一比一原版(UCM毕业证书)加州大学默塞德分校毕业证成绩单

DECOUPLED
AND RECONFIGURED
2024
SNAPSHOT

4 5
The Future of Trade: Snapshot The Future of Trade: Snapshot
The Future of Trade 2024, DMCC’s fifth edition of its
biennial flagship report, explores the evolving power
dynamics shaping the global trade landscape amidst
significant change.
The emergence of new political and economic alliances,
increasing geopolitical tensions, and significant industry
shifts, such as the “chip war” between the United States
and China, the sweeping changes brought about by AI and
the drive toward carbon net zero, are redefining the future
of trade.
This report delves into how geopolitics, sustainability,
technology, and finance are interacting to reshape trade
dynamics, reflecting on past predictions and analysing the
evolution of trade in the context of ongoing global crises
that continue to influence policy and consumer behaviour.
INTRODUCTION
AND EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION:
NAVIGATING NEW CHALLENGES
AND OPPORTUNITIES
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
The emergence of new political and economic
alliances, increasing geopolitical tensions, and
significant industry shifts, such as the “chip war”
between the United States and China, the sweeping
changes brought about by AI and the drive toward
carbon net zero, are redefining the future of trade.
As we enter a period of profound global change, new
challenges and opportunities are emerging that promise to
reshape trade for decades. Agility and foresight are critical as
businesses and governments navigate a landscape brimming
with potential.
THE SIGNIFICANT SHIFTS IN GLOBAL TRADE
Accelerated regionalisation: Influenced by geopolitics, climate
concerns, and technology, we are witnessing a significant shift
from globalisation to regionalisation. This shift is expected
to strengthen as new trade blocs form and countries seek
resilience over cost-efficiency in their supply chains.
Restructuring of supply chains: Ongoing political upheavals,
economic nationalism, and climate impacts are prompting
businesses to reconfigure supply chains, moving towards
friendshoring and reducing dependencies, particularly on China.

6 7
Technological and environmental advances: The rapid
adoption of AI and a greater focus on sustainability are
set to be major drivers of trade, fostering new commodity
demands and creating trade hubs centered around digital
and environmental goods.
THE DRIVERS OF CHANGE:
Geopolitical events, including elections in key economies,
could increase economic nationalism and trade
protectionism, affecting global trade policies and economic
relations.
The global drive to carbon net zero is shifting the trade
landscape. Trade is accelerating in environmental goods
and technologies as well as clean and renewable forms of
energy to support the energy transition. The landscape is
rich in opportunity but risks remain. The EU’s carbon border
adjustment mechanism is part of a broader move towards
integrating environmental goals in trade policies, but which
could lead to new tariff barriers and trade protectionism.
Technological innovations, particularly AI, are poised to
revolutionise trade practices, enhancing efficiency and
inclusivity but also requiring careful navigation around
regulatory and data harmonisation issues.
OPPORTUNITIES AND RISKS:
The growing emphasis on regional trading agreements and the
restructuring of supply chains present opportunities to forge
new trading relationships and enhance economic resilience.
Climate change and the transition towards sustainable
technologies offer both challenges and opportunities,
as businesses and countries adjust to new consumer
preferences and regulatory landscapes.
The digital transformation of trade, through AI and blockchain,
offers potential to streamline and secure trade finance and
operations but also introduces challenges related to adoption
and integration across diverse regulatory environments.
STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS:
Businesses must stay vigilant and adaptable to leverage new
opportunities and mitigate risks arising from rapid economic,
technological, and political changes.
Policymakers play a crucial role in creating supportive
regulatory frameworks that foster innovation and adapt to
the changing needs of global trade, particularly in technology
and environmental policy.

8 9
The Future of Trade 2024 provides insights
from global experts and roundtables,
predicting key trends and offering strategic
advice for navigating the complexities of
the modern trade landscape. With profound
transformations underway, understanding
these dynamics is essential for businesses and
policymakers to make informed decisions that
will shape their success in the emerging global
trade environment
ABOUT
THE REPORT
MAIN
FINDINGS
Trade will grow – albeit
slowly. All regions will
experience export growth
over the next two years, with
North America, Asia and
Africa leading the way.
Regionalisation will
accelerate, marked by
friendshoring strategies
and trade hubs centred
around Asia and North
America.
Risks to trade growth
include high inflation,
elevated interest and the
slowdown of the Chinese
and European economies.
The battle for supremacy
in semiconductors will
become more prominent
amid the U.S. and
China chip war, with
knock-on effects across
industries and the green
transition.
Geopolitical tensions and
conflicts will heavily shape
supply chain restructuring
strategies, leading to a
rerouting of trade and
potential inflationary
pressure.
The widespread
adoption of AI will
drive greater trade
efficiencies.
Digital services will surge,
driven by the dawn of
generative AI.
Carbon pricing and trading
systems will significantly
change the nature of trade,
favouring lower carbon-
intensive producers and
sustainable products.
The trade finance gap
is likely to remain high
or even widen.
Supply chain
reconfiguration will allow
for the development of
new consumer markets and
production hubs.

