INTRODUCTION
Do you still remember teacher Areena in Topic 5? She was very happy when she
found out that most of her students understood the concepts that she has taught
them. So she decided to use the same approach on another class. However this
time when she assessed the students' understanding, she found only a few could
understand the concepts taught. She wondered why. She asked her students for
feedback and later talked to her colleagues about it.
What do you think she should do next?
Probably she should explore other teaching approaches that are suitable for this
particular group of students. Some of them need to see the relationship between
new information and experiences that they already have, or with other
knowledge they have already mastered in order to understand the new

TOPIC 7 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE 137
knowledge. Students' interest and motivation could also be increased as they
could see how those concepts can be used outside the classroom, in their
workplace and within the larger society in which they live and work.
This is the essence of contextual approach of teaching and learning science. In
this topic, we will be discussing three approaches for teaching science:
(a) Contextual approach;
(b) Science, technology and society approach; and
(c) Problem-based learning approach.
All these approaches have their own unique characteristics that would suit
certain group of students or for teaching certain science topics. Science,
technology and society approach looks at the application of scientific knowledge
in everyday life and the impact of technology upon mankind and environment.
The main focus of contextual approach is looking at how to relate scientific
knowledge and skills to daily life events so that the students can see the reason
why they need to learn them. On the other hand, in problem-based learning,
students are made to engage in solving problems in the society.
All three teaching approaches have common characteristics i.e. they use
interdisciplinary approaches and discuss real-world or authentic problems.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Use KWL (Know, Want, Learn) chart, list what you know and want to
learn about the three approaches of teaching science.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
APPROACH
7.1
According to Yager (1996), most people think of science as the subject studied in
science classes, that is, the science that they report as not too useful, or not
particularly valuable, or not useful to their daily life. Yet, the same people also
feel that the subject of science taught in schools is valuable for their children.
Why do these people have conflicting ideas about the learning of science? The
reason could be because, those days, they could not determine the usefulness of
science. They only view science as the mastery of certain concepts about the
natural world.

1 38 TOPIC 7 TEACHING APPROACHES IN SCIENCE
A new approach is needed to teach science if we want to change the views of
these people. One approach suggested by educational reformers is the science,
technology and society (STS) approach.
7.1.1 Concept of STS
There is no clear definition of STS (Aldridge, 1992). To him, STS is „.. a new
approach to teaching science...where technology provides a tie to current
problems...‰. STS involves „real-life situations...making decisions in society...‰
and „such personal concerns as nutrition, health, safety, and maintanance of the
environment.‰ „ STS aims to integrate science with technology.‰
Science, technology and society is the study of how social, political and cultural
values affect scientific research and technological innovation; and how these in
turn affect society, politics, and culture (Figure 7.1). STS means focusing on
personal needs of students - that is, teaching students science concepts and
process skills that are useful in their daily lives. It also focuses on societal issues,
that is, issues and problems at home, school, and the community as well as
universal problems that concern all man kind. STS also means focusing on the
occupations and careers that are known today; it means using human resources
in identifying and resolving local issues (Yager, 1996).
Figure 7.1: The essence of STS education
Source: http://www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/sts05.htm

This approach aims to teach science and technology to society in an integrated
manner as science and technology will shape society, and society will shape
science and technology. In order to do this, the teaching should use
multidisciplinary approaches meaning that, to explore and understand the
impact of science and technology upon a society, we need to use knowledge and
skills from other disciplines other than just science. STS explores a variety of
problems including the relationships between scientific and technological
innovations, and the directions and risks of science and technology and their
effects on society.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Read the definition of STS by Aldridge again and think about it. Then,
write your definition of STS.
7.1.2 Background of STS Approach
The STS movement began in several European countries. There were also
domestic attempts to institute an STS-like curriculum, in the University of Iowa
Laboratory School during the early 1960s (Yager, 1990). According to Yager, the
effort in the United States was finally given an added emphasis in the early 1980s
in order to address the concern for science education and strive for academic
excellence. The issue was to create a science programme that would involve all
students not just the one or two percent who would eventually study science at
tertiary level.
The idea behind the STS programme was to provide a real-world connection
between the classroom and society for the students. The process should give the
students practice in identifying potential problems, collecting data with regard to
the problems, considering alternative solutions, and considering the
consequences based on particular decisions (Yager, 1990).
The STS approach views science subjects in schools in a much broader sense than
does the typical discipline-centred, textbook-driven science course. Zoller (1992),
describes the need for all students to be informed of the content and processes in
science, but with the understanding that science and society have an impact on
each other.

7.1.3 Characteristics of STS Approach
Having read about the concept and background of the STS approach, we shall
now proceed to look at its characteristics. Brunkhorst and Yager (1990), examined
a number of exemplary STS programmes, and found that most have the
following characteristics:
(a) They emphasise scientific knowledge for all students;
(b) They emphasise higher order thinking skills across content areas;
(c) They are interdisciplinary in nature;
(d) They are hands-on and student-centred programmes that require students
to use their mental faculties;
(e) They include student action plans, projects, field experiences and field
research;
(f) They utilise many outside resources;
(g) They tie STS issues to the traditional content of the course;
(h) Evaluation is structured very differently;
(i) Evaluation includes awareness and reasoning components;
(j) In many cases, there is no attempt to use typical tests; instead, tests are
designed to assess a variety of domains; and
(k) When standardised tests and/or textbooks are used, students do well (if
not better) than students in typical science courses.
Do you realise that these characteristics point towards achieving the current
notion of what constitutes scientific literacy using science in making
responsible decision about societal issues?
Aikenhead (1994) in his paper entitled ÂConsequences to Learning Science
Through STS: A Research PerspectiveÊ concluded that:
(a) Students in STS classes (compared to those in traditional science classes)
significantly improved their understanding of (i) the social issues involving
science, and (ii) how science, technology and society interact with one
another; depending on what content is emphasised and evaluated by the
teacher;
(b) Students in STS classes significantly improved their attitudes towards
science, science classes and learning, resulting from STS content and STS
teaching methods;

(c) Students in STS classes not only make modest but significant gains in the
way they think, such as applying scientific knowledge to everyday
situations. They also developed critical and creative thinking and decision
making, as long as these skills are explicitly practised and evaluated;
(d) StudentsÊ achievement on traditional subject matter at the next level of
science education (at a higher grade level or at university) will not be
significantly compromised by teaching science through STS. This result is
particularly true only for more academically talented students;
(e) Students can benefit from studying science through an STS approach,
provided that:
(i) The instruction is at least category 3-type or higher (refer to Table 5.1
in Topic 5);
(ii) Appropriate classroom materials are available; and
(iii) A teacher's orientation toward science instruction is in reasonable
synchrony with the STS approach expected to be used.
The following are examples of issues that can be discused using the science,
technology and society approach:
(a) Globally, energy use is on the rise, and energy in any form is being sought
after like never before. Yet, some types of energy are far more difficult to
find than others. This could easily include science concepts like the
different forms of energy, renewable and non-renewable energy, and how
energy is used in our modern world.
(b) In the year 2000, 50% of the global population lived in cities. By 2025, the
world's city dwellers are expected to reach 5 billion, i.e. over 70% increase
of the present global population. The basic concepts discussed would be
population growth and how it affect environment.
(c) Human-induced climate change, which we are already experiencing, is
confronting civilisation with challenging problems for the science,
engineering, and political institutions to collaboratively solve.
(d) Safe food and clean water are becoming ever more difficult to obtain,
particularly in many poorer parts of the world.
(e) Doctors and medical specialists are developing new techniques in
biological processes, yet many of these promising solutions pose social and
ethical problems that have never been faced before.

