"The effects of flipped classroom on learning effectiveness: using learning satisfaction as the mediator" . Pao-Ching Lin & Hai-Ming Chen.

World Transactions on Engineering and Technology Education  2016 WIETE
Vol.14, No.2, 2016
231
INTRODUCTION
Flipped learning is one of the world’s more important educational topics. Thanks to the Internet and information
technology, revolutionary changes are happening to the way teachers teach and students learn. Teachers are breaking
away from the role of being a knowledge provider to becoming a facilitator and coordinator of the students’ learning
process; while students are also getting away from the …copying and memorisation equals high test scores learning
model to that of a self-initiating learner model. Digital teaching materials, massive open on-line courses (MOOCs) are
all self-learning materials for students; while classroom discussion has become the catalyst for effective learning
outcomes [1]. However, when the teachers in the school are poised to implement the flipped learning method,
are students willing to accept the self-initiated learning?
One of the more important elements of successfully implementing the flip learning method is the willingness of students
to take the initiative in learning. Under the impact of a low-birth rate, many schools in Taiwan are facing the challenge
of recruiting students. Some schools are near to closing down, while in some schools, for the sake of sustainability,
the acceptable student-quality has been affected. It is not clear if some of these students go to school for learning or for
other purposes.
This is the first reason contributing to the motivation of this research. Bergmann and Sams argued that the success of
a flipped classroom is closely related to students’ enthusiasm in learning, and teachers should provide more
opportunities for students to choose, so as to maintain or nurture their learning enthusiasm [2]. Lastly, as with traditional
teaching, teachers should design a complete mechanism to ensure the quality of group discussion, and design lesson-
preparation content that is interesting, while being appropriate to the student’s level.
All of these factors are key elements in the success of a flipped classroom. Is the learning motivation of the top 27% of
students of the first half of Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges the same as the bottom 27% of students of the
second half? That is, when implementing flipped learning, is there a difference in the learning effectiveness between the
students in the first half and the second half? This is the second reason contributing to the motivation for undertaking
this research.
Moreover, learning satisfaction and learning effectiveness are both critical factors in the measurement of learning
effectiveness. There are many factors that can affect students’ learning satisfaction and learning effectiveness; apart
from students’ individual factors, teachers, curriculum, and learning environment are all possible factors. Researchers
may focus on any one particular factor due to research objectives or research environments. Lynch et al have studied,
specifically, medical school students, the effects and the relationship between learning patterns and learning
performance [3].
The effects of flipped classroom on learning effectiveness: using learning
satisfaction as the mediator
Pao-Ching Lin & Hai-Ming Chen
Tamkang University
New Taipei City, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: This study aims to verify and to understand the effects of flipped classroom on the learning effectiveness,
while using learning satisfaction as the mediator. The findings show that: 1) both the instructors and students of
technical and vocational colleges (the first half) believe that flipped learning has a positive effect on learning
satisfaction; while the students of the second half of technical a vocational colleges believe that flipped learning has
a negative effect on learning satisfaction; 2) both the instructors and students of technical and vocational colleges (both
halves) believe that flipped learning has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness; and 3) both the
instructors and students of technical and vocational colleges (the first half) believe that flipped learning has a positive
effect on learning effectiveness; while the instructors and students of the second half of technical and vocational
colleges believe that flipped learning has a negative effect on learning effectiveness. Summarising the above, learning
satisfaction has a partial mediating effect.

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Jones also discussed the effects of capability, self-efficacy, and personal goals on performance, and found that
a number of different personal traits can indeed affect learning performance [4]. Overall, learning satisfaction and
learning effectiveness dimensions may be slightly different in various research discussions due to the differences in
research topics; however, the dimensions they cover include no more than the following six items: learning
environment, administration, teachers, curriculum, learning outcomes and interpersonal relationships.
Compared with other dimensions, the discussion on innovative teaching - the study on the effects of flipped classroom
on learning effectiveness, while using students’ learning satisfaction as the intervening variable, is considered quite
novel. However, the constant updating of teaching methods, the persistent presence of the emphasis on students’
learning satisfaction, and the effective development of learning effectiveness can bring forth the basis of effectiveness
between teaching and learning for teachers and students in the school, and enhance learning willingness and learning
effectiveness. This is the third reason contributing to the motivation for undertaking this research. Therefore, this study
is attempting to verify and to understand the effects of flipped learning on the learning effectiveness in Taiwan’s
technical and vocational colleges, while using learning satisfaction as the intervening variable. Specific research
objectives can be summarised as the following items:
1) To verify and understand whether or not adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges
has a significant positive effect on learning satisfaction (H1).
a. To verify and understand, whether or not, adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges (the first half) has a significant positive effect on learning satisfaction (H1-1).
b. To verify and understand, whether or not, adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges (the second half) has a significant positive effect on learning satisfaction (H1-2).
