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vi PREFACE
Key Features
We have been guided by the following goals that we believe will enhance the teaching and
learning experience.
“What’s in IT for Me?” theme
• We show why IT is important by calling attention in each chapter to how that chapter’s
IT topic relates to students in each major.
° A feature of this edition is chapter-opening “teasers” that list specific tasks for each major
that the chapter will help prepare students to do.
° Throughout each chapter, icons guide the reader to relevant issues for their specific
functional area—Accounting (ACC), Finance (FIN), Marketing (MKT), Operations
Management (POM), Management Information Systems (MIS), and Human Resources
Management (HRM).
° Every chapter concludes with a summary of how the concepts relate to each functional
area (“What’s in IT for Me?”).
Active Learning
We recognize the need to actively involve students in problem solving, creative thinking,
and capitalizing on opportunities. Therefore, we have included in every chapter a variety of
hands-on exercises, activities, and mini-cases, including exercises that require students to use
software application tools. Through these activities and an interactive Web site, we enable
students to apply the concepts they learn.
Diversified and Unique Examples from Different Industries
Extensive use of vivid examples from large corporations, small businesses, and government and
not-for-profit organizations helps to enliven concepts by demonstrating the capabilities of IT,
its cost and justification, and innovative ways in which real corporations are using IT in their
operations. Each chapter constantly highlights the integral connection between IT and busi-
ness. This is especially evident in the “IT’s About Business” boxes.
Misuse of IS
Like other textbooks, this text presents many examples of IS success. But we also provide
numerous examples of IS failures, in the context of lessons that can be learned from such fail-
ures. Misuse of IS can be very expensive, as we illustrate.
Innovation and Creativity
In today’s rapidly changing environment, creativity and innovation are essential for a business
to operate effectively and profitably. Throughout the text we demonstrate how IT facilitates
these concepts.
Global Focus
Because an understanding of global competition, partnerships, and trading is essential to
success in business, we provide a broad selection of international cases and examples. We
discuss how IT facilitates export and import, the management of multinational companies,
and electronic trading around the globe.
Focus on Ethics
With corporate scandals appearing daily in the news, ethics and ethical questions have come
to the forefront of business people’s minds. In addition to a chapter that concentrates on ethics

vii
PREFACE
and privacy (Chapter 3), we have included examples and cases that focus on business ethics
throughout the chapters.
Pedagogical Structure
Other pedagogical features provide a structured learning system that reinforces the concepts
through features such as chapter-opening organizers, section reviews, frequent applications,
and hands-on exercises and activities.
Chapter-opening organizers include the following pedagogical features:
• The Learning Objectives provide an overview of the key concepts students should come
away with after reading the chapter.
• Web Resources highlight ancillary materials available on the book companion site and
within WileyPLUS for both instructors and students.
• The Chapter Outline lists the major chapter headings.
• An opening case identifies a business problem faced by an actual company, describes the
IT solution applied to the business problem, presents the results of the IT solution, and
summarizes what students can learn from the case.
• New “What’s in IT for Me?” “teasers” give students a quick hint about skills in their majors
for which this chapter will help prepare them.
Study aids are provided throughout each chapter. These include the following:
• IT’s About Business cases provide real-world applications, with questions that relate to
concepts covered in the text. Icons relate these sections to the specific functional areas.
• Highlighted Examples interspersed throughout the text illustrate the use (and misuse) of IT
by real-world organizations, thus making the conceptual discussion more concrete.
• Tables list key points or summarize different concepts.
• End-of-section reviews (Before You Go On . . .) prompt students to pause and test their under-
standing of basic concepts before moving on to the next section.
End-of-chapter study aids provide extensive opportunity for the reader to review and actually
“do something” with the concepts they have just studied:
• What’s in IT for Me? is a unique chapter summary section that demonstrates the relevance of
topics for different functional areas (accounting, finance, marketing, production/operations
management, and human resources management).
• The Chapter Summary, keyed to learning objectives listed at the beginning of the chapter,
enables students to review the major concepts covered in the chapter.
• The end-of-chapter Glossary facilitates studying by listing and defining all of the key terms
introduced in the chapter.
• Discussion Questions and Problem-Solving Activities provide practice through active learn-
ing. These exercises are hands-on opportunities to use the concepts discussed in the chapter.
• A Case presents a brief case study organized around a business problem and explains how IT
helped to solve it. Questions at the end of the case relate it to concepts discussed in the chapter.
Online Resources
www.wiley.com/college/rainer
This text also facilitates the teaching of an introductory IS course by providing extensive sup-
port materials for instructors and students. Go to www.wiley.com/college/rainer to access the
Student and Instructor Web Sites.

viii PREFACE
Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual, created by Bob Gehling of Auburn University at Montgomery,
includes a chapter overview, teaching tips and strategies, answers to all end-of-chapter ques-
tions, supplemental mini-cases with essay questions and answers, and experiential exercises
that relate to particular topics.
Test Bank
The Test Bank, written by Jennifer Gerow of Virginia Military Institute, is a comprehensive
resource for test questions. It contains multiple-choice, true/false, short answer, and essay ques-
tions for each chapter. The multiple-choice and true/false questions are labeled according to
difficulty: easy, medium, or hard.
The test bank is available for use in Respondus’ easy-to-use software. Respondus is a powerful
tool for creating and managing exams that can be printed to paper or published directly to Black-
board, WebCT, Desire2Learn, eCollege, ANGEL, and other eLearning systems. For more infor-
mation on Respondus and the Respondus Test Bank Network, please visit www.respondus.com.
PowerPoint Presentations
The PowerPoint Presentations consist of a series of slides for each chapter of the text that are
designed around the text content, incorporating key points from the text and all text illustra-
tions as appropriate.
Wiley Information Systems Hub
http://wileyiscommunity.ning.com/
This is a new online, interactive community designed to support the teaching of the Intro
IS course. The Hub will allow IS faculty to explore a centralized and constantly updated set of
current articles for use in class, connect with IS colleagues for help and advice about upcom-
ing course topics, and share course materials with other IS faculty. The Community Manager
is David Firth of the University of Montana
Weekly Updates
Weekly updates, harvested from around the web by David Firth of the University of Mon-
tana, provide you with the latest IT news and issues. These are posted every Monday morning
throughout the year at http://wileyinformationsystemsupdates.com/ and include links to articles
and videos as well as discussion questions to assign or use in class.
Image Library
All textbook figures are available for download from the Web site. These figures can easily be
added to PowerPoint presentations.
OfficeGrader
OfficeGraderTM
is an Access-based VBA macro that enables automatic grading of Office assign-
ments. The macros compare Office files and grade them against a master file. OfficeGraderTM
is available for Word, Access, Excel, and PowerPoint for Office 2010 and Office 2013. For more
information, contact your Wiley sales representative or visit www.wiley.com/college/microsoft
and click on “OfficeGrader.”
WileyPlus Learning Space
What is WileyPLUS Learning Space? It’s a place where students can learn, collaborate, and
grow. Through a personalized experience, students create their own study guide while they
interact with course content and work on learning activities.

ix
PREFACE
WileyPLUS Learning Space combines adaptive learning functionality with a dynamic new
e-textbook for your course—giving you tools to quickly organize learning activities, manage
student collaboration, and customize your course so that you have full control over content as
well as the amount of interactivity between students.
You can:
• Assign activities and add your own materials
• Guide students through what’s important in the e-textbook by easily assigning specific
content
• Set up and monitor collaborative learning groups
• Assess student engagement
• Benefit from a sophisticated set of reporting and diagnostic tools that give greater insight
into class activity
Learn more at www.wileypluslearningspace.com. If you have questions, please contact your
Wiley representative.
Wiley Flex
Wiley provides a wide variety of printed and electronic formats that provide many choices
to your students at a range of price points. Contact your Wiley sales representative for more
details on any of the below.
Wiley E-Textbook
E-Textbooks are complete digital versions of the text that help students study more efficiently
as they:
• Access content online and offline on your desktop, laptop and mobile device
• Search across the entire book content
• Take notes and highlight
• Copy and paste or print key sections
Wiley E-Text: Powered by VitalSource (available for all titles) Ask your sales representative about
other available formats.
Wiley Custom
This group’s services allow you to:
• Adapt existing Wiley content and combine texts
• Incorporate and publish your own materials
• Collaborate with our team to ensure your satisfaction
Wiley Custom Select
Wiley Custom Select allows you to build your own course materials using selected chapters
of any Wiley text and your own material if desired. For more information, contact your
Wiley sales representative or visit http://customselect.wiley.com/.
Acknowledgments
Creating, developing, and producing a text for an introduction to information technology course
is a formidable undertaking. Along the way, we were fortunate to receive continuous evaluation,
criticism, and direction from many colleagues who regularly teach this course. We would like to
acknowledge the contributions made by the following individuals.

