The Dynamics of Local Innovation Systems Structures Networks and Processes 1st Edition Eva Panetti
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- 5. The Dynamics of Local Innovation Systems Structures Networks and Processes 1st Edition Eva Panetti Digital Instant Download Author(s): Eva Panetti ISBN(s): 9780429202391, 0429202393 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 1.90 MB Year: 2020 Language: english
- 7. The Dynamics of Local Innovation Systems This book offers a comprehensive overview of the dynamics underpinning the successful performance of local innovation systems (LIS), that is, spatial concentration of innovation activities in specific geographical areas,characterized by the synergetic co-localization of research centers,innovation-driven enterprises, large corporations and capital providers. The reader will gain a deeper knowledge of LIS theory and learn about the theoretical and empirical challenges of studying the LIS from a relational perspective. The book also provides an analytical framework to explore the level of connectivity among LIS actors through the use of social network analysis (network architecture) and second, to assess the variety of different types of relationships that local actors put in place to produce innovation within the LIS (network portfolio). More specifically, this book explores which network configuration is associated with a successful LIS by deriving evidence from the empirical study of the biopharma LIS in the Greater Boston Area (GBA), which has been exemplified as a benchmark case in terms of successful LIS performance. This book also contributes to the theoretical debate about the optimal configuration of network structure (e.g. network closure vs. network openness). In capturing the heterogeneous nature of the LIS demography, it addresses the challenges brought about by the adoption of a holistic approach. Finally, the study provides insights into the network portfolio composition,which has been underexplored by extant literature. Besides addressing the scientific community in the field,this book will also be a valuable resource with practical implications for policymakers and those actors willing to undertake an active role in the development of an LIS in their own regions. Eva Panetti is a scholar in Innovation Management and Team Project Manager for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s “Regional Entrepreneurship Acceleration Program” (MIT REAP) for the Campania Region (Italy). She gained her PhD in Management at the Federico II University of Naples and,since the beginning of her career,she focused her studies on the analysis of innovation ecosystems. In 2017 she was visiting researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Industrial Performance Center, where she conducted a research project on Boston Biotech Ecosystem. She is the author of several international publications on innovation ecosystems, technology transfer and technological transitions. Having analyzed many international cases, her studies currently focus on the evolution of emerging innovation ecosystems, with special regard to the Industry–University relationship and technology transfer mechanisms, and are conducted in cooperation with the Department of Management and Quantitative Studies at the Parthenope University of Naples.
- 8. Routledge Studies in the Economics of Innovation The Routledge Studies in the Economics of Innovation series is our home for comprehensive yet accessible texts on the current thinking in the field. These cutting-edge,upper-level scholarly studies and edited collections bring together robust theories from a wide range of individual disciplines and provide in-depth studies of existing and emerging approaches to innovation,and the implications of such for the global economy. Automation, Innovation and Economic Crisis Surviving the Fourth Industrial Revolution Jon-Arild Johannessen The Economic Philosophy of the Internet of Things James Juniper The Workplace of the Future The Fourth Industrial Revolution, the Precariat and the Death of Hierarchies Jon-Arild Johannessen Economics of an Innovation System Inside and Outside the Black Box Tsutomu Harada The Dynamics of Local Innovation Systems Structures, Networks and Processes Eva Panetti For more information about this series,please visit:www.routledge.com/Routledge- Studies-in-the-Economics-of-Innovation/book-series/ECONINN
- 9. The Dynamics of Local Innovation Systems Structures, Networks and Processes Eva Panetti
- 10. First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Eva Panetti The right of Eva Panetti to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-19443-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-20239-1 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC
- 11. List of figures viii List of tables ix Introduction 1 1 Local innovation systems: an overview 4 1.1 The impact of geography on innovation 4 1.2 Defining a local innovation system (LIS) 6 1.2.1 A taxonomy of LIS definitions 6 1.2.2 The evolution of the study of LIS 10 1.2.3 An extended definition of LIS 12 1.3 State of the art in LIS theory and classification of main studies 13 1.3.1 LIS input-driven approach 13 1.3.1.1 Actors’ heterogeneity as a key performance indicator of LIS 13 1.3.1.2 Territorial boundaries as a key performance indicator of LIS 16 1.3.1.3 Relationships as a key performance indicator of LIS 18 1.3.2 LIS output-driven approach 20 1.4 Conclusions 25 2 Local innovation systems as networks of relationships 31 2.1 The impact of network architecture in innovation processes 31 2.1.1 Innovation networks: key concepts 31 2.1.2 Benefiting from innovation networks 31 2.1.3 Why network structure matters: the impact of network architecture on resource mobilization 32 2.2 The proximity framework 33 2.2.1 The role of proximity in the emergence of knowledge networks 33 Contents
- 12. vi Contents 2.2.2 Geographical proximity 34 2.2.3 Cognitive proximity 35 2.2.4 Organizational proximity 35 2.2.5 Institutional proximity 35 2.2.6 Social proximity 36 2.2.7 The risks of “too much proximity” 36 2.3 The social network approach for the study of innovation systems 38 2.3.1 The debate on the desirable network structure: key concepts 38 2.3.1.1 Network closure 40 2.3.1.2 Structural holes 40 2.3.1.3 Gatekeeper organizations 41 2.3.1.4 Small worlds 42 2.4 The study of LIS through a network approach: a review 43 2.4.1 The definition of network boundaries 44 2.4.2 Network nodes’ composition 45 2.4.3 Network portfolio of relationships 46 2.4.4 Network structure perspective 48 2.4.5 The relationship between network characteristics and innovation performance 49 2.5 Literature gap and summary 52 3 Exploring the relational dimension of LIS: an empirical case study 61 3.1 A combined approach for the study of the LIS relational dimension 61 3.2 LIS in the biopharma industry 63 3.2.1 The importance of geographical proximity in the biopharma industry 65 3.2.2 Demography of the biopharma industry 66 3.2.3 Forms of collaboration in the biopharma industry 67 3.3 The biopharma innovation system in the Greater Boston Area 69 3.4 Methodology 75 3.4.1 The social network analysis 75 3.4.2 Expert interviews 77 3.4.3 Data collection and analysis for SNA 80 3.4.4 Data collection and analysis for expert interviews 83 3.5 Conclusions 86 4 Results from the empirical study 90 4.1 Network structural configuration in a successful LIS 90 4.1.1 Results from the social network analysis 90