2) To verify and understand, whether or not, students’ learning satisfaction in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges also has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness (H2).
a. To verify and understand, whether or not, students’ learning satisfaction in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges (the first half) also has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness (H2-1)
b. To verify and understand, whether or not, students’ learning satisfaction in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges (the second half) also has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness (H2-2)
3) To verify and understand, whether or not, adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges
has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness (H3).
a. To verify and understand, whether or not, adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges (the first half) has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness (H3-1).
b. To verify and understand, whether or not, adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational
colleges (the second half) has a significant positive effect on learning effectiveness (H3-2).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Flipped Learning
The conceptual definition of flipped learning in this study is …a learning model where students learn the online course
materials first, then have their questions answered by the teacher, and participate in the guided discussion and
experiments during the classroom hour. This model flips the concept of the traditional model, where teachers lecture in
the classroom and students do their lessons at home, thus it is also called flipped classroom.
This study integrated the ideas proposed by Forsey et al as the sub-dimensions for flipped learning: 1) lower-order
learning - refers to the students’ learning during the second half of school duration; and 2) higher-order learning - refers
to the students’ learning during the first half of school duration and performed verification, respectively [5]. The above
mentioned conceptual definition concerning flipped learning is summarised from the following literature review.
Hamdan et al proposed in 2013 the key concept of flipped classroom, using the word FLIP, where F means flexible
learning environment, and where the method is learner centred with intentional content, and where the teachers must
have professional knowledge and attitude [6].
Bergmann and Sams argued that the so-called flipped classroom is not an innovated teaching strategy, but it flips the
teaching procedure of a traditional classroom, and blends technology into the teaching method (video, in particular),
in which the inverted instruction requires students to prepare ahead [2].
The method adopts a blended learning model that utilises the Internet for delivering instructions and the traditional
face-to-face teaching, so as to help students achieve their goals with a higher level of learning. That is, before going to
the class, students should take the initiative to prepare for the class, while the teacher utilises the time that was designed

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for face-to-face classroom instruction to guide students in completing their homework, and to help students in solving
course problems, in addition to facilitating the opportunity for students to participate in classroom discussions and to
engage in classroom activities.
As a result, the interaction between the teacher and students is greatly improved. It can even help students to achieve
their goals with a higher level of learning. During this process, students must take responsibility for gaining knowledge
on their own, while receiving individualised learning assistance (achieving the goal of differentiated instruction) in the
classroom.
Chou suggested that flipped classroom refers to the learning model where …students prepare the lesson before the
class, and attend interactive discussions during the class [7]. There are many ways to achieve lesson preparation and
interactive discussions. The learning method of flipped classroom adopts the mobile learning method for pre-class
preparation, and cooperative learning for in-class interaction between students and the teacher.
Additionally, similarly to Hamdan [6], Liu pointed out that flipped classroom or as termed, flipped teaching, is where F
means flexible learning environment, and where the method is learner centred with intentional content, and where the
teachers must have professional knowledge and attitude [8].
The key to implementing flip learning or inverted classroom, is twofold: 1) before the class, the teacher uploads or links
the recorded instruction contents (or relevant ready-made materials) to a knowledge platform for students to learn,
on their own initiative, the provided contents and to record the problems they encounter during the learning process;
and 2) during the class, the teacher responds to the questions that students encountered, and conducts discussion-based
cooperative learning or individualised guidance. This method, in which students learn the on-line course materials first,
then, have their questions answered by the teacher, and participate in the guided discussion and experiments during the
classroom hour, flips the concept of the traditional model, where teachers lecture in the classroom and students do their
lessons at home; thus, it is called flipped classroom.
Forsey et al proposed that if the course contents of humanities studies (including educational fields) are oriented to
lower-order learning (remembering and understanding learning activities), and that if students do not feel they gain
much from the classroom sessions, i.e. they only need to read materials or watch relevant video without going to the
classroom, and can still pass the examination or turn-in reports, they will choose to be absent or not pay attention in the
class [5]. However, higher-order learning activities, i.e. higher-order and individualised learning (for example: solving
mathematical problems or social topic discussions) are time-consuming and more difficult for the traditional teaching
method to achieve.
Hau argued that the concept of a flipped classroom is focused on putting students in the centre: teachers flip
(i.e. transform) the traditional teacher-centred idea of the past and turn it into a concept that focuses on the student [9].
