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The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh

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Floriana Chirtop

Access to clean drinking water is a key development indicator according to the document. It summarizes that over 1 billion people live on less than $1 per day and do not have reliable access to clean water. Additionally, there are major disparities in access to water between urban and rural areas of some countries. Wealthier nations provide development assistance to poorer countries, but inequalities still exist worldwide in terms of resources, wealth, and standards of living.

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7 Access to water is one of the main development indicators. It corresponds to the proportion of the population that has access to at least 20 liters of water per day per person from an improved source (pipeline, protected well, rainwater collection, etc.) less than one kilometer from their residence. In many regions of the world, populations lack water, leading to serious sanitary problems. The East Asia/Pacific region has the largest number of inhabitants without access to improved water sources. Inhabitants of urban areas have a better chance of benefiting from an improved source. Mongolia, for example, has very wide disparities between drinking-water access in urban zones (87%) and rural zones (30%). ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER Development indicators Development indicators are numerical indicators used to estimate the development of nations.They measure different parameters that affect the quality of life of human beings. GNP measures a country’s wealth or poverty, while life expectancy and infant mortality rate reflect its state of health. Other indicators assess satisfaction of basic human needs, such as access to drinking water, sufficient food, and housing. Still others measure level of education, the guarantee of a population’s future. To integrate these different parameters into a single indicator, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) calculates the human development index.This index, which takes account of longevity, education, literacy, and standard of living (purchasing power) assesses development on a scale from 0 to 1. In 2004, the index ranged from 0.311 for Niger to 0.965 for Norway. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX High Average Low No data Source: UN Water point, Tanzania Access to a source of drinking water is one of the main development indicators. SHARE OF THE POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER 90%–100% 70%–89% 50%–69% 30%–49% 0%–29% No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES RANKING OF COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX THE HIGHEST-RANKED COUNTRIES THE LOWEST-RANKED COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY INDEX RANK COUNTRY INDEX Norway 0.965 Mozambique 0.390 Iceland 0.960 Burundi 0.384 Australia 0.957 Ethiopia 0.371 Ireland 0.956 Chad 0.368 Sweden 0.951 Central African Republic 0.353 Canada 0.950 Guinea-Bissau 0.349 Japan 0.949 Burkina Faso 0.342 United States 0.948 Mali 0.338 Switzerland 0.947 Sierra Leone 0.335 Netherlands 0.947 Niger 0.311 World average: 0.741 Source: UNDP EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 109108 : An overview of the state of the world for under standing g lobal issues Enlargements provide a detailed view of specific regions in the world. Charts and graphics show statistics that are linked to the subject being presented. Secondary maps illustrate distinctive perspectives. Inside you will find: • more than 110 thematic maps, • more than 50 fact tables from world-renown organizations, • more than 130 photographs, • a glossary and detailed indexes, • rich encyclopedic content, reviewed by experts. NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH HONDURAS JORD AN GUATEMALA PHILIPPINES SYRIA PANAMA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOSHAITI SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN COSTA RICA LESOTHO ARMENIA BELIZE CANADA RUSSIA CHINA BRAZIL AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN UNITED STATES SUDAN ALGERIA ARGENTINA MEXICO MONGOLIA NIGER PERU CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT BOLIVIA TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA COLOMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMA LIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA CHILE NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MO ZAMB IQU E SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCA R PARAGUAY MOROCCO VIE TNAM GHANA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL GUYANA ECUADOR UGANDA URUGUAY SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN VENEZUELA CUBA TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN SURINAME TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDO VA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA JAMAICA VANUATU BAHAMAS TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS DOMINICA MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SAINT LUCIA SINGAPORE CAPE VERDE GREENLAND(DK) WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE GRENADA SEYCHELLES FRENCHGUIANA(FR) ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA MICRONESIA NAURU TUVALU MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN BARBADOS GAZA STRIP SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Sibu (1) Oslo (4) Kudus (1) Omaha (3) Perth (1) Kyoto (3) Delhi (3) Seoul (3) Dubai (2) Mecca (1) Surgut (1) Sydney (3) Almaty (3) Taipei (7) Moscow (24) Riyadh (2) Dallas (20) Phoenix (3) Wichita (3) Bangkok (3) Beijing (1) T'ainan (1) Caracas (2) Atlanta (4) Seattle (7) Houston (6) Shanghai (1) Donets'k (2) Istanbul (7) Cairo (1) Columbia (3) Hamilton (1) Edmonton (1) Honolulu (1) Santiago (2) Las Vegas (4) Melbourne (2) Hong Kong (18) Bangalore (1) Stockholm (5) Monterrey (1) Vancouver (1) Sao Paulo (6) Saint John (1) Kuwait (2) George Town (1) Mexico City (9) Antofagasta (1) Stellenbosch (1) Magnitogorsk (1) Manila (3) Kuala Lumpur (4) Buenos Aires (1) Johannesburg (1) Salt Lake City (3) Rio de Janeiro (2) Bombay (5) Bogota (2) Tefen (1) Tokyo (13) Nassau (1) Denver (5) Jeddah (4) Surabaja (1) Tel Aviv (5) San Jose (17) Singapore (5) San Diego (5) Osaka (2) Bentonville (4) San Antonio (4) Los Angeles (36) Minneapolis (6) San Francisco (23) Fort Lauderdale (5) Dnipropetrovs'k (1) Stuttgart (4) Heidelberg (3) Rome (2) Milano (3) Paris (12) Berlin (3) Vienna (3) Madrid (3) Dublin (2) Warsaw (1) London (19) Hamburg (9) La Coruna (3) Zurich (4) Luzern (3) Geneva (3) Bad Homburg (3) SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO DENMARK SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY Philadelphia (3) Washington D.C. (6) Racine (4) Ottawa (1) Québec (2) Boston (9) Chicago (18) Detroit (6) Toronto (6) Montréal (4) New York (45) Cleveland (3) Charleston (3) Kalamazoo (3) EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 106 : INEQUALITIES Despite economists’forecasts that globalization of the economy will benefit the poorest the most, inequalities in the world are getting worse in terms of health, nutrition, education, housing, and other areas. Gross national product (GNP) per capita, a country’s main socioeconomic development indicator, ranges from about 100 in the poorest countries to almost 60,000 in the wealthiest. These disparities are aggravated by the fact that in the 1970s, the Third World became heavily indebted in order to finance its development.The borrowed funds, often poorly managed or misappropriated, have not had the anticipated effect. Today, unable to pay back its debt, the Third World is demanding that the debt be written off. At the same time, the wealthiest countries donate to the most disadvantaged countries in the form of official development assistance. Measuring wealth The GNP is an indicator that measures the total value of the goods and services produced in a country during one year, as well as its net revenues from foreign countries.Total GNP is used to measure a country’s wealth. Divided by the number of inhabitants, it gives an indication of the standard of living of a country’s population. OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offer aid to developing countries by agreeing to reduce their debt or by providing them with new funding. Number of billionaires (per metropolitan region) Source: Forbes 10 5 1 45 DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH GNP per capita ≥ $25,000 $10,000–$24,999 $3,000–$9,999 $1,000–$2,999 $500–$999 < $500 Sources: World Bank; UN The expression “Third World”was coined during the Cold War to designate countries that belonged to neither the capitalist nor the communist sphere of influence. Since the 1970s,“Third World”has referred to the poorest countries on the planet. Many of these countries’populations live in extreme misery. About 1.3 billion people, representing 20% of the world’s population, survive on less than 1 per day—that is, under the poverty line defined by the United Nations. POVERTY LINE Share of the population living on less than $1 per day ≥ 50% 20%–49% 10%–19% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: UN THE COUNTRIES OF THE THIRD WORLD INEQUALITIES MAIN DONOR COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP United States $27,622 M 0.2 Japan $13,147 M 0.3 United Kingdom $10,767 M 0.5 Germany $10,082 M 0.4 France $10,026 M 0.5 Netherlands $5,115 M 0.8 Italy $5,091 M 0.3 Canada $3,756 M 0.4 Sweden $3,362 M 0.9 Spain $3,018 M 0.3 Source: OECD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 107106 : MAIN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP Afghanistan $2,192 M 31.3 Sudan $1,472 M 6.4 Ethiopia $1,202 M 10.8 Dem. Rep. of the Congo $1,034 M 14.8 Tanzania $871 M 6.8 Zambia $836 M 14.4 Mozambique $771 M 12.5 Uganda $704 M 8.8 Bangladesh $563 M 0.8 Madagascar $500 M 8.7 Source: OECD www.qa-international.com TheVisualWorldAtlas Clear captions make maps easy to read. Photographs from the four corners of the globe reveal the extraordinary diversity of our planet’s landscapes and inhabitants. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLASDesigned for the whole family, The Visual World Atlas covers hundreds of subjects that touch on different aspects of life on Earth with clarity and precision (geology, environment, politics, demography, economy, etc.) Presenting thousands of statistical facts on the world’s 193 countries, this thematic atlas features accessible text linked to visual content of exceptional quality. Unique to its genre, for school as well as home, The Visual World Atlas is essential reading for discovering and understanding the world in all its diversity. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLAS Cover_AtlasNotreMonde.indd 1 27/01/09 09:39:57 Mantesh