x PREFACE
We would like thank the Wiley team: Lisé Johnson, Executive Editor; Jennifer Manias,
Sponsoring Editor; Allison Morris, Product Design Manager; Chris DeJohn, Executive Marketing
Manager; and Amanda Dallas, Market Solutions Assistant. We also thank the production team,
including Dorothy Sinclair, Senior Content Manager; Jane Lee, Senior Production Editor; and
Gaurav Uppal of Thomson Digital. And thanks to Harry Nolan, Design Director; Wendy Lai,
Senior Designer; and Billy Ray, Senior Photo Editor. We also would like to thank Robert Weiss
for his skillful and thorough editing of the manuscript.
We also acknowledge and appreciate Bob Gehling and Jennifer Gerow for their work on
the supplements, and David Firth for his work on the Weekly Updates and the new Faculty
Hub. Many thanks also to Alina M. Chircu and Marco Marabelli of Bentley University for
developing material that enhances our coverage of business processes and ERP. Finally, we
thank all the faculty listed below who have generously shared their varied opinions by review-
ing the manuscript and/or completing our user surveys.
Kelly Rainer
Brad Prince
Ahlam Alhweiti, Southern New Hampshire University
Barbara Gordon, Seminole State College of Florida
Milele Hallingquest, Iowa State University
Sandy Keeter, Southern New Hampshire University
NicoleLytle-Kosola,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SanBernardino
Joe Parker, Southern New Hampshire University
Melissa Ray, University of Phoenix
Donna Rex, York University
Kevin Scheibe, Iowa State University
Kevin Wilhelmsen, University of Phoenix
Gaya P. Agrawal, Rutgers University
Ihssan Alkadi, South Louisiana Community College
Mary Baldwin-Grimes, Gateway Technical College
Mary Barnard, IUPUI
Nicholas Barnes, Nichols College
Lisa Reeves Bertin, Penn State University Shenango Campus
Mark Best, The University of Kansas
Neelima Bhatnagar, University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown
Dan Brandon, Christian Brothers University
Fredrick Bsharah, Cape Cod Community College
Jessie Brown, Macquarie City Campus
Patrick Browning, The University of Southern Mississippi
Trini Callava, University of Miami
Pam Carter, North Carolina A&T State University
Antoinette Cevenini, Macquarie City Campus
Lewis Chasalow, The University of Findlay
H. Michael Chung, California State University Long Beach
Ken Corley, Appalachian State University
Jose Cruz, University of Puerto Rico - Mayaguez
Barry Cumbie, University of Southern Mississippi
Subhasish Dasgupta, George Washington University
Lauren Eder, Rider University
Greg Foudray, Salem State University
Bob Gehling, Auburn University Montgomery
Cody Gray, Portland Community College
Eileen Griffin, Canisius College
Heather Griffo, Portland Community College
Joseph Harder, Indiana State University
Jeff Harper, Indiana State University
Jim Howatt, Luther College
Chang-tseh Hsieh, University of Southern Mississippi
Scott Hunsinger, Appalachian State University
Micki Hyde, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Jinman Kim, University of Sydney
Richard Klein, Florida International University
Dana Ladd, University of Findlay
Faith Lamprey, Rhode Island College
Christine Lazaro, Gateway Technical College
Mark Lewis, Alfred University
Susan Li, Adelphi University
Thomas Long, DePaul University
James Scott Magruder, The University of Southern Mississippi
Kalana Malimage, Mississippi State University
Efrem Mallach, Rhode Island College
Steven Mandelbaum, George Washington University
Nichelle Manuel, IADT
Stanley Marcinczyk, Central Connecticut State University
Robert Marmelstein, East Stroudsburg University
Tom Mattson, University of Hawaii
Lee McClain, Western Washington University
Rodger Morrison, Troy University
Mahdi Nasereddin, Penn State University
Reviewers

xi
PREFACE
Bill Neumann, University of Arizona
Cynthia Nitsch, University of San Diego
Anthony Offor, Sanford-Brown College
Jim Ott, Fontbonne University
Neal Parker, Appalachian State University
Sheila Pearson, Southern Arkansas University
Jennifer Percival, University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Olga Petkova, Central Connecticut State University
Sean Piotrowski, Rider University
Robert Plant, University of Miami
Carol Pollard, Appalachian State University
Simon Poon, University of Sydney
Drew Procaccino, Rider University
Carl Rebman, University of San Diego
Howard D Rees, Rider University
Lisa Rich, Athens State University
Jim Ryan, Troy University
Anselm Sequeira, University of Southern Mississippi
Linda Spauldig, Gateway Technical College
Suneel Sharma, GDGWI-Lancaster University
Troy Strader, Drake University
Sharon Tabor, Boise State University
Zaiyong Tang, Salem State University
Christopher Taylor, Appalachian State University
Gary Templeton, Mississippi State University
Cheryl Ucakar, Gateway Technical College
Michael Waclawiczek, Salem State University
Shouhong Wang, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
John Wee, University of Mississippi
Brian West, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Paul Wheatcraft, Portland Community College
Melody White, University of North Texas
Dezhi Wu, Southern Utah University
Carol Wysocki, Columbia Basin College
Li Richard Ye, Carlifornia State University, Northridge
Saad Yousuf, Gateway Technical College

xiii
BRIEF CONTENTS
xiii
Brief Contents
[Chapter 1] Introduction to
Information Systems 1
[Chapter 2] Organizational Strategy,
Competitive Advantage, and
[Chapter 3] Ethics and Privacy 66
[Chapter 4] Information Security 85
[Chapter 5] Data and Knowledge
Management 121
[Chapter 6] Telecommunications
and Networking 161
[Chapter 7] E-Business and
E-Commerce 197
[Chapter 8] Wireless, Mobile
Computing, and Mobile
Commerce 229
[Chapter 9] Social Computing 262
[Chapter 10] Information Systems
Within the Organization 293
[Chapter 11] Customer Relationship
Management and Supply
Chain Management 320
[Chapter 12] Business Intelligence 355
[Chapter 13] Acquiring Information
Systems and Applications 380
[Technology Guide 1]
Hardware 409
Software 424
Cloud Computing 433
Intelligent Systems 456
[Index] 471

xiv CONTENTS
xiv
[Chapter 1] Introduction to
1.1: Why Should I Study Information Systems? 3
1.2: Overview of Computer-Based Information Systems 9
1.3: How Does IT Impact Organizations? 18
1.4: Importance of Information Systems to Society 22
[Chapter 2] Organizational Strategy,
Competitive Advantage, and
2.1: Business Processes 34
2.2: Business Process Reengineering, Business Process
Improvement, and Business Process Management 40
2.3: Business Pressures, Organizational Responses, and
Information Technology Support 44
2.4: Competitive Advantage and Strategic Information
Systems 52
[Chapter 3] Ethics and Privacy 66
3.1: Ethical Issues 70
3.2: Privacy 74
[Chapter 4] Information Security 85
4.1: Introduction to Information Security 88
4.2: Unintentional Threats to Information Systems 90
4.3: Deliberate Threats to Information Systems 94
4.4: What Organizations Are Doing to Protect Information
Resources 99
4.5: Information Security Controls 102
[Chapter 5] Data and Knowledge
Management 121
5.1: Managing Data 124
5.2: The Database Approach 126
5.3: Big Data 131
5.4: Data Warehouses and Data Marts 137
5.5: Knowledge Management 145
5.6: Appendix: Fundamentals of Relational Database
Operations 147
[Chapter 6] Telecommunications and
Networking 161
6.1: What Is a Computer Network? 164
6.2: Network Fundamentals 167
6.3: The Internet and the World Wide Web 171
6.4: Network Applications: Discovery 178
6.5: Network Applications: Communication 180
6.6: Network Applications: Collaboration 184
6.7: Network Applications: Educational 187
[Chapter 7] E-Business and
E-Commerce 197
7.1: Overview of E-Business and E-Commerce 201
7.2: Business-to-Consumer (B2C) Electronic Commerce 209
7.3: Business-to-Business (B2B) Electronic Commerce 217
7.4: Ethical and Legal Issues in E-Business 219
[Chapter 8] Wireless, Mobile Computing,
and Mobile Commerce 229
8.1: Wireless Technologies 233
8.2: Wireless Computer Networks and Internet Access 239
8.3: Mobile Computing and Mobile Commerce 245
8.4: The Internet of Things 251
8.5: Wireless Security 255
[Chapter 9] Social Computing 262
9.1: Web 2.0 266
9.2: Fundamentals of Social Computing in Business 274
9.3: Social Computing in Business: Shopping 276
9.4: Social Computing in Business: Marketing 280
9.5: Social Computing in Business:
Customer Relationship Management 284
Contents