By blending appropriate technological tools (video, in particular) in to the teaching process, students are required to
learn the basic content ahead of time; during the class period, students are guided by the teacher and have more
opportunities to interact with peers and the teacher for higher-order, individualised learning (for example: solving
mathematical problems and discussing social issues).
Additionally, the four pillars of flipped classroom contain the four principles that enable teachers, who want to
implement flipped classroom, to get a quick start: 1) select a topic that can be completed in a 15-minute lecture:
the teaching method of flipped classroom applies to topics that students can master themselves. Teachers should prepare
ahead of time videos or information that students can easily understand quality over quantity; 2) clearly define the time
frame for a planned discussion during the class period, similar to coaching a team-practice with a pre-designed game
plan, rather than a student-run discussion or self-study period; 3) do not apply flipped method to all subjects, since it is
not the only teaching method available. To get started, the teacher might apply the flipped method to various subjects at
a frequency of one class period per week; and 4) design an alternative programme for students who have no Internet
access at home. The flipped learning method is dependent on pre-class preparation. If the preparation requires
an Internet connection to complete, teachers must consider a substitute programme to provide information for pre-class
preparation for students who have no Internet access or who have no computers [10][11].
Learning Satisfaction
Learning satisfaction is one of the major items used for measuring learning results. In addition to students’ individual
issues, teachers, curriculum and learning environment are possible factors that can affect students’ learning satisfaction.
Summarising the perspectives of the following scholars, the conceptual definition concerning learning satisfaction in
this study is …students’ feelings of pleasantry or attitudes on learning activities. Explanations on the dimensions of the
latent variables [5] of learning satisfaction and their operational definitions are described as follows:
The discussion of learning satisfaction in this study is divided into the following three observable variables,
i.e. 1) learning attitude: it is a relatively stable psychological tendency that a student shows towards learning and

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learning status. It may be determined by observation of, or described as, the attention paid, emotions displayed,
and mental status that the student shows while learning; 2) learning motivation: it refers to the driving force that propels
a person to learn. Learning motivation is directly related to how active, how happy and how successful the student is
while learning; and 3) interest in learning: it refers to a positive emotional tendency that the student has towards the
learning target, and where the student understands and is actively seeking contact with it. They are the forces that drive
students to actively learn.
The above-mentioned conceptual definition and dimensions of learning satisfaction are derived from the following
items from the literature:
Tough defined learning satisfaction as …a learning attitude and feeling that school children have in the learning
process: feeling happy with positive attitude means satisfaction; conversely, dis-satisfaction [12].
Chen proposed that the definition of learning satisfaction refers to …a feeling and learning attitude that a student has
with the learning process. When such a feeling and attitude is pleasant during a learning activity, the student will
actively participate in and acquire or pursuit the required level of achievement [13].
Lee defined learning satisfaction as …a student’s feelings about learning results, which stem from the gap between the
actually acquired knowledge and the expected learning outcome from a student’s learning process. If the gap is small,
learning satisfaction is high; conversely, the learning satisfaction is low [14].
Cheng proposed that the definition of learning satisfaction refers to …the feeling and attitude that a student has about
the learning activity. The formation of such a feeling or attitude is attributed to a student’s enjoyment of the learning
activity, or to the student’s aspirations and needs being achieved at a satisfactory level during the learning process [15].
Chen defined learning satisfaction as …while in the process of participating and learning, it is a student’s level of
participation and attitude towards such an activity, as well as his feelings and resulting achievement level of the
expected target [16].
Yang proposed that the definition of learning satisfaction refers to …Students feelings or attitudes about the learning
activity, where a happy feeling or active attitude suggests satisfaction, and an unhappy feeling or passive attitude
suggests dis-satisfaction [17].
Yang defined learning satisfaction as …a student’s mental state, where his psychological needs are met by the designed
activity during his participation in a learning process, thus generating the positive feeling of joy [18].
Concerning the method for measuring learning satisfaction, scholars have derived a variety of perspectives and research
findings.
Starr indicated in his research that there are five aspects included in his survey questionnaire on measuring college
students’ learning satisfaction: school environment and equipment, learning outcomes, administrative measures and
services, interpersonal relationships, and the respect given to the students from teachers and administrative
personnel [19].
Corts et al adopted five environmental factors to study their impact on student satisfaction [20]. Their research findings
show: career preparation and course offerings have the biggest impact on student satisfaction; while advising also has
a positive effect on student satisfaction.