- 13. Contents vii 4.2 Network composition in a successful LIS 94 4.2.1 The most common practices of innovation-driven interactions within the LIS 94 4.2.2 Types of relationships that contribute to knowledge transfer 95 4.2.3 The role of spatial proximity for the different types of relationships 97 4.3 An analytical framework for the study of LIS performance from a relational perspective 98 4.3.1 Main implications of the study 100 4.4 Conclusions 104 Index 105
- 14. 1.1 The dimensions of innovation systems 11 1.2 The triple helix model of university–industry–government relations 14 1.3 LIS classification based on the nature of the leading actor 15 1.4 Most common innovation performance metrics 21 2.1 Networks’ endogenous effects: preferential attachment; triadic closure 39 2.2 Coleman’s network closure vs. Burt’s structural hole 39 2.3 Critical links 41 2.4 Small world network configuration 43 3.1 The biomanufacturing value chain 64 3.2 The biopharma LIS in the Greater Boston Area: biotechnology firms by city 72 3.3 The biopharma LIS in the Greater Boston Area: biotechnology by employment 73 3.4 Kendall Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts 74 3.5 Geographical distribution: MassBio members in GBA (2012–2017) 81 3.6 Areas of specialization: MassBio members in GBA (2012–2017) 81 4.1 Network portfolio composition: Greater Boston Area (2012–2017) 91 4.2 Greater Boston biopharma innovation system: network structure (2012–2017) 93 4.3 Network portfolio in the biopharma LIS in the Greater Boston Area 99 4.4 Local innovation communities and their role in open networks 100 4.5 Analytical framework for the study of LIS performance from a relational perspective 103 Figures
- 15. Tables 1.1 STE mode vs. DUI mode 5 1.2 Analytic vs. synthetic knowledge bases 6 1.3 Taxonomy of LIS definitions 7 1.4 Actors’ heterogeneity as a key performance indicator of LIS 17 1.5 Most common used indicators of innovation performance 21 1.6 Examples of performance metrics for an emerging technological system 23 1.7 Composite indicators of innovation system performance 23 1.8 The Local Innovation Index 24 1.9 LIS input-driven and output-driven approaches 25 2.1 The proximity framework 37 2.2 Complementary assets and knowledge networks 48 2.3 Empirical studies adopting a network approach for the study of local innovation systems 50 3.1 Practices of inter-organizational relationships 70 3.2 The biopharma LIS in the Greater Boston Area: economic scorecard 72 3.3 The most common indicators in social network analysis 78 3.4 Data sources 83 3.5 Expert interviews: represented organizations 84 3.6 Expert interviews: list of participants 86 4.1 Top 20 actors: betweenness centrality in the Greater Boston Area (2012–2017) 91 4.2 Social network analysis metrics: Greater Boston Area (2012–2017) 92
- 17. In recent decades we are witnessing a progressive spatial concentration of innovation activities in specific geographical areas characterized by a vibrant atmosphere due to the synergetic co-location of research centers, innovation- driven enterprises,large corporations and capital providers bound by horizontal and vertical relationships. In many cases, the physical proximity of a diverse community of actors engaged in innovation activities provides the context for new business formation, socio-economic regional growth and knowledge pro- duction at the global and local levels, with interesting implications in terms of co-evolutionary dynamics at the social, technological and environmental levels. Scholars from both management and economic geography have labeled these environments local innovation systems (LIS) which, given their implications, have increasingly raised the interest of both academic and political communities. On the one hand, scholars from both management and economic geography have analyzed the conditions and criteria for LIS empirical recognition and judgment (i.e. system boundaries, actors and networks, institutions and knowl- edge dynamics) as well as the mechanisms for their creation in those regions presenting structural characteristics that may apparently prevent systems of innovation to emerge. On the other hand, institutional and government actors have been increasingly committed to policies to stimulate the emergence of dynamic innovation environments through,for example,the implementation of business accelerator programs, regimes of appropriability of intellectual prop- erty, tax incentives, the setup of incubators and co-working spaces and so forth. However, the mere co-location of innovation-oriented organizations and the establishment of incentives seem not to be sufficient conditions for LIS emer- gence. Indeed, as argued in the seminal work of Anna Lee Saxenian (1994), the successful performance of a system of innovation is largely due to the bottom-up emergence of synergetic cooperative mechanisms between organizations in the form of horizontal networks of relationships. In fact, relationships exert a key role for actors engaged in processes of innovation, as they enhance practices of inter-organizational cooperation that allow them to share risks related to new products, to accelerate their time to market, to bring together complementary skills and to gain access to financial resources and new technologies. Extant studies on innovation systems have started to analyze the network dimension Introduction
- 18. 2 Introduction as a further variable of LIS performance. However, analytical efforts toward the study of the LIS relational dimension have been limited and not fully explored. In particular, there seems to be a lack of agreement on the optimal configura- tion of network structure for the LIS assessment of performance. Additionally, most contributions tend to limit their analysis to inter-firm formal relationships, thus overlooking the heterogeneous nature of the system’s components and the impact of looser ties. This book grounds on the recognition about the relevance of the relational dimension for the study of LIS as well as on the need to fill the gap in extant literature with respect to two aspects of analysis: network struc- ture and network composition (i.e. the level of connectivity among the system’s actors and the portfolio of different types of relationships and forms of coopera- tion that local actors put in place to produce innovation). While the first aspect relates to the debate as to whether a more open network is preferable than a more closed one,the second issues refers to the fact that,depending on circumstances, inter-organizational relationships may take the form of well-structured and long-term relations, as research and development (R&D) partnerships and joint ventures, as well as that of less formal interactions as in the case of know-how trading. More specifically, this book explores which configurations of network structure and portfolio are associated to a high-performing LIS by deriving evidence from the empirical study of the biopharma LIS in the Greater Boston Area (GBA), which has been exemplified as a benchmark case in terms of LIS successful performance. The empirical research adopts an explorative “critical” case study approach to derive propositions to orient future researchers, who are invited to test them and consider the results of this work as a benchmark for the study of LIS in emerging regions. Part of this research has been conducted at the Industrial