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
The Visual World Atlas Facts and maps of the current world
CREDITS Editor François Fortin Editorial Director Martine Podesto Chief Writers Julie Cailliau Cécile Poulou-Gallet Assistant Writer Marie-Anne Legault Cartographer François Turcotte-Goulet Graphic Designers Anne Tremblay Josée Noiseux Layout Émilie Bellemare Émilie Corriveau Mélanie Giguère-Gilbert Pascal Goyette Danielle Quinty Photo Acquisition Gilles Vézina Illustrator Alain Lemire Computer Graphics Mathieu Douville Translator Kathe Roth Proofreading Veronica Schami Editorial Services Project Manager Nathalie Fréchette Preprinting Julien Brisebois François Hénault Karine Lévesque Human Geography Consultant Jean-Guy Vaillancourt The Visual World Atlas [document cartographique] was created and produced by QA International 329 De la Commune West, 3rd Floor Montreal, Quebec H2Y 2E1 Canada T : 514.499.3000 F : 514.499.3010 ISBN : 978-2-7644-0889-6 www.quebec-amerique.com © QA International, 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing by QA International. Mantesh
QA INTERNATIONAL The Visual World Atlas Facts and maps of the current world Mantesh
Subject Each subject covers two to eight pages and offers a complete comprehension of the theme addressed. Introduction An introductory text gives a basic overview of the subject. Explanatory texts Explanatory texts complement the visual information. Legend A legend describes the symbols used in the main map. KEY TO SYMBOLS ON MAP What it stands for Visual presentation What it stands for symbol Visual presentation mountain range summit plateau depression plain and basin lake desert watercourse ocean capital sea geographic reference point coastal element main road — island international border — continent regional boundary — region Abbreviated forms of the names of countries comply with the recommendations of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), detailed on page 164. country territory (ISO country code) city How to use this bookIV :
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK : V Visual tab A photographic excerpt reminds you of the chapter within which the subject falls. Main map The main map gives you an at-a-glance overview of the theme discussed. Enlargements Portions of the main map are enlarged to give a detailed view of certain regions. Photographs The photographs are linked by lines to the places where they were taken. Boxes Supplementary information is given in secondary maps, illustrations, graphs, and statistical tables. MAIN ABBREVIATIONS USED Metric Unit Abbreviation U.S. Unit Equivalent millimeter mm — centimeter cm 0.4 inches meter m 3.28 feet kilometer km 0.62 miles square kilometer km2 0.39 square miles cubic meter m3 1.31 cubic yards cubic kilometer km3 0.24 cubic miles gram g 0.03 ounces kilogram kg 2.2 pounds metric ton t 1.1 short tons million M the same billion B the same degrees Celsius °C 33.8 degrees Fahrenheit hectopascal hPa 0.03 inches of mercury liter L 33.8 ounces million hectares M ha 2.47 million acres hour, second h, s the same kilometer per hour km/h the same kilowatt-hour kWh the same megawatt MW the same degree ° the same before the Common Era bce inhabitant inhab. U.S. dollar $ gross domestic product GDP gross national product GNP
We live in an amazing world! Earth,our blue planet,has a special something that makes it unique: it is home to life.For millions of years,despite countless natural disasters and wild fluctuations in climate, life has persisted. For about the past 150 years, life on Earth, as tenacious as it may be, has come under increasing threat. The growing impact of human activities on the planet’s fragile balance is putting its inhabitants at risk.The forecasted ecological catastrophe can be avoided, if we equip ourselves with the means to do so. And Earth is worth protecting.Our tiny piece of the Universe offers a panoply of breathtaking landscapes, from the vertiginous heights of the Himalayas and the extraordinary aridity of the Sahara to the bursts of color in tropical seas. With so much beauty and diversity, Earth deserves all of our respect. In order to respect Earth, we have to know it better. Each region of the world stands out,whether for its geography,its geology,its fauna,its population,its political organization,or its economy.You will find out about all of these aspects in The Visual World Atlas. Today,all the continents have been explored and uncovered,but the knowledge that has accumulated makes sense only if it is explained and deciphered.This book does not present the most minute details on each region,but offers a careful selection of relevant information that will enable you to discover our world and understand the phenomena that sweep across it. The Visual World Atlas provides a complete,detailed overview of Earth.It covers 31 subjects in physical and human geography and offers thousands of statistical facts concerning the 193 countries of the world.It contains more than 110 thematic maps, as well as photographs taken all over the world. With this book in your hands, Earth, in all its diversity, is within your reach. In a world in perpetual change, The Visual World Atlas gives you the keys to comprehending the present and grasping the challenges to be met in the future. INTRODUCTIONVI :
Contents : VII 72 The political world 78 World population 82 Languages 84 Religions 86 Sports 90 Economics 96 Energy 98 Agriculture 102 Transportation 106 Inequalities 110 Freshwater resources 112 Health 114 Illiteracy 116 Conflicts 122 North America 128 South America 134 Europe 140 Asia 146 Africa 152 Oceania 158 Antarctica 44 Climates 48 Cold environments 50 Arid environments 52 Climatic catastrophes 58 The biosphere 62 The conservation of species 64 Atmospheric pollution 68 Water and soil pollution E A RT H : A P L A N E T I N BA L A N C E :: 42 T H E CO N T I N EN T S :: 120 32 The world ocean 38 Freshwater 10 The Solar System 12 The planet Earth 14 The structure of Earth 18 Continental relief features 24 Landforms on the ocean floor 26 Volcanoes 28 Earthquakes E A RT H : A RO C K Y P L A N E T :: 8 E A RT H : A B LU E P L A N E T :: 30 E A RT H : A N I N H A B I T ED P L A N E T :: 70 161 Glossary 164 Statistical data sources 172 Thematic index 176 Photo credits 165 Geographical index Mantesh
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
E a r t h : A R o c k y P l a n e t Earth is the largest rocky planet in the Solar System. It offers a variety of ever-changing landscapes. As the immense plates that form Earth’s crust slowly move toward and away from each other, mountains rise, oceans open up, volcanoes erupt. Erosion is also constantly shaping the planet’s relief features: mountains flatten,valleys are dug,coastlines recede. Observing Earth’s landscapes enables us to understand the history of our planet, explain its structure, and anticipate its future transformations. TOP: Rocky beach, California, United States LEFT: The Glen Coe Valley, Scotland
THE SOLAR SYSTEM The Universe contains an almost unimaginable number of galaxies—no fewer than 100 billion! In the midst of this immensity is our galaxy, the Milky Way.The Solar System is located on the periphery of the Milky Way. It includes one star, the Sun, and eight planets, three dwarf planets (Ceres, Eris, and Pluto), more than 160 natural satellites orbiting these planets, millions of asteroids (small, rocky celestial bodies), millions of comets (balls of dirty snow), billions of pebbles, and cosmic dust and gases. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET The planets of the Solar System The planets closest to the Sun are rocky planets.They are also called the inner planets, since they are situated between the Sun and the main asteroid belt. Earth is one of them.The planets situated outside the main asteroid belt are called the outer planets. They are gaseous giants, composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. THE INNER PLANETS MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS diameter (km) 4,879 12,104 12,756 6,794 average distance from the Sun (AU) 1 AU (astronomical unit) = 149,600,000 km 0.39 0.72 1 1.52 period of rotation 58.6 days 243 days 23.9 hr 24.6 hr mass (relative to Earth) 0.055 0.82 1 (5.9 × 1024 kg) 0.11 gravity at the equator (relative to Earth) 38% 91% 100% (9.766 m/s2 ) 38% temperature (ºC) –173 to 427 462 –88 to 58 –87 to –5 number of known natural satellites 0 0 1, the Moon 2 composition of the atmosphere no substantial atmosphere carbon dioxide, nitrogen nitrogen, oxygen carbon dioxide, nitrogen date of discovery known since antiquity known since antiquity known since antiquity known since antiquity Source: NASA THE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS AND DWARF PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM Ceres Jupiter SaturnMarsEarthVenusMercurySun 10 :
EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Center of the Milky Way Our Solar System is situated about 28,000 light-years—that is, 280 million billion km—from the center of the Milky Way. Uranus THE SOLAR SYSTEM : 11 THE OUTER PLANETS jupiter saturn uranus neptune diameter (km) 142,984 120,536 51,118 49,528 average distance from the Sun (AU) 1 AU (astronomical unit) = 149,600,000 km 5.2 9.54 19.19 30.07 period of rotation 9.8 hr 10.6 hr 17.2 hr 16.1 hr mass (relative to Earth) 318 95 14 17 gravity at the equator (relative to Earth) 214% 107% 86% 110% temperature (ºC) – 148 –178 –216 –214 number of known natural satellites 62 60 27 13 composition of the atmosphere hydrogen, helium hydrogen, helium hydrogen, helium, methane hydrogen, helium, methane date of discovery known since antiquity known since antiquity 1781 1846 Source: NASA NeptunePluto Eris
Kodiak Air Base (USA) Guyana Space Center (Europe) Edwards Air Force Base (USA) Virginia Air & Space Center (USA) Vandenberg Air Force Base (USA) Alacantara Launch Center (BRA) Kennedy Space Center/ Cape Canaveral (USA) 9 2 7 6 5 31 24 21 20 17 16 13 17 16 15 1412 11 Sinus Medii Rupes Altai Mare Nubium Montes Rook Montes Jura Rima Brayley Mare Smythii Mare Imbrium Mare Humorum Mare Crisium Vallis Rheita Mare Nectaris Mare Frigoris Mare Cognitum Montes Haemus Rimae Riccioli Mare Insularum Vallis Snellius Rimae Gutenberg Montes Caucasus Montes Carpatus Lacus Somniorum Montes Apenninus Mare Serenitatis Mare Fecunditatis Oceanus Procellarum Mare Tranquillitatis Dorsum Buckland Montes Cordillera Lacus Veris Mare Marginis Rimae Sirsalis the planet earth EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Formed 4.6 billion years ago, Earth is the largest of the four rocky planets in the Solar System. It has a single natural satellite: the Moon. Earth is the densest celestial body in the Solar System: each cubic meter of the planet weighs an average of 5.5 metric tons. It is also the only planet that has vast oceans of liquid water, within which life appeared 3.5 billion years ago. Lake Manicouagan, Canada The crater of Lake Manicouagan, in northeast Canada, results from the impact of a meteorite 212 million years ago. Earth seen from space Earth’s vast oceans, from which it gets its nickname “the blue planet,” can be seen from space. Its continents, with jagged coastlines, are formed of mountains, deserts, lakes—all relief features that are visible from space. Observation satellites can also detect a number of impact craters (the imprints of collisions between Earth and meteorites) and forests. Earth observation satellites are sent into space from launch bases dispersed around the globe. Hurricane Iris Cyclones are visible from space. They form cloud disks almost 1,000 km in diameter. THE visible FACE OF THE MOON Lunar relief features and landing sites for lunar missions The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It makes one revolution around Earth in 28 days and always has the same face turned toward the planet (the visible face). Its diameter is 3,476 km, and its surface is pocked with craters produced by collisions with asteroids. Situated only 384,400 km from Earth, the Moon is the most-studied celestial body after our planet. Since the late 1950s, several dozen space missions, manned and unmanned, have explored it. Lunar mission landing sites Apollo (manned missions, USA) Surveyor (USA) Luna (USSR) The figure represents the mission number. Sources: USGS; NASA THE MOON 12 :
Svobodny Cosmodrome (RUS) Gando Air Base (USA) Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center (CHN) Xichang Space Launch Center (CHN) Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (CHN) Plesetsk Cosmodrome (RUS) Baikonur Cosmodrome (KAZ) Palmachim Air Base (ISR) Kagoshima Space Center (JPN) Sriharikota Air Base (IND) Tanegashima Space Center (JPN) Christmas Island launch base (AUS) Odyssey/Sea Launch launch platform (USA) EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Lake Balkhash, Kazakhstan The affluents of Lake Balkhash are visible on satellite images. Phytoplankton, offshore of Namibia Artificial satellites allow us to study the development and movement of phytoplankton. THE PLANET EARTH : 13 EARTH SEEN BY Satellite Launch bases Artificial satellites, space probes, and manned vessels Meteorites Diameter of impact crater 100–300 km 10–99.9 km 1–9.9 km 0.1–0.9 km Source: The Earth Impact Database, University of New Brunswick Composite image built from data recorded by NASA satellites in 2001
THE STRUCTURE OF EARTH The interior of our planet, with its extreme pressure and temperature conditions, is still a mysterious place. It is where minerals are created and metamorphosed through processes that span millions of years.The immense plates that form Earth’s crust float on the surface of a mass of partially liquid rock. As these plates collide with each other, they build mountains and open up oceans. Plate tectonics Although it seems to be immobile, the land on which we live moves several centimeters each year. India and Asia, for example, are moving toward each other by 4 to 6 cm every year. This phenomenon, called plate tectonics, results from the fact that the lithosphere, the outer layer of Earth, is fragmented into a dozen huge plates, the tectonic plates, about 100 km thick, that slide over the surface of Earth’s mantle. Plate tectonics is responsible for most of the components of Earth’s surface, including oceans, created when two plates move apart (divergent plates), and mountain ranges (convergent plates) that come into existence when two plates collide. Sometimes, two plates simply slip against each other along what is called a transform fault. Although the movement of lithospheric plates is slow and continuous, it is nonetheless the cause of the most violent and devastating phenomena on the planet: volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. THE TECTONIC PLATES Edges of the plates Relative movements between two plates Divergent plates Convergent plates Transform fault Movement of a plate Direction of movement of a plate Sources: USGS; ESRI San Andreas Fault, California, United States Frictions along the San Andreas Fault, at the juncture of the Pacific and North American plates, cause frequent earthquakes. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET P A C I F I C P L A T E N O R T H A M E R I C A N P L A T E A N T A R C T I C P L A T E N A Z C A P L A T E C O C O S P L A T E C A R I B B E A N P L A T E S O U T H A M E R I C A N P L A T E 14 :
CONTINENTAL DRIFT In the early 20th century, the German geophysicist and climatologist Alfred Wegener noted that the continents looked like they might be able to fit together. He observed, for example, that the contours of the west coast of Africa were an almost perfect match with those of the east coast of South America. He thus formulated the hypothesis, demonstrated in the 1960s, that millions of years ago there was just one huge continent, Pangaea, in a single ocean, Panthalassa.This supercontinent apparently broke up gradually, forming new continents and new oceans that continued to drift on the surface of the globe. The expansion of the sea floor and plate tectonics are responsible for the mechanism of continental drift.The plates carrying continents are moving toward or away from each other at speeds varying from 1 to 18 cm per year. Panthalassa Pangaea Earth 250 million years ago Earth today EARTH:AROCKYPLANET THE structure OF EARTH E u r a s i a n P l a t e P a c i f i c P l a t e P h i l i pp i n e Se a P l a t e I n d i a n - A u s t r a l i a n P l a t e A f r i c a n P l a t e : 15 a r a b i a n p l a t e
THE structure OF EARTH Volcanic eruption of Etna (Italy), in 2002 > The lava that flows from erupting volcanoes comes from magma rising from Earth’s mantle. COMPOSITION OF EARTH oxygen (30%) silicon (15%) sulfur (2%) nickel (2%) magnesium (13%) iron (35%) other elements (3%) It is impossible to have a completely clear picture of Earth’s internal structure. However, study of the transformations of the planet’s surface and analysis of other planets in the Solar System have supplied much information about the interior of Earth. Our planet has a total mass of about 6 trillion tons and is formed of three concentric layers—from densest to lightest, core, mantle, and crust. Each has an individual chemical composition and specific physical properties. Earth’s crust, composed of oceanic crust and continental crust, represents barely 3% of the planet’s volume. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Most of Earth’s surface consists of oceanic crust about 10 km thick. The continental crust is 20 to 40 km thick, and up to 70 km thick under mountain ranges. The lithosphere, Earth’s rigid outer part, is composed of terrestrial crust (continental or oceanic) and part of the mantle. In the asthenosphere, the temperature reaches more than 1,200°C, a temperature at which rock partially melts. The plasticity of this layer makes continental drift possible. The mantle takes up 80% of Earth’s total volume. Composed mainly of volcanic rock, it is in a state of partial fusion (magma) at a temperature of about 3,000°C. Convection currents transport Earth’s internal heat toward the surface. Although the core takes up 16% of the volume of Earth, it makes up only 33% of its mass. It contains the heaviest elements on the planet, such as iron and nickel. The outer core is composed of molten metal. The inner core is composed of metals in a solid state, even though the temperature is above 6,000°C. CROSS SECTION OF EARTH The interior of Earth 16 :