xv
CONTENTS
9.6: Social Computing in Business:
Human Resource Management 285
[Chapter 10] Information Systems
within the Organization 293
10.1: Transaction Processing Systems 296
10.2: Functional Area Information Systems 297
10.3: Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems 305
10.4: ERP Support for Business Processes 311
[Chapter 11] Customer Relationship
Management and
Supply Chain
Management 320
11.1: Defining Customer Relationship Management 322
11.2: Operational Customer Relationship Management
Systems 328
11.3: Analytical Customer Relationship Management
Systems 331
11.4: Other Types of Customer Relationship
Management 332
11.5: Supply Chains 337
11.6: Supply Chain Management 339
11.7: Information Technology Support for Supply Chain
Management 343
[Chapter 12] Business Intelligence 355
12.1: Managers and Decision Making 358
12.2: What is Business Intelligence? 363
12.3: Business Intelligence Applications
for Data Analysis 367
12.4: Business Intelligence Applications
for Presenting Results 370
[Chapter 13] Acquiring Information
Systems and Applications 380
13.1: Planning for and Justifying IT Applications 384
13.2: Strategies for Acquiring IT Applications 387
13.3: The Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle 393
13.4: Alternative Methods and Tools for Systems
Development 399
[Technology Guide 1] Hardware 409
TG 1.1: Introduction to Hardware 410
TG 1.2: Strategic Hardware Issues 410
TG 1.3: Computer Hierarchy 411
TG 1.4: Input and Output Technologies 413
TG 1.5: The Central Processing Unit 416
[Technology Guide 2] Software 424
TG 2.1: Software Issues 425
TG 2.2: Systems Software 427
TG 2.3: Application Software 428
Cloud Computing 433
TG 3.1: Introduction to Cloud Computing 434
TG 3.2: What Is Cloud Computing? 436
TG 3.3: Different Types of Clouds 439
TG 3.4: Cloud Computing Services 442
TG 3.5: The Benefits of Cloud Computing 445
TG 3.6: Concerns and Risks with Cloud
Computing 447
TG 3.7: Web Services and Service-Oriented
Architecture 450
Intelligent Systems 456
TG 4.1: Introduction to Intelligent Systems 457
TG 4.2: Expert Systems 459
TG 4.3: Neural Networks 463
TG 4.4: Fuzzy Logic 464
TG 4.5: Genetic Algorithms 465
TG 4.6: Intelligent Agents 465
[Index] 471

Chapter
What’s In
Me?
ITFor
T h i s C h a p t e r W i l l H e l p P r e p a r e Y o u T o …
MKT
ACCT FIN POM HRM MIS
ACCOUNTING
Monitor social
media for
compliance
FINANCE
Collaborate with
external financial
experts
MARKETING
Receive real-time
feedback from
customers
PRODUCTION
OPERATIONS
MANAGEMENT
Partners/
customers
collaborate
on product
development
HUMAN
RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT
Enhance
recruiting efforts
MIS
Develop internal
company social
networks
Introduction to Information
Systems
1
[ LEARNING OBJECTIVES ] [ CHAPTER OUTLINE ] [ WEB RESOURCES ]
1. Identify the reasons why
being an informed user
of information systems is
important in today’s world.
2. Describe the various types of
computer-based information
systems in an organization.
3. Discuss ways in which
information technology
can affect managers and
nonmanagerial workers.
4. Identify positive and negative
societal effects of the increased
use of information technology.
1.1 Why Should I Study
Information Systems?
1.2 Overview of Computer-
Based Information
Systems
1.3 How Does IT Impact
Organizations?
1.4 Importance of
Information Systems
to Society
• Student PowerPoints for note
taking
• E-book
• Author video lecture for each
chapter section
• Practice quizzes
• Flash Cards for vocabulary review
• Additional “IT’s About Business”
cases
• Video interviews with managers
• Lab Manuals for Microsoft
Office 2010 and 2013

2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Information Systems
F
undraising is a difficult and time-consuming process that diverts entrepreneurs from
building their companies. For decades, entrepreneurs who sought to obtain funding
from Silicon Valley’s small, wealthy group of angel investors found the process similar
to breaking into an exclusive club. (An angel investor is an individual who provides
capital for a startup, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity.) They had
to work with their personal networks to set up meetings with financiers and then negotiate pri-
vately, with little awareness of fair market value or better opportunities elsewhere.
To assist these individuals, AngelList (https://angel.co), founded in 2010 in San Francisco,
has created an online forum where founders of early-stage companies—called startups—post
their ideas and meet investors who fund these often risky ventures. AngelList’s mission is to
make startup investing transparent and efficient.
How does AngelList work? Basically, startups access the site and create profiles that list infor-
mation such as their previous financial backers (if any) and the amount of capital they have
already raised. They then utilize those profiles to make their “pitch” to hundreds of certified
investors—financial firms as well as wealthy individuals and companies. To avoid fraud, Angel-
List vets its investors by requiring them to provide a track record of their prior investments. At
the same time, the company thoroughly researches any startups that it lists on its Web site.
AngelList restricts its services to startups that are trying to obtain funding for the first time.
For example, the company handles the regulatory paperwork to help startups complete the
relevant forms. One feature on the company’s Web site, called “Syndicates,” lets investors pool
their money under the direction of a single, wealthy investor known as a “lead.” Then, when-
ever the lead decides to back a startup, so do the other investors, or “backers.” Leads set their
own terms. For example, one lead investor collects up to a 20 percent “carry” fee from his back-
ers, plus a portion of any positive return they receive if the startup is acquired or goes public.
AngelList takes a 5 percent cut on any such paydays. In 2014, some $87 million worth of deals
were transacted via AngelList’s syndicates.
Startups such as the private taxi service Uber (www.uber.com) and babysitting-jobs Web site
Urbansitter (www.urbansitter.com) have used AngelList to make contact with new investors
and quickly finalize their funding deals. In another example, Sprig (www.eatsprig.com), a San
Francisco-based dinner delivery service, raised most of the money it needed for a new kitchen
in a single day on AngelList.
At the end of 2013, AngelList added startup job listings to its Web site. In addition, it was
lobbying the U.S. government to further relax fundraising restrictions contained in the JOBS
Act, the 2012 Federal law that lowered regulatory requirements for startups. The company’s
goal is for the public—rather than simply accredited investors—to use the site to provide fund-
ing for promising startups.
And the bottom line? By early 2015, AngelList featured tens of thousands of businesses, and
it had provided entrepreneurs with thousands of introductions to potential investors. Also in
early 2015, AngelList expanded its investor syndicates to the United Kingdom.
Sources: Compiled from K. Collins, “AngelList Syndicates to Bring Investment to UK Startups,” Wired, February 13, 2015; D.
Primack, “A Disrupter Shakes Up Angel Investing,” Fortune, December 1, 2014; B. Stone, “The Social Network for Startups,”
Bloomberg BusinessWeek, January 20–26, 2014; F. Lardinois, “OnTheGo Raises $700K Seed Round from Foundry Group’s
AngelList Syndicate and Others to Improve Smart Glasses,” TechCrunch, January 6, 2014; L. Rao, “Kima Ventures Will Allow
Startups to Raise $150K Within 15 Days via AngelList,” TechCrunch, December 4, 2013; N. Hughes, “Will AngelList Help or
Hurt Startup Fundraising,” GeekWire, October 12, 2013; A. Davidson, “Follow the Money: AngelList Has Blown Open Early-
Stage Investments,” Wired, May 17, 2013; P. Sloan, “AngelList Attacks Another Startup Pain Point: Legal Fees,” CNET News,
September 5, 2012; L. Rao, “AngelList Launches Docs to Help Startups Sign and Close Seed Rounds Online with Low Legal
Fees,” TechCrunch, September 5, 2012; www.angellist.com, accessed January 20, 2015.
Questions
1. What are the advantages that AngelList offers to entrepreneurs?
2. What are potential disadvantages that entrepreneurs might encounter by using AngelList?
(Hint: What if you listed your company profile on AngelList and no investor provided
funding?)
[AngelList
Helps
Entrepre-
neurs Build
Companies]
MKT