Learning Effectiveness (the Study Effect of Students)
Learning effectiveness refers to the changes imparted on a student concerning knowledge, skills and attitudes as
observed at the end of the teaching [21][22]. The conceptual definition of learning effectiveness in this study can be
defined as …that which can be measured by indicators of three explicit variables, namely: students’ grades after
learning in school, demonstrated professional skills, and proficiency results from various external exams.
Its dimensions definition is briefly described as follows: 1) school grades: refers to, during the process of learning in
school, the test scores obtained after learning; 2) the number of professional certificates: refers to the number of
professional certificates obtained from various professional proficiency examinations after the process of learning in
school or other venues of capability training; and 3) external examinations: refers to the process of participating in
various external professional proficiency tests after the process of learning in school or other venues of professional
training. The above-mentioned conceptual definition and dimensions of learning effectiveness are derived from the
following items from the literature:
Chen pointed out that the definition of learning effectiveness refers to …the indicator that is used to measure a student’s
learning effectiveness, and is one of the important criteria used to evaluate teaching quality [23].

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Wen defined learning effectiveness as …a student’s learning performance, including formative and summative
evaluation results [24].
Li pointed out that learning effectiveness refers to …a student’s learning results obtained by way of a certain form of
assessment, which may include time, tools, or indicators, as conducted by an assessor on the student after a period of
time of certain learning activities [25].
Lin defined learning effectiveness as:
…it is an indicator for measuring learning outcomes, and is one of the most important criteria used for
assessing teaching quality. It refers to a student’s learning results, as measured on Cognitive, Affective, and
Psychomotor Domains with defined test tools, after the learner has spent a prescribed time studying in
a certain field. The methods used for assessing learning effectiveness should include factors: accuracy,
completion time, expected difficulty, complexity, and proper values for the answer, thus offering a fairer and
reasonable assessment method. Teachers may use various learning performance records for the evaluation,
such as oral exams, writing exams, hands-on operation, reports, homework, worksheets, quizzes, and regular
assessment tests. All of these are broad definitions of learning effectiveness. If defined from a narrower
perspective, it may refer to academic performance on each subject, or on the average performance of
a combination of subjects [26].
Concerning the methods for measuring learning effectiveness, scholars have derived a variety of perspectives and
research findings.
The research of Jones suggested that learning effectiveness is affected by factors, such as learning styles, course design
and teaching [4].
The study of Loo also suggested that learning effectiveness is affected by factors, such as learning styles, course design,
and teaching. In terms of the assessment for learning effectiveness, in general, the assessment results can be obtained
directly from students’ grades, their abilities to acquire professional certification and their performance results from
participated external examinations [27].
Flipped Learning and Learning Satisfaction
Du utilised the implementation of learning activity design on the subject of geographic information to further enhance
high school students’ interest in learning, and verified the implementation results with learning satisfaction variable
[28]. The results show that after going through the learning activity on geographic information technology, the learning
effectiveness of all of the high school students reached high levels of satisfaction.
Feng et al adopted the method of micro-lesson teaching practice by student, with the help of the new flipped-classroom
idea, in the instruction design of their Instruction Design course [29]. The results show that students’ learning
satisfaction is higher when this method is implemented.
Summarising the above, the following hypothesis has been deduced in this study:
H1: flipped learning has a significant positive effect on students’ learning satisfaction.
Learning Satisfaction and Learning Effectiveness
Wang pointed out that learning satisfaction and learning performance are significantly correlated [30].
Cao et al argued that learning satisfaction and learning effectiveness are both significantly positively correlated [31].
Chen believed that goal orientation and learning satisfaction have significant positive effects on learning performance
[32].
Chuan et al argued that students, who have strong learning motivation, have higher learning satisfaction, thus, the level
of learning effectiveness is also higher [33].
Additionally, the content of learning satisfaction that most scholars discussed includes four aspects: course materials,
teaching, learning environments and interpersonal relationships [34].
On distance education, Benner et al studied students’ learning satisfaction relating to tele-courses, where the dimensions
explored concerning students’ learning satisfaction cover: teachers, techniques, procedure management, locations of all
parties involved, promptness of material exchange, support facilities and teacher contacts [35].

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The questionnaire adopted in measuring test subjects’ on-line learning effectiveness in this study includes academic
performance and learning satisfaction and self-efficacy, in which learning satisfaction refers to the assessment of
students’ personal feelings and experiences after using the various factors presented in the learning environment [22];
while, self-efficacy refers to students being confident and capable of expressing the acquired knowledge in the external
behaviour [22].
As suggested by Yan and He, incorporating information technology into classrooms helps promote learning
effectiveness, but the core issue still lies in course content and teaching activities; information technology is just one of
the auxiliary tools [36].