In conclusion, STS approach is the involvement of learners in experiences and
issues which are directly related to their lives. As such this approach provides
students with the skills which allow them to become active and responsible
citizens. Eventually, they will become scientifically literate citizens.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. List a few examples of issues that can be used in science lesson
using the STS approach.
2. Discuss some challenges that a teacher may encounter using the
STS approach.
CONTEXTUAL APPROACH IN TEACHING
AND LEARNING OF SCIENCE
7.2
Why do I need to learn about force, human anatomy or the characteristics of
hydrogen gas? These are questions that some students usually ask. In contextual
approach of teaching, the teacher may ask, „How can I communicate effectively
with students who wonder about the reasons for, the meaning of, and the
relevance of what they study?‰ and „How can we open the minds of a diverse
student population so they can learn concepts and techniques that will open
doors of opportunity for them throughout their lives?‰. These are among the
daily concerns of a science teacher. The answer to this problem lies in a
curriculum and an instructional approach based on contextual learning.
To break it down simply, contextual teaching and learning (CTL) approach
relates to what is being taught in the context of the real world, with the hope to
engage the students in interactions to eliminate the question Why do I need to
learn this stuff?.

7.2.1 Definitions and Concepts of CTL Approach
The contextual approach recognises that learning is a complex and multifaceted
process that goes far beyond drill-oriented, stimulus-and-response
methodologies.
According to contextual learning theory, learning occurs only when students
process new information or knowledge in such a way that it makes sense to them
in their own frames of reference (their own inner worlds of memory, experiences
and responses). This approach to learning and teaching assumes that the mind
naturally seeks meaning in context, that is, in relation to a person's current
environment, and that it does so by searching for relationships that make sense
and appear useful to that person.
Building upon this understanding, contextual learning theory focuses on the
multiple aspects of any learning environment, whether a classroom, a laboratory,
a computer lab, a worksite or even a vegetable garden. It encourages educators to
choose and design learning environments that incorporate as many different
forms of experience as possible social, cultural, physical and psychological in
working towards the desired learning outcomes.
In such an environment, students discover meaningful relationships between
abstract ideas and practical applications in the context of the real world; concepts
are internalised through the process of discovering, reinforcing, and relating. For
example, a physics class studying thermal conductivity might measure how the
quality and amount of building insulation material affect the amount of energy
required to keep the building heated or cooled. Meanwhile, in a biology or
chemistry class students might learn basic scientific concepts by studying the
spread of AIDS or the ways in which farmers suffer from and contribute to
environmental degradation (CORD, 1996, p.1).
During the late Â70s and the early Â80s, reports and discussion documents of the
UK government advocated the need for broad and balanced science for all. This
stimulated change and development of science curriculum education in the UK
(Yam, n.d). Among the issues that were proposed to be addressed include the
following:
(a) Scientific literacy;
(b) Public understanding of science; and
(c) Decreasing number of students who want to take up science at A-levels.
During the Â80s in the US, the concern of lowering high school achievements, lack
of standards in students' performance and the mismatch between high school

education and work sparked efforts to encourage educational reforms to facilitate
students' transition from the school to the working world and real life.
Seen in this context, CTL motivates more students to study science as it provides
an authentic picture of science, and plays a role in peopleÊs lives. When students
see the connection of what they learnt in the science classroom and the world,
they will find learning meaningful as they see that what they learnt makes them
understand more of the things and phenomena around them.
Lubben et al.(2005) observes that contextualised lessons allow students to:
(a) Work on personally useful applications of science;
(b) Participate in the lesson activities by contributing their expertise and
knowledge; and
(c) Discuss contentious issues.
There are many definitions of the so called contextual learning. A narrow
perspective of context would be to focus on an application of a principle or
theory for the purpose of teaching a concept. For example, if you are teaching the
different types of electrical circuits, then you would discuss examples of series
and parallel circuits found in a house, in a toy or in a car. If this is contextual
learning, then this has been done by almost all science teachers. However,
sometimes introducing an application of a scientific principle or concept after
teaching the theory may not be an effective strategy for all students. They may
feel lost due to the abstract information they have to digest resulting in
disinterest in the subject before they get to the point where the real-life
application is introduced and explained.
The broader perspective of a contextual approach adopts a constructivist model
where the context is the central tenet of the discussion. Context is central to student
learning, not an analytically separate entity or a backdrop to student learning.
According to Berns and Erickson (2001), „contextual teaching and learning helps
students connect the content they are learning to life context in which that
content could be used. Students then find meaning in the learning process. As
they strive to attain learning goals, they draw upon their previous experiences
and build upon existing knowledge. By learning subjects in an integrated,
multidisciplinary manner and in appropriate contexts, they are able to use the
acquired knowledge and skills in applicable contexts‰.
In 1998, the Technical Education Department of Malaysia in its strategic plan of
action introduced a contextual approach of teaching science in technical schools
throughout the country (Nafisah Kamariah Md Kamaruddin Zulkarnain Md

Amin). This plan was in view of the prospective marketability of the school leavers
upon completion of secondary school education. Previously, skilled craftsman and
apprentices performed tasks manually with their bare hands and basic traditional
tools, but now all that have changed drastically with the introduction of technology
influencing the workplace. Malaysia, like other developing countries in the world,
has been under pressure from individuals, community and various levels of
educational institutions to turn out not only students who are academically
knowledgeable, but also those who can apply this knowledge contextually. We may
have advanced in science and technology, but the school of thought that educators
still uphold is to disseminate knowledge and skills, which in current times, does not
serve the demands and needs of the ever-changing society.
The definition of CTL that the Technical Education Department Malaysia uses is
the one that was given by the Centre for Occupational Research and
Development (First Malaysian Tech Prep National Convention, 1997) which is
learning that incorporates examples drawn from everyday experiences in the
personal, societal and occupational life and which also provides concrete hands-on
applications of material to be learned. Contextual Approach was introduced
for the studentsÊ technical and career preparation or Tech Prep by the Centre for
Occupational Research and Development, Texas, USA.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Which statements are true about contextual learning? Mark True (T) or
False (F) in the column below.
Statement T/F
Contextual learning theory focuses on the multiple aspects of any
learning environment.
Contextual learning relates what is being taught with the context
of the real world.
Most teachers claim that the contextual approach is adopted to
make the learning process interesting.
Students discover meaningful relationships between abstract
ideas and practical applications in the context of the real world.
Contextual learning can only be used in teaching applied science
content.