The landscape of global trade is poised for
growth, albeit at a gradual pace. After a
1.2% decline in merchandise trade volumes
in 2023, the World Trade Organisation
(WTO) forecasts a rebound, with growth
expected at 2.6% in 2024 and 3.3% in
2025, reflecting similar trends in global
GDP projections.
The road to recovery is, however, fraught with
challenges:
Economic slowdowns: Significant downturns
in major economies like China and Europe are
dampening the global trade outlook.
Inflation and geopolitical tensions: High inflation
and geopolitical unrest continue to threaten
stability, with risks such as sea shipment disruptions
and rising protectionism impacting trade dynamics.
Several factors are set to bolster the
resilience of global trade:
Digital transformation: The surge in
e-commerce and digital services, catalysed
by the COVID-19 pandemic, shows no signs
of slowing down. This sector is anticipated
to expand further, fueled by the growing
young consumer base and increased
internet penetration globally.
Technological advancements: The advent
of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is set to
revolutionise sectors from logistics to
trade finance, streamlining operations and
enhancing efficiencies.
Sustainability and energy transition:
The shift towards renewable energy and
sustainable practices is fostering new trade
opportunities in green technologies.
11
10
Merchandise trade volume and GDP growth, 2018-2025
Merchandise trade
volume growth
Real GDP growth at market
exchange rates
%
change
Source: WTO, 2024
THE OUTLOOK
FOR GLOBAL
TRADE
INTRODUCTION Economic pressures
and geopolitical risks
Trade is also being shaped by geopolitical and
macroeconomic factors:
Volatility in commodity markets: Recent
years have seen significant fluctuations
in commodity prices, exacerbated by
geopolitical conflicts in Europe and the Middle
East, which have disrupted traditional trade
patterns, rerouted shipping, and caused spikes
in prices for oil, natural gas, grains, and other
commodities.
Emerging markets and diversification:
Fast-growing emerging markets like Mexico,
Vietnam, and India are emerging as significant
players, offering alternative manufacturing
hubs and reshaping global supply chains.
Geopolitical and
macroeconomic influences
Driving forces
behind trade resilience
Crude oil and natural gas prices, Jan 2021 - Jan 2024 ($)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2021 2022 2023 2024
Crude oil price Natural gas price
Source: IMF, 2024

Middle East and Asia: These regions are
capitalising on their relatively neutral
geopolitical stances and strategic locations
to enhance their roles in global trade,
particularly in facilitating trade between
East and West and within the Global South.
As we advance, the landscape of
global trade is increasingly influenced
by technology and sustainability. The
integration of AI and the growth in green
technologies are not just trends but are
12 13
Regional
developments
Conclusion
Green and digital growth: The Middle
East and Europe, despite facing
challenges, are expected to see growth
in exports driven by both the green
transition and digital services. The
latter continues to grow robustly in
the Middle East, underpinned by high
internet penetration and the expansion
of e-commerce.
Trade volumes: While goods still dominate
global trade volumes, services are rapidly
catching up. In 2023, the trade in services
grew by 9%, outpacing the growth in goods.
Digital and remote services: The shift
towards remote and digitally delivered
services is likely to continue, enhancing
the global reach of sectors such as
entertainment, consulting, and tech services.
World trade in goods and services, 2018-2023 ($ trillions)
FIGURE 3
Source: WTO (2024) Goods Commercial Services
Global exports of services 2010-2022 ($ trillion)
FIGURE 4
Source: UNCTAD Stats (2023) Digitally delivered service exports Total service exports
becoming central pillars of trade strategies.
These elements, combined with robust
geopolitical strategies and economic policies,
will dictate the pace and direction of global
trade growth in the coming years.
While goods still dominate global
trade volumes, services are rapidly
catching up. In 2023, the trade in
services grew by 9%, outpacing the
growth in goods.

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TRANSFORMATIVE
FORCES
OF TRADE
Recent years have underscored how
swiftly unforeseen crises can reshape
global trade, revealing the deep
interconnections between structural
changes in the world economy and
societal shifts. The key transformative
forces—increased regionalisation, supply
chain restructuring, and the advancement
of artificial intelligence (AI)—are poised to
significantly alter the trade landscape.
OVERVIEW
Global average primary commodity prices, 2019-2023
Index 2019=100 and US$ per million Btu
FIGURE 5
Grains Fertilizers
Energy Crude Oil Food
Source: WTO (2024)
Index,
2019
=100
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Geopolitics and macroeconomic risks are
driving a shift towards regionalisation,
moving away from the long-standing trend
of globalisation. The COVID-19 pandemic
highlighted vulnerabilities in global supply
chains, such as the lack of alternative suppliers
and the collapse of just-in-time delivery
systems. This shift is further exacerbated by
sluggish economic performances of China and
Europe, and heightened geopolitical tensions,
including conflicts that disrupt trade routes
and lead to increased consumer costs.
Significantly, trade agreements like the
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement
for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP),
Regional Comprehensive Economic
Technological advances over the last decade,
including automation, robotics, and digitalisation,
have already transformed production processes
and supply chain management. The expansion
of e-commerce and digital trade has been
particularly notable, with a significant increase
in cross-border online retailing. These sectors
have shown remarkable resilience to external
shocks, leading to a broader expansion of trade
in services and digital goods.
AI stands out as a particularly disruptive
technology, surpassing even blockchain in
its potential to reshape business operations
and global trade. AI enhances supply-side
efficiencies, automates decision-making, and
powers new solutions in trade finance and
customer service. However, the regulatory
frameworks necessary to govern AI’s integration
into global trade remain underdeveloped, posing
potential hurdles to realising its full potential.
The forces reshaping global trade are
complex and multifaceted, driven by
rapid technological advances and shifting
geopolitical landscapes. Companies that
adapt to these changes by investing in
new technologies and diversifying their
operations will likely find themselves better
positioned in a rapidly evolving global
market. The next decade will be critical as
these transformative forces become more
pronounced, influencing all aspects of
global trade from production to consumer
engagement.
The move towards regionalisation has
prompted companies to prioritise reliability
and security over cost in their supply
chains. High-profile disruptions such as
the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical
conflicts like Russia’s invasion of Ukraine
have triggered significant supply
chain challenges, particularly in critical
commodities like oil, gas, and fertilizers.
The ongoing U.S.-China tensions over
tariffs and technology exports (notably
semiconductors) further complicate global
trade, pushing companies to diversify their
supply sources to countries less affected by
these tensions, such as Vietnam and Mexico.
This environment compels companies
to proactively enhance their supply
chain resilience, preparing for potential
prolonged disruptions by diversifying
suppliers and strengthening their logistical
frameworks.
Increasing
regionalisation as a
response to geopolitics
Digital trade
expansion and AI
integration
Conclusion
Supply chain
reconfiguration due to
regionalisation
Partnership (RCEP), and African Continental
Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) are strengthening
regional trade corridors. These agreements
reduce trade barriers, harmonise regulations,
and enhance economic cooperation, thus
fostering regional economic blocs that could
redefine global trade dynamics.