Performance Center (IPC) of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) under the supervision of Dr. Elisabeth Beck Reynolds. The IPC has constituted a privileged standpoint for the empirical observation of the biopharma LIS in GBA due to its location at the heart of Kendall Square, where major players of the industry are located, and due to the longstanding academic expertise of the IPC in the field of LIS. Additionally, the research design has been influenced by the MIT Innovation Ecosystem Framework that I assimi- lated at the MIT Sloan School of Management while attending the classes of the Regional Entrepreneurship Acceleration Laboratory (REAL), taught by Fiona Murray and Philip Budden, which have been fundamental for complementing the academic theoretical implications of the work with a more action-oriented approach. The book is organized as follows. Chapter 1 provides a taxonomy of LIS definitions upon which an original and comprehensive definition of LIS is elaborated. The second part of the chapter offers an overview of the state of the art by classifying LIS studies in two main strands based on the identifica- tion of principal drivers of LIS performance (namely, the input-driven and the output-driven approaches) and positions the current work in one of them. Chapter 2 aims to explore a particular aspect that is studied within the input- driven approach (i.e. the relational dimension), which is the focus of the book.
- 19. Introduction 3 To this purpose, the chapter provides an in-depth analysis of key concepts and empirical issues concerning this specific analytical perspective. More precisely, Section 2.1 discusses the key role played by networks of relationships within systems of innovation, with specific regard to the benefits deriving from partnering and the impact of network architecture on the access to relational capital. Section 2.2 provides an overview of the proximity framework, which highlights the conditions that favor network emergence. Section 2.3 introduces the use of social network analysis (SNA) as an approach for the study of LIS and illustrates the different positions within the debate on the desirable network structure to boost innovation system performance within network literature. Section 2.4 reviews empirical studies adopting an SNA approach for the study of LIS according to seven specific dimensions. Main findings emerging from the literature review lead to the identification of the literature gap, which is discussed in Section 2.5, before concluding. Chapter 3 illustrates and discusses the research strategy adopted for addressing the theoretical gap. Section 3.1 pro- vides an overview of the exploratory case study methodology and emphasizes how the selected approach contributes to address the research questions. Sec- tion 3.2 provides an overview of the selected case study with particular regard to the relational implications of the drug development process, the identifica- tion of main players and the illustration and discussion of the typical forms of cooperation and interaction occurring between the industry players. A special section is dedicated to the illustration of the research techniques implemented for the empirical study highlighting their points of strength and limitations,the most common indicators and fields of application. Finally, Chapter 4 reports and discusses the main findings deriving from data analysis and develops an analytical framework for the study of the LIS relational dimension. More precisely, Section 4.1 provides snapshot metrics of the network structural con- figuration and identifies its central nodes. Section 4.2 discusses the results of direct interviews conducted with representatives of different organizations in the biopharma LIS in the GBA with the purpose of gaining insights about the preferable network portfolio combination along two dimensions: the impact on knowledge transfer and the importance of spatial proximity. Section 4.3 of the chapter provides an in-depth discussion of results from both analyses and combines them to achieve a more complete overview about the whole system’s functioning and elaborates an analytical framework for future studies. Finally, a set of propositions for practitioners is presented in Section 4.4 together with main limitations of the study and suggestions for future research.
- 20. 1.1 The impact of geography on innovation Learning is considered as a key concept within innovation system literature. In the late 1980s, Lundvall (1985; Lundvall, Dosi, & Freeman, 1988) and Johnson (Johnson & Lundvall, 1994) introduced the notion of learning by interacting to emphasize the role of geographic proximity in providing a more direct and easy access to information within user-producer interactions (Lundvall, 1985). More specifically, the authors consider learning “a socially embedded process which cannot be understood without taking into consideration its institutional and cultural context” (Lundvall, 1992, p. 1). This is mainly explained by the fact that innovation generation represents a process characterized by low levels of predict- ability where learning plays a central role in such uncertain process,which in turn explains why complex and frequent communication between the parties involved is highly required,with specific regard to the exchange of tacit knowledge (Non- aka, Takeuchi, & Umemoto, 1996). The importance of geographic proximity in knowledge transfer processes is further emphasized with the introduction of the notion of learning region (Storper, 2005). In this regard, learning is conceived as a territorially and socially embedded and interactive process (Asheim, 1996), able to drive the successful growth and the innovation performance of regions (Cooke, 1992) thanks to the catalyst role of proximity (Coenen, Moodysson, & Asheim, 2004). Networking with other firms and organizations is therefore considered as a “learning capability” (Lundvall & Johnson, 1994), and different kinds of “learning relationships” (e.g. customer-supplier; cross-sectorial interactions) are deemed to be at the core of the innovation process (Johnson & Andersen,2012). Another important aspect is that the impact of geographic proximity on innovation-driven learning dynamics varies according to the nature of knowl- edge and innovation modes. Lundvall and Johnson (1994) grouped knowledge into four economically relevant knowledge categories: • Know-what, i.e. knowledge about facts; • Know-why, i.e. knowledge of scientific principles; • Know-who, i.e. specific and selective social relations; • Know-how, i.e. practical skills. (p. 129) Local innovation systems An overview 1
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- 22. Millwell. See West Hills. Mississippi, W. descends the, 47; ascends, 53; W. and the, 54, 270-1, 273. Missouri Compromise, 26, 134; River, 54; State, 271. Modesty, W.’s, 329. Money, W.’s indifference to, 65, 87; need for, 193, 198; income, 218-9; difficulties, 257-9, 316-7; see also 285, 341. Montauk Point, 1. Montgomery, Ala., 175. Moralist versus mystic, 152; W. as a, 237, 292. Morris, W., 293, 331; W. compared with, 296. Morse, Sidney, makes a bust of W., 265, 320; discussions with “Aunt Mary,” 321; with W., 322-3. Mount Vernon, W. visits, 215. “Mugwumps,” 314. Murray and Byron, Mr., 285. “Music always round me, That,” 164-5. Music, Mrs. Gilchrist and Carpenter’s attitude towards, 267; W. and, 85-6, 320. Myers, F. W., 224.