7.2.2 CTL Forms of Learning
There are five essential forms of learning in contextual learning which are shown
in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Five essentials of learning
Source: http://www.cord.org/the-react-learning-strategy/
Let us read the elaboration on each form further:
(a) Relating
Here, the teacher encourages students to relate what they learn in the
classroom to real-life experiences. In traditional teaching of science, what
they learn in the science classroom or laboratory stays in those rooms. The
content of science is treated in isolation of what is happening in the real
world. As such, students are not quite sure how science fits into their social
roles or responsibilities. Under ideal conditions, teachers might simply lead
students from one community-based activity to another, encouraging them
to relate what they are learning to real-life experience. Thus, you must use
everyday sights, events and conditions as a starting point before
introducing new information or solving problems. As such, you are relating
learning in the context of life experiences. What is learned will stay with the
students much longer, and the impact of the subject material will be
stronger. The learning will be much more focused and helpful to the
students. They will really care and really want to be good at what is
learned. Students will be much more active and self-motivated in the
learning process.

(b) Experiencing
Experiencing-learning in the context of exploration, discovery and
invention·is the heart of contextual learning. Students enjoy doing hands-on
activities as they like to manipulate materials and being able to see for
themselves rather than being told about the knowledge. In contextual
academic texts, laboratories are often based on actual workplace tasks. The
aim is not to train students for specific jobs, but to allow them to experience
activities that are directly related to real-life work. Many of the activities
and skills selected for labs are cross-occupational; that is, they are used in a
broad spectrum of occupations.
(c) Applying
In contextual learning courses, applications are often based on occupational
activities. If they are to get a realistic sense of connection between
schoolwork and real-life jobs, then the occupational context must be
brought to them. If we want them to be an engineer, for instance, then we
must let them see how the knowledge and skills that they learn in the
classroom are used by engineers. This could be done by letting them have
firsthand experiences such as having tours to specific sites, mentoring
arrangement or internship in the workplace.
(d) Cooperating
Learning by cooperating is sharing, responding and communicating with
other learners as a primary instructional strategy in contextual teaching.
The students need to learn how to work in a team. They need to be able to
cooperate and be able to communicate effectively so that they will be able
to function as one of the team members in the workplace later on. In the
laboratory, they could work in pairs or a group of threes or fours to
complete the task given to them.
They would be able to practise communication and social skills and as they
work in groups when solving a problem or completing the projects. They
would carry these skills into their daily life and hopefully in their
workplace later on. In doing so, they would be sought after by many
employers.

(e) Transferring
Transferring is when students use knowledge learnt in the science
classroom in another context. For example, students who have learned
about ICT skills can use these skills to gather information when they are
researching a topic or when they are preparing reports or slides for their
presentation. Later, they could also use these skills in their own chores; for
example, they could be helping their parent to do online banking
transactions.
Transferring also uses and builds upon what the student already know.
Such an approach is similar to Relating, in that it calls upon the familiar. We
can help them retain their sense of dignity and develop confidence if we
make a point of building new learning experiences on what they already
know.
Figure 7.3 illustrates the examples of contextual lesson:
(a) The teacher is discussing the application of microorganism in the
production of food;
(b) The teacher is discussing the responsibilities of a microbiology technician,
an example of a career in the field of microbiology; and
(c) The teacher is discussing weight gain, a major concern for teenagers.

Figure 7.3: Snapshot of lessons

Now, how do you determine if you are using this approach? One way is by
ensuring whether you are using the following strategies:
(a) Emphasise problem-solving;
(b) Recognise the need for teaching and learning to occur in a variety of
contexts such as home, community and work sites;
(c) Teach students to monitor and direct their own learning so they become
self-regulated learners;
(d) Anchor teaching in students' diverse life-contexts;
(e) Use teams or interdependent group structures to encourage students to
learn from each other and together; and
(f) Employ authentic assessment.
Trying to draw a conclusion on what contextual teaching and learning approach
is difficult, if not impossible. However the consensus seems to be that contextual
teaching and learning approach is an attempt to make the delivery of education
to be more natural. Natural here means how the brain naturally works when the
students learn and work in real life by letting them actively participate,
communicate and work together and learn what others are good at; and to be of
higher order, including training on problem solving, decision making, creative
and critical thinking (Yam, n.d).
In order to make sure the implementation of this approach is sucessful, the
school must agree on a definition of what learners should learn and what
strategies support learning. Then, the learning also needs considerable support
from the school organisation from the headmaster to non-academic staff and
the parents as well. Finally, external support provides encouragement and
resources to help students and educators create high quality teaching and
learning.
ACTIVITY 7.4
1. Take this self-test and see if you are teaching contextually.
These standards appear to some degree in almost all texts.
However, contextual instruction is rich in all ten standards.
1. Are new concepts presented in real-life (outside the
classroom) situations and experiences that are familiar to
the student?