DRIVERS AND
DYNAMICS OF TRADE
RESILIENCE
Trade growth is projected to continue
in the coming years, albeit at a gradual
and uneven pace, demonstrating the
inherent resilience of global trade amidst a
multitude of destabilising forces. Effective
strategies by governments and industries
to mitigate risks are crucial for ensuring
trade continuity.
OVERVIEW
16 17
China’s economic influence: As the world’s
second-largest economy and a primary
trading partner for numerous countries,
China’s economic downturn significantly
impacts global trade. The crisis in China’s
property market and the resulting defaults
pose substantial challenges to global growth.
Europe’s economic stagnation: Europe
is grappling with high energy costs and
Germany’s economic downturn, contributing
to a weakened euro and reduced consumer
buying power. This slowdown affects global
trade by diminishing European demand and
investment confidence.
Global inflation trends: Initiated by the
COVID-19 economic shock and exacerbated
by supply chain disruptions and geopolitical
tensions, global inflation surged but is
expected to gradually decline from 6.9%
in 2023 to 4.6% by 2025. While decreasing
inflation may relieve some pressure on
producer margins and stabilise prices, high
interest rates will likely curb economic
growth potential.
Strategic business responses: In response
to inflation and its associated challenges,
businesses are advised to optimise
operational costs and enhance supply
chain resilience to mitigate risks related to
disruptions and logistics.
Economic challenges
impacting global trade
Inflation
dynamics
Persistently high interest rates: Despite
a desire to reduce them, key financial
institutions like the Bank of England and
the U.S. Federal Reserve predict that
interest rates will remain elevated to combat
ongoing inflation. High borrowing costs
dampen investment and consumer spending,
complicating global trade dynamics.
Regionalisation and trade policies: With
accelerated regionalisation, governments
must prioritise trade liberalisation and
facilitation through regional and bilateral
agreements. Ambitious regulatory
frameworks are also necessary to leverage
technology, including AI, in ways that protect
consumers without inhibiting innovation.
Dollar appreciation: The strong U.S. dollar,
which dominates global trade transactions,
makes U.S. exports more expensive and
reduces demand. This dynamic affects
not only the U.S. but also countries with
dollar-pegged currencies or significant
dollar reserves. A prolonged strong dollar is
expected to continue affecting global trade,
especially in emerging markets.
Diversification and risk management: To
combat the vulnerabilities exposed by
dollar strength, inflation, and interest rates,
businesses and countries should focus on
diversifying production hubs and consumer
markets, particularly towards rapidly
urbanising regions in Asia-Pacific and other
emerging economies.
Environmental goods and digital services:
The increasing global emphasis on
sustainability is boosting the trade in
environmental goods, while advancements in
technology are expanding the trade in digital
services. These sectors present significant
growth opportunities but also introduce
new risks, such as trade tensions related to
technological and environmental products.
Interest rates and
financial policies
Policy and regulatory
frameworks
Currency strength
and trade implications
Trade resilience strategies
The section underscores the complexity
of the global trade environment,
highlighting the interplay between
economic downturns, inflation, currency
dynamics, and regulatory challenges. It
emphasises the importance of strategic
diversification, advanced technological
integration, and robust policy frameworks
to sustain and enhance trade resilience in
a fluctuating global market.
Conclusion

Recommendations for governments:
1
3
2
4
4
Diversify export markets:
Despite slow growth, there are
opportunities for export expansion,
particularly in North America and
emerging markets in Asia-Pacific
and Africa. Businesses should
adopt diversification strategies for
their export markets to capitalise
on growth opportunities in these
regions.
Reconfigure supply chains
against geopolitical shifts: Rapid
reconfiguration of trade flows due
to geopolitical tensions presents
both challenges and opportunities.
Businesses should be prepared to
adapt to these changes by building
flexible supply chains and exploring
new markets and partnerships.
Diversification of suppliers and
investing in alternative sourcing
strategies can also help mitigate
supply chain disruptions.
Mitigate macroeconomic risks:
Against a backdrop of global
economic uncertainty, businesses
should proactively monitor
conditions such as economic
slowdowns, currency fluctuations,
inflation, and taxation. Strategies
should be considered to mitigate
risks associated with these factors,
including cost optimisation.
Recommendations for businesses:
1
2
3
Build new trade relationships:
Governments should make trade
promotion a core policy objective
and foster trade partnerships
beyond traditional markets.
Encouraging exports to regions
with strong growth potential can
help build new consumer bases,
mitigate the impact of slow global
trade growth and enhance resilience
against economic fluctuations.
Invest in digital infrastructure
and innovation: Recognising the
growth potential of digital services
trade, governments should prioritise
investments in digital infrastructure
and innovation ecosystems.
Supporting the development
of AI technologies and digital
trade platforms can unlock new
opportunities for economic growth
and competitiveness.
Strengthen industry supply chain
security: Given the intensifying
competition between regions
and the strategic importance
of commodities and minerals,
governments should prioritise
measures to strengthen supply
chain security. This may include
diversifying sourcing locations,
promoting domestic production
of critical goods, and enhancing
collaboration with international
partners to ensure reliable access
to essential resources.
Facilitate regional integration
and cooperation: Geopolitical
tensions are driving a shift towards
greater regionalisation in trade
flows. Governments should actively
promote regional integration and
cooperation initiatives to capitalise
on emerging opportunities and
mitigate risks associated with
geopolitical instability. Creating
frameworks for cross-border
trade facilitation and harmonising
regulatory standards can foster
economic resilience and sustainable
development.
Invest in digital transformation
and innovation: Against a tide of
technological advancement, the
dawn of AI stands to revolutionise
trading systems. Companies that
invest in understanding AI and how
to build use cases stand to benefit.
Those that do not run the risk of
losing out to competition.
18 19