3
SECTION 1.1 Why Should I Study Information Systems?
Introduction
Before we proceed, we need to define information technology (IT) and information systems
(IS). Information technology refers to any computer-based tool that people use to work with
information and to support the information and information-processing needs of an organiza-
tion. An information system collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates information
for a specific purpose.
IT has far-reaching effects on individuals, organizations, and our planet. Although this text is
largely devoted to the many ways in which IT has transformed modern organizations, you will also
learn about the significant impacts of IT on individuals and societies, the global economy, and
our physical environment. In addition, IT is making our world smaller, enabling more and more
people to communicate, collaborate, and compete, thereby leveling the digital playing field.
When you graduate, you will either start your own business or work for an organization,
whether it is public sector, private sector, for-profit, or not-for-profit. Your organization will
have to survive and compete in an environment that has been radically transformed by infor-
mation technology. This environment is global, massively interconnected, intensely competi-
tive, 24/7/365, real-time, rapidly changing, and information-intensive. To compete success-
fully, your organization must use IT effectively.
As you read this chapter and this text, keep in mind that the information technologies you
will learn about are important to businesses of all sizes. No matter what area of business you
major in, what industry you work for, or the size of your company, you will benefit from learn-
ing about IT. Who knows? Maybe you will use the tools you learn about in this class to make
your great idea a reality by becoming an entrepreneur and starting your own business! In fact,
as you see in the chapter opening case, you can use information technology (in the form of
AngelList.com) to help you raise the necessary funds to successfully grow your business.
The modern environment is intensely competitive not only for your organization, but for
you as well. You must compete with human talent from around the world. Therefore, you will
also have to make effective use of IT.
Accordingly, this chapter begins with a discussion of why you should become knowledgeable
about IT. It also distinguishes among data, information, and knowledge, and it differentiates
computer-based information systems (CBIS) from application programs. Finally, it considers
the impacts of information systems on organizations and on society in general.
Why Should I Study Information Systems?
You are part of the most connected generation in history: You have grown up online; you are,
quite literally, never out of touch; you use more information technologies (in the form of digi-
tal devices), for more tasks, and are bombarded with more information than any generation in
history. The MIT Technology Review refers to you as Homo conexus. Information technologies
are so deeply embedded in your lives that your daily routines would be almost unrecognizable
to a college student just 20 years ago.
Essentially, you practice continuous computing, surrounded by a movable information net-
work. This network is created by constant cooperation between the digital devices you carry
(e.g., laptops, tablets, and smartphones), the wired and wireless networks that you access as you
move about, and Web-based tools for finding information and communicating and collaborat-
ing with other people. Your network enables you to pull information about virtually anything
from anywhere, at any time, and to push your own ideas back to the Web, from wherever you
are, via a mobile device. Think of everything you do online, often with your smartphone:
register for classes; take classes (and not just at your university); access class syllabi, informa-
tion, PowerPoints, and lectures; research class papers and presentations; conduct banking; pay
your bills; research, shop, and buy products from companies or other people; sell your “stuff”;
search for, and apply for, jobs; make your travel reservations (hotel, airline, rental car); cre-
ate your own blog and post your own podcasts and videocasts to it; design your own page on
1.1

Facebook; make and upload videos to YouTube; take, edit, and print your own digital photo-
graphs; “burn” your own custom-music CDs and DVDs; use RSS feeds to create your personal
electronic newspaper; text and tweet your friends and family throughout your day; send Snaps;
and many other activities. (Note: If any of these terms are unfamiliar to you, don’t worry. You
will learn about everything mentioned here in detail later in this text.)
The Informed User—You!
So, the question is: Why you should learn about information systems and information technol-
ogies? After all, you can comfortably use a computer (or other electronic devices) to perform
many activities, you have been surfing the Web for years, and you feel confident that you can
manage any IT application that your organization’s MIS department installs.
The answer lies in your becoming an informed user; that is, a person knowledgeable about
information systems and information technology. There are several reasons why you should be
an informed user.
In general, informed users tend to get more value from whatever technologies they use. You
will enjoy many benefits from being an informed user of IT.
• First, you will benefit more from your organization’s IT applications because you will
understand what is “behind” those applications (see Figure 1.1). That is, what you see
on your computer screen is brought to you by your MIS department, which is operating
“behind” your screen.
• Second, you will be in a position to enhance the quality of your organization’s IT applica-
tions with your input.
• Third, even as a new graduate, you will quickly be in a position to recommend—and per-
haps help select—the IT applications that your organization will use.
• Fourth, being an informed user will keep you abreast of both new information technolo-
gies and rapid developments in existing technologies. Remaining “on top of things” will
help you to anticipate the impacts that “new and improved” technologies will have on your
organization and to make recommendations on the adoption and use of these technologies.
USERS
@ Slaomir Fajer/iStockphoto
MIS
FIGURE 1.1 MIS provides
what users see on their
computer screens.
MIS

5
• Fifth, you will understand how using IT can improve your organization’s performance and
teamwork as well as your own productivity.
• Finally, if you have ideas of becoming an entrepreneur, then being an informed user will
help you use IT when you start your own business.
Going further, managing the IS function within an organization is no longer the exclu-
sive responsibility of the IS department. Rather, users now play key roles in every step of this
process. The overall objective in this text is to provide you with the necessary information to
contribute immediately to managing the IS function in your organization. In short, the goal is
to help you become a very informed user!
IT Offers Career Opportunities
Because information technology is vital to the operation of modern businesses, it offers many
employment opportunities. The demand for traditional IT staff—programmers, business ana-
lysts, systems analysts, and designers—is substantial. In addition, many well-paid jobs exist
in areas such as the Internet and electronic commerce (e-commerce), mobile commerce
(m-commerce), network security, telecommunications, and multimedia design.
The information systems field includes the people in various organizations who design and
build information systems, the people who use those systems, and the people responsible for
managing those systems. At the top of the list is the chief information officer (CIO).
The CIO is the executive who is in charge of the IS function. In most modern organizations,
the CIO works with the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief financial officer (CFO), and
other senior executives. Therefore, he or she actively participates in the organization’s strategic
planning process. In today’s digital environment, the IS function has become increasingly stra-
tegic within organizations. As a result, although most CIOs still rise from the IS department,
a growing number are coming up through the ranks in the business units (e.g., marketing and
finance). So, regardless of your major, you could become the CIO of your organization one
day. This is another reason to be an informed user of information systems!
Table 1.1 provides a list of IT jobs, along with a description of each one. For further details
about careers in IT, see www.computerworld.com/careertopics/careers and www.monster.com.
Career opportunities in IS are strong and are projected to remain strong over the next
10 years. In fact, Forbes listed its “12 top jobs” for 2014, the U.S. News & World Report and
Money listed their “100 top jobs” for 2014, and Money listed its “top jobs” for 2014. Let’s take
a look at these rankings. (Note that the rankings differ because the magazines used different
criteria in their research.) As you can see, jobs suited for MIS majors rank extremely high in all
three lists. The magazines with their job rankings are as follows:
Forbes (out of 12)
#1 Software developer
#6 Web developer
#8 Database administrators
#12 Information security analysts
U.S. News & World Report (out of 100)
#3 Software Developer
#7 Computer System Analyst
#8 Information Security Analyst
#11 Web developer
#21 IT manager
Money
#1 Software architect
#8 Database administrator
#11 Clinical applications specialist (IT in healthcare)
#14 User experience designer
#17 IT program manager
MIS