2. Are the concepts in examples and the student exercises
presented in the context of their use?
3. Are new concepts presented in the context of what the
student already knows?
4. Do examples and student exercises include many real,
believable problem-solving situations that they can
identify with.
5. Do examples and student exercises evoke their interest.
6. Do students gather and analyse data in their discovery of
the important concepts.
7. Are opportunities presented for students to gather and
analyse their own data for their enrichment?
8. Do lessons and activities encourage the student to apply
concepts and information to useful contexts, projecting the
student into imagined future undertakings (e.g., possible
career) and unfamiliar locations (e.g., workplaces).
9. Do students participate regularly in interactive groups
where sharing, communicating and responding to
important concepts and decision making occurs.
10. Do lessons, exercises and lab sessions improve studentsÊ
reading and other communication skills in addition to
scientific reasoning and achievement.
Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/51699892/1/The-Contextual-Approach-to-
Learning
2. Visit this website: http://www.phy.cuhk.edu.hk/contextual/
approach/tem/brief_e.html
Read and summarise the main issues concerning contextual
learning.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING (PBL)
7.3
Another teaching approach that places importance on the connection between
scientific content and skills in the classroom and the real-world is problem-based
learning. In doing so, the students can see why they are learning the content of
science and more importantly they would be applying these content and the
skills in their daily lives. Thus, the learning would be meaningful and this will
motivate and increase the interest of students to learn science.
7.3.1 What is PBL?
Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to learn by
engaging themselves in a real problem. It challenges students to seek solutions to
authentic (open-ended) problems by themselves or in groups, rather than learn
primarily through lectures or textbooks. More importantly, PBL engages students
in developing skills as self-directed learners (Smith, 1995).
Problems are selected to exploit their natural curiosity by connecting learning to
students' daily life experiences and emphasising the use of critical and analytical
thinking skills. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving
strategies and disciplinary based knowledge and skills. Students are placed in
the active role of problem-solvers, confronted with an ill-structured situation that
simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face as future managers in
complex organisations. PBL believes that when students develop their own
problem-solving procedures, they are integrating their conceptual knowledge
with those of their procedural skills (Gallagher,1997). The effectiveness of PBL
depends on the nature of student engagement and the culture of the classroom,
as well as the appropriateness of the problem task assigned.
Since students are actively involved in the learning processes, this approach is an
example of student-centred learning. „Student-centred‰ refers to learning
opportunities that are relevant to the students, the goals of which are at least
partly determined by the students themselves. This does not mean that the
teacher does nothing and lets them plan and do the learning by themselves. The
teacher needs to make decisions to determine what might be important for
students to learn, especially if he or she is teaching in a primary school.
The context for learning in PBL is highly context-specific. It presents the content
with a real-world challenge, similar to the one faced by the practitioner of the
discipline. The classes usually start with the teacher presenting the problem to be
solved. The „problems‰ in PBL are typically in the form of „cases‰, narratives of
complex, real-world challenges common to the discipline being studied. There is

no right or wrong answer. Instead, there are reasonable solutions based on the
application of knowledge and skills deemed necessary to address the issue. The
„solution‰ therefore is not only dependent on the acquisition and comprehension
of facts, but also based on the ability to think critically and creatively.
7.3.2 PBL Characteristics
The characteristics of PBL are as follows:
(a) Student-centred and experiential
Select authentic assignments from the discipline, preferably those that
would be relevant and meaningful to the studentsÊ interests. They are also
responsible for locating and evaluating various resources in the field.
(b) Inductive
Introduce content through the process of problem solving, rather than
problem solving after introduction to content. The learning of the content
can be built upon the challenges presented by the problem solving activity
at the beginning of the lesson. If a case has some relevance to students, then
they are required to call on what they already know or think they know. By
focusing on their prior learning, students can test assumptions, prior
learning strategies and facts.
(c) Context-specific
Choose real or contrived cases and determine the kinds of challenges faced
by practitioners in the field.
(d) Problems are complex and ambiguous, and require meta-cognition
Select real-life examples from the discipline that have no simple answers.
These require students to analyse their own problem solving strategies.
(e) Creates cognitive conflict
Select cases with information that makes simple solutions difficult. While
the solution may address one part of a problem, it may create another
problem. Challenge students' prior knowledge.
(f) Collaborative and interdependent
Have students work in small groups in order to address the presented case.
Source: http://www.pbl.uci.edu/whatispbl.html

Figure 7.4 illustrates the steps that you can use to plan a problem-based learning
lesson. You start by presenting the ill-defined problem to the students.
Greenwald (2000) characterised an ill-defined problem as being unclear and
raises questions about what is known, what needs to be known, and how the
answer can be found. Because the problem is unclear, there are many ways to
solve it, and the solutions are influenced by one's vantage point and experience.
When the problem is presented, students will then explore and try to understand
it. They will list facts about the problem that they know. If the students know
very little about the problem, they will gather information and learn new
concepts, principles or skills that they need as they engage in the problem-solving
process.
Figure 7.4: Steps in problem-based learning
Source: http://www.ncsu.edu/pbl/design.html

The second step is when students need to list what they know to solve the
problem. This includes both what they actually know and the strengths and
capabilities that each team member has. Then they will try to rewrite the problem
in their own words. You should check the original problem presented or they can
ask you to give feedback as to whether they have understood the problem. This
is important because if students do not understand the problem, they would not
be able to solve it.
The next step would be to think of all the possible solutions. They could then
arrange them in the order from the strongest to weakest solution and then choose
the best one, or one that is most likely to succeed. Then they choose one possible
solution, try it out and then analyse the data collected. If it seems logical, then the
students have solved the problem. Otherwise they would have to repeat the
process all over again. Of course, there is no right or wrong answer. What is
important to stress to your students is to reach the best possible solution
supported by data. Once the best possible solution has been discovered, the
students can share the whole process by writing a report or presenting it to the
class. Sharing the findings with teachers and other students is an opportunity in
demonstrating what they have learned.
7.3.3 PBL and Inquiry
Problem-based learning is the best way for students to learn how to conduct real-life
science investigations. They apply many strategies they learned in science
classes, such as asking questions, designing experiments and developing a
hypothesis based on prior research. Also, students follow the scientific method,
or a variation, as they conduct their investigation. Solving science problems and
mysteries provide students with real-world applications of the inquiry-based
learning. They learn to investigate the same way as scientists.
When using the scientific method in combination with problem-based learning,
students develop a better understanding of experimental investigations. The best
type of investigation for this strategy is called science mysteries. In the
investigation, students use critical thinking skills as they design and conduct an
investigation to solve a mystery. They will be provided with a scenario
surrounding a problem and then will follow the scientific method to solve the
problem.

The students could follow the following steps to solve a problem (Figure 7.5):
Figure 7.5: Steps to solve a problem using scientific method
However, similar to scientific method that is not linear, inquiry-based learning
allows students to skip any step. In other words, they need not start at step 1,
then go to step 2, and so on.
Figure 7.6 illustrates an example of a problem-based lesson in science. In this
lesson, the students are solving a problem about the owl population which has
been affected by a change in the environment.

Figure 7.6: An example of a problem-based lesson
Source: http://www.sciencesupport.net/pblowl.htm

SELF-CHECK 7.2
Fill the blank spaces with the appropriate words from the list below.
Authentic learning self-directed
collaborative learner responsibility
ACTIVITY 7.5
The problem statement is very crucial in problem-based learning.
Study the example given in Figure 7.6. Choose a topic, write an
authentic or real-world problem that can be used in a problem-based
lesson.