The push towards friendshoring and
nearshoring is reshaping global supply
chains, aiming to mitigate disruptions and
bolster trade resilience. This strategy is
crucial in sectors reliant on critical materials,
where alternatives are limited, thus making
them vulnerable to geopolitical shifts.
The restructuring is also influenced by a
realignment of geo-economic strategies post-
COVID-19, focusing on reducing dependency
on contentious geopolitical players.
The transformation into a multipolar trade
world continues as anticipated, with regions
like North America, Europe, and a China-centric
Asia diversifying their trade partners. This
shift is creating new regional trade dynamics
and opportunities, especially for rising middle
powers and non-aligned countries. The
increasing regionalisation is supported by
multilateral agreements like RCEP, CPTPP, and
USMCA, which are aimed at reducing tariffs
and fostering regional trade connections.
The past few decades of secure international
trade environments have shifted dramatically
to a scenario fraught with geopolitical and
macroeconomic uncertainties. This shift is
significantly impacting global trade dynamics,
making resilience and adaptability key traits
for businesses and governments alike. The
Future of Trade survey of over 100 business
leaders highlighted geopolitical tensions,
particularly between China and the United
States, as the foremost challenge to trade
growth, with a significant impact also from
rising nationalism and onshoring trends.
These factors are influencing trade policies
increasingly driven by ideology and economic
security rather than pure economic efficiency.
THE
GEOPOLITICS
OF TRADE
Supply chain
restructuring for security
and trade resilience
Regionalisation redrawing
trade architecture
New alliances,
new trade routes
21
20
With numerous global elections scheduled
for 2024, there’s a potential rise in
protectionist policies, especially in the United
States, where political outcomes could
significantly influence global trade policies.
Economic nationalism is increasing globally,
necessitating businesses to adapt swiftly to
changing regulations and trade barriers.
In response to geopolitical shifts, particularly
U.S.-China tensions, new production hubs
are emerging as alternatives to China. This
shift is partly due to strategic decoupling
efforts like the U.S. Inflation Reduction
Act and the CHIPS Act. Countries like
Vietnam, Thailand, South Korea, and Mexico
The United States is actively seeking to limit
China’s influence in high-tech sectors by
bolstering domestic capabilities in sectors
like battery technology, biotechnology,
semiconductors, and clean energy. These
efforts are reshaping trade relationships and
creating new competitive dynamics in the
global trade arena.
Ongoing geopolitical conflicts, such as
those in Europe and the Middle East and the
sustained tensions between the United States
and China, are reshaping economic landscapes
The current geopolitical landscape of trade
is characterised by significant shifts towards
regionalisation, supply chain restructuring,
and the emergence of new trade
battlegrounds influenced by technological
and environmental factors. Companies and
governments must navigate these changes
Geopolitical tensions and
economic nationalism
driving uncertainty
Emerging production
hubs and the decline of
China’s dominance
Technology and climate
as new battlegrounds
Conflicts and tensions
fueling trade instability
Conclusion
and causing major disruptions in vital global
supply routes. These tensions are expected to
escalate the risk of supply chain dislocations
and alter global trade volumes, necessitating
robust risk management strategies.
US total goods imports ($bn) 2012-2023
US imports from China US imports from Mexico
Source: UN Comtrade Database (2024)
$
billion
are becoming significant players in
diversifying global supply chains away
from China, providing new opportunities
and challenges in global trade.
strategically to maintain stability and
growth in the global economy. The ongoing
geopolitical tensions, notably between
the United States and China, coupled
with regional conflicts, pose continuous
challenges and opportunities for reshaping
global trade practices and partnerships.

22 23
1
4
2
3
4
5
6
Elevate geopolitical risk
awareness: Geopolitical risk
should be a top-level concern,
addressed by both the board and
executive committee. Regular
scenario planning sessions,
involving key decision-makers, are
essential to anticipate potential
geopolitical developments and
their implications for business
operations. This proactive
approach enables businesses to
develop contingency plans and
mitigate risks effectively.
Monitor economic security
policies to maintain operational
resilience: Economic security
considerations are increasingly
shaping domestic government
policies. Businesses should stay
vigilant and continuously monitor
potential shifts in government
policies, and their impacts on
business operations. Analyse the
potential consequences of policy
changes, both intended and
unintended, to adapt strategies
accordingly and maintain
operational resilience.
Communicate supply chain risks
to key stakeholders: Proactively
engage with authorities and
other critical stakeholders to
communicate the risks facing
supply chains. By fostering open
dialogue and sharing insights,
businesses can contribute to
informed decision-making on trade
policy and negotiations.
1
2
3
Develop trade diversification
strategies to mitigate geopolitical
risk: By diversifying trade partners
and markets, governments can
reduce dependence on volatile
regions and enhance economic
resilience. Trade policymakers
should prioritise strategic trade
diversification initiatives to adapt
to the rerouting of trade driven by
geopolitical tensions. This includes
fostering partnerships with fast-
growing emerging markets like
Mexico, Vietnam, and other ASEAN
members.
Consider financial support for
critical import supply chain
resilience: Recognising the changing
dynamics of supply chain strategies,
governments should incentivise
businesses to boost resilience and
economic security. This may involve
providing financial incentives, tax
breaks, or subsidies to encourage
investment in local manufacturing
capabilities, diversification of
suppliers, and adoption of resilient
supply chain practices.
Build partnerships with the
UAE and other global trade
facilitators: Countries like the
UAE and ASEAN member states
are poised to benefit from their
geopolitical neutrality and diverse
trade relationships. Governments
should foster partnerships and trade
agreements with these powers
to facilitate increased trade flows
and investment opportunities. By
leveraging their strategic geographic
locations and trade-friendly
policies, they can serve as key hubs
for regional trade and economic
integration.
Support efforts to reform the WTO:
The World Trade Organisation fulfils
a critical role in the global trade
landscape. Governments must
actively engage with reform efforts
to address the existential challenges
facing the WTO and ensure its
relevance and effectiveness in the
future. Most urgently, this includes
finding solutions to the dispute
resolution mechanism impasse.
Prepare for regulatory changes:
Businesses should anticipate an
increasingly protectionist regulatory
environment and be prepared
to adapt accordingly. This may
involve restructuring operations,
establishing new legal entities, or
relocating business activities to align
with evolving regulations.
Regularly assess supply chain
vulnerabilities: Continuously
review supply chains to identify
vulnerabilities and assess potential
disruption risks from regional
shocks. Conducting regular risk
assessments allows businesses to
proactively address weak points in
their supply chains and implement
mitigation strategies to minimise the
impact of unforeseen events.
Develop regional expertise and
local intelligence: As supply chains
are restructured in response to
geopolitical shifts, understanding
diverse national laws, regulations,
data restrictions, and trade barriers
becomes increasingly important.
Businesses should invest in
resources and capabilities that
facilitate effective risk management,
such as developing regional
expertise and local knowledge.