Going further, the U.S. News & World Report picked technology as the #1 career choice for
2014. Not only do IS careers offer strong job growth, but also the pay is excellent. The Bureau
of Labor Statistics, an agency within the Department of Labor that is responsible for tracking
and analyzing trends relating to the labor market, notes that the median salary in 2014 for
“computer and information systems managers” was approximately $121,000, and predicted
that the profession would grow by an average of 15 percent per year through 2022.
Managing Information Resources
Managing information systems in modern organizations is a difficult, complex task. Several
factors contribute to this complexity. First, information systems have enormous strategic value
to organizations. Firms rely on them so heavily that, in some cases, when these systems are
Position Job Description
Chief Information
Officer
Highest-ranking IS manager; is responsible for all strategic
planning in the organization
IS Director Manages all systems throughout the organization and the
day-to-day operations of the entire IS organization
Information Center
Manager
Manages IS services such as help desks, hot lines, training,
and consulting
Applications
Development Manager
Coordinates and manages new systems development
projects
Project Manager Manages a particular new systems development project
Systems Manager Manages a particular existing system
Operations Manager Supervises the day-to-day operations of the data and/or
computer center
Programming Manager Coordinates all applications programming efforts
Systems Analyst Interfaces between users and programmers; determines
information requirements and technical specifications for
new applications
Business Analyst Focuses on designing solutions for business problems;
interfaces closely with users to demonstrate how IT can be
used innovatively
Systems Programmer Creates the computer code for developing new systems
software or maintaining existing systems software
Applications
Programmer
Creates the computer code for developing new applications
or maintaining existing applications
Emerging Technologies
Manager
Forecasts technology trends; evaluates and experiments
with new technologies
Network Manager Coordinates and manages the organization’s voice and data
networks
Database Administrator Manages the organization’s databases and oversees the
use of database-management software
Auditing or Computer
Security Manager
Oversees the ethical and legal use of information systems
Webmaster Manages the organization’s World Wide Web site
Web Designer Creates World Wide Web sites and pages
Table
1.1
Information
Technology Jobs

7
not working (even for a short time), the firm cannot function. (This situation is called “being
hostage to information systems.”) Second, information systems are very expensive to acquire,
operate, and maintain.
A third factor contributing to the difficulty in managing information systems is the evolu-
tion of the management information systems (MIS) function within the organization. When
businesses first began to use computers in the early 1950s, the MIS department “owned” the
only computing resource in the organization, the mainframe. At that time, end users did not
interact directly with the mainframe.
In contrast, in the modern organization, computers are located in all departments, and
almost all employees use computers in their work. This situation, known as end user comput-
ing, has led to a partnership between the MIS department and the end users. The MIS depart-
ment now acts as more of a consultant to end users, viewing them as customers. In fact, the
main function of the MIS department is to use IT to solve end users’ business problems.
As a result of these developments, the responsibility for managing information resources is
now divided between the MIS department and the end users. This arrangement raises several
important questions: Which resources are managed by whom? What is the role of the MIS
department, its structure, and its place within the organization? What is the appropriate rela-
tionship between the MIS department and the end users? Regardless of who is doing what, it is
essential that the MIS department and the end users work in close cooperation.
There is no standard way to divide responsibility for developing and maintaining informa-
tion resources between the MIS department and the end users. Instead, that division depends
on several factors: the size and nature of the organization, the amount and type of IT resources,
the organization’s attitudes toward computing, the attitudes of top management toward com-
puting, the maturity level of the technology, the amount and nature of outsourced IT work,
and even the countries in which the company operates. Generally speaking, the MIS depart-
ment is responsible for corporate-level and shared resources, and the end users are responsible
for departmental resources. Table 1.2 identifies both the traditional functions and various new,
consultative functions of the MIS department.
So, where do the end users come in? Take a close look at Table 1.2. Under the traditional
MIS functions, you will see two functions for which you provide vital input: managing systems
development and infrastructure planning. Under the consultative MIS functions, in contrast,
you exercise the primary responsibility for each function, while the MIS department acts as
your advisor. IT’s About Business 1.1 illustrates how the University System of Georgia (USG)
manages its IT resources across its 31 member higher education institutions.
Traditional Functions of the MIS Department
• Managing systems development and systems project management
º As an end user, you will have critical input into the systems development process.
You will learn about systems development in Chapter 13.
• Managing computer operations, including the computer center
• Staffing, training, and developing IS skills
• Providing technical services
• Infrastructure planning, development, and control
º As an end user, you will provide critical input about the IS infrastructure needs of
your department.
New (Consultative) Functions of the MIS Department
• Initiating and designing specific strategic information systems
º As an end user, your information needs will often mandate the development of
new strategic information systems.
• You will decide which strategic systems you need (because you know your business
needs better than the MIS department does), and you will provide input into
developing these systems.
Table
1.2
The Changing Role
of the Information
Systems Department
MIS

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POLÍTICAS Y ECONÓMICAS ***

Nota del transcriptor:
En esta edición se han mantenido las convenciones ortográficas
del original, incluyendo las variadas normas de acentuación
presentes en el texto. Los errores obvios de impresión y
puntuación han sido corregidos.
Los dibujitos ornamentales han sido eliminados.

CUESTIONES
POLITICAS Y ECONOMICAS.
POR
PALEMON HUERGO.
BUENOS AIRES.
1855.
Imprenta Argentina, calle Santa Rosa núm. 37.

UNA PALABRA AL LECTOR.
Tres cuestiones importantes se han ventilado en estos dias por la
prensa.
La primera versa sobre el sistema proteccionista y el libre cambio,
aplicados al Estado de Buenos Aires. Aun cuando existen hoy ciertos
principios económicos que se consideran como axiomas en la
ciencia, y cuya discusion lejos de ofrecer una novedad estraordinaria
vendria casi á tocar en lo vulgar, por cuanto ellos han sido
demostrados ya hasta la evidencia, sin embargo, parece que en
nuestro pais todavía las rancias rutinas y viejas preocupaciones
disputan, aunque debilmente, el terreno á las nuevas ideas, y no
falta, como lo hemos visto últimamente en la tribuna y en la prensa,
quienes profieran blasfemias económicas capaces de escandalizar al
menos versado en estas materias. Por eso hemos creido deber tratar
esta cuestion, y lo hemos hecho efectivamente en una serie de
artículos que hemos publicado en el Nacional de Buenos Aires.
El segundo punto, se referia al artículo 6.º de nuestra carta
constitucional, cuya discusion se puso últimamente á la órden del
dia. Las notas oficiales cambiadas entre el Sr. Enviado francés y
nuestro ministro de relaciones esteriores por un lado, y por el otro
las interpretaciones forzadas que una parte de la prensa pretendió

sacar de aquella disposicion constitucional, nos han puesto en el
caso de tratar á fondo esta materia, en los artículos públicados en el
diario que hemos citado mas arriba.
La tercera y última cuestion, con que abrimos esta publicacion,
reunia á su importancia esencial la que le prestaba un grande interés
de actualidad, puesto que ella aun no ha sido resuelta por aquellos á
quienes directamente cabia esta tarea—hablamos de la internacion
de una escuadra Brasilera en el Rio de la Plata. En vista de un
asunto de tamaña trascendencia, hemos querido tratarlo reuniendo
á todas aquellas consideraciones prácticas, que se desprenden
naturalmente de él, la autoridad de las doctrinas sentadas por los
mejores y mas acreditados autores del derecho internacional, hasta
dejar en la mayor evidencia los derechos incontestables que asisten
á la República Argentina, para negar ó conceder el pasage á los
buques de guerra dentro de los límites de su territorio fluvial.
A esas cuestiones pues, hemos dedicado algunas horas de
concienzuda tarea, y si plumas mas hábiles que la nuestra hubieran
podido desarrollarlas mas ventajosamente, esperamos sin embargo
que los hechos históricos y las sanas teorías que sirven de base á
nuestros escritos, han de ser una razon bastante para que los
hombres imparciales no se desdeñen de arrojar sobre ellas una
mirada investigadora. Mas no siendo los artículos dispersos en las
columnas de un periódico, la forma mas adecuada á este objeto,
hemos querido buscar otra mas aparente, y es esta la razon que nos
ha inducido á reunirlos en el presente folleto.