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
Sajama 6,542 m Huascarán 6,768 m Mount Logan 5,956 m Mount Vinson 4,892 m Death Valley -86 m Mount McKinley 6,194 m Lago Enriquillo -46 mOrizaba, 5,700 m Aconcagua, 6,962 m Ojos del Salado 6,893 m Chimborazo 6,310 m Laguna del Carbón -105 m Pico Cristóbal Colón 5,776 m Mount Washington 1,917 m Mont d'Iberville 1,652 m Mount Odin 2,147 m Mount Gunnbjorn 3,694 m Pico Bolívar 4,981 m Pico da Neblina 2,994 m Bonete 6,759 m Pico da Bandeira 2,890 m Mount Barbeau 2,616 m SERRA DO MAR G r e a t P l a i n s Gran Chaco C a n a d i a n S h i e l d Brazilian Plateau Ozark PlateauColorado Plateau Chiquitos Highlands Great Basin Parana Plateau Altiplano R O C K I E S Patagonia APPALAC H I A N S AN D E S CORDILLERA C O A S T M O U N TA I N S BROOKS RANGE ALAS KA RANGE SIERRA MADRE ORIENTAL SIERRA MADRE OCCIDENTAL SIERRA NEVADA SIERRA MADREDEL SUR CASCADERANGE ELLSW ORTH MOUNTAINS LAURENTIANS A m a z o n i a Llano s Pampas Atl a n t i c c o a s t a l pl ain Guyana Plateau Mato Grosso M A C K E N Z I E M O U NTAINS # # # # #A#A # # CONTINENTAL RELIEF FEATURES18 : Altiplano, Chile The Altiplano region stretches through Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. At more than 3,000 m altitude, it is one of the highest plateaus in the world. Glacier National Park, United States The steep, snowy slopes of the young Rocky Mountains tower over the landscape of western North America. The movements of Earth’s crust and the erosive action of the wind and water shape a variety of relief features on Earth’s surface, such as mountains, plains, and plateaus. In spite of the diversity of landforms, all continents have a similar structure, with older and more recent parts.The continents rest on a bedrock formed of very old rocks dating from the Precambrian Era (4.6 billion to 570 million years ago). Most major bedrock zones are situated in the center of the continents. The landforms of continents Mountains are the most prominent of Earth’s relief features.They are characterized by more or less steep slopes, and their altitude depends on their age. Plains are vast flat areas in which shallow valleys are carved out by watercourses. Plateaus are large flat stretches edged by escarpments, sometimes very steep. Rivers carve encased valleys, or sometimes gorges or canyons, into them. Many plateaus are not very high, but some, such as the Tibetan Plateau, may reach more than 3,000 m in altitude. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET CONTINENTAL RELIEF FEATURES Summits and depressions Summit, altitude Depression, altitude Landforms MOUNTAIN RANGES Plateaus Plains and basins Altitude 6,000–8,850 m 5,000–5,999 m 4,000–4,999 m 3,000–3,999 m 2,000–2,999 m 1,000–1,999 m 500–999 m 250–499 m 1–249 m –408–0 m Sources: NIMA; NASA
K2 8,614 m Kulul -75 m Elbrus 5,643 m Lake Eyre, -12 m Mount Cook 3,764 m Dead Sea, -408 m Lake Assal, -155 m Mount Kenya, 5,199 m Kilimanjaro, 5,892 m Puncak Jaya 4,884 m Mount Ararat, 5,137 m Mount Wilhelm 4,509 m Mount Stanley 5,109 m Turpan Pendi -154 m Caspian Sea -28 m Chott Melrhir -40 m Mount Kosciusko 2,228 m Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 mSebkha Tah -55 m Nanga Parbat 8,126 m Mount Shkhara 5,200 m Vpadina Kaundy, -132 m Vpadina Akchanaya -81 m Lake Tiberias, -200 m Denakil Plain -125 m Qattara Depression -133 m Hvannadalshnúkur 2,119 m Batu, 4,400 m Mount Cameroon 4,070 m Jebel Toubkal 4,167 m Mount Koussi 3,445 m Zard Kuh 4,548 m Damavand 5,610 m Zarghun 3,578 m Doda Betta 2,636 m Muztag 6,987 m Pik Pobedy 7,439 m Mount Belukha 4,506 m Minya Konka 7,556 m Kinabalu 4,101 m Chuo Yang Sin 2,420 m Gunung Kerinci 3,805 m Agrihan 965 m Mount Zeil 1,531 m Mount Ossa 1,617 m Mount Ruapehu 2,797 m Mount Fuji 3,776 m ETHIOPIAN MASSIF DARFUR MOUNT MCDONNELL TIBESTI AHAGGAR MASSIF ENNEDI HAMERSLEY RANGE FOUTA DJALLON W e s t S i b e r i a n P l a i n China Plain Ganges Plain Manchurian Plain Indus Plain C e n t r a l S i b e r i a n P l a t e a u Tibetan Plateau Angola Plateau Central Russian Uplands Deccan Plateau South China Plateau Khorat plain Anatolian Plain Volga Uplands Jos Plateau Kimberley Plateau Djado Plateau C o n g o B a s i n Okavango Basin Qaidam Basin Sichuan Basin A T L A S A L T A I A SIR K O L Y M A M O U N T A I N S C A U C A S U S HIJAZ H I M A L A Y A S MAOKE MOUNTAI NS SCANDINAVIAN MOUNTAINS K U N L U N S H A NZAGROS M OUNTAINS BARISANRANGE AUSTRALIAN CO R DILLERA T I A N S H A N URALMOUNT A I N S CHERSKY RANGE DRAKE NSBERG YABL ONOVY RANGE ARAKANYOM A WESTERNGHATS MITUMBAMOUNTAINS TAURUS MOUNTAINS STANOVOY RANGE VERKHOYANSK MOUNTAINS KARAKORAM PAMIRS HADRAMOUT ANNAMITIC CORDILLERA SULAIMANRANGE ALTUN SHAN HINDU KUSH ADAMAWA MASSIF FLINDERS RANGES LADAKH Nullarbor Plain Caspian Depression Galdhøppigen 2,469 m ELB RU S NEW ZEALAND ALPS WestGreatRiftVal ley EastGreatRiftValley Bulu Rantekombola 3,478 m U H # # # # ######## # # # # # # U#U#U#U # KARAKORAM # KARAKORAM #A#A #N#N # U#U #U#U###U#U #U#U # # # #A#A # #S#S #R#R # H # H Mont Blanc 4,807 m Gerlachovska 2,655 m Mount Moldoveanu 2,543 m Musala Peak 2,925 m Mount Olympus 2,917 m Etna 3,323 m Monte Cinto 2,706 m Corno Grande 2,912 m Grossglockner 3,798 m Moncayo 2,313 m Aneto Peak 3,404 m Mulhacén, 3,482 m Almanzor Peak, 2,592 m A L P S PINDUSBA L K A N CAR PATHIANS JU R A SIERRA NEVAD A PYRENEES D INARIC ALPS SUDET ES SIERRA MORENA PENNINES VOSGES SIERRA DE GREDOS CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS CAMBRIAN MOUNTAINS G e r m a n o - P o l i s h P l a i n Hungarian Basin CENTRAL MASSIF GREDOS ## # #PYRENEES#PYRENEES #GREDOS #GREDOS Ben Nevis 1,344 m Mount Cervin 4,478 m A P E N N I N E S # ## # # ## ####### Makalu, 8,463 m Lhotse, 8,516 m Manaslu, 8,156 m Cho Oyu, 8,201 m Annapurna, 8,091 m Dhaulagiri, 8,167 m Mount Everest, 8,850 m Kanchenjunga, 8,586 m CONTINENTAL RELIEF FEATURES : 19 EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Australian Cordillera, Australia The old mountains of the Australian Cordillera, rounded and gently sloping, are home to the highest peak on the continent, Mount Kosciusko, at an altitude of 2,228 m. Great Rift Valley, East Africa The Great Rift Valley is an immense graben. It stretches about 5,500 km through East Africa and is divided into western and eastern sections, in the African Great Lakes region.
The uplift of a landform is the result of a complex process: a single mountain range may be composed of fragments of oceanic crust, volcanic rock, and metamorphic rock (transformed by high pressure and temperatures).These different types of rock are generally arranged in strata that have been folded, upturned, or even dislocated along faults. With the discovery of the existence of lithospheric plates came great progress in the comprehension of orogenesis (the process of mountain formation). In fact, the movement of oceanic and continental plates is responsible for the formation of most mountains. Subduction mountains, such as the Andes, are created when an oceanic and a continental plate come together, while collision mountains, such as the Himalayas, are the result of an impact between two continental plates. The formation of mountains fault oceanic plate continental plate subduction mountains coastal mountains volcano magma When an oceanic plate collides with a continent, it slides under the continental plate . Oceanic sediments scraped away by this contact accumulate in what is called an accretionary wedge  . As the oceanic plate sinks, the volume of the accretionary wedge increases, to the point that it sometimes rises above sea level and forms coastal mountains  . Subjected to considerable forces, the continental plate folds and deforms, giving rise to a subduction mountain range  . When the oceanic plate reaches the mantle, the rocks that form it melt and are transformed into magma  . These molten rocks sometimes rise to the surface again, where they are expelled by volcanoes  . The shape of a mountain depends, in large part, on its age. Formed by recent tectonic shocks, the youngest mountain ranges on the planet (Alps, Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, Caucasus) are very jagged, with steep slopes and pointed summits. Most of them have not finished rising, since the slow movements of lithospheric plates continue to reshape the landforms.The Alps, for example, result from an enormous uplift that took place about 50 million years ago, when the Eurasian Plate collided with the African Plate.The oldest mountains (Urals, Appalachians, Australian Cordillera, Drakensberg) look less rugged: they have been smoothed out by erosion, which scrapes material from the slopes and deposits it in the hollows.The Appalachians, created more than 300 million years ago, are among the oldest mountains in the world. YOUNG MOUNTAINS AND OLD MOUNTAINS ≥ 145 million years < 145 million years continental RELIEF FEATURES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET BETWEEN OCEAN AND continent 20 : accretionary wedge