THE DAWN OF AI AND
THE TRANSFORMATION
OF GLOBAL TRADE
25
24
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is poised to
dramatically transform global trade by
enhancing efficiencies, reducing costs, and
overcoming geographical barriers. This
chapter delves into AI’s impact, focusing
on its integration in various sectors, the
pivotal role of semiconductor chips, the
evolution of cryptocurrencies, Central
Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs), and
the potential of blockchain technology
to revolutionise e-commerce and supply
chain management.
OVERVIEW
AI’s integration into trade is becoming
increasingly profound, forecast to add $15 trillion
to the global economy by 2030. AI technologies,
particularly generative AI like ChatGPT, are
advancing capabilities across highly tradeable
sectors such as IT services, transport equipment,
and electronics, which dominate AI-related
patent filings. AI enhances supply chain
management through improved forecasting
and inventory management, boosts trade
finance security, and optimises market analysis,
profoundly impacting global trade operations.
Artificial Intelligence:
A New Frontier in Trade
Enterprises using AI software and systems by type of purpose and economic
activity, EU, 2021, percentage of enterprises using at least one AI technology
Source: Eurostat, 2023 All enterprises
Medium enterprises Large enterprises
Small enterprises Enterprises using
at least one AI
technology, EU, 2021, %
Despite its potential, AI’s global adoption faces
hurdles including the need for standardised
regulations and the high costs associated with
deploying AI technologies. These challenges
could slow AI adoption, particularly in less
developed regions, potentially exacerbating
global trade inequalities.
Despite its potential, AI’s global adoption faces
hurdles including the need for standardised
regulations and the high costs associated with
deploying AI technologies. These challenges
could slow AI adoption, particularly in less
developed regions, potentially exacerbating
global trade inequalities.
Semiconductors remain crucial for AI and the
broader digital economy, yet face geopolitical
tensions, notably the U.S.-China tech rivalry.
The United States has intensified efforts to
maintain semiconductor supremacy through
significant subsidies and stringent export
controls, which directly impact China’s
technological advancements. This tug-of-war
over semiconductors underscores the strategic
importance of these components in global
trade and national security.
Digital trade agreements are becoming
increasingly critical in managing cross-
border data flows and establishing common
legal frameworks for digital trade. These
agreements, such as the CPTPP and RCEP,
include digital chapters that facilitate
e-commerce by standardising customs
procedures and enhancing electronic
transaction security.
AI and digital technologies are set to redefine
global trade by breaking down traditional
barriers and fostering new efficiencies.
However, the full realisation of these
technologies’ potential in trade depends
on overcoming regulatory challenges and
ensuring broad and inclusive adoption across
all regions. As digital trade agreements evolve,
they must address the complexities of data
governance and digital commerce to fully
harness the benefits of these transformative
technologies.
Cryptocurrencies and CBDCs are reshaping
financial transactions in global trade by
offering faster and more secure payment
methods. However, the volatile nature of
cryptocurrencies and security concerns
pose significant barriers to their widespread
adoption in trade finance.
Challenges to AI
implementation
Blockchain’s untapped
potential
Semiconductor
industry: The battle for
technological leadership
Digital trade agreements:
Shaping the future of
e-commerce
Conclusion
Cryptocurrencies and
blockchain: Enhancing
digital trade