EL BRASIL, EL PARAGUAY
Y LA
REPUBLICA ARGENTINA.
NAVEGACION FLUVIAL.

I.
La escuadra Brasilera en el Rio de la Plata.
A presencia en nuestro puerto de una imponente escuadra
brasilera, destinada al parecer á surcar por los rios
interiores y penetrar hasta el Paraguay, para ventilar allí las
cuestiones pendientes entre esa república y el imperio del
Brasil, es un hecho que ha preocupado seriamente el
espíritu público, y despertado la atencion de la prensa
periódica.
¿Qué significa ese formidable aparato de fuerzas navales en nuestras
aguas?
¿Qué sólidas razones de interés general pueden haber pesado en el
ánimo del gabinete imperial, que así le han aconsejado é inducido á
presentarse en el Rio de la Plata apoyado por el irresistible
argumento de una poderosa escuadra, antes de haber tratado de
hacer valer sus reclamaciones, aparentes ó positivas, cerca del
gobierno paraguayo?
¿Se cree acaso el gobierno brasilero, ampliamente autorizado para
atravesar libremente nuestros rios interiores hasta arrojar el ancla en
el Paraguay, sin necesidad de consultar la voluntad de los pueblos
argentinos?

¿El gobierno de Buenos-Aires, y el de las provincias confederadas,
han exijido de las autoridades brasileras las mas ámplias
esplicaciones sobre el objeto y fines de la espedicion?
¿Han autorizado ellos el libre tránsito de esa escuadra por el corazon
del territorio de la república?
¿Han sido acaso consultados por el gobierno imperial?
¿Se les ha pedido su venia ó aquiescencia para el tránsito?
¿Han convenido ó no en él los poderes del Estado y las provincias
confederadas?
¿Conviene á la república argentina el franquear el tránsito por su
territorio á la escuadra brasilera?
¿Se ha pesado con meditacion y profundidad en la balanza de los
intereses politicos y comerciales, presentes y futuros de la república,
los resultados que puede ofrecerle la solucion de la cuestion
brasilero-paraguaya?
Tales son las cuestiones que han preocupado el ánimo de los
hombres pensadores en el Rio de la Plata, desde la aparicion de las
fuerzas navales brasileras en nuestras aguas.
Un hecho de esta naturaleza, en cualquier parte del globo donde
tiene lugar, se considera siempre como un asunto muy serio, y las
naciones que mas ó menos directamente creen poderse hallar
complicadas, se preocupan de los sucesos, y se preparan para el
porvenir, tratando de tomar todas aquellas medidas que aconsejan la
prudencia ó la conveniencia.
Entre nosotros, el espíritu público ha sido tambien lógico esta vez,
por que el sentimiento innato de la propia conservacion y la
conciencia de las ventajas ó peligros que puede originar un

acontecimiento tan notable, son hechos que los pueblos comprenden
siempre en momentos supremos.
Participando de la preocupacion general, creíamos que habiendo
llegado ya el momento oportuno, el gobierno, apreciando en su justo
valor un suceso de tanta magnitud y tan nuevo entre nosotros,
habria hecho conocer su pensamiento, revelando en su marcha las
vistas de una política ilustrada, previsora y hábil.
Creíamos que elevándose á la altura de los grandes intereses
políticos y mercantiles de la nacion argentina, se habria apresurado
á manifestar el espíritu de las pretensiones que ante él se han
aducido, y que dando publicidad á la correspondencia oficial que
debe haber mediado entre él y el gabinete brasilero, hubiera
revelado el verdadero estado de la cuestion y habilitado á la prensa
para ocuparse de ella, á fin de que ilustrada la conciencia pública,
por medio del debate y choque de las ideas, fuese mas dificil el caer
en vias tortuosas, en un asunto en el cual puede decirse que vá
empeñada gran parte de los destinos de la República.
Pero desgraciadamente nada de esto ha sucedido. Si se ha dado
algun paso cerca del gabinete brasilero; si este ó sus Enviados en el
Rio de la Plata se han dirigido á él; es un profundo misterio, un
arcano que no ha atravesado los salones ministeriales, y que á nadie
ha sido dado penetrar.
Todos nuestros informes á este respecto se reducen, á la mera
conciencia que tenemos de la existencia de una poderosa escuadra
brasilera en el Rio de la Plata, la salida de algunos vapores aguas
arriba en direccion al Paraguay, no sabemos si con la acquiescencia
ó sin el competente permiso de nuestras autoridades, y la
declaracion escuálida de un periódico oficial, que ninguna
responsabilidad asume, pues se apellida á sí mismo oficioso, de que
el Gobierno ni quiere ni puede dudar de la buena fé del gabinete
Imperial.

En vista pues de las ocurrencias que se van desarrollando,
convencidos por nuestra parte de la gravedad de la situacion, y de la
gran responsabilidad moral, que puede acarrearnos en lo futuro, un
hecho tan remarcable en los fastos de nuestra historia, no
trepidamos un momento en abordar tan espinosa cuestion, tratando
de considerarla bajo todas sus faces, hasta que esclarecidos
nuestros derechos, podamos apreciar debidamente toda la latitud de
las conveniencias ó trastornos, que la cuestion brasilera, resuelta en
las aguas de nuestros rios interiores, pueda originarnos en lo
sucesivo.
Cuando se ventilan cuestiones graves, que pueden comprometer el
destino ó porvenir de los pueblos, hacer intervenir en ellas una ciega
credulidad, ó una confianza inocente, hácia personas, es incurrir en
un sacrilegio político. La credulidad y las afecciones personales
desaparecen siempre ante los grandes intereses de las naciones,
donde no debe oirse jamás otra voz que la de la historia que
aconseja siempre con la irrecusable lógica de los hechos.
En el caso actual surge uno positivo; y es, que, ninguna nacion
considera jamás la aglomeracion de fuerzas numerosas en un país
vecino, sin sentirse justamente alarmada, y sin que deje de entrar
inmediatamente en sérias esplicaciones respecto al objeto y fines de
ella. Y si esto sucede respecto á lo que pasa dentro de los límites de
una nacion estraña ¿con cuánta mayor razon no debemos
alarmarnos nosotros, cuando una poderosa escuadra se reune en
nuestros puertos, y anuncia su intencion de internarse en el corazon
mismo de nuestro territorio?
El derecho de la propia conservacion impone á las naciones el deber
de vigilar constantemente sobre ella, y la obligacion de prevenir con
tiempo todo cuanto pueda contribuir á ponerlas en peligro,
aniquilarlas, ó aun hacerles perder su influjo ó su preponderancia
mercantil ó política.

Todas las naciones están dándonos egemplos prácticos de esta
verdad incontestable: y si bien puede considerársele como un
derecho imperfecto, no obstante que la práctica lo haya hecho
perfecto, cuando tiene por objeto pedir esplicaciones sobre una
reunion de fuerzas en territorio estraño, se torna en un derecho
perfecto y legítimo cuando entrando en el nuestro, se sitúan en él.
Las naciones no peligran tan solamente cuando se les hostiliza ó
ataca directamente. Ellas deben considerarse amenazadas y
alarmarse con toda justicia, siempre que un poder fuerte cualquiera,
empeñándose en romper el equilibrio que garante la paz entre los
vecinos, tienda á robustecer sus fuerzas, ya sea por medio de la
conquista, ya por las influencias políticas, asegurándose una
preponderancia que venga á poner en duda su seguridad ó su
tranquilidad.
Los tratados del célebre Congreso de Viena, no tuvieron otro objeto
que asegurar el equilibrio europeo, porque aquella aglomeracion de
pequeñas nacionalidades, que podian ser absorvidas por los poderes
de primer órden, eran una constante alarma para unos y otros, y les
hacian temer á su vez el ser absorvidos ó ver peligrar sus destinos
ante un caprichoso juego de fortuna.
En la cuestion que actualmente ha iniciado el Brasil, no es posible
desconocerse á primera vista que, el equilibrio de los poderes sud
americanos en el Atlántico, se halla fuertemente comprometido. Si
cerrando nuestros ojos ante la evidencia del peligro, olvidados de
nuestra conveniencia, permanecemos indiferentes cuando se van á
jugar no solamente los intereses del Brasil y el Paraguay, sino muy
directamente los de la América del Sur y de un modo inmediato los
de la República Argentina, con razon podrá decirse que nosotros
mismos habremos contribuido eficazmente á labrar nuestra propia
ruina. Los intereses de la Repùblica Argentina se hallan hoy
estrechamente ligados á la República del Paraguay, y esta, ademas,
es el verdadero fiel de la balanza que marca el equilibrio de los
poderes en esta parte de la América.