continental RELIEF FEATURES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Caucasus Mountains, Russia The Caucasus Mountains extend to the southern border of European Russia, between the Black Sea, to the west, and the Caspian Sea, to the east. They are the highest in Europe, with Mount Elbrus culminating at 5,643 m. : 21 the highest summits in the world summit ALTITUDE mountain range first ASCENT North America Mount McKinley 6,194 m Rockies 1913 Mount Logan 5,956 m Rockies 1925 Orizaba 5,700 m Sierra Madre 1848 South America Aconcagua 6,962 m Andes Cordillera 1897 Ojos del Salado 6,893 m Andes Cordillera 1937 Europe Mount Elbrus 5,643 m Caucasus 1874 Mont Blanc 4,807 m Alps 1786 Africa Kilimanjaro 5,892 m isolated volcano 1889 Mount Kenya 5,199 m isolated volcano 1899 Asia Mount Everest 8,850 m Himalayas 1953 K2 8,614 m Karakoram 1954 Kangchenjunga 8,586 m Himalayas 1955 Makalu 8,463 m Himalayas 1955 Cho Oyu 8,201 m Himalayas 1954 Dhaulagiri 8,167 m Himalayas 1960 Manaslu 8,156 m Himalayas 1956 Nanga Parbat 8,126 m Punjab 1953 Annapurna 8,091 m Himalayas 1950 Antarctica Mount Vinson 4,892 m Ellsworth 1966
continental RELIEF FEATURES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Erosion, a process of abrasion, transformation, and degradation, is a cycle that begins with the gradual ablation of surface material and continues with the transportation of loose particles to where they accumulate in the form of sediment. Water and wind are the main agents of erosion: through chemical or mechanical procedures, they profoundly alter the landscape.The erosion cycle occurs at different paces, but all are very slow on the human scale: a fissure in a block of granite usually widens by only a few millimeters over a thousand years. Mountainous massifs, semiarid regions, and areas where the surface of the land has been modified by human activity (clear-cutting, construction of roads and cities, etc.) erode most rapidly.The slowest erosion is associated with lowlands where the materials are very hard, such as the Canadian Shield. The erosion cycle As erosion continues, the relief features flatten out: the summits become rounded and the slopes become gentler.The watercourses transport less debris and flow more slowly. Erosion may then begin again: watercourses once again carve out deep valleys. Fluvial landscapes are transformed by erosion caused by watercourses. When the landscape is very uneven, with high peaks and steep slopes, erosion is very rapid. Watercourses carve out deep V-shaped valleys and sweep away much rocky debris. After several million years of erosion, the landscape becomes a peneplain: there are few relief features and they barely rise above the base level.The erosion process slows. Geological phenomena may cause a sudden elevation of the terrain. In this case, the peneplain is raised high above the base level. THE EVOLUTION OF A LANDSCAPE base level = sea level elevation of the terrain Goblin Valley, United States > These rocky mushroom-shaped columns 2 to 3 m high, also called hoodoos, rise by the hundreds in Goblin Valley. They were shaped by erosion, mainly by the wind. 22 :
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N M i d - Atlantic R i d g e Chile - P e ruTrench P a c i f i c - A n t a r c t i c R ise EastPacificRidge Chile Rid ge Cent ral American Ridge ReykjanesRidge Aleutian Trench EastPacific Ridge Puerto RicoTre nch Gor d a Ridge Nares Deep South Sandwich Trench, -8,163 m -243 m -5,653 m -5,813 m -5,474 m -6,013 m -4,131 m -6,479 m -6,792 m -6,618 m -6,015 m -7,694 m -6,403 m -5,753 m -5,581 m -7,848 m -6,647 m -8,073 m -6,128 m -6,995 m S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Cayman Trench -8,605 m LANDFORMS ON THE OCEAN FLOOR EARTH:AROCKYPLANET 24 : Landforms on the ocean floor are as diverse as continental landforms. Under the surface of the ocean, mountains, plains, plateaus, volcanoes, trenches, and canyons form stunning landscapes and many of these formations are much larger than are those on land. For instance, vast abyssal plains are crossed by immense mountain ranges, called oceanic ridges, that stretch almost 70,000 kilometers in length.These underwater mountain ranges are between 1,000 and 3,000 meters high, and running their entire length is a rift, a central subsidence plain that forms as the oceanic plates separate. Where lithospheric plates meet, gigantic oceanic depressions, trenches, reach depths comparable to the altitude of the highest continental peaks.The deepest point is 11,034 meters, in the Mariana Trench in the North Pacific Ocean. The oceanic crust While the rocks that make up the continents may be 3.8 billion years old, the rocks that make up the ocean floor are never older than 200 million years old. New oceanic crust is constantly being formed by volcanic activity that takes place in the oceanic ridges. With a thickness of about 10 km, the oceanic crust is also much thinner than the continental crust, which is from 20 to 70 km thick. Pillow lava Magma situated under the oceanic ridge forms pillow lava when it comes into contact with relatively cold seawater.
Cape Agulhas I N D I A N O C E A N S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N BengalRidge S o u t h w e s t I n d i a n R i d g e Ku rilTrench TongaTrench JapanTrench KermadecTrench Java Trench RyukyuRidge VityaTrench Mid-AtlanticRidge E u r a s i a n B a s i n Whar ton Basin Cape Verde Basin Mariana Tr ench Yap Trench Philippine Trench -6,912 m -694 m -100 m -2,276 m -5,737 m -4,119 m-5,626 m -5,707 m -5,862 m -5,016 m -6,035 m -1,714 m -4,091 m -6,269 m -6,683 m -2,837 m -9,000 m -6,973 m -7,773 m -7,743 m -9,779 m -7,519 m -6,533 m -6,579 m -7,724 m-9,533 m -8,767 m -9,780 m -7,205 m -7,586 m -6,714 m -10,719 m -10,164 m -11,034 m -6,180 m -7,374 m -7,457 m -6,614 m -7,125 m -7,334 m -5,254 m -7,743 m Aleutian Trench -3,931 m A R C T I C O C E A N Molloy Hole -5,669 m -4,570 m -5,317 m -3,741 m -2,954 m -2,962 m -3,151 m -8,930 m NewHebrid es Trench LANDFORMS ON THE OCEAN FLOOR EARTH:AROCKYPLANET The continental shelf is the part of the continent that extends from 1 to 1,000 km in a gentle slope under the ocean. THE OCEAN FLOOR : 25 Most of the ocean floor is occupied by vast abyssal plains that begin at the foot of the continental slope and are at a depth of between 3,000 and 6,000 m. An oceanic trench is a deep valley that cuts into the abyssal plain. It may reach depths greater than 10,000 m. At the end of the continental shelf, the continental slope is an abrupt drop-off in altitude to more than 3,000 m in depth. An island arc is a string of volcanic islands formed following the subduction of an oceanic lithospheric plate under another oceanic plate . An oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain range situated on either side of a long, deep fissure in the ocean floor. UNDERWATER LANDFORMS Depth of seas and oceans 6,000–11,034 m 5,000–5,999 m 4,000–4,999 m 3,000–3,999 m 2,000–2,999 m 1,000–1,999 m 500–999 m 0–499 m Source: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD Deepest zones Depth Source: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD
R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK I N D I A SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SCG SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO SVK ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA-BISSAU SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA LUX BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA SINGAPORE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT Kelut, 1966 and 1990 Marapi, 1979 Rinjani, 1994 Galunggung, 1982 Semeru, 1981 Merapi, 1994 Nyiragongo, 1977 and 2002 Lake Nyos (volcanic), 1986 Lake Monoun (volcanic), 1984 Dieng Volcanic Complex, 1979 ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN QATAR GAZASTRIP VOLCANOES Volcanoes may erupt at various locations all over the world, especially at the borders between lithospheric plates. Violent and spectacular, volcanic eruptions occur when molten rock, called magma, rises from Earth’s mantle. As it rises, the magma releases gases, and the pressure increases to the point that Earth’s crust gives way—and there is a volcanic eruption. About 50 eruptions take place on continents every year; the number of underwater eruptions has not been counted. It is possible to observe volcanic eruptions from close up, since volcanoes do not form haphazardly on Earth’s surface. Rather, they are situated in zones where Earth’s crust is fractured or above hot spots, where magma has pierced the crust. VOLCANISM Volcanic eruptions Eruptions after 1965 causing more than 10 deaths (named on the map) Eruptions that took place between the beginning of the Common Era and today Eruptions that took place between 8000 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era Sources: Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program; Em-dat Number of victims per country (dead, injured, and displaced) ≥ 1,000,000 100,000–999,999 10,000–99,999 1,000–9,999 < 1,000 no victims Source: Em-dat Edges of lithospheric plates The Pacific Ring of Fire Sources: USGS; ESRI How volcanoes work Hot, light magma from Earth’s mantle rises toward the surface from the magma chamber in which it had accumulated. Over time, the buildup of material pushes the magma into the pipe and brings it to the surface, where it overflows the crater in the form of lava.The eruption plume is composed of cinders , lava , and rock debris, which are ejected above the crater.The magma that does not reach the surface sometimes penetrates a layer of rock of a different type and solidifies ; this phenomenon is called intrusion. Lava, which may reach a temperature of 1,000°C, flows down the slopes of the volcano at an average speed of 300 m/h. Heated by the nearby magma, underground water is expelled in the form of steam spouts called geysers. Fumaroles are plumes of burning gas. Magma is composed of molten rocks and gas. It is subjected to extremely high pressure, and it is very hot. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Unzen Volcano, Japan Despite an order to evacuate the valley, there were 43 deaths when Unzen Volcano erupted in 1991. 26 :