- 23. Myrtle Avenue, Brooklyn, W. at, 56. Mysticism and materialism, xxiii; various forms of, 70, 121; Whitman’s, 69-78, 117-121, 149, 152-67, 254, 298-300; and nature, 261-2, 339-40; and oratory, 130-1; and Quakerism, 180; and sex, 226; and war, 180-1, 207-8; philosophy of, 166-7. Myths, reverence for, 104. See Great are the M. Name, the power of the, 158. Napoleon, 289. “Native Moments,” 161. Natural history, W.’s ignorance of, 230, 260-2. Nature and soul-life, 340; W.’s love of, 260-2. Negroes, W. doubts if they are worth cost of war, 186-7; W. and negro citizenship, 187; O’Connor and W. disagree about, 191; W. and negro problem, 235-6. New Amsterdam. See New York. New England, W. visits, in 1868, 234. New Orleans of ’48 described, 48-50; W. goes to, 44, 46-53, 349-50; reminiscences of, 329. New World, The (N.Y.), W. and, 33-7. New York described, 11, 20-22, 80-86, 139-40;
- 24. art collections of, 279; sympathy with South, 24, 178; attitude towards Lincoln, 175-6; during war, 185, 206; W. and, xxvi-viii, 41-2, 64, 111, 245, 266, 270, 280; W. criticises, 236; he leaves, 183. New York Evening Post, W. writes for, 42. New York Herald, The, 115, 316. New York Saturday Press, W. and the, 138-9. New York Sun, W. writes for, 37, 127. New York Times, 184, 209. New York Tribune, the, 39, 40, 87, 108, 259, 285; W.’s poems in, 46. Newspapers, W. and, 62-3. Niagara, W. at, 54, 274. Nibelungenlied, 58, 337. Nietzsche and Whitman, 213, 293, 296-8. Nonconformity, W.’s, 99. North, its interests antagonistic to the South, 24-5; becomes identified with Federalism, 26; not united, 176; idealism of, 177; and protection, ib. North American Review, 108. November Boughs, 329-30, 339. “Now Finalé to the Shore,” 243. Nurse, W.’s, 326.
- 25. “Occupations, Song for,” 101. O’Connor, W. D., W. visits and boards with, 190, 201, 215, 225; described, 190-1; and Harlan, 214; his The Carpenter, 227-9; W.’s quarrel with, 236, 248, 250, 258; and Messrs. Osgood, 285; dies, 326-7, 336. See also Good Gray Poet. O’Connor, Mrs., 234, 248. See also W. D.O’C. Officials, W.’s dislike of, 306. Old-age, W.’s view of, 330. “Old Jim Crow,” W. fond of, 303. Omar Khayyam, 159, 318. “On the Beach at Night alone,” 120. “Once I passed through a populous City,” 51. Open-air, cure, W. tries, 260; W.’s love for, 199; W. writes in the, 101. See Nature. “Open Road, Song of the,” 116, 119-20. Opera, W. at, 88, 178. Optimism, W.’s, 41-2, 91, 151, 200; false popular, 237-8. Oratory, W.’s love for, 33; his conception of, 129-31, 135, 143. See also Lectures. Oregon, dispute over boundary of, 43.
- 26. Oriental writers, W.’s interest in, 115. Orsini, 136. Osgood & Co., 280, 285, 301. Ossian, 58, 289, 318. “Our old Feuillage,” 150. “Out of the Cradle,” 12, 158, 211, 281. “Outlines for a Tomb,” 313. “Overmen,” doctrine of, 297, 299. Owen, Robert, 308-9. Paine, Thomas, xxv, 5, 16, 25, 38. Painting, W.’s appreciation of, 84, 279-80. Paley, 62. Pall Mall Gazette fund, 316. Pan, W. compared with, 112. Paralysis, W. begins to suffer from, 232. See Health. Parker, T., 143. Parodi, 85. Parties, W. outside political, 312. Passage to India (booklet), 242-244; poem, 243-4, 249, 266, 287. Passion, W. and, 161-2, 206. Passionate element in W., 13, 68. Past, the, still present, 153, 256. Patent Office, Washington, used as hospital, 194; ball, 210.
- 27. Paternity, redemption of, 127, 241. Patriotism, W.’s, aroused, 54-5. Paumànackers, 3. “Paumanok,” nom-de-plume of W., 39. Peabody, George, 313. Peace, efforts towards, 185, 188; need for heroic idea of, 206-9. Penn, William, 5. Pension, proposed, 316. Personal note in L. of G., 158. Personality, Carpenter’s account of W.’s, 268, 306; the source of power, 169; W.’s doctrine of, 239-40; W. retains sense of own, 74; W.’s, influence of, 30. Pessimism, Tolstoi’s, 295-6; Morris and Ruskin’s, 296. Pfaff’s Restaurant, N.Y., 138-40. Philadelphia, W. in, 251, 331-5. See Camden. Phillips, Wendell, on Lincoln, 191. Philosophy, W.’s interest in, 60-62. Phrenological estimate of W.’s character, 67-8. Pierce, President, 80, 103, 135. “Pioneers! O Pioneers!” 205. Pittsburg, W. at, 271. Plato, 58, 121, 126, 239, 240, 282; and W., 224, 291-2.