Para dilucidar, pues, con refleccion y calma las verdaderas faces que
puede presentar la solucion de tan grave asunto, lo consideraremos
concienzudamente tratando de dejar esclarecidos primero, los
siguientes puntos:
Lo que importa la soberanía territorial.
Hasta donde se estiende el derecho de las naciones sobre los rios
enclavados dentro del territorio de una ó mas naciones ribereñas.
Que derechos permanecen inalienables, aun despues que la libre
navegacion ha sido reconocida de comun acuerdo.
Considerada esta cuestion bajo este punto de vista, trataremos de
averiguar si hay ó no conveniencia en autorizar el pasage de la
escuadra brasilera por nuestros rios interiores, y la influencia que la
solucion de esta cuestion puede egercer en los destinos futuros de la
República Argentina.

II.
Soberanía territorial.—Navegacion fluvial mercante.—
Derechos respectivos de los Estados ribereños.—El
Mississipi.—El San Lorenzo.—El Danubio.—El Duero.—El
Amazonas, &a. &a.
I la ambicion, la mala fé, y el interés particular, pudieran
eliminarse en los debates de la mayor parte de las
cuestiones que se suscitan entre las naciones, nada de
cierto seria mas fácil que la recta y clara solucion de ellas.
La cuestion de la soberanía territorial, que envuelve el
derecho á la navegacion de los rios interiores que se hallan
enclavados dentro de los límites de una ó mas naciones, y
los derechos y obligaciones que nacen de sus respectivas posiciones,
es una de aquellas que han suscitado mas prolongadas y calorosas
discusiones, habiendo tenido que resolverse, no pocas veces, por el
convencimiento irrecusable de la lógica de los cañones.
No obstante esto, ella es una cuestion sencilla y fácil de resolverse,
cuando solo se tienen en vista los sanos dictados de la razon y la
justicia.
En los nacientes Estados de la América del Sur, la necesidad de
poblacion y la conveniencia de plantar la civilizacion en playas

lejanas y solitarias, abandonadas hoy á la ignorancia y la barbarie,
no hay duda que la declaracion de una libertad absoluta de
navegacion por sus rios interiores, seria el pensamiento mas loable y
humanitario que pudiera abrigarse, si él pudiera ser llevado á efecto
sin perjuicio para los concesionarios. La formacion de una verdadera
red de nacionalidades distintas, llevando la industria y la civilizacion
al corazon de nuestros rios solitarios y abandonados, seria en efecto
un espectáculo digno de los principios civilizadores que han cundido
por todas partes en el inteligente siglo XIX. Nosotros nos
complaceriamos en adherirnos á este principio, y le proclamariamos
como eminentemente conveniente, si la historia y la esperiencia no
nos hubiesen demostrado que no siempre todo lo que pudiera ser
útil en un sentido, puede establecerse con provecho.
Asi pues, al ocuparnos de este asunto, solo lo haremos mirándolo
del punto de vista del derecho y soberanía de los Estados, segun
han sido consagrados por el derecho natural y confirmados por las
leyes internacionales. Reconocido el derecho de soberanía, sin el
cual la independencia de las naciones sería una ilusion, nos
ocuparemos de averiguar los demas derechos que de ella nacen, y
hasta que punto pueden ser ejercidos por las naciones, segun las
diversas posiciones que pueden ocupar respectivamente.
De la soberania de un estado, nace su derecho esclusivo sobre toda
la estension del territorio que ocupa, y por consiguiente sobre todas
y cada una de las partes de que se compone, en lo que se
comprenden los lagos, rios y demas aguas enclavadas, que forman
tambien parte de la propiedad territorial sobre que ejerce su
soberanía.
“El territorio, dice Pando, en su tratado de Derecho Internacional,
comprende en primer lugar el suelo que la nacion habita, y de que á
su arbitrio dispone para el uso de sus individuos y del Estado. En
segundo lugar comprende los rios, lagos y mares interiores.”

Mas esplicito aun es Ortolan, en su tratado de la Diplomatie de la
mer, al establecer el derecho de soberanía de las naciones en los
rios interiores.
“Se debe colocar, dice, en la misma línea que las radas y puertos, los
golfos y las bahias y todas las aguas enclavadas conocidas bajo otras
denominaciones, cuando estas bahias formadas por las tierras de un
mismo estado, no se estienden mas allá del tiro de cañon, ó cuando
la entrada puede ser dominada por la artilleria ó se halla defendida
naturalmente por islas, bancos ó rocas. En todos estos casos, en
efecto, es necesario convenir que dichos golfos ó bahias están en
poder del Estado dueño del territorio que los encierra. Este Estado
tiene la posesion; todos los razonamientos que hemos hecho
respecto á las radas y puertos pueden reproducirse aquí.”
Tan ajustados á la razon son estos principios, que si un Estado no
poseyese el derecho esclusivo de soberania sobre todas las cosas
que se hallan dentro, y forman parte, de su territorio, su
independencia vendria á ser nominal, por cuanto las demas
naciones, pudiendo disponer de lo que pertenecía á otra, la pondrian
en riesgo, desde que esos mismos rios y lagos lejos de ser un
gérmen de grandeza y poder para la nacion propietaria, podria servir
á las demas para hostilizarla ó anonadarla.
Esta prerrogativa, es pues un atributo esencial á la independencia de
una nacion. Es un derecho que ejerce plena y esclusivamente, sin
que las demas puedan restringirlo en ningun sentido, ni hayan razon
à quejarse de las ventajas que dejan de obtener por no permitírseles
compartir con ella de los derechos que ha adquirido, como nacion
soberana é independiente.
Algunos publicistas, bajo especiosos pretestos, han pretendido
restringir este derecho circunscribiéndolo á las posesiones terrestres,
estableciendo como un principio, que los rios interiores son vías que
la Providencia ha dado en comun á todas las naciones para

comunicarse entre sí, y que por consiguiente ninguna nacion puede
arrogarse el derecho del dominio esclusivo.
Tan capcioso argumento solo puede ser emitido bajo la inspiracion
de hacer prevalecer la conveniencia particular sobre el derecho y la
conveniencia general. Si los rios interiores de un Estado hubieran de
considerarse segun el principio anterior, y reputarse como rios
naturales que la providencia ha destinado indistintamente á todas las
naciones para comunicarse entre sí, no vemos porque las vias
terrestres no habian de ser igualmente tenidas por tan naturales
como aquellas, puesto que ellas conducen á un fin idéntico.
Sinembargo, nadie hasta ahora ha pretendido que una nacion no
tuviera derecho de impedir á las naciones estrangeras el tránsito
terrestre por sus dominios, ó que estas pudiesen transitar por él, sin
un permiso especial del poder soberano. Lo que se deduce de aqui
es, que una argumentacion semejante es mas especiosa que sólida.
Kluber (droit de gens moderne) reconociendo este derecho esclusivo
de las naciones sobre sus rios, lagos y demas aguas interiores se
espresa en estos términos:
“La independencia de las naciones se hace particularmente
reconocer en el uso libre y esclusivo del derecho en toda su
estension, tanto en el territorio marítimo del Estado, como en el de
sus rios, riveras, canales, lagos y estanques. Este uso no está
restringido sino cuando el Estado ha renunciado por convencion en
todo ó parte, ó se ha comprometido á dejar participar de ellos à otro
Estado. Y ni aun así puede acusarsele si prohibe todo pasage á las
naciones estrangeras por los rios, canales, ó lagos de su territorio.”
Habiendo establecido ya los principios generales de la soberanía
territorial, nos ocuparemos de dilucidar los derechos respectivos de
los Estados ribereños.
Apartándonos del derecho consagrado al primer poseedor por las
leyes internacionales, y del medio aconsejado para dirimir estas