Summarising the above, the following hypothesis is deduced in this study:
H2: the learning satisfaction of students in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges has a significant positive effect on
their learning effectiveness.
Flipped Learning and Learning Effectiveness
New teaching model: it has been confirmed by many studies abroad that flipped learning is helpful in enhancing
learning effectiveness.
Yan and He believed that incorporating information technology into classrooms helps promote learning effectiveness,
but the core issue still lies in course content and teaching activities; information technology is just one of the auxiliary
tools [36].
The research conducted by Wang found that the learning effectiveness of students taught in the concept-map integrated
flipped learning model is significantly better than students taught in the traditional instruction model [37].
Wu studied students who accepted the flipped teaching method in their English course, in which the experimental group
students’ English learning performance was significantly better than those in the control group [38].
Chou believed the learning effectiveness of students who experience the teaching model that integrates flipped
classroom and mobile learning is significantly better than that of students who receive traditional teaching [7].
Compared with the students in the group using the traditional teaching model, students who are in the group with
flipped classroom and mobile learning integration have a better understanding of the lesson unit ratio, and have a higher
learning desire. The feedback from questionnaire and interviews show that both the teacher and students are positive
and approving of the flipped classroom teaching method.
Summarising the above, the following hypothesis is deduced in this study:
H3: adopting flipped learning in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges has a significant positive effect on learning
effectiveness.
Based on the above research purpose, and literature review, this study constructs a conceptual research framework,
as shown in Figure 1a and Figure 1b:
Figure 1a: Conceptual research framework.

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Figure 1b: Conceptual research framework.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sampling Method
This study applied the convenience sampling method on the research population and, for the questionnaire survey,
targeted teachers at least at the lecturer level and students of ten technical and vocational colleges in the top 27%
ranking for the first half of the school duration (they are referred to in this study as the higher-order learning schools),
and in ten colleges in the bottom 27% of the second half (they are referred to in this study as the lower-order learning
schools). This study distributed 50 copies of the questionnaire to experts as a pilot test, then, modified the questionnaire
in accordance with the experts’ feedback recommendations, and performed an official post-test with 250 copies of
questionnaire being distributed. Of these, 202 valid questionnaire samples were returned, at a sample-return rate of
80.8%.
Designing the Questionnaire
The questionnaire in this study was compiled on the basis of the itemisation survey method and the afore-mentioned
observable dimensions. On a 7-point Likert scale, the answers were measured with 7 denoting strongly agree and
1 denoting strongly disagree. A higher score represents a greater level of agreement, and vice versa.
The questionnaire design relating to flipped learning in this study integrates the dimensions as proposed by Forsey et al
i.e. 1) lower-order learning; and 2) higher-order learning, with added improvements (the definition of these dimensions
is different in this study), resulting in a total of six questions [5].
The questionnaire design relating to learning satisfaction in this study incorporates the learning satisfaction scale
proposed by Starr with added improvements [19]. This dimension includes three variables: learning attitudes, learning
motivations and learning interests, where the first two variables are applied to four questions, while the last variable is
applied to six questions, resulting in a total of 14 questions.
The questionnaire design, relating to learning effectiveness in this study, integrates the studies proposed by Jones [4],
Lynch [3] and others with added improvements. This unobservable variable item includes three variables: school
grades, the number of professional certificates and external examinations, while the design follows the method of
itemisation survey, with each variable comprising four questions, resulting in a total of 12 questions.
The Data Obtained from Questionnaire and Measurement Model
This study’s authors adopted structural equation modelling (SEM) in a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the
research framework, and based the questionnaire design on three latent variables (i.e. flipped learning, learning
satisfaction and learning effectiveness), each of which was divided into observable/explicit sub-variables containing
several questions, as shown in the table below.
After processing the collected data, the authors created a primary file that preceded the design of questionnaire, using
itemisation survey method for the construction of this study’s measurement system. Although itemisation survey
method is applied to the design of the questionnaire, dual measurement was adopted to ensure the computer software
efficiently handled and/or measured all data [39]. Table1 shows the number of questions under each implicit or explicit
variable, as well as the referential sources.

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Table 1: Number of questionnaire items under each implicit variable’ and explicit variable.