- 28. Plotinus, 121. Poe, E. A., 37, 59, 258, 320; W. meets, 42. Poet, W. describes his ideal, 95-7, 103, 117-8, 123-4; need of the poet for expression, 89-90; alone realises unity of all, 243; W. as a, 328-9. Poets, two orders of, 328-9. “Poets to Come,” 154. Poetry, W.’s view of, 59-61, 109; W. reads by the sea, 60; changes in modern English, 289-290. Polk, President, 40, 43. Poor, a menace to Democracy, the very, 240, 310-1. Pope, A., W. compared with, 151, 289. Population of America, xxv, 176, 308. Portraits of W. in 36th year, 66-7; L. of G. portrait, 110; “gentle shepherd,” 218; others, 140-1, 148, 230, 257, 331, 338. See list of illustrations. Pose, W.’s, 338. Potter, Dr. J., on W., 229-30. Prairies, W. and the, 271. Praise, W.’s love of, 303, 335. Prayer, W. and, 76. “Prayer of Columbus,” 253; described, 254-5.
- 29. Pre-existence, W.’s doctrine of, 101. Preface of 1855 used for poems, 116; omitted, 129; in selections, 223. Preface to 1871 ed., 243. Preface to 2nd Annex, 339. Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 97. Price, Mrs. Abby, 139, 219-20. Price, Miss, qu., 219-20. Pride, W.’s, 156, 317. Printer, W. as a, 19-20, 56. Prisons of the South, 187; W. visits prisons, 111-2. Property, W. and private, 240; rights of, 311. Prosecution of W. proposed in 1856, 127; in 1882, 284-5. “Prostitute, To a Common,” 168. Proudhon, 309. Publisher, W. as his own, 219, 258, 259, 285, 305. Punishment, method of, 30. “Pupil, To a,” 169. Puritanism, W. free from, 19. Putnam’s Monthly, 108. Quaker traits in W., 112; W.’s story of a, 334-5.
- 30. Quakeresses in hospitals, 195. Quakers, 121; on L. I., 4-5; a crisis among American, 14, 15; attitude to war, W. and the, 206; doctrine of Inner Light, 16, 17; doctrine of revelation, 55; essential character of their faith, 18; W.’s relation to, 75-6, 180, 206, 298-9, 301-2; Williams family and the, 347-8. Quebec, W. at, 276. Radical, The (Boston), publishes Mrs. Gilchrist’s letters, 225. “Rain, The voice of the,” 330. Ramsay, A., 290. Rand and Avery, 283. Realisation, W.’s power of, 99. Reality, evil necessary to, 212. Recitations, W.’s in hospitals, 197. Redpath, James, 198. “Redwood Tree, Song of the,” 253; described, 255-6. Refinement, W. disclaims, 113. Reformer, The, 349. Rejected passages, 286. Religion, W.’s, 18-19, 70-8, 149, 241-4, 254, 299; and poetry, 61; new, 339; importance of, for America, 238, 241.
- 31. See Mysticism. Religious emotion in L. of G., 105-6. Renaissance in America, xxiv. “Renfrew, Baron,” 173. Republic, W.’s idea of, 292. See America. Republican becomes Democratic party, 13; new party formed, 132, 134; and the South, 189, 235; and corruption, 314. Respectable, W. seems to be growing, 216, 218. “Respondez,” 124. “Return of the Heroes, The,” 209. Reviews himself, W., 109, 323-4. Revolt, W.’s, against bondage, 296-7. Rhythm, changes in rhythm of poetry, 290-1; various emotional values of, 291; W.’s feeling for sea, 60; free, Emerson studies, 93; W.’s view of, 96-8. Rich, W. in danger of becoming, 57. “Rich Givers, To,” 169. Richmond, the Confederate capital, 182; surrenders, 188. “Rise, O Days, from your fathomless Deeps,” 206. Robespierre, 289. Rock Creek, W. at, 201. Rocky Mountains, W. in the, 272-3.
- 32. Rodin, A., 130. Rolleston, T. W., his Epictetus, 318. “Rolling Earth, Song of the,” 117-9. Romance of America, the, xix-xxiii. Rome, Andrew, printer, 88. Romney, 264. Roosa, D. B. St. J., qu., 137-8. “Roots and leaves themselves alone,” 165. Rossetti, W. M., 97, 171, 259, 263-4; his selections from L. of G., 221-3, 227, 245; criticism of L. of G., 222; relations with W., 223, 259; and Mrs. Gilchrist’s letters, 225. Rossetti, D. G., 222, 223, 263-4, 328. Rossi, 284. “Roughs,” W. “one of the,” 114. “Rounded Catalogue, The,” 340. Rousseau, J. J., 23, 58, 97, 108, 263, 289, 292. Royce, Josiah, his World and the Individual, 166. Rumford, Count (Colonel Thompson), 2. Ruskin, J., 62, 171, 263, 296. Rynders, Isaiah, 82. Saadi, 318. Saint, W. no, 76, 337. St. Lawrence River, W.’s view of the, 276. St. Louis, W. visits, 53, 271, 273, 286.
- 33. St. Simon, 309. Saguenay, W. on the, 276. “Salut au Monde,” 116, 158. Sanborn, F. B., W. visits, 281-2. San Francisco, 63. Sand, George, 293, 318. Sanity, W.’s, 297. Santayana, George, his criticism of W., 329 n. Satan, 212, 298, 297, 321. “Scented herbage of my breast,” 167. Science, W. and, 60-2, 96, 242; Mrs. Gilchrist and Carpenter’s attitude toward, 267. Scott, Sir Walter, 57, 91, 318, 320; W. reads, 19. Scott, W. Bell, 171, 223. Sea, W. and the, 9, 31, 58, 60, 154-5. Secession, South Carolina proposes, 24; proclaims, 175; not desired by America, 176; soldiers, W. nurses, 199; talk in New England, 27. Self, the, 74, 166; and the Other, 61; the electric, 154. Self-assertion, W.’s doctrine of, 76, 297. Self-consciousness of W., 128. Self-realisation, gospel of, 148, 253. Self-revelation of W., 264.