All the three approaches discusssed use various types of strategies. Most of the
strategies involve students doing tasks and projects individually or in groups.
They do not just sit in class and listen to a teacher's presentation. The tasks that
the students are asked to perform are authentic and require knowledge and
skills. Thus, the assessment should also be an authentic assessment. This type of
assessment will be able to evaluate the knowledge, skills and attitudes involved
in doing the tasks. Students will also be able to assess themselves. Besides, it is a
way to teach students to monitor and direct their own learning, so those who are
left behind know that they are behind and lacking in which areas. It is also to
help them self-regulate their learning as they can benefit from it tremendously in
different areas and levels of abilities.
ACTIVITY 7.6
Based on KWL chart that you used at the beginning of this topic, write
what you have learnt about the three approaches being discussed.
All three teaching approaches science, technology and society approach,
contextual approach and problem-based approach are student-centred
learning.
Science, technology and society (STS) has been defined as teaching and
learning in the context of human experiences. This approach is where
students would engage with different viewpoints on issues concerning the
impact of science and technology in everyday life.
The students will also understand the relevance of scientific discoveries,
rather than just concentrate on learning scientific facts and theories that
seemed distant from their realities.
STS approach will develop critical and creative thinking skills and problem
solving skills.
The contextual approach recognises that learning is a complex and
multifaceted process that goes far beyond drill-oriented, stimulus-and-response
methodologies

When science is set in context, this is a way to motivate more students to
study science as it provides an authentic picture of science, and its role in
peopleÊs lives as science is the study of the natural world.
When they see the connection of what they learn in the science classroom and
the world, the learning will be meaningful.
There are five essential forms of learning in contextual learning: relating,
experiencing, applying, cooperating and transferring.
Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to
learn through engagement with a real problem.
It challenges students to seek solutions to the real-world (open-ended)
problems by themselves or in groups.
PBL characteristics are student-centred and experiential, inductive, builds on
prior learning, context-specific, problems are complex and ambiguous, and
require meta-cognition, creates cognitive conflict, and they are collaborative
and interdependent.
Solving science problems and mysteries provide students with real-world
applications of inquiry-based learning.
Applying
Authentic problem
Contextual approach
Cooperating
Experiencing
Experiential
Ill-defined problem
Inductive
Multi-discipline
Problem-based learning
Real-world problem
Relating
Science, technology and society
Self-directed
Student-centered
Transferring

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from http://www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/sts05.htm
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http://www.usask.ca/education/people/aikenhead/sts16.htm
Aldridge, B. G. (1992). Basic science or STS: Which is better for science learning?
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Berns, R. G., Erikson, P. (2001). Contextual teaching and learning. The Higlight
Zone: Research @ Work No. 5. The National Centers for Career and
Technical Education, USA.
Brunkhorst, H. K., Yager, R. E. (1990). Beneficiaries or victims. School Science
and Mathematics, 90 (1), 61-69
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Gallagher, S. A. (1997). Problem-based learning: Where did it come from, what
does it do, and where is it going? Journal for the Education of the Gifted,
20(4), 332-362
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http://www.pbl.uci.edu/whatispbl.html
Greenwald, N. L. (2000). Learning from problems. The Science Teacher, 67 (4), 28-
32.
Lubben, F., Bennett, J., Hogarth, S., Robinson, A. (2005). A systematic review of
the effects of context based and Science-Technology-Society (STS)
approaches in the teaching of secondary science on boys and girls, and on
lower ability pupils. In Research Evidence in Education Library. London:
EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education,
University of London.
Nafisah Kamariah Md Kamaruddin Zulkarnain Md Amin, (n.d).
Implementation of Contextual System in Mathematics Course. Retrieved July
4, 2011, from http://eprints.uthm.edu.my/108/1/nafisah_kamariah.pdf-
Smith, C. A. (1995). Features section: problem based learning. Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology Education, 23 (3), 149-152.
Study Guides and Strategies (n.d). Problem-based Learning. Retrieved June 25,
2011, from http://www.studygs.net/pbl.htm-

Teaching Science Contextually: The Cornerstone of Tech Prep3. Retrieved July 2,
2011, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/51699892/1/The-Contextual-
Approach-to-Learning.
TeachNET. What is contextual teaching and learning. Retrieved July 1, 2011,
from http://www.cew.wisc.edu/teachnet/ctl/
Yager, R. E. (1990). The science/technology/society movement in the United
states: Its origin, evolution, and rationale. Social education, 54 (4), 198-200.
Yager, R. E.(1996). Science/technology/society. As reform in science education.
Albany: State University of New York Press.
Yam, H. ( n.d). What is contextual learning and teaching in physics? Retrieved
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tem/brief_e.html
Zoller, U. (1992). The technology/education interface: STES education for all.
Canadian Journal of Education, 17 (1), 86-91.

Topic
8
Teaching and
Learning
Methods
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Plan experiments effectively for the teaching and learning of
scientific concepts;
2. Describe how you can carry out discussions in your lesson
effectively;
3. Discuss how you can use simulations in your teaching;
4. Describe how you can use projects to teach science; and
5. Plan and organise visits to external resources effectively in order to
enrich science learning.
INTRODUCTION
We have now come to the last topic of this module. To begin with, let us look at
Figure 8.1.

TOPIC 8 TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS 165
Figure 8.1: A classroom scene
Source: http://edserver1.uow.edu.au/DiveInEduc/contents/student/inschools/
malaysia.html
Figure 8.1 shows a classroom scene where the students are doing their own thing
and the level of involvement in learning is low. What can you do to make
students more actively engaged in learning? One of your answers might be to
use a variety of teaching and learning methods which can stimulate their interest.
Using different methods of teaching and learning can enhance studentsÊ interest
in science. Science lessons that are not interesting will not motivate students to
learn and this will affect their performance.
This topic will enable you to explore teaching and learning methods such as
experiments, discussions, simulations, projects and visits and see how they can
be used to enhance learning of science. Each of these methods will be discussed
in terms of its general concepts and how they can effectively be used in the
teaching and learning of science.