Implicit variables Explicit variables
No. of
questions
References
Flipped learning
Higher-order learning 3 Wang [37], Chou [7], Du [28]
and Hau [9]Lower-order learning 3
Learning satisfaction
Learning attitude 4
Chen [13], Wang [30], Chen [32],
Chuan et al [33] and Yang [18]
Learning motivation 4
Interest in learning 6
Learning effectiveness
School grades 4
Qiu [21], Wen [24] and Lin [26]Number of professional certificates 4
External examinations 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Linear Structure Model Analysis
This study includes a CFA, an analytical method contrary to the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), on the three
unobservable/latent variables of flipped learning, learning satisfaction and learning effectiveness. SEM is made up of
structural and measurement models to efficiently tackle the cause-effect relations among implicit/latent variables.
The three parts of model-testing in this study are: 1) goodness-of-fit of the measurement model; 2) goodness-of-fit of
the structural model; and 3) the overall model’s conformity with goodness-of-fit indicators. In other words, goodness-
of-fit indictors were applied to a test of the overall goodness-of-fit effect of SEM [40].
Analysing Fit of the Measurement Model
To a large extent, factor loading is intended to measure the intensity of linear correlation between each latent/implicit
variable and a manifest/explicit one. The closer the factor loading is to 1, the better an observable variable is in
measuring latent variables. Since this study’s reliability is supported by the fact that factor loadings for all observable
variables range between 0.7 and 0.8, all observable/explicit variables in the measurement model appropriately gauged
the latent/implicit ones.
The average variance extracted (AVE), on the other hand, gauges an unobservable/implicit variable’s explanatory power
of variance with regard to an observable one, with the AVE value growing in proportion to the reliability and convergent
validity of that particular implicit/latent variable. As a rule, AVE must be larger than 0.5 for an observable variable’s
explainable variance to exceed the measurement error [41]. Table 2 and Figure 2 show that all AVEs in this study
exceed 0.5; the explicit variables have excellent reliability and convergent validity.
Table 2: Judgment indicators for the measurement model.
Implicit variables Explicit variables Factor loading Average variance extracted (AVE)
Flipped learning (X)
X1 0.74 0.54
X2 0.76 0.56
Learning satisfaction (ME)
ME1 0.74 0.54
ME2 0.75 0.55
Learning effectiveness (Y)
Y1 0.76 0.56
Y2 0.77 0.58
Analysing Fit of Structure Model
Path Analysis Results of Structure Model
After the group model of this study has passed the goodness-of-fit test, the parameter estimates, standard errors (SE)
and critical ratio (CR) among latent variables were calculated (as shown in Table 3 and Table 4).
Table 3: Path analysis results of the structural model (the first half).
Path coefficients between implicit variables Estimate SE CR p Label
Flipped learning (X) →
Learning
satisfaction (ME)
0.532 0.023 23.130 *** a1
Learning satisfaction (ME) →
Learning
effectiveness (Y)
0.563 0.020 28.150 *** b1
Learning
effectiveness (Y)
0.541 0.024 22.542 *** c
Note: * indicates p < 0.05; ** indicates p < 0.01; *** indicates p < 0.001

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Table 4: Path analysis results of the structural model (the second half).
Path coefficients between implicit variables Estimate SE CR p Label
Learning
satisfaction (ME)
˗0.433 0.018 -24.056 *** a1
Learning satisfaction (ME) →
Learning
effectiveness (Y)
0.511 0.021 24.333 *** b1
Learning
effectiveness (Y)
-0.482 0.022 21.909 *** c
Note: * indicates p < 0.05; ** indicates p < 0.01; *** indicates p < 0.001
Coefficient of Determination
1) The explaining level of each implicit independent variable to each implicit dependent variable is the R2
value
(squared multiple correlation, SMC). Therefore, the R2
value shown in Table 5 indicates that the implicit
independent variable has adequate explaining ability on the implicit dependent variable, respectively.
Table 5: Path coefficient of determination.
Coefficients of determination R2
Flipped learning → Learning effectiveness 0.71
Flipped learning → Learning satisfaction 0.74
Learning satisfaction → Learning effectiveness 0.72
Indices of Fit of the Overall Model
The purpose of adopting SEM in the modelling phase of this study is to explore how unobservable variables are
interconnected within the structural model, to determine if the measurement model has measurement reliability, and also
to measure this study’s overall goodness-of-fit effect using such indices as χ2
, d.f., GFI, AGFI, NFI, CFI, RMR and
RMSEA. In most cases, it is required that χ2
/d.f. < 5, 1 > GFI > 0.9, 1 > NFI > 0.9, 1 > CFI > 0.9, RMR < 0.05 and
RMSEA < 0.05 [42]. The goodness-of-fit of the overall model proved satisfactory because χ2
/d.f. < 5 and GFI, AGFI
and NFI all exceed 0.90, with the RMR smaller than 0.05 (see Table 6).
Table 6: Fitting evaluation table of the overall group model.