- 34. Semele, 275. Seward, W. H., 79, 172, 175. Sex, W. and, 144-7, 159-62, 167; W.’s expanded conception of, 226; Thoreau puzzled by W.’s view, 115; W.’s experience of, 71; and religion, 70-1; basic in life, 126-7. Shakespeare, xxi, 57, 318. Shelley, P. B., W. indifferent to, 59; compared with, 107-8; also 91, 97, 290, 295. Sherman, Gen., 187; his march to the sea, 188. Ships, W.’s love of, 60, 335-6, 343-4; Yankee clipper, 64. Sin, W.’s attitude toward, 18, 124-5, 151, 156, 161, 255. Skin, rich texture of W.’s, 316. Slavery, 79-81, 135-7; divides North from South, 25; W. and, 103; and Democratic party, 82, see Abolitionism, etc.; S. party and election of 1860, 173-4; and the war, 177; in N.Y., 310-1. Slave-trade, 140. Sleep, W. on, 102. “Sleepers, The,” 102, 274. Sleepy Hollow, 301. Smith, Adam, 308.
- 35. Smith, Mary Whitall. See Mrs. Berenson. Smith, R. Pearsall, 297; relations with W., 301-4; leaves Philadelphia, 325. Smoking, 32. See Tobacco. Social functions, W.’s interest in, 40. Social problem in N.Y., 139-40. Socialism, W. and, 239, 312. Socialist, ideal, the, 308-9, 312; party in America, 311; Socialists, early, 308. Solidarity, of the nation, felt in war-time, 207; of the peoples, 205-6; W.’s feeling for, 239-40, 242-3, 306-7, 337, 343. Solitude, W.’s, 233, 331, 342; compared with Thoreau and Emerson’s, 113-4. “So Long,” 169. “Sometimes with one I love,” 164. “Song of Myself,” 122, 243, 286; analysed, 98-101; qu., 72 n.; called “Walt Whitman,” 150. Sophocles, 57. Soul, the flesh and the, in modern religion, 61; and Science, 96, 242; in Nature, 102, 340; W.’s view of the, 98, 120, 149. South, its interests antagonistic to those of the North and West, 24-5;
- 36. similarity of interest with N.Y., 25; policy, 26, 43; and the war, 82-3, 176-7, 187, 235; slavery and the, 25, 80-1; pride of the, 187, 324; Lincoln and, 189; and the Union, 180, 314; W. and the, 46-55, 180, 235, 237, 349-50. South Carolina, and Federal tariff, 24, 27. Southey, R., 327. “Sovereign States,” doctrine of, 26. Specimen Days, 262, 266. Specimen Days and Collect, 286. Spectacles, W. begins to wear, 245. Speech, W.’s manner of, 98; W.’s style and, 291. Spencer, Herbert, 62, 263. Spirits, W. and, 149. Spiritualistic woman and W., 234. “Spontaneous Me,” 127. Spooner, Alden J., 20, 22, 30-1. Springfield (Mass.) Republican, 259. Square Deific. See “Chanting the S. D.” “Squatter Sovereignty,” 44, 79, 80, 134. Stafford family, 260; George, 260-2, 266, 280, 343. Stage-driver, W. as a, 137; stage-drivers of N.Y., 138.
- 37. See Broadway. Stanton, Mrs. E. C., 126. Stars and Stripes, the, xx, 335. “Starting from Paumanok,” 148. Staten Island, N.Y., 140. Statesman, The, W. edits, 37. Stay-at-home, W. a, 64. Steam-transit and Federal sentiment, 27. Stedman, E. C., 191, 317-8. Stockton, Commodore, 63. “Stranger, To a,” 165. Strength, W.’s great physical, 68. Stubborn quality in W., 251. Style of L. of G., 84, 92, 104-5, 150-1, 244, 289-91. See under L. of G. Subjective character of W.’s genius, 105. Suggestiveness of L. of G., 269. Sumter, Fort, 178. “Sunset Breeze, To the,” 339, 340. “Sunset, Song at,” 152. Sunstroke, an early, 200-1; another, 314. Superhuman quality in W., 228; noted by M. Conway, 111; by Thoreau, 115. Swayne, bookseller, 87.
- 38. Swinburne, A. C., 60, 223-5, 245, 327-9. Swinton, John, 138. Symbolism, W.’s, 117-8, 120; example of the broad-axe, 122. See Mysticism. Symonds, J. A., W.’s letter to, 51, 349-50; and L. of G., 172, 224-5; account of, 223-4, 245, 267, 291, 336, 343. Sympathy, W.’s yearning for, 267. Tammany Hall, 38, 82, 178. Taney, R. B., 135. Tariffs, 24. See Free-trade. Tattler, W. edits, 37. Taylor, Father, as described by W., 142-3; death, 283. Taylor, President, 45, 50. Teacher, W. as a, 28-33, 233; method of punishment, 30. Teetotalism, W.’s support of, 33, 35-7. See Temperance. Temperance, W.’s, 122, 159-60, 315. Tennyson, A., Lord, 35, 92, 109, 223, 245, 283, 290, 318, 336; W. enjoys, 59; W. reads aloud, 275; regards W. as “a great big something,” 115; and W., 339. Texas admitted to Union, 43.