1 66 TOPIC 8 TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. What do you understand by the term „teaching methods‰?
2. Can you think of some teaching methods that you can use for
your science lessons? Discuss with your coursemates.
EXPERIMENTS
8.1
Children in primary school learn best through firsthand experiences. Thus,
experiments play a central role in learning of science. What is an experiment? For
an example, have you ever wondered whether brown sugar or white sugar
dissolves more quickly in water? You might say white sugar but this is only a
prediction which you have made based on your previous experience this is
how a hypothesis is formed.
An experiment are (Merriam-Webster dictionary, 2003.):
(a) A tentative procedure or policy.
(b) An operation or procedure carried out under controlled conditions in order
to discover an unknown effect or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or to
illustrate a known law.
A hypothesis can be defined as tentative answers or untried solutions to the
question or problem that is being investigated. For example, „White sugar will
dissolve more quickly than brown sugar‰. A fair test of this is an experiment. A
fair test is one in which only one variable is changed and all other variables are
kept constant.
Now, what are variables? Variables are factors in an experiment which can
change its outcome. In an experiment, you have to determine the variables
involved. This simply means taking all the factors of the experiment into account.
There are three kinds of variables as shown in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Variables of an Experiment
Variable Meaning Example
Manipulated Variable
Something that is changed
„What shall we change?‰
in the experiment.
Type of sugar
Responding Variable
„What are we trying to find
out?‰
Something that responds to
the manipulated variable.
Time taken to dissolve
Constant variable
„What shall we keep the
same?Ê
Something that is kept the
same throughout the
experiment.
Volume/Temperature
of water
So, what do you think are the variables involved in the sugar experiment? First,
look at what you are testing. Yes, it is a type of sugar (brown or white) which can
dissolve quickly in water. This is known as manipulated variable. How are you
checking to see (evaluating) what happens? You will observe the time taken for
each type of sugar to dissolve. This is known as responding variable. At the same
time, you will keep all other variables constant. In this case, the constant
variables are the volume of water you use and the temperature of the water.
As you can see, an experimental procedure requires a high degree of logical
thinking, or according to Piaget „„formal thinking‰. Thus, it is not advisable to
introduce the term „hypothesis‰ and „variables‰ to lower primary school
students (Lind, 2005). However, the concept of a fair experiment can be easily
understood by young children by getting them to think about variables with
questions like „What are we trying to find out?‰, „What shall we change?‰ and
„What shall we keep the same?
Remember to provide your students with an opportunity to design their own
experiments (see Figure 8.2). This is to prevent experiments from becoming
„recipes‰ that are mindlessly carried out by student. Have a discussion with
them to determine the hypothesis and variables involved. Let your students plan
the experiments. Allow them to measure and analyse data, and eventually
present the results of their own experiment themselves. You should take up the
role of a facilitator and not as an information provider.

Figure 8.2: Students should have an opportunity to design their own experiments
Source: http://games.pppst.com/science.html
8.1.1 Discussion of Experimental Results
After the students have carried out the experiment, they need to discuss the
results and form a conclusion. Discussion of results should be carried out by the
students under your guidance. This involves two procedures: data processing
and information reporting techniques. Conducting both these procedures
properly brings about meaningful learning.
Let us look at the details of data processing and information reporting
techniques:
(a) Data processing
(i) Representing the data in various formats such as tables, charts and
graphs. An example of how data can be presented in a table form is as
shown in Table 8.2.
(ii) Interpreting graphs and charts.
(iii) Identifying the pattern of data and its relationship.
(iv) Classifying the data.

Table 8.2: An Example of a Table to Represent Data
My results table.
Brown Sugar White sugar
Time taken to
dissolve
I found out that: _____________________________________________________
(b) Information reporting techniques
(i) Interpreting the relationship among the results, hypothesis and
prediction.
(ii) Explaining the results.
(iii) Making the report orally or in writing.
(iv) Suggesting ways to improve or improvise the experiment or to
conduct further experiments.
During the discussion, you need to act as a facilitator and ensure that your
students are actively involved. You will need to reinforce important concepts and
facts and correct studentsÊ mistakes. It is important for you to show attention and
appreciation for each of the ideas expressed by your students. At the end of the
discussion, remember to summarise all ideas generated during the discussion. In
this way, you will ensure that the experiment is meaningful to your students.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Your students want to know if different types of surfaces like glass and
sand paper will affect the distance a trolley moves.
1. State an appropriate hypothesis for this experiment.
2. Identify the manipulated, responding and constant variables.
3. How would you present the data collected?

ACTIVITY 8.2
Julia loves roses and has decided to grow them in her garden. She wants
to know whether she is wasting money buying an expensive fertiliser
when many cheaper brands are available in the market. She wonders if
the expensive fertiliser will make her rose plants grow more healthy than
before.
How would you advise her to find out if the expensive fertiliser is better?
DISCUSSION
8.2
A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and opinions on
a given topic and is an excellent way to engage students in thinking and
analysing. It provides students with a clearer and in-depth understanding of
scientific concepts. They will also be able to form opinions and attitudes about
issues that are discussed. Discussions can be conducted before, during or after
an activity. Here again, teachers should play the role of a facilitator and lead the
discussion by asking questions that stimulate thinking. Teachers should also
encourage all of the students not to be afraid in expressing themselves.
We will further discuss the types of discussion that can be conducted in class in
the next sub-topic.
8.2.1 Whole Class Discussions and Small Group
Discussions
There are two forms of discussions that you can use in the teaching of science:
whole class discussions and small group discussions. Study Table 8.3 which
outlines the main principles of both types of discussions.
Always remember that before beginning a discussion, it is important to make
sure that students have adequate knowledge about what is to be discussed. A
discussion becomes boring when participants do not know much about the
subject of discussion.

Table 8.3: Whole Class Discussion vs Small Group Discussion
Whole Class Discussions Small Group Discussions
All the students in a class participate in
discussion.
Teacher acts as the facilitator and a
source of information.
Teacher controls the discussion.
Teacher should encourage inquiry
training as it helps students to develop
skills in asking questions and drawing
conclusions.
Example:
Teacher shows a rusty bicycle
wheel to the students.
Students are asked to give opinions
on why the wheel has became
rusty.
StudentsÊ ideas can be written on
the board, discussed and a
conclusion can be made together.
Whole class discussions provide
greater interaction between teacher
and students.
Students may stay focused on the
lesson because they might be called on
to answer questions.
Students form small groups (usually
four or five students in each group) to
discuss a topic.
Teacher moves from group to group
and aids their discussion.
Information through teacher-directed
lessons, demonstrations, books, videos
or pictures should be given to students.
Students can work together and may
pull their desks closer to one another in
order to talk and hear one another
better.
Each group should have a leader who
has to make sure the group stays on
the topic and to ensure all students
participate.
A group secretary can be appointed to
write down the groupÊs ideas.
At the end of the discussion, group
members can prepare a report or make
a presentation to the rest of the class.
Groups may all discuss the same topic
or different sub topics.
Example:
Students are shown a video on
different types of pollution.
Each group discusses the ways to
overcome one type of pollution.
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. Study the primary science curriculum and list three topics that
you can use for small group discussions in your class.
2. What are your concerns while carrying out this method? Discuss
with your tutor and coursemates.