C A N A D A B R A Z I L A U S T R A L I A U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA N E S I A CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME PAPUA NEW GUINEA NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA HONDURAS PANAMA SOUTH KOREA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE NORTH KOREA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR FIJI JAMAICA BAHAMAS TIMOR LESTE SAMOA TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) PALAU GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO (US) A L E U T I A N A R C H I P E L A G O (US) FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA Arenal, 1968 Awu, 1966 Taal, 1965 Unzen, 1991 Galeras, 1993 El Chichón, 1982 Saint Helens, 1980 Popocatépetl, 1997 Mayon, 1993 Pinatubo, 1991 Soufrière, 1997 Nevado del Ruiz, 1985 KIRIBATI JAPAN PHILIPPINES SOLOMON IS. VANUATU TONGA GUATEMALA ECUADOR VOLCANOES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET HOT SPOTSHOT SPOTS Hot spots occur in the middle of oceanic or continental plates and notHot spots occur in the middle of oceanic or continental plates and not at the edges between plates. Pockets of magma rise from Earth’s lowerat the edges between plates. Pockets of magma rise from Earth’s lower mantle toward the surface and pierce the lithospheric plate. While themantle toward the surface and pierce the lithospheric plate. While the lithospheric plate continues to move, the hot spot, still active, remainslithospheric plate continues to move, the hot spot, still active, remains in one place and continues to pierce Earth’s crust, creating a string ofin one place and continues to pierce Earth’s crust, creating a string of volcanic islands.The Hawaiian Archipelago is one example.volcanic islands.The Hawaiian Archipelago is one example. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS There are two main types of volcanic eruptions: effusive and explosive. Effusive eruptions involve flows of very fluid lava and free gas emissions from volcanoes that usually have gentle slopes. Explosive eruptions are more formidable and usually involve volcanoes with steep slopes. Very thick, viscous lava blocks the escape of gases in the magma chamber, so that the pressure increases inside the volcano to the point that it causes explosions accompanied by expulsions of rock, lava, and cinders over hundreds of kilometers. THE MOST LETHAL VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS SINCE 1980 DATE LOCATION VOLCANO TYPE OF ERUPTION NUMBER OF DEATHS 1985 Colombia Nevado del Ruiz explosive 21,800 1986 Cameroon Lake Nyos (volcanic) emission of carbon dioxide 1,746 1991 Philippines Pinatubo explosive 640 2002 Dem. Rep. of the Congo Nyiragongo effusive 200 1981 Java (Indonesia) Semeru explosive 192 1982 Mexico El Chichón explosive 100 1980 United States Saint Helens explosive 90 1993 Philippines Mayon explosive 79 1994 Java (Indonesia) Merapi explosive 58 1991 Japan Unzen explosive 43 1984 Cameroon Lake Monoun (volcanic) emission of carbon dioxide 37 1990 Java (Indonesia) Kelut explosive 33 1997 Montserrat Soufrière explosive 32 THE PACIFIC RING OF FIRETHE PACIFIC RING OF FIRE Usually, volcanoes emerge along the edges of lithospheric plates,Usually, volcanoes emerge along the edges of lithospheric plates, forming an island chain. One of the best known is the Pacific Ring offorming an island chain. One of the best known is the Pacific Ring of Fire, which contains many of the world’s volcanoes.The Ring of FireFire, which contains many of the world’s volcanoes.The Ring of Fire includes the volcanic archipelagos of the Aleutian Islands, Japan, andincludes the volcanic archipelagos of the Aleutian Islands, Japan, and the Philippines.the Philippines. : 27
Chillán, 1939 San Juan, 1944 Chimbote, 1970 Managua, 1972 Valparaiso, 1906 Guatemala City, 1976 C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA BARBADOS FRENCHGUIANA (FR) VCT KNA PANAMA ECUADOR EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes, also known as seisms, are produced when there is a sudden tremor on the surface of Earth due to a discharge of energy issuing from the depths of the planet.The movement of lithospheric plates and the enormous tensions that accumulate at their meeting points are directly responsible for seismic activity. Earthquakes therefore take place mainly along faults in Earth’s crust, at the edges of the plates. There are almost 1 million tremors around the planet each year, but only just over 5% of them are felt. When they occur in urban areas, earthquakes cause disasters, sometimes killing thousands of people. Almost 830,000 people died during the most lethal earthquake in history, which shook northern China in 1556. The Richter scale Invented by the American geophysicist Charles Francis Richter, the Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake—that is, the amount of energy that it releases. Each whole number on the scale corresponds to an intensity 32 times higher than the preceding number. Thus, a magnitude 6 earthquake is 32 times more powerful than a magnitude 5 earthquake. Earthquakes of a magnitude above 4 are felt by most people; those with a magnitude above 5 cause damage. Earthquakes of a magnitude above 8 cause total destruction of inhabited zones.They are rare, occurring fewer than four times a year. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET THE MECHANISM OF EARTHQUAKES 1. As lithospheric plates move, they compress and expand the rock, subjecting it to considerable tension and friction. At this stage, nothing moves. The edges of the plates remain immobile against each other while the tension increases. 3. Usually, the earthquake is strongest and the damage is greatest at the epicenter. After the earthquake, the affected region undergoes a morphological alteration, since the two plates, still side by side, are slightly displaced. 2. When the tension becomes too great, an immense quantity of energy is suddenly released in the form of seismic waves that propagate to the surface, producing a series of tremors of Earth’s crust. The epicenter is the region on the surface directly above the focus, the initial point of rupture deep within Earth. seismic waves faultplate movements plates EARTHQUAKES Magnitude of earthquakes occurring since 1900 Earthquakes that caused more than 10,000 deaths are named. 9–9.5 8–8.9 7–7.9 6–6.9 5–5.9 4–4.9 Source: Em-dat Edges of lithospheric plates Sources: USGS; ESRI 28 : Mantesh
Agadir, 1960 Anshan, 1975 Messina, 1908 Tonghai, 1970 Gujarat, 2001 Sumatra, 2004 Tangshan, 1976 Muzaffarabad, 2005 Kanto Plain, 1923 Kangra District, 1905 Qinghai Province, 1927 Sichuan Province, 1974 Sichuan Province, 2008 Guangdong Province, 1918 Avezzano, 1915 Gansu Province, 1932 R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE NIGERIA SWEDEN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA BOTSWANA OMAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI LITHUANIA CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE PHILIPPINES HRV UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO SVK NORTH KOREA SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU KIRIBATI M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES GAMBIA MKD BAHRAIN LIE SMR VAT MNE Sichuan Province, 1933 JAPAN IRAN EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA IRAQ PAKISTAN AFGHANISTAN TURKMENISTAN UZBEKISTAN SYRIA AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN GEORGIA JORDAN ARMENIA ISRAEL KUWAIT LEBANON CYPRUS WESTBANKGAZASTRIP Bam, 2003 Tabas, 1978 Izmit, 1999 Quetta, 1935 Qazvin, 1962 Erzincan, 1939 Ashgabat, 1948 Tien Shan, 1907 Gilan Province, 1990 Spitak, 1988 Khorosan Province, 1968 EARTHQUAKES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Earthquake in Kobe, Japan An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.9 on the Richter scale caused more than 5,000 deaths in the Kobe region of Japan in January 1995. : 29 Number of earthquake victims by country since 1900 (dead, injured, and displaced) ≥ 10,000,000 1, 000,000–9,999,999 100,000–999,999 10,000–99,999 1,000–9,999 < 1,000 Borders of country groups (ex-USSR and ex-Yugoslavia) Source: Em-dat THE MOST LETHAL EARTHQUAKES SINCE 1900 DATE REGION AFFECTED MAGNITUDE NUMBER OF DEAD December 26, 2004 Sumatra (Indonesia) 9.0 283,106 (earthquake and tsunami) July 27, 1976 Tangshan (China) 7.5 at least 255,000 May 22, 1927 Qinghai (China) 8.3 200,000 December 16, 1920 Gansu (China) 7.8 200,000 September 1, 1923 Kanto (Japan) 7.9 143,000 October 5, 1948 Ashgabat (Turkmenistan) 7.3 110,000 December 28, 1908 Messina (Italy) 7.2 85,000 (earthquake and tsunami) October 8, 2005 Northern Pakistan 7.6 80,360 May 12, 2008 Sichuan (China) 7.9 at least 80,000 December 25, 1932 Gansu (China) 7.6 70,000 May 31, 1970 Peru 7.9 66,000 June 20, 1990 Western Iran 7.7 45,000 May 30, 1935 Quetta (Pakistan) 7.5 45,000 : 29
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