Determination
index
χ2
DF GFI NFI AGFI CFI RMR RMSEA
Fit value 5.970 6 0.903 0.934 0.905 0.932 0.021 0.023
Standardised Results of SEM Analysis
The computerised standardised results of the overall framework are shown in Figure 2a (the first half), and Figure 2b
(the second half).
Figure 2a: Standardised results of the overall framework - first half.

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Figure 2b: Standardised results of the overall framework - second half.
Path Effect Analysis and Tests of Inner Model
The Bayesian estimation is adopted for an analytical test, with specific focus on the path coefficients between implicit
(unobservable) variables of the inner model (the first half), to analyse and verify the group inner model’s path effect,
using students’ learning satisfaction (ME) as the mediating variable. Table 7 shows:
2) Because the path coefficient of flipped learning (X) on learning satisfaction (ME) a1 = 0.532, where the 95%
confidence interval is (0.419, 0.655), there is a significant positive effect in the first stage effect.
3) Because the path coefficient of learning satisfaction (ME) on learning effectiveness (Y) b1 = 0.563, where the 95%
confidence interval is (0.443, 0.650), there is a significant positive effect in the second stage effect.
4) Because the path coefficient of flipped learning (X) on learning effectiveness (Y) c = 0.541, where the 95%
confidence interval is (0.417, 0.665), there is a significant positive effect in the third stage effect.
Table 7: Bayesian estimation.
The Bayesian estimation is adopted for an analytical test, with specific focus on the path coefficients between implicit
(unobservable) variables of the inner model (the second half), to analyse and verify the group inner model’s path effect,
using students’ learning satisfaction (ME) as the mediating variable. Table 8 shows:
1) Because the path coefficient of flipped learning (X) on learning satisfaction (ME) a1 = -0.443, where the 95%
confidence interval is (-0.561, -0.325), there is a significant negative level in the first stage effect.
2) Because the path coefficient of learning satisfaction (ME) on learning effectiveness (Y) b1 = 0.511, where the 95%
confidence interval is (0.390, 0.632), there is a significant positive level in the second stage effect.
3) Because the path coefficient of flipped learning (X) on learning effectiveness (Y) c = -0.482, where the 95%
confidence interval is (-0.604, -0.360), there is a significant negative effect in the third stage effect.
Table 8: Bayesian estimation.
According to the analysis above, the following verification results are obtained in this study:
Regression weights Mean SD
95% Lower
bound
95% Upper
bound
Name
Flipped learning (X) → Learning satisfaction (ME) 0.532 0.023 0.419 0.655 a1
Learning satisfaction (ME) → Learning effectiveness (Y) 0.563 0.020 0.443 0.650 b1
Flipped learning (X) → Learning effectiveness (Y) 0.541 0.024 0.417 0.665 c
Regression weights Mean SD
95% Lower
bound
95% Upper
bound
Name
Flipped learning (X) → Learning satisfaction (ME) -0.443 0.018 -0.561 -0.325 a1
Learning satisfaction (ME) → Learning effectiveness (Y) 0.511 0.021 0.390 0.632 b1
Flipped learning (X) → Learning effectiveness (Y) -0.482 0.022 -0.604 -0.360 c

241
1) Flipped learning in the first half of Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges has a significant positive effect on
students’ learning satisfaction (H1-1 is substantiated), but it has a significant negative effect on the second half of
the education (H1-2 is not substantiated); thus, H1 is partially supported (Hypothesis 1 is partially substantiated).
2) The learning satisfaction of students of the first half and the second half of education in Taiwan’s technical and
vocational colleges has significant positive effects on their learning effectiveness (H2-1 and H2-2 are both
substantiated); thus, H2 is supported (Hypothesis 2 is completely substantiated).
3) Flipped learning in the first half of Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges has a significant positive effect on
students’ learning effectiveness (H3-1 is substantiated), but it has a significant negative effect on the second half of
the education (H3-2 is not substantiated); thus, H3 is partially supported (Hypothesis 3 is partially substantiated).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
The following conclusions are obtained from summarising the above mentioned results and analysis:
1) In terms of validating structural equation modelling (SEM), the structures of the measurement model, structure
model and overall group model of the SEM in this study have goodness-of-fit, showing good fitting effects.