SIMULATION
8.3
We will now move on to discuss the topic of simulation. What is simulation? A
simulation is an activity which resembles an actual situation. Students take on
roles and engage in activities appropriate to those roles (Slavin, 1994).
Simulations can make science lessons fun and help students understand concepts
more meaningfully. You can use simulations you have designed yourself or use
computer programmes that show simulations for science concepts available for
the teaching of science. Simulations increase studentsÊ interest and motivation
and allow them to learn about science in a situation which resembles the actual
situation.
Let us look at Figure 8.3 which shows animal masks which you can use to do
simulations when teaching about animals.
Figure 8.3: Animal masks
Source: http://whattheteacherwants.blogspot.com/2010/12/mitten.html
8.3.1 Types of Simulation Methods
There are three main types of simulation methods: role play, games and models.
(a) Role Play
In role play, students play out a particular role based on certain pre-determined
conditions. Students are given a situation in which they have to
act as characters (human or non-human). Students try to act, feel and react
according to the characters they represent. For example, if you want to
reinforce your studentsÊ understanding of „food chains‰, you can carry out
an activity using masks like those shown in Figure 8.3. When students take
on the roles of the animals, they can learn the terms ÂpredatorÊ and ÂpreyÊ,

and can decide from their own experience what characteristics predators
and preys have.
(b) Games
Games used in science teaching require the application of science
knowledge and skills to win. You need to prepare rules that need to be
followed when students are playing games. Examples of games are cut-and-
paste games, board games, puzzle games, crossword puzzles and
memory games. You can also use online games to help you teach. The game
as shown in Figure 8.4 cames from http://primarygames.com/science.htm
Figure 8.4: An example of a cut-and-paste game
Source: http://primarygames.com/science.htm

(c) Models
Models are used to represent objects or actual situations so that students
can see these objects or situations and understand the science concepts and
principles to be learned. Figure 8.5 shows the three main types of models:
solid models, sectional models and moving models.
Figure 8.5: Types of models
ACTIVITY 8.4
Prepare one activity for your science classroom using one of the
following types of simulations:
1. Role play;
2. Games ; and
3. Models.

PROJECTS
8.4
A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or a
group of pupils to achieve a particular objective or to solve a problem. A project
generally requires several lessons to complete and can be carried out either
inside or outside the school. The outcome of the project can either be in the form
of a report or an artefact and needs to be presented to the teacher and other
students.
A project can be carried out according to the need of the topic taught. It can also
be done according to studentsÊ interests, or for a science exhibition.
Projects allow students to develop their knowledge and skills in science, their
thinking skills as well as communication skills. They also encourage
collaboration and give an opportunity for students to show their creativity.
8.4.1 Factors to Consider while Carrying Out Projects
in the Science Classroom
What are the factors you would need to consider when proposing a project to
students? Study Figure 8.6 which shows the factors you needs to be considered in
doing a project work in the science classroom.

Figure 8.6: Factors to consider in doing project work in the science classroom
8.4.2 The Process of Doing a Project
In a project work, you should follow a series of steps in order to achieve the
objectives that have been identified. The key steps are as shown in Figure 8.7 and
should be carried out with your guidance as the teacher.

Figure 8.7: The process of doing a project
ACTIVITY 8.5
Describe how you would carry out a project on one of the topics given
below. Discuss your steps during the tutorial session.
1. Growth of seedlings
2. Recycling waste materials

VISITS AND USE OF EXTERNAL
RESOURCES
8.5
The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in the school
compound. It can be enhanced through the use of external resources such as
zoos, museums, science centres, research institutes, mangrove swamps and
factories. The primary purpose of these visits should be to develop and support
learning. Visits to these places make the learning of science more interesting,
meaningful and effective. Taking children out of school and into interesting
places provides links between classroom activities and those of everyday life, in
particular learning of new things that cannot be carried out in class and to see
science in action (Harlan Qualter, 2004).
A visit should be fun and must make the most of the learning opportunities
available. Examples of places you can take your students include (Harlan
Qualter, 2004):
(a) Natural locations (parks, seashores, mangrove swamps, ponds, forests, etc)
where there may or may not be a formal structure for visitors.
(b) Places of work (factories, farms, supermarkets, airports, meteorological
stations) where there will be someone to accompany the children as well as
act as tour guide of the premise.
(c) Science museums, aquariums, planetariums, parks, zoos, wildlife centres,
science and technology centres, conservation areas, where groups can be
supervised by teachers with or without help from staff, but where there are
usually finance and other requirements available to enable the visit to be
carried out.
(d) Other locations (local landmarks, educational institutions, historic
buildings, vacant land, etc.) which initially do not seem to have any
connection with science but has science potential.
8.5.1 Planning a Visit or Field Trip
The key to a successful visit is preparation. There are many aspects you would
need to consider when you plan a visit or field trip. First, you need to choose the
place you want to visit and identify the aim of the visit. You would then need to
check the schoolÊs policy regarding procedures like parental approval,
transportation and arrangement with authorities at the place of visit.
Study what you would need to do before, during and after a visit or field trip as
shown in Table 8.4.

Table 8.4: Things that Need to be Done when Planning a Visit
Before During After
Check your schoolÊs policy
regarding procedures to carry
out visit.
Obtain necessary permission
from the people from the site of
the field trip.
Visit the site to find connections
to the science curriculum and to
assess potential problems. You
can also plan appropriate
activities that can be carried out
during the visit.
List specific activities available
and plan how the students will
use their time. Plan what you
want students to notice or
investigate.
Decide on the date, funding,
method of transport and number
of teachers needed.
Tell students the objectives of the
trip and what they will be doing
during the trip.
Conduct a briefing session
regarding safety precautions and
appropriate behaviour.
Prepare all materials (e.g.
worksheets etc.) and equipment
(e.g. hand lens, camera, etc.) that
you would need for the visit.
Write letters to parents asking
for permission and describing
the field trip (include the
educational purpose of the trip,
trip itinerary, bus arrangements,
date of the trip, student cost,
eating arrangements)
On the day of the trip,
remind students of the
objectives of the trip.
Take attendance and
distribute name tags
to students.
Divide the class into
small groups and
assign a leader for
each group.
Discuss safety
regulations.
Interact with students
as in a classroom
science inquiry lesson.
Ensure every student
is actively involved
and answer any
question that arises.
Provide students the
opportunities for
them to view the site
alone or in groups.
Point out interesting
features seen during
the trip.
Take attendance every
time there is a
movement from one
location to another.
Carry out a post-mortem
session
with your
students to
reflect on and
evaluate the trip.
Ask students to
identify the most
important or
significant things
they have
learned from the
trip.
Ask students to
write a report
about the trip.
Have the class
compose and
send a thank-you
letter to the
host of the site of
field trip.
Conduct
appropriate
follow-up
activities and
projects based
on the visit.