E a r t h : A B l u e P l a n e t Almost three-quarters of Earth’s surface is covered with water. The abundance of liquid water, which distinguishes Earth from all other planets in the Solar System, has earned it the nickname “blue planet.” The four oceans and dozens of seas that form the world ocean contain salt water, while the planet’s glaciers and ice caps contain freshwater. Freshwater constantly circulates through the huge reservoirs that are the oceans and seas, inland waters, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. However, access to it is very uneven from one region to another. TOP: Falkland Islands, in the South Atlantic Ocean LEFT: Iceberg, off Antarctica
Azores Tahiti Bermuda Cook Is. Cocos Is. Devon Is. Banks Is. Greenland Jarvis Is. Tubuai Is. Kodiak Island Chiloé Is. Guadaloupe Nunivak Is. Gambier Is. Pitcairn Is. Falkland Is. Newfoundland Roca Alijos Victoria Is. Melville Is. Caroline Is. Galapagos Is. Tierra del Fuego Trindade Is. Tabuaeran Is. Easter Is. Marquesas Is. Ellesmere Is. Baffin Is. Alexander Is. Palmyra Atoll Wellington Is. Kiritimati Is. Hawawaw ii ar c r c r hchc. Clipperton Is. Vancouver Is. Society Is. Revillagigedo Is. Tuamotu Arch. Juan Fernandez Is. French Polynesia Prince Patrick Is. Prince of Wales Is. Prince of Wales Is. Prince of Fernando de Noronha Is. Queen Charlotte Is. South Georgia Is. South Sandwich Is. Martin Vaz Is. Sala y Gomez Is. Anticosti Is. St. Pierre and Miquelon Grand Bahama Is. Abaco Is. SARGASSO SEAAndros Bay Is. Cayman Is. Cuba EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE SCOTIA SEA WEDDELL SEA BEAUFORT SEA BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA Hudson Bay Baffin Bay DavisStrait Gulf of Mexico Amundsen Gulflfl Drake Passage Gulf of Alaska Panama Canal Cape Horn Strait of Magellan S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N ANTARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE Bering Strait Bering Strait Bering Aleutian IsIsI . CARIBBEAN SEA Aruba Tobago Antigua Barbuda Trinidad St. Vincent Puerto Rico Martinique Grande-Terre Margarita Is. Great Inagua Is. Turks and Caicos Is. Anguilla Montserrat Saint Croix Is. Marie-Galante British Virgin Is. Hispaniola THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET Only 30% of Earth’s surface is exposed land.The rest is covered by a huge body of salt water with a volume of more than 1 billion cubic kilometers: the world ocean. Twice a day, the oceans of the globe rise and fall by several meters.Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon, and to a certain extent of the Sun, on our planet.The seas and oceans also move in waves—undulations of the surface of the water generated by the wind. Ocean currents, on the other hand, are movements of huge masses of ocean water along very precise routes. Vast stretches of salt water The world ocean is divided by the continents into four main regions (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic) and many smaller basins, the seas, most of which are shallow and set back from the oceans. While marginal seas, such as the South China Sea, open out to an ocean, enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, are attached to an ocean by a narrow passage. Some salt lakes that have no contact with the ocean are also called seas; an example is the Caspian Sea. THE MAIN SEAS SEA AREA MAIN COASTAL COUNTRIES Arabian Sea 3,600,000 km2 Yemen, Oman, Iran, Pakistan, Somalia South China Sea 3,500,000 km2 China, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam Weddell Sea 2,800,000 km2 Antarctica Caribbean Sea 2,600,000 km2 Venezuela, Colombia, Central American countries, Antilles Mediterranean Sea 2,510,000 km2 France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Spain Bay of Bengal 2,170,000 km2 Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar Gulf of Mexico 1,540,000 km2 Mexico, Cuba, United States Barents Sea 1,405,000 km2 Norway, Russia Sea of Japan 970,000 km2 Japan, South Korea, North Korea, Russia East China Sea 770,000 km2 China, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan North Sea 570,000 km2 Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, United Kingdom Red Sea 450,000 km2 Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Erytrea, Sudan, Egypt Beaufort Sea 450,000 km2 Canada, United States Black Sea 420,000 km2 Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria, Rumania Persian Gulf 233,000 km2 Iraq, Iran, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait 32 :
Guam Java Bioko Taiwan Madeira Kyushu Honshu Borneo Reunion Mayotte Tokelau Sumatra Socotra Shikoku Malaita Chuuk Is. Cocos Is. Baker Is. Zanzibar Tasmania Sulawesi Mindanao Hokkaido Faroe Is. Bouvet Is. Viti Levu Sakhalin Kamchatka Marcus Is. Crozet Is. Norfolk Is. Wake Is. Vanua Levu Wrangel Is. Stewart Is. RyRyR uyuy kuku ykyk u y u y IsIsI. Phoenix Is. Nicobar Is. Loyalty Is. GililiblblertrtrIsIsI . Chatham Is. Andaman Is. Agalega Is. Lakshadweep Senyavin Is. Mentawai Is. Farquhar Is. Choiseul Canary Is. Campbell Is. Auckland Is. Christmas Is. Jan Mayen Rodrigues Is. Macquarie Is. Kermadec Is. Kerguelen Is. Ascension Is. Antipodes Is. Midway Is. Severnaya Zemlya Ogasawara Gunto Novavav yaya ayay ZeZeZ mlylyl ayay New Guinea Great Britain Saint Croix Is. Bougainville Is. New Ireland Australia Madagascar St. Lawrence Is. St. Helen’s Is. Komandor Is. Admiralty Is. Khuriya Muriya Is. Khuriya Muriya Is. Khuriya Cargados Carajos Sh. Cargados Carajos Sh. Cargados Heard and McDonald Is. New Siberia Is. Caroline Is. arch. Howland Is. Gardner Is. Guadalcanal American Samoa New Britain New Caledonia Santa Isabel Is. Luzon North Is. SouthIs. Iceland Ireland Shetland Is. Corse Sardaigne Sicily Crete Sri Lanka Johnston Atoll FLORES SEA SEA OF OKHOTSK BERING SEA LAPTEV SEA NORWEGIAN SEA BARENTS SEA CELEBES SEA TASMANIAN SEA M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A GREENLAND SEA PHILIPPINE SEA EAST CHINA SEA EAST SIBERIAN SEA BISMARCK SEA North Cape G ulflfl of Oman Gulf of Aden Suez Canal PersianG u l f l f l GulfofBothnia Bay of Bengal Bay of Bengal Bay of MozambiqueChannel Gulf of Carpentaria Cape Agulhas Cape Agulhas Cape Great Australian Bight A DRIATATA IC SEA AEGEAN SEA I N D I A N O C E A N S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N YELLOW SEA REDSEA BLACK SEA ARABIAN SEA JAVA SEA NORTH SEA KARA SEA WHITE SEA TIMOR SEA BANDA SEA SEA OF JAPAN BABAB LTLTL ICICI SE A E A E ARAFURA SEA CHUKCHI SEA Futuna Is. Wallis Is. Denmark Strait A R C T I C O C E A N SOUTH CHINA SEA Prince Edward Is. CASPIAN SEA Svalbard Komandor Is. THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET SEAS AND OCEANS Ocean currents Warm Cold Landmasses Continents Islands Sources: ESRI; NIMA Edges of the archipelagos in the Pacific Ocean THE OCEANS OCEAN AREA VOLUME LENGTH OF COAST DEEPEST POINT Pacific 165,000,000 km2 707,000,000 km3 135,663 km 11,034 m (Mariana Trench) Atlantic 82,400,000 km2 323,600,000 km3 111,866 km 8,605 m (Puerto Rico Trench) Indian 73,400,000 km2 292,000,000 km3 66,526 km 7,125 m (Java Trench) Arctic 14,000,000 km2 16,700,000 km3 45,389 km 5,669 m (Molloy Hole) Bay of Fundy, Canada This bay, about 290 km long, is famous for its very high tides, which may rise by 16 m in just a few hours. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the bay is shallow and funnel-shaped, narrowing as it goes inland. : 33
EARTH:ABLUEPLANET THE WORLD OCEAN THE SALINITY OF SEAWATER The salinity of seawater is the amount of salt dissolved in the water. On average, seawater contains 35 g of salt per liter.The more enclosed the sea, the higher its salinity. For example, salinity is lower than average in the North Pacific Ocean (32 g/l)  , but higher than average in the Red Sea (40 g/l)  .The Dead Sea is the saltiest body of water in the world, with a salinity of 330 g/l, and the Baltic Sea is one of the least salty, with a salinity of only 8 g/l. The balance between water evaporation from the oceans and precipitation is responsible for differences in salinity. Under subtropical anticyclones such as those in the Azores , evaporation is very high, and so the seawater is saltier. On the other hand, the equatorial region is subjected to strong and frequent rainfall, which results in a lower salinity level in seawater around the equator . WAVE HEIGHTS Earth observation satellites are used to measure wave heights. Wave-height data are used to study relationships between sea and air and their meteorological and climatic consequences. Wave height is also very useful information for marine transport and offshore drilling. In fact, each wave is a shape produced by undulations created by the wind in the high seas. Near the coasts, the wave’s amplitude is determined by the relief features on the ocean floor.The undulation that moves the wave is stopped when it hits the shore. the surface temperature of SEAwater Water and the atmosphere are constantly exchanging energy in the form of heat.The surface temperature of the seas and oceans thus plays a fundamental role in the regulation of atmospheric processes. Measurement of seawater temperature enables us to follow the evolution of climatic phenomena, such as El Niño, and ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream, and to predict the formation of cyclones. Seawater temperature also provides information on the development of phytoplankton and shoals of fish. The distribution of surface temperatures is linked to hours of sunlight, which, in turn, depends on the latitude.The temperature of the oceans ranges from 28°C, near the equator, to –2°C, in the high latitudes (north and south), closely following the distribution of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the water. Waves unfurling on the beach, Australia > A wave about to break on the shore momentarily forms a tube (cylinder of air) at its peak. 25–29.9°C 20–24.9°C 15–19.9°C 10–14.9°C 5–9.9°C 0.1–4.9°C –1.9–0°C Source: NOAA Very high High Average Low Very low Source : NOAA 10–12 m 8–9.9 m 6–7.9 m 4–5.9 m 2–3.9 m 1–1.9 m < 1 m Source: NOAA WAVE HEIGHTS SALINITY OF SEAWATER SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF SEAWATER 34 :