26 27
Embrace comprehensive digital
transformation: Businesses should
continue to embrace digital
transformation, incorporating advanced
technologies such as AI into their
operations. This entails not only adopting
these technologies but also fostering a
culture of innovation and digital literacy
across the organisation.
Invest in R&D and pilot programmes:
Digital transformation may require
additional investment in research
and development or multiple pilot
programmes to identify the best
use cases for new technologies or
combinations thereof. Investing in
experimentation and iterative testing
allows businesses to refine their digital
strategies and maximise the value
derived from emerging technologies.
Those that do this stand to gain a
significant competitive advantage on
those that do not.
Engage proactively on technology
regulation: Businesses should
actively engage with regulators and
policymakers, especially in the early
stages of regulatory framework
development for emerging technologies.
Given the widening gap between digital
development and related regulation,
businesses must participate in shaping
regulatory frameworks to ensure they are
conducive to innovation while addressing
societal concerns and risks.
Advocate for common standards
and harmonisation: Making the
case for more efficient markets and
increased economic growth can help
persuade policymakers to adopt
Foster AI adoption and regulation:
Governments should prioritise
policies that encourage the adoption
and responsible use of AI. This
includes investing in AI research and
development, supporting AI education
and workforce training programmes
and establishing regulatory frameworks
to ensure ethical AI deployment. By
fostering innovation and addressing
concerns related to privacy, bias,
and accountability, governments can
unlock the transformative potential of
AI in driving operational efficiencies,
enhancing customer engagement, and
facilitating trade.
Ensure semiconductor supply chain
resilience: Recognising the critical
importance of semiconductors in global
trade and industry, governments should
implement measures to safeguard
semiconductor supply chains. This
includes fostering collaboration
between industry stakeholders,
investing in domestic semiconductor
manufacturing capabilities, and
diversifying semiconductor sourcing to
mitigate supply chain shocks. Proactive
measures to address potential shortages
will help maintain trade continuity and
support economic resilience.
Promote adoption of emerging
technologies: Governments should
promote the adoption of emerging
technologies such as IoT, 5G, cloud
computing, additive manufacturing
and quantum computing, through
supportive policies and incentives.
This includes investing in infrastructure
development, fostering public-private
partnerships, and providing financial
incentives for technology adoption.
By leveraging these technologies,
businesses can realise efficiencies, cost
savings, and enhanced fraud protection,
thereby driving positive impacts on
international trade.
Address blockchain adoption barriers:
Governments should address regulatory
barriers hindering the adoption of
blockchain technology. This may
involve updating existing regulations to
accommodate blockchain applications,
providing legal clarity on blockchain-
based transactions, and promoting
interoperability standards. Additionally,
enhancing security measures and fraud
protection in regulation can increase
blockchain adoption by improving trust
and reliability in digital transactions.
Harmonise global regulation and data
flows: Governments should prioritise
efforts to harmonise global regulation
and data flows across technologies
to facilitate international trade. This
includes negotiating digital chapters
in trade agreements to establish
common standards and rules for cross-
border data flows, privacy protection,
and intellectual property rights. By
promoting regulatory coherence and
interoperability, governments can
reduce barriers to technology adoption,
foster innovation, and promote inclusive
and sustainable economic growth on a
global scale.
standardised approaches, particularly
benefiting digital SMEs engaged in
trade. Businesses should advocate for
common and harmonised standards
across geographies to reduce costs and
complexity associated with fragmented
legislative frameworks.
Leverage data analytics for business
insights: Businesses should use data
analytics provided by new technologies
to gain actionable insights into market
trends, consumer behaviour, and
supply chain operations. By leveraging
advanced analytics tools, businesses
can make informed decisions, optimise
operations, and identify opportunities for
growth and efficiency improvements.
Invest in e-commerce capabilities:
E-commerce offers opportunities for
businesses to reach new markets,
engage with customers more effectively,
and streamline transaction processes,
thereby enhancing competitiveness and
agility in the digital economy. Businesses
should invest in e-commerce capabilities
to expand sales channels and optimise
inventory and logistics operations.
Monitor and push for blockchain
progress: Despite not fully realising its
promise, there remain huge potential
benefits of blockchain technology.
Businesses should continue to observe
progress in regulation and technological
development and advocate for
advancements in standards to facilitate
widespread adoption of blockchain
for secure, transparent, and efficient
transactions.
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2

SUSTAINABILITY
AND THE FUTURE
OF TRADE
At COP28 in Dubai, December 2023, the
urgency of transitioning from fossil fuels
was a central focus. This chapter examines
the relationship between international
trade and climate change, in particular
how trade can facilitate the spread of
renewable energy and green technologies
essential for achieving net-zero targets.
Carbon markets:
The development of carbon pricing and
emissions trading systems is shifting trade
patterns by incentivising the search for
greener production methods. This change
is driving companies to adapt by seeking
environmentally friendly producers.
Increased trade in renewable energy:
As global energy policies pivot towards
sustainability, there is a significant
increase in the trade of renewable energy
technologies. Countries that can provide
reliable sources of energy supply, both
traditional and renewable, as well as the
critical raw materials needed for the
manufacturing of environmental goods and
technologies, stand to gain a competitive
advantage in this landscape.
Shifting Government Priorities:
Climate considerations are increasingly
influencing foreign policy decisions,
leading to a greater focus on sustainable
trade practices and the resilience of
energy supplies.
Global agreements:
COP28’s commitment to a fossil fuel transition
underscores the growing linkage between
trade policies and climate goals. This
alignment is expected to drive significant
changes in global consumption patterns and
trade flows, particularly in energy.
INTRODUCTION Sustainability trends
influencing global trade
How climate policy
is reshaping trade
EU/USA trade in environmentally sound technologies
0
Million
euros
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
Source: Eurostat, Cebr analysis Imports to EU
from United States
Exports from the EU
to United States
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
1
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
3
As global energy policies pivot
towards sustainability, there is a
significant increase in the trade of
renewable energy technologies.
Renewable energy demand:
The global shift toward renewable energy
is not only altering traditional energy trade
but is also fostering new trade corridors
for countries with high renewable capacity.
Supply chain greening:
Businesses are increasingly focusing on
reducing their environmental impact
by integrating sustainability into their
supply chains. This shift is part of broader
efforts to meet environmental, social,
and governance (ESG) criteria, which
are becoming critical in global trade
operations.
29
28

30 31
Mechanisms for emission reduction:
Carbon pricing mechanisms, such as taxes
and emission trading systems (ETS), are
becoming widespread. These policies are
essential for encouraging businesses to
invest in cleaner technologies and practices.
However the varying levels of scope and
ambition between governments mean that
some regions will move faster than others,
potentially leading to a patchwork of carbon
regulations around the world and new trade
barriers for business.
European Union’s Carbon Border
Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM):
Set to be implemented in 2026, CBAM
aims to level the playing field by charging
importers for the carbon emissions
associated with goods produced outside
the EU. This mechanism is designed to
prevent carbon leakage and promote global
emissions reductions.
Carbon pricing
and its impact on trade
The role of carbon
trading systems
Conclusion
Trade, sustainability,
and technology:
An interdependent
relationship
Countries that have implemented carbon pricing systems
FIGURE 9
Source: World Bank
(2023b)
Carbon Tax Emissions Trading
System
Carbon tax and
Emissions Trading
System
Mandatory and voluntary systems:
Various countries have adopted carbon
trading systems to meet their climate targets.
These systems encourage businesses to
reduce emissions by allowing them to trade
carbon credits.
Challenges and opportunities:
While carbon trading has the potential
to significantly reduce emissions, it also
introduces complexities in compliance
and market stability. Businesses must
navigate these challenges while leveraging
the opportunities for innovation in green
technologies.
Trade is set to be a critical tool in the
global response to climate change. By
promoting the exchange of renewable
technologies and sustainable practices,
trade can help achieve environmental
goals while supporting economic growth.
However, this will require concerted
efforts to align trade policies with climate
objectives, ensuring that trade contributes
positively to a sustainable future.
Trade as a catalyst for sustainability:
Trade policies can accelerate the adoption
of sustainable technologies and practices.
By facilitating the global exchange of goods,
services, and technologies, trade can help
reduce the carbon footprint of production
processes and foster economic resilience
against climate impacts.
Technological advancements:
Digital and green technologies are set to play
a pivotal role in the sustainable transformation
of trade. Innovations in these areas will be
crucial for improving efficiency, reducing
emissions, and enhancing the sustainability of
global supply chains.