cuestiones, que recomienda se tire una línea divisoria por el centro
del rio que baña á dos ó mas estados, pasaremos á ocuparnos de la
materia en el sentido general.
Cuando las aguas de un rio corren bañando las riberas de dos ó mas
naciones, los publicistas distinguen:
1.º—Cuando dos ó mas naciones ocupan diversas riberas del rio.
2.º—Cuando ambas riberas de la embocadura pertenecen á una sola
nacion, y el resto hasta su naciente á varias naciones ribereñas.
3.º—Cuando ambas costas á la embocadura pertenecen á una, y
desde allí á la naciente á otra.
En el primer caso el derecho internacional ha reconocido como
perteneciente en comun, esclusivamente á ambas naciones
ribereñas, la navegacion del rio, quienes tienen, igualmente en
comun, el derecho de disponer y reglamentar su navegacion, con
esclusion de todas las demás.
En el segundo caso, cuando la embocadura pertenece á una sola
nacion, esta tiene esclusivamente el derecho de disponer á su
arbitrio de la parte de territorio que le pertenece, y por consiguiente
puede negar el tránsito por sus aguas, no solo á las naciones que no
participan de las corrientes del rio, sino tambien á aquellas que
ocupan la parte interior de la embocadura.
No han faltado naciones que hayan contestado este derecho,
pretendiendo que los Estados situados sobre las márgenes del rio,
tienen un derecho incontestable á atravesar el territorio estraño, á
fin de buscar una salida á sus productos y comunicar con el resto del
mundo.
Ya anteriormente hemos combatido este principio, pero oigamos á
Angelis, en su folleto De la navigation de l'Amazone, quien combate
lógicamente al publicista Bello, quien participa igualmente de él.

“Bello, dice, no ha reflexionado que este pretendido derecho de la
nacion propietaria de la parte superior del rio, podia ser
completamente paralizado por el derecho que él reconoce á la otra
nacion de velar por su propia conservacion. La necesidad de la
conservacion, necesidad absoluta segun Bello mismo, puede exigir
no solamente que esa nacion reglamente la navegacion del curso de
las aguas que corren por su territorio, pero aun que prohiba dicha
navegacion á los estrangeros. ¿Quién será juez de esta necesidad?
Ella sola, pues que es soberana, y no puede admitir ninguna
autoridad superior á ella. Desde luego ese derecho de navegacion,
que Bello acuerda á la nacion dueña de la parte superior del rio, es
esencialmente imperfecto.”
En el tercer caso, que se halla comprendido en la citacion anterior,
es decir, cuando el rio está dividido entre dos naciones, poseyendo
una la naciente y la otra la embocadura, cada una posee el derecho
esclusivo de soberanía, sin estenderse mas allá de sus límites
respectivos.
En todos estos casos, la razon y la humanidad aconsejan que las
naciones se protejan y ayuden mutuamente, permitiéndose unas á
otras el libre tránsito por sus aguas respectivas, á fin de comunicar ó
comerciar con los demas pueblos: pero esto, como lo hemos
espresado ya, sin dejar de reconocer el derecho perfecto que tiene
cada una para dictar lo que mas le convenga en casos análogos.
Los principios que acabamos de establecer están en perfecto
acuerdo con la práctica general y el derecho internacional,
sancionado por las naciones. Asi hemos visto nosotros, al tratarse en
la sesion de 19 de Febrero de 1846, en la Cámara de los Lores de
Inglaterra, la cuestion de la libre navegacion de nuestros rios
interiores, á su Ministro de Relaciones Esteriores Lord Aberdeen,
declarar “no podemos pretender egercer ningun derecho sobre la
navegacion del Paraná, cuyas dos riberas se encuentran en el
territorio argentino. Esta pretension seria contraria á nuestra práctica
universal y á los principios de las naciones.”

El mismo Lord Aberdeen habia ya declarado en la sesion de 17 de
Junio de 1845, que “Buenos Aires poseyendo la soberanía de ambas
riberas del Paraná, tiene derecho á impedir á todo poder estrangero
el penetrar en el interior de este rio, de la misma manera que
nosotros tenemos el derecho de impedir la navegacion del San
Lorenzo á todo poder estrangero.”
Hemos dicho que la práctica general ha sancionado este derecho, y
la mayor parte de las naciones que poseen rios interiores nos
ofrecen abundantes ejemplos.
Uno bien notable nos presenta la cuestion de la navegacion del
Mississipi entre la España y Estados Unidos, cuando dueña aquella
de ambas riberas se opuso á que los buques de la Union cruzasen
por su territorio. Tratando sobre la navegacion de este rio, dice
Angelis, en la obra que hemos citado anteriormente.
“Despues de la independencia de los Estados Unidos, la España
habiendo quedado dueña de las dos riberas de la embocadura del
Mississipi, y de sus afluentes el Ohio, Kentuky y Tenesse; el
Mississipi era la vía natural y única de comunicacion de provincias
inmensas con el mar; los derechos que resultaban de la nueva
posicion de la España paralizaban casi enteramente el comercio de
esos países, cuya prosperidad y aun existencia se encontraban de
este modo amenazadas. Los Estados Unidos habian estado en
posesion del derecho de hacer salir sus productos por las bocas del
Mississipi. La fuerza de estas graves consideraciones espiraban ante
el derecho que resultaba à la España de la propiedad de ambas
riberas de la embocadura del rio. La Union se inclinó ante este
derecho incontestable, apaciguó el descontento de las provincias del
Oeste, y comprendiendo que solo el consentimiento de la España
podria abrir á su comercio las bocas del Mississipi, el gobierno
federal solicitó de esta potencia, en cambio de algunas concesiones,
el derecho de navegacion en la parte inferior del Mississipi.”

La Inglaterra conservó el mismo derecho que le asegura la
propiedad de ambas riberas de la embocadura del San Lorenzo en
los Estados Unidos, habiendo prohibido su navegacion á la Union-
Americana hasta el 5 de Junio de 1854, en que dicha navegacion les
ha sido acordada, en cambio de algunas concesiones hechas por la
Union á favor de la Gran Bretaña. En dicho tratado, que solo tiene
valor por diez años, y no mas, á no ser una notificacion contraria,
está estipulado espresamente que—“El gobierno Britànico se reserva
la facultad de retirar á los americanos el privilegio de navegar en el
Canadá, y por contra los Estados-Unidos podrán privar á los subditos
Británicos del derecho de navegacion en el lago Michigan.”
El Danubio, que baña la Baviera, el Austria y la Turquia, ha sido
reconocido como propiedad esclusiva de los Estados rivereños.
La Francia prohibe la navegacion del Rhone á la Suiza, entre cuyos
estados tiene este rio sus vertientes.
La España y Portugal, mantienen el esclusivo derecho á la
navegacion del Duero y el Tajo, cuyos dominios bañan, habiendo
estipulado por el tratado de 31 de Agosto de 1835, en que se
declara la navegacion del Duero libre para los súbditos de ambos
Estados, que “esta libertad se entenderá solamente de reino á reino
en la estension del rio para los buques de ambas naciones.”
El Brasil se ha reservado el derecho esclusivo de navegacion en el
Rio Amazonas hasta 1851, en que por la convencion del 23 de
Octubre fué concedida, bajo ciertas estipulaciones, al Perú, debiendo
ser estensiva á los demas Estados rivereños que “adoptando los
mismos principios, (del tratado de 1851) quisieran tomar parte en la
empresa bajo las mismas condiciones, y contribuyan por su parte á
la subvencion.”
El mismo Imperio, conserva el derecho esclusivo á la navegacion de
la laguna Mirim, mar interior de Estado Oriental, á quien no es

permitido transportar por él sus frutos para conducirlos al esterior,
por via del Rio Grande, donde desemboca.
Habiendo dejado sentados los principios generales consagrados por
el derecho internacional y reconocidos por los tratados entre las
naciones, en adelante nos ocuparemos de otros derechos que nacen
del dominio territorial, y muy especialmente del que tiene relacion
con el tránsito de los buques de guerra por las vias fluviales de una
nacion estraña.
Si nos hemos detenido en estas consideraciones, respecto á la
navegacion mercante, es porque nos era indispensable dejar
sentados estos principios generales, á fin de poder basar
sólidamente las deducciones que tendremos que hacer, al tratar del
pasage de los buques de guerra, que es el punto principal á que
tienden nuestros escritos.

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