8.5.2 Virtual Field Trips
As teachers, we know that field trips can motivate and educate students. We also
know they are time-consuming, difficult to organise and often affected by
unpredictable weather and events. In many cases, the places we would like to
visit are not those in short distance to our location. Here, the next best thing to do
is to organise a virtual field trip. Virtual field trips are often better because they
take you to places you could not easily go to like inside a volcano, under the
ocean or into the Solar System.
What is a virtual field trip? It is a guided and narrated tour of websites that have
been selected by educators and arranged in a thread that students can follow
from site to site with just the click of a button. Virtual field trips challenge and
expose students to new types of technology. They are a great way to spark
studentsÊ interest and motivate their learning in science. In addition, virtual field
trips can improve studentsÊ reading skills and expose them to various cultures
and environments.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Discuss how you would conduct an experiment in your science
classroom.
2. Explain briefly the main features of whole class and small group
discussions.
3. Describe the three types of simulation methods. What are the
reasons for implementing simulation activities in the teaching
and learning of science?
4. Give an example of a project you can carry out in your science
classroom. Write down the procedures for the implementation of
the project.
5. Suggest an external resource to which you would like to take
your students. List out the procedures you need to follow when
carrying out the visit.

ACTIVITY 8.6
1. Make a list of places you can visit with your students which are
near your school. For each of the places you have mentioned,
discuss which science content from the primary science
curriculum can be incorporated into the visit.
2. What would be some of your concerns when you organise visits
or field trips for your students? Discuss with your coursemates.
Teaching and learning methods such as experiments, discussions,
simulations, projects and visits can be used to teach science more effectively.
An experiment is a method that enable students to test hypotheses through
investigations to discover specific science concepts and principles.
An experiment must contain both a hypothesis and variables.
A hypothesis can be described as tentative answers or untried solutions to the
question or problem that is being investigated.
Variables are factors in an experiment which can change the outcome of the
experiment.
A manipulated variable is something that is changed in the experiment.
A responding variable is something that responds to the manipulated
variable.
A constant variable is something that is kept the same throughout the
experiment.
A fair test is an experiment in which only one variable is changed while all
other variables are kept constant.
Experimental results needs to be discussed at the end of the experiment.
Discussion of experimental results involves two procedures: data processing
and information reporting techniques.

Data processing refers to how the data is presented, classified and
interpreted.
Information reporting techniques refers to how the results are explained and
reported.
A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and
opinions on a given topic.
There are two forms of discussions you can use in science teaching: whole-class
discussions and small group discussions.
In whole class discussions, all the students in a class discuss an issue.
In small group discussions, students form small groups to discuss a topic.
A simulation is an activity which resembles an actual situation.
There are three main types of simulation methods: role play, games and
models.
In role play, students play out a particular role based on a given task.
Games that use science concepts and skills can be used in the teaching of
science. Examples are cut and paste games, board games, puzzle, crossword
puzzles, and memory games.
Models are used to represent objects or actual situations so that students can
visualise these objects or situations and understand the science concepts and
principles to be learned.
There are three main types of models: solid models, sectional models and
moving models.
A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual
or a group of pupils to achieve a particular objective or to solve a problem.
The factors you would need to consider in doing a project work in the science
classroom are age and ability levels of students, availibility of time and
resources, mode (individual/pair/group work) and guidelines on how the
report need to be presented.
The steps to carry out the project are: select a topic, gather information, plan
and carry out experiment/activities, analyse and interpret data and write and
present report.

Learning of science can be enhanced through visits to external resources such
as zoos, museums, science centres, research institutes, mangrove swamps and
factories.
To optimise learning opportunities, visits need to be carefully planned.
Planning must be done before, during and after a visit or field trip. This
means there must be clear purpose for the visit that the children understand
and, most importantly, appropriate follow-up work.
A virtual field trip is a guided and narrated tour of websites that have been
selected by educators.
Constant variable
Discussion
Experiment
Fair test
Games
Hypothesis
Manipulated variable
Models
Moving Models
Project
Responding variable
Role playing
Sectional Models
Simulation
Simulation
Small group discussions
Solid Models
Variables
Virtual field trip
Visits to external resources
Whole class discussions

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Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: a constructivist approach (4th
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Slavin, R. E. (1994). Educational psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.

ANSWERS W 185
TOPIC 4: COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES 2
Activity 4.1
In an inductive approach, the lesson begins with the presentation of specific
examples/applications. Then the students are led to form a generalisation.
In the deductive approach, the lesson begins with a generalisation, a rule or a
concept. Students are then introduced to specific examples or applications of the
generalisation.
Activity 4.4
Phase 1 Phase II Phase III
Presentation of the
Advance Organiser
Presentation of Learning
Task or Material
Strengthening Cognitive
Organisation
• Teacher tells students
that the lesson is about
objects that are
attracted to magnets.
• Teacher writes on the
board „Magnets are
attracted to metals,
mostly those that are
made of iron and
steel‰.
• Teacher explains all
words that he has
written on the board
and ensures all
students understand
them.
• Teacher demonstrates
how magnets attract
objects that are made of
iron and steel.
• Teacher asks students
for other examples of
modules that are
attracted to magnets.
• Teacher gives students
objects and magnets
and asks students to
predict which materials
will be attracted to
magnets.
Answers

1 86 X ANSWERS
TOPIC 6: CONSTRUCTIVISM
Activity 6.3
Comparison of roles of traditional science teacher and a constructivist science
teacher.
Traditional Science Teacher Constructivist Science Teacher
Teacher provides all science knowledge to
students
Teacher prepares activities that help
students to discover knowledge in science
Identifies important information Invites students to identify additional
content that interests them
Helps students remember information by
giving clear explanations and examples
Helps students discover knowledge
Students are passive learners Students play an active role in their
learning
Teacher keeps students quiet and focused
on task
Teachers encourages students to create
their own learning; allows a reasonable
amount of noise.
Teacher has authority and gives directions Teacher is interactive and negotiates with
students
Students work alone Students work in groups
Self-Check 6.1
1. A
2. B
TOPIC 8: TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS
Activity 8.1
1. A teaching method is a method of instruction based on a learning theory,
model or principle. It includes a series of actions or steps taken by the
teacher to achieve certain teaching and learning outcomes.

ANSWERS W 187
2. Other teaching methods that can be used to teach science are
demonstrations, learning through playing, story telling, problem solving,
cooperative learning, etc.
Self-Check 8.1
1. Hypothesis: Different surfaces affect the distance a trolley moves.
2. Manipulated variable: type of surface (glass, sand paper)
Responding variable: time taken for trolley to move
Constant variable: distance trolley moves, trolley, etc.
3. The data can be presented in the form of a table.
Activity 8.2
Julia can carry out an experiment using the design below:
Hypothesis: The expensive fertiliser will make the rose plants grow more
healthily.
Manipulated variable Type of fertiliser (expensive and cheap one)
Responding variables Number of leaves / Height
Constant variables Place planted / Volume of water / etc
Activity 8.6
2. Ć Sometimes a field trip might not achieve the anticipated objectives
Ć Weather can be a hindrance
Ć It can be costly
Ć Extra effort is needed for planning
Ć Safety measures must be taken
Ć Transportation has to be planned

Teaching and Learning of Science

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