32 33
Prioritise sustainability at the board
level. Companies that fail to prioritise
sustainability risk being at a significant
competitive disadvantage in the
long term. Businesses should elevate
sustainability to the top of the board
agenda and integrate ESG considerations
into strategic decision-making to ensure
alignment with overall objectives.
Review and optimise supply chains.
Implementing sustainable sourcing
practices not only reduces environmental
impact but also contributes to long-
term profitability by mitigating risks
associated with resource scarcity and
regulatory compliance. Businesses
should conduct a comprehensive review
of supply chains to identify opportunities
for sustainability improvements and seek
out suppliers and vendors that align with
sustainability goals.
Mitigate climate-related supply chain
risks. Businesses should proactively plan
for supply chain disruptions resulting
from climate-related events and other
shocks, assess climate risks to key
supply chain nodes and operations, and
implement risk mitigation strategies
such as securing property and casualty
insurance coverage tailored to climate-
related risks. Businesses should
regularly review and update climate
risk assessments to adapt to changing
environmental conditions and ensure
business continuity.
Engage in voluntary carbon markets.
Participating in voluntary carbon markets
allows businesses to proactively manage
their carbon footprint, demonstrate
environmental stewardship, and
Invest in green infrastructure and
technology. Governments should
prioritise investment in green
infrastructure and technology to
support the transition to net-zero. This
includes funding renewable energy
projects, upgrading transportation
networks and supporting research and
development of green technologies.
By investing in green initiatives,
governments can create opportunities
for trade and stimulate demand for
green finance initiatives, driving
sustainable economic growth.
Harmonise regional carbon pricing
mechanisms. Whilst carbon pricing
and trading systems can incentivise
emissions reductions and facilitate the
transition to a low-carbon economy,
the patchwork of different regimes
between Europe, North America,
Australia, China and Asia-Pacific will
result in a fragmented environment
that will increase the risk of trade
barriers. Governments should prioritise
compatibility and harmonisation
between different systems to avoid
trade complexities and costs. By
creating a unified approach to carbon
pricing, governments can enhance
market efficiency and promote fair
competition while addressing climate
concerns.
Promote sustainable supply chains.
Governments should enact policies to
encourage companies to green their
supply chains and reduce their carbon
footprint. This includes incentives for
adopting sustainable practices, such as
tax breaks or subsidies for investments
in renewable energy and energy-
efficient technologies. Additionally,
governments can leverage trade
agreements to include environmental
provisions that promote sustainable
production and trade practices, ensuring
that companies prioritise environmental
sustainability in their operations.
Facilitate technology transfer
and dissemination. Governments
should leverage trade agreements
and partnerships to facilitate the
transfer and dissemination of green
technologies essential for renewable
energy production. This includes
promoting collaboration on research
and development, reducing trade
barriers for clean energy products,
and providing financial assistance
for technology transfer initiatives. By
enabling the global dissemination of
green technologies, governments can
accelerate the transition to a low-carbon
economy and address climate change
on a global scale.
Enhance climate resilience and regional
cooperation. Governments should
prioritise efforts to enhance climate
resilience and regional cooperation
to mitigate the impacts of extreme
weather events and promote sustainable
development. This includes investing
in climate adaptation measures, such
as infrastructure upgrades and disaster
preparedness initiatives, and fostering
regional partnerships for knowledge
sharing and resource pooling. By
building climate-resilient economies
and fostering regional cooperation,
governments can promote stability,
prosperity, and sustainability in the face
of climate change challenges.
position themselves for compliance
with future carbon and sustainable
business regulations. Businesses should
increase engagement in voluntary
carbon markets as part of preparations
for regulatory changes and the wider
adoption of mandatory carbon trading
schemes. As part of this they should also
collaborate with industry partners and
carbon market stakeholders to explore
opportunities for carbon offsetting and
emissions reduction initiatives.
Invest in regulatory expertise and
data collection. To stay informed about
emerging sustainability regulations and
standards at national and international
levels, businesses should invest in
expertise capable of providing timely
information on fast-changing regulatory
landscapes, evolving emissions reporting
requirements, and potential tariffs
arising from carbon border adjustment
mechanisms. Businesses should enhance
data collection capabilities to track and
report emissions data, enabling informed
decision-making and strategic planning.
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35
34
GLOBAL TRADE
AND FINANCE GAPS
Trade finance, crucial for facilitating global
trade, is experiencing a widening gap, reaching
$2.5 trillion in 2022. This chapter explores the
factors contributing to this growing finance
gap and potential solutions to bridge it.
Current State: Trade finance is essential for 80 to
90 percent of world trade, yet there is a significant
shortfall in available funding. The gap has
expanded by 47 percent since 2020, influenced
by macroeconomic stresses, geopolitical tensions,
and stringent regulatory compliance.
INTRODUCTION The growing trade
finance gap
Multi-faceted approach: Addressing the
trade finance gap requires a collaborative
effort from governments, export credit
agencies, banks, and non-traditional
financial institutions. Solutions include
enhancing government support, using digital
Solutions to the global
trade finance gap
technologies to streamline processes, and
embracing alternative financing methods.
Digital and fintech solutions: Digital technologies
and fintech offer promising avenues to reduce
the trade finance gap by improving access to
finance, particularly for SMEs and businesses
in high-risk markets. These technologies can
streamline trade finance processes, reduce costs,
and expand access to credit.
Alternative
financing solutions
Non-traditional finance: Various initiatives
aim to narrow the trade finance gap by
mitigating risks and reducing the barriers to
accessing finance. These include:
Emerging challenges and opportunities:
While these solutions are impactful, they
are not sufficient to completely close
the trade finance gap. The complexity
of the global trade system, varying risk
perceptions, and the need for a cohesive
regulatory framework continue to pose
challenges.
Multilateral development banks (MDBs):
These institutions provide guarantees
to reduce the perceived risks associated
with lending to exporters in developing
countries.
Export credit agencies (ECAs): ECAs
offer loans, insurance, and guarantees to
protect exporters from non-payment risks
and facilitate longer repayment terms.
Microfinancing: This provides small loans
to individuals and small businesses that
lack access to traditional bank loans,
helping them to engage in trade.
Conclusion
The trade finance gap represents a
significant challenge to global economic
growth and the effective functioning
of international trade systems. Closing
this gap requires a comprehensive
approach that includes governmental
support, innovative financing solutions,
and the strategic use of technology to
streamline and democratise access to
finance. Addressing this issue is crucial
for enabling more equitable participation
in global trade, especially for SMEs and
developing economies.
Global Trade Finance Gap
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2014 2016 2018 2020 2022
7.4
1.4
9.4
1.5
7.7
1.5
9.8
1.7
10
2.5
FIGURE 10
Source: ADB (2023). Their analysis draws on WTO data. % of global exports
$ trillion
%
of
global
exports
$
trillion
Trade Finance Application and Rejection 2022 (%)
Source: ADB (2023) Applied Rejected
Multinational Large corporations
and mid-cap
Small and
medium-sized
enterprises
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