- 39. Thayer & Eldridge, publishers, 141-2, 171, 190. Theatres of N.Y., W. goes to, 85-6, 19, 41, 270, 284. Theory, W. no adept in, 75. “There was a child went forth,” 103. “These I singing in spring,” 163. “Think of the soul,” 125. Thoreau, H. D., 129, 171, 282-3, 301, 303, 335; visits W., 112-6; and J. Brown, 136,159; W. solitary as, 233. “Thou Mother with thy equal brood,” 245. Timber Creek, W. visits, 259-61, 268, 281; descriptions of, 260-1; W. to have a cottage at, 317. Tippecanoe, fight at, 38. Tobacco, W. distributes in hospitals, 197. Tolstoi, L., 293; W. compared with, 295-6. Tomb, W.’s, 341. “To one shortly to die,” 168. “To soar in Freedom,” 328. “To think of Time,” 102. Towards Democracy, E. Carpenter’s, 267, 305. Toynbee Hall, W. and, 313. Trade-Unionism, W. and, 312. Tragedy, W.’s predilection for, in earlier writings, 34-5. Tramp, W. envies the, 326.
- 40. Traubel, Horace, relations with W., 325, 326, 329, 331, 332, 342, 343, 344; quoted, 349-50; sec. of W. Fellowship, 300 n. Treasury Building, W. at, 190, 215, 233, 247. Tribune, New York. See N. Y. T. “Trickle Drops,” 165. Tri-Insula, a republic, 178. Trowbridge, J. T., 142. Tuft’s College, Mass., 255. Tupper, M. F., W. compared with, 327. “Twain, Mark,” 317. “Two Rivulets” described, 266. Tyler, President, 38. Ulysses’ return, 276. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 81, 187. Unitarianism, W.’s relation to, 76. Union, W. and the idea of the American, 55. Unity, W.’s doctrine of the universal, 120; of L. of G., 221. “Universal, Song of the,” 253; described, 255. Untidiness, W.’s, 318. Van Buren, 44; W. supports, 33, 38. Van Velsor, Major C., 4, 10;
- 41. family, 347. — Louisa. See L. Whitman. — Naomi. See Williams. Verdi, 320. Verse, W. writes, 47. Vice, Society for the Suppression of, 284, 285. Victoria, Queen, W. and, 339. Vicksburg taken by Grant, 185. Virgil, 318. Virginia, xx, 26, 188. “Vocalism,” 157. Voice, W.’s, described, 98; W. and the, 154, 157. Vow, Whitman’s (1861), 181, 204, 216. Wagner, R., 293, 320. Wales, Prince of, and W., 173. Walks at Washington, W.’s, 215, 233. Wallace, A. R., 62. Wallace, J. W., visits W., 338. “Walt,” W. calls himself, 141. Walt Whitman Club, 325; fellowship, 300 n. War, W.’s attitude towards, 43, 202-3, 205-9; and “a divine war,” 206; his mysticism of, 207-8; must be followed by nobler peace, 208-9.
- 42. War of 1812, 10. War of 1861-65, 182-203; causes of, 82, 208; inevitableness, 177; not for abolition, 187; W. and the, xxvi, 178-209; ready to share in, 202. Washington, President, xxv, 5, 10, 38, 289; W. compares himself with, 131. Washington, condition of, during war, 194-8, 216. Washington, W. in, xxvii, 184-248, 301, 306; its influence on W., 150, 245; W. visits hospitals, see H.; W.’s manner of life in, 190, 193, 215; W. fond of, 201-2; why he remains, 218-9; walks at, 233; W. and negro problem in, 235; hopes to return, 252; discharged from post, 257; visit to, 258. Wealth of America becoming concentrated, 310. Webster, Daniel, 42, 79. Wesley, J., 290. West, the, its interests, 24; its settlement threatens the South, 26; problem of, 79; W. and the, xxvii; first sees, 54; contemplates settlement in, 183; journey, 271-4. West Hills, the Whitman homestead, 5, 103, 260, 320;
- 43. described, 7-9; holidays at, 12; W. visits, 280. “What am I after all,” 158. Whigs, the American, 23, 24, 44. Whitehorse, the hamlet of, W. stays at, 259-60. See Timber Creek. Whitman, Abijah, 5. — Andrew, 13, 86, 193, 256. — Edward, 86, 256, 341. — George, 13, 86, 182, 185, 246, 248, 250, 256, 257, 266, 342; view of L. of G., 88; volunteers, 178-9; wounded, 183; anxiety about, 203; a prisoner, 209-10; in Brooklyn, 218; in Camden, 246; W. leaves his house, 305. Whitman, Hannah. See Heyde. — Iredwell, 280. — Jefferson, 13, 50, 53, 86, 88, 185, 193, 251, 256, 273; goes to St. Louis, 218; W. visits there, 265-5; death of, 342. — Jesse (W.’s grandfather), xxv, 5, 6, 8. — Jesse (W.’s brother), 11, 65, 86, 256. — Jessie, 342. — Joseph, 5.