2) From the practical verification perspective:
a. Concerning the correlations between flipped learning and students’ learning satisfaction dimensions,
implementing the flipped learning method in the first half of the education in Taiwan’s technical and
vocational colleges has a significant positive effect on students’ learning satisfaction (significant direct
effects); while implementing the flipped learning method in the second half of the education has a significant
negative effect on students’ learning satisfaction. This conclusion is partially identical to the research
conducted by Du [28].
b. Concerning the correlations between learning satisfaction and learning effectiveness dimensions, students’
learning satisfaction in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges presents a significant positive direct effect
on their learning effectiveness. This conclusion is partially identical to the studies conducted by Wang [30],
Cao et al [31], Chen [32] and Chuan et al [33].
c. Concerning the correlations between flipped learning and students’ learning effectiveness dimensions,
implementing the flipped learning method in the first half of the education in Taiwan’s technical and
vocational colleges has a positive effect on students’ learning effectiveness; however, implementing the
flipped learning method in the second half of the education in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges has
a significant negative effect on students’ learning effectiveness. This conclusion is partially identical to the
research findings proposed by Yan et al [36], Wang [37] and Wu [38].
Overall, despite of the significant positive effect on learning effectiveness when implementing the flipped learning
method in the first half of the education in Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges, and the significant negative
effect on learning effectiveness when implementing the flipped learning method in the second half of the education in
Taiwan’s technical and vocational colleges, the dimension of students’ learning satisfaction has partial mediating
effects.
Suggestions and Reflections for Teachers and Education Policy-Makers
The flipped classroom is one of the most talked about teaching strategies at this time. Although it is highly valued,
and many schools are attempting to implement the method, few studies have been conducted with rigorous research
methods that are related to the learning outcomes of flipped classroom. In particular, when implementing the flipped
classroom method, teachers must spend more effort on preparing the lesson. It is also important to recognise that the
main premise of having an effective flipped classroom is that students must have the desire to learn on their own
initiative. Therefore, cultivating the desire for initiative learning in students is one of the key factors for promoting
a successful flipped learning method. With the passing of time, many countries are gradually adopting the teacher-and-
student oriented educational reform development, and the relevant significance of curriculum and teaching is also
changing.
The traditional teaching model relies on teachers providing information, uni-directionally, with students doing
homework as a review after school. However, it is often difficult to find solutions when questions arise while doing
homework or find immediate help, and flipped classroom becomes the model that provides solutions to this learning
problem. It provides students with the energy to accumulate valuable knowledge as their main resource for enhancing
learning quality and learning motivation. The above research findings show that teaching methods in a school must

242
meet the requirements of social developments. Investing in modern cloud technology, conducting Web-based teaching
or utilising the interactive whiteboard can help improve problem-solving when conducting teaching, and may improve
teachers’ creativity and students’ learning satisfaction; thereby, enhancing students’ learning effectiveness.
Therefore, this study offers the following recommendations for teachers as a reference, when they are constructing
flipped learning methods to improve students’ learning satisfaction, so as to directly or indirectly enhance students’
learning effectiveness.
• Teachers should keep this principle in mind: there is no one fixed answer to the student-oriented learning method.
Teachers should not be obsessed with external appearance, nor should they and education administrators rush to,
or be infatuated with, a certain teaching model. One teaching strategy cannot meet all classroom requirements.
Flipped classroom is a choice, but it is not the ultimate choice [43][44]. There are many teaching methods in
a flipped classroom; thus, there are many methods for pre-class preparation or in-class interactive discussions.
For example, methods such as practice exercises, problem-solving, cooperative learning and small unit or group
discussions, can all be adopted as learning methods in a flipped classroom.
• Incorporating appropriate and positive incentive systems in the process of implementing cooperative learning in
a flipped classroom can improve learning motivation and learning effectiveness. In other words, under the
cooperative learning method in a flipped classroom teaching model, students both improve their daily attitudes in
communication, mutual cooperation and respect, and enhance their learning motivation and learning effectiveness.
• Learning motivation is the internal driver for a student, which is one of the critical variables affecting learning.
To a teacher, triggering a student’s learning motivation is a means to an end. When designing the instructions,
if a teacher is able to appropriately introduce strategies that stimulate students’ desire to seek knowledge, it would
be a great help towards successful teaching. In addition, the teaching method that integrates flipped classroom and
question-oriented learning can significantly improve learning effectiveness. Furthermore, the teaching method of
question-oriented learning can significantly improve learning motivation.
• The success of a flipped classroom is closely related to students’ enthusiasm for learning, and teachers should
provide more opportunities for students to choose, so as to maintain or nurture learning enthusiasm. Lastly, as with
traditional teaching, teachers should design a complete mechanism that ensures the quality of group discussions,
and design lesson-preparation content that is interesting, while being appropriate to the student’s level of
comprehension. As stated in the ideas proposed by Bergmann and Sams [2], and Hau [44], these factors play a key
role in the success of a flipped classroom.
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