1 1
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36 37
Increase data collection to boost
attractiveness and ESG ratings.
Businesses should prioritise the
collection of comprehensive data on
their activities and outcomes. This
includes data on environmental, social,
and governance (ESG) factors, which
are increasingly important for investors
and financiers. By collecting rich data,
businesses can enhance transparency,
demonstrate their commitment to
sustainability, and improve their ESG
ratings. This, in turn, can support
financing requests by providing
investors with the information they
need to make informed decisions about
allocating capital.
Engage with non-traditional finance
sources. Businesses, particularly SMEs,
should explore alternative sources of
funding beyond traditional bank loans.
This includes venture capital, private
equity, crowdfunding, and impact
investing. SMEs can increase awareness
of these alternative funding options
to diversify their financing sources
and access capital more efficiently.
Larger businesses can collaborate with
development banks on blended finance
initiatives, where public and private
funds are combined to support projects
in emerging markets. By participating in
blended finance initiatives, businesses
can benefit from de-risked lending and
access new markets and opportunities.
Collaborate with governments on
investment protection. Businesses
should seek opportunities to collaborate
with governments of consumer markets
to promote investment protection. This
includes identifying areas of mutual
Prioritise all policy and non-policy
measures to address the trade finance
gap. Given the scale of the global
trade finance gap, governments should
treat this as a growing emergency
requiring innovative solutions. This can
be a blend of policy and non-policy
options, including collaborating with
international financial institutions and
multilateral development banks to
increase the availability of trade finance
instruments and support mechanisms,
and implementing regulatory reforms
to reduce barriers to trade finance and
promoting greater transparency and
information sharing in trade finance
processes to reduce perceived risks and
increase access to finance for SMEs.
Mitigate macroeconomic factors to
reduce lending pressure. Governments
should implement measures to stabilise
macroeconomic conditions, such as
reducing inflation and maintaining
accommodative monetary policies,
to alleviate pressure on banks and
encourage trade finance issuance. In
addition, governments should provide
targeted support to SMEs through
fiscal stimulus packages and credit
guarantee schemes and foster economic
diversification and resilience to reduce
dependency on traditional banking
channels for trade finance, including
promoting alternative financing
mechanisms and facilitating access to
capital markets.
Leverage digital technologies for
fintech adoption. Governments should
invest in digital infrastructure and
regulatory frameworks to support the
adoption of fintech solutions in trade
finance, including AI, blockchain, and
digital platforms. This can facilitate
partnerships between financial
institutions, technology companies,
and government agencies to develop
and deploy innovative fintech solutions
tailored to the needs of SMEs and trade
finance providers.
Scale up non-traditional finance
methods. Governments should expand
the availability of non-traditional finance
mechanisms, such as export credit,
blended finance, and microfinance,
to address the trade finance gap on a
larger scale. Priority should be given
to partnerships with international
organisations and donor agencies
to mobilise additional funding for
non-traditional finance initiatives,
supporting their implementation
in developing countries, as well as
promoting awareness and capacity-
building initiatives to increase SMEs’
understanding and access to non-
traditional finance options for trade
expansion and growth.
benefit, such as highly demanded
products that require additional
financing to export. By working with
governments to create a supportive
investment climate, businesses can
mitigate risks and enhance market
access, leading to increased trade and
investment opportunities.
Consider fintech options to drive
finance efficiency. Businesses should
consider adopting fintech solutions in
their operations to streamline time-
intensive administrative processes,
reduce costs, and increase efficiency.
This includes implementing digital
payment systems, automated
accounting software, and blockchain-
based supply chain management
solutions. By leveraging fintech,
businesses can optimise their
operations, improve cash flow
management, and free up resources
for strategic investments and growth
initiatives.
Regularly review risk ratings and data
collection. Banks should regularly
review risk ratings and collect more
data on underrepresented markets,
particularly in emerging economies.
By improving data collection and
analysis, financial institutions can
better assess creditworthiness and
manage risks associated with lending
to businesses in diverse markets. This
includes leveraging technology and data
analytics to identify emerging trends,
mitigate risks, and support responsible
lending practices.
4

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