- 44. — Lieutenant, 5. — Louisa (van Velsor), 4, 65, 103, 112; described, 6-7; and W., 12-3; illness, 19-20; and L. of G., 88; letters of W. to, 202, 233, 247, etc.; age and failing health, 210; a link with W.’s youth, 233; goes to Camden, 246; death, 248; effect on W., 249, 250, 252, 258; her tomb, 341. — Louisa (Mrs. George W.), 250, 269. — Mahala, 280. — Martha, 248. — Mary, 11, 86. — Walt, Dutch element in, 3; born, 6; at West Hills, 7-9; at Brooklyn, 10-3; hears Hicks, 15-8; amusements and education, 19; as a lad, 19-20; sees Booth, 22; and politics, 22, 33; at seventeen, 28; as a teacher, 28-33; games, 30; his idleness, 20, 30-1; and Long Islander, 31-2; wholesomeness, 32; a journalist, 33-7;
- 45. Franklin Evans, 35; an editor, 37; political views, 39, 40, 44; love of society, 40; and of New York, 20, 41-2; the Eagle, 42-4; public work, 43; goes to New Orleans, 46, 49-53; returns via St. Louis, 54; his idea of America, 55; becomes a carpenter, 56; his reading, 57-61; attitude to American writers, 59-60; and to science, etc., 60-2; passion for America, 63; inner development, 65, 69-78; W. at 35, 66-8, 83; in N.Y., 82-6; hears Alboni, 86; indifference to money, 87; begins L. of G., 87; publishes it, 88; daily habits, 65, 88; holidays, 86, 89; power of joy, 91; compared with Emerson, 94; view of the poet, 95-7; describes his childhood, 103-4; religious quality of W., 105-6; relation to Emerson, Rousseau, Shelley, 106-8; reviews L. of G., 109; visit from Conway, 110-2; appearance in ’55, 111; visit from Alcott and Thoreau, 112-5; love of city-life, 114; publishes second edition L. of G., 116;
- 46. symbolism of W., 117-22; W. as the American poet, 123; W. and evil, 124-5; and women, 126-7; in danger of prosecution, 127; publishes Emerson’s letter, 127-8; his letter to E., 128; idea of lecturing, 129-31; and of political life, 131-2; need for comrades, 132-3; becomes a Republican, 134; W. and J. Brown, 136; W.’s N.Y. friends, 137; in N.Y., 138-40; appearance in 1860, 140; rarely laughs, 142; at Boston, 142-3; with Emerson, 143-7; his optimism, 151; humility, 154; mystic experience, 155; pride, 156; evil qualities, 156; attitude toward sex, 159-62; his temperance, 160; as Adam, 162; on comradeship, 163; W. and Jesus, 167-8; and death, 169; W. in N.Y., 172; and P. of Wales, 173; sees Lincoln, 175-6; W. and the outbreak of war, 178-81; goes to front, 183-4; home-troubles, 185-6, 193; life in Washington, 190, 193, 201;
- 47. friends there, 190-2; appearance, 192; occupation, 192-3; health, 193; thinks of lecturing, 193-4; in hospitals, 194-200; meets Lincoln, 201; first illness, 202, 203-4; willing to share in war, 203; in Brooklyn, 203-5, 209; prepares Drum-taps, 205; attitude to war, 205-9; seeks release of George W., 209-10; clerk in Indian Bureau, 210 W. and Lincoln’s death, 211-2; Harlan incident, 213-4; as a clerk, 216; gentler, 217; decreasing vitality, 218; visits Mrs. Price, 219-20; relations with W. M. Rossetti, 223; with Symonds, 223-5; Mrs. Gilchrist’s letters, 225; W. and sex, 226; legendary element in story of W., 227; outcome of his personality, 228-9; W. and P. Doyle, 231-3; W.’s solitude, 233; W. and women, 234; supports Grant, 235; quarrel with O’Connor, 236; his Democratic Vistas, 236-42; publishes fifth edition of L. of G., 242; W. a careful writer, 244; public recitation of poems, 245; illness, 247-57;
- 48. goes to Camden, 248; effect of mother’s death, 249; loneliness in Camden, 250; poems at this juncture, 253-5; his residence, 256; discharged from post, 257; poverty and help from England, 258-9; visits Timber Creek, 260-2; Mrs. Gilchrist comes to Phila., 263-5; W. sits for bust, 265; Carpenter’s visit and account of W., 267-9; Dr. Bucke’s do., 270; W.’s journey West, 271-4; and to Canada, 274-7; goes to Boston, 278-82; sees Emerson, 282; L. of G. troubles, 284-6; W. and other prophetic writers, 289-300; puts himself into his rhythm, 291; universality of W., 295; and vital power, 298; his friendship with Pearsall Smith, 301-4; W. takes the Mickle St. house, 305; second visit of Carpenter, 305-7; W. and labour problems, 306-13; was he a Socialist? 311-2; W. a “mugwump,” 314; his household, 317-9; visitors, 319-24; his politico-social views, 323-4; serious illness, 326; more querulous, 327; Swinburne’s attack, 327; increased need for silence, 331; birthday dinners, 331-2; Ingersoll’s lecture, 333-5;
- 49. W. and L. of G., 335-6; his views of health, 338-40; his tomb, 341; last illness, 341-4; last letter, 342; death, 344; funeral, 344-6; note on visit to New Orleans, etc., 349-50. Whitman, his characteristics, described by phrenologist, 67-8. See also 303-4, 334, and under Anger, Coolness, Elemental quality, Evil in, Humility, Humour, Mysticism, Pride, Sanity, Wonder, etc. — Walter (father of W.), 56, 103; described, 6, 13-4; moves to Brooklyn, 10; relations with W., 12, 65; death, 86, 88; tomb, 341. — Zechariah, 5. Whitman, burying ground, West Hills, 9; family, and Hicks, 14; and L. of G., 88; homestead at West Hills, 2. See W. H. Whitmanites, 218. Whitman’s America, Introd.; W. owes much to A., xxv; its development, xxvi; extent of W.’s journeys, xxvii; W. a metropolitan American, and a type of America, xxvii-viii. “Whitman’s hollow,” 5. Whittier, J. G., 59, 336.
- 50. “Whoever you are holding me now in hand,” 163. Whole, the idea of the, W.’s love for, 60-1. “Who learns my lesson complete?” 104. Wholesomeness, W.’s, 32. Wickedness, W.’s attitude to, 104. Williams, family of, 31, 347-8. — Naomi, 4, 347-8. — Roger, 4. Wilmot proviso, the, 43, 44. Wisconsin, State of, W. in, 54. Wisdom found in fellowship, 164. “Woman waits for Me, A,” 126. Woman, W. and, 102, 125-7, 148, 225-6, 240, 274. Women, W.’s relations with, 51-3, 71, 139, 160, 234, 263, 303, 323, 349-50. Women of America, 122; of Boston, 279. Women’s suffrage, 240; W. and, 125-6. Wonder, W.’s capacity for, 78. Wood, Fernando, 82, 178, 185. Wood, Silas, 7. Woodfall and Junius, 285. “Word out of the Sea, A.” See “Out of the Cradle”. Words, W.’s idea of, 96, 117-9; W. invents, 212.
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