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET Lanzarote, Canary Islands (Spain) Parts of the volcanic island of Lanzarote, situated in the ocean off southern Morocco, have coastal escarpments that form cliffs, such as the ones around the Papagayo beach. A barrier reef (or barrier island) is a sandbar parallel to the shore at a distance of between a few and several dozen kilometers. A lagoon forms behind the reef. An atoll is a coral reef that forms around a volcanic island. It is ring-shaped and surrounds a lagoon. Geologic events have sometimes modified the coastline by producing faults. This is the case for very high shore cliffs formed by tectonic faults. A ria is a fluvial valley that is submerged following a rise in sea level or a subsidence of land. Deltas form at the mouths of rivers.They result from the accumulation and deposit of sediments carried by watercourses. Fjords (fjord means “long arm of the sea” in Norwegian) are valleys that were carved out long ago by glaciers, then invaded by water. A littoral is a coastal zone between the low-tide line and the high-tide line.This landscape is constantly changing due to the continuous action of the sea, rivers, and wind, and it may take a variety of forms depending on the geological nature of the coast. Littorals 36 :
THE LARGEST ISLANDS IN THE WORLD ISLAND AREA OCEAN HIGHEST POINT ALTITUDE (m) Australia 7,740,000 km2 Indian and Pacific Mount Kosciusko 2,228 Greenland 2,166,086 km2 Arctic Gunnbjorn 3,733 New Guinea 792,500 km2 Pacific Puncak Jaya 4,884 Borneo 725,500 km2 Pacific Mount Kinabalu 4,095 Madagascar 587,040 km2 Indian Mount Maromokotro 2,876 Baffin Island 507,500 km2 Arctic Mount Odin 2,147 Sumatra 427,300 km2 Indian Mount Kerinci 3,805 Honshu 227,400 km2 Pacific Mount Fuji 3,776 Great Britain 218,100 km2 Atlantic Ben Nevis 1,344 Victoria 217,300 km2 Arctic unnamed summit 655 THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET : 37
Yukon Xingu O hio Par ana Miss ouri Pu rus Mississippi Peace Riv . A m a z o n Ark ans as Ucayali Japura Araguaia Macke nzie Color ado Sn ake Rio Negro Made ira Saskatchewan SãoFran c i sco C olumbia Magdalena Orino coNel son Tapajos Juruena RioGrande St. Lawrence Tocantins Paragua y Pu tum ayo Te lesPires Mar añón RioBranc o Thelon Bra zos Urugua y Fraser Parn a íba Yaqui Colorado Balsas Alaba ma Hudson Usumacinta Sacram e nto Susquehanna Rio Grande de Santiago Lake Superior Lake Huron Great Bear Lake Lake Michigan Great Slave Lake Lake Erie Lake Winnipeg Lake Ontario Lake Athabasca Reindeer lake Nettilling Lake Cedar Lake Lake Manitoba Lake Titicaca Lake Winnipegosis Lake Nicaragua Great Salt Lake Glass Della Yosemite Angel Falls Niagara Madre deDios Chubut FRESHWATER EARTH:ABLUEPLANET 38 : Barely 2.8% of all water on Earth is freshwater. Most of it is found in glaciers and pack ice (77%) and in groundwater (22%).The rest, only 1%, forms the watercourses that irrigate valleys and plains. As it flows down from mountaintops to the ocean, freshwater feeds glaciers, lakes, and rivers.The water evaporates and forms clouds, precipitation from which feeds watercourses. For millions of years, this vast water cycle has created landscapes by carving out valleys, eroding mountains, and changing shorelines. It plays an essential role in the redistribution of water around the planet. Watersheds A watershed is a region where all water—precipitation, runoff, and groundwater—flows toward a common body of water. A single watershed may contain a number of smaller watersheds. THE LARGEST RIVERS RIVER CONTINENT LENGTH AREA OF WATERSHED Nile Africa 6,670 km 2,870,000 km2 Amazon South America 6,570 km 6,915,000 km2 Yangzi Jiang Asia 6,300 km 1,855,000 km2 Mississippi–Missouri North America 5,970 km 2,980,000 km2 Jenissei–Angara Asia 5,870 km 2,580,000 km2 Ob–Irtych Asia 5,410 km 2,990,000 km2 Paranà–Rio de la Plata South America 4,880 km 3,100,000 km2 Congo Africa 4,630 km 3,680,000 km2 Amur Asia 4,440 km 1,855,000 km2 Lena Asia 4,268 km 2,490,000 km2 Mackenzie North America 4,241 km 1,790,000 km2 Niger Africa 4,184 km 2,090,000 km2 Mekong Asia 4,023 km 810,000 km2 Volga Europe 3,687 km 1,380,000 km2 Murray–Darling Oceania 3,370 km 1,057,000 km2 Hydrography Waterfalls River Lake Edge of watersheds Source: Pfafstetter Classification, USGS Freshwater available in the main watersheds (billions of m3 per year) ≥ 250 100–249 40–99 20–39 10–19 < 10 No data available Regions with no major watershed Source: World Resources Institute RIVERS, LAKES, AND WATERFALLS
Ob Lena Irtych Nile J enissei Vo lga Mekong Vilyuy Ural Niger Indus Amur Danube Kolyma Do n Salween T igris Huang He Yangzi J iang Tobol Aldan Con g o Angara Gan ges Syr Darya Ubangi D arling Zam bezi Orange Am u Darya Irrawaddy Pecho ra Rh ine Murray XiJiang Kama B enue Lualaba BlueNile Brahmaputra Murat Chire WhiteNile Suir Eup h r ate s Firat Lukuga Neva Shatt al Arab Po In digir ka Hong El be Tage TarimKura Loire Ode r Fly Godav ari Tapti Vist ula KrishnaSé n é gal Sein e K wanza Sh ebele Kunene Okavan go Rufij i L i mpopo Ogooué Glomma Dalalven Kemi joki Oued Dr aa Kapuas Rhon e Mania Sepik M ahanad i Weser Yalu Jiang Kizilirmak Mahakam Northern Dvina Guadalquivir Burdekin Araks Duero Narmada Jubba Laagen Garonne Mangoky Chao Phraya CaspianSea Lake Baikal Lake Victoria Lake Ladoga Aral Sea Lake Malawi Lake Onega Lake Balkhash Lake Tanganyika Lake Vanern Issyk Kul Lake Urmia Koko Nor Lake Turkana Lake Albert Lake Tana Lake Chad Lake Volta Tugela Mtarazi Wallaman Krimmler Gavarnie Sutherland Ebro DnieperDnie ster Niagara Falls, on the Canada–United States border Although they are not very high, the Niagara Falls are spectacular, as they are wide and have a high discharge rate. Every minute, 155 million liters of water, or the equivalent of 50 Olympic-size swimming pools, flow over the falls from a height of about 50 m! Yellow River, China The Yellow River (Huang He in Chinese) owes its name to the large quantities of alluvia that it carries. THE LARGEST LAKES LAKE AREA DEPTH ORIGIN Caspian Sea 386,400 km2 1,025 m tectonic Lake Superior 82,100 km2 405 m glacial Lake Victoria 69,500 km2 82 m tectonic Lake Huron 59’800 km2 228 m glacial Lake Michigan 57,750 km2 281 m glacial Lake Tanganyika 32,900 km2 1,436 m tectonic Lake Baikal 31,700 km2 1,620 m tectonic Great Bear Lake 31,600 km2 82 m glacial Lake Malawi 29,500 km2 706 m tectonic Great Slave Lake 28,900 km2 614 m glacial THE HIGHEST WATERFALLS WATERFALL COUNTRY HEIGHT Angel Falls Venezuela 979 m Mtarazi Zimbabwe 762 m Yosemite United States 739 m Tugela South Africa 614 m Sutherland New Zealand 580 m Della Canada 440 m Gavarnie France 422 m Glass Brazil 404 m Krimmler Austria 381 m Wallaman Australia 347 m FRESHWATER EARTH:ABLUEPLANET : 39
Springs, rivers, and lakes form a network with a hierarchy: each flows into a large watercourse, and all watercourses finally flow into the sea. A river such as the Amazon, for example, is fed by 15,000 tributaries. Rainwater seeps into the ground and rises to the surface in the form of a spring , then flows down hills and mountains. Sometimes fed by meltwater from glaciers , the stream becomes a torrent ; then, fed by more springs, it becomes a young river that continues to flow down the mountain, following sleep slopes and forming waterfalls .The river carves out deep gorges , and then broadens. Fed by tributaries , it becomes a large river . As it grows wider, the river forms meanders . Many rivers form deltas at their mouths, and finally flow into the sea . Evaporation of water from the oceans forms clouds, and the water cycle starts over. Watercourses waterfall A watercourse that flows into another is called a tributary. At the beginning of its course, the river rushes down mountain slopes, carving out a bed by creating deep gorges. Yellowstone National Park, United States The Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River help to carve out the riverbed. At the foot of the mountain, the river broadens and its flow rate slows. The riverbed and banks continue to erode, carving out a valley. When it reaches the plain, the river arrives at its base level and forms meanders, where it deposits sediments. Taieri River, New Zealand (South Island) The meanders of the Taieri River emphasize the bottom of the Starth Taieri glacial valley. freshwater earth:aBLUEplanet water cycle A river that feeds a lake is called a tributary. A river that leaves a lake is called a distributary. 40 : oxbow lake
Nile Delta, Egypt At its mouth, the Nile forms a vast delta, clearly visible on a satellite image. When a river does not encounter a stronger current as it is flowing into the sea, it deposits its sediments at the mouth. The alluvia—sediment deposits—spread out in a fan shape divided into channels of various widths and shapes. This is called a delta. When a river encounters a tide that is more powerful than its current, the sediments that it is carrying disperse. The river’s mouth opens out like a funnel, and this is called an estuary. Rio de la Plata estuary, on the border between Argentina and Uruguay The Rio de la Plata marks the mouth of the Parana and Uruguay rivers. Surface water usually flows toward the sea, but sometimes it is held back by a depression or dam and forms a lake. Although most lakes are filled with freshwater, others have high salinity due to a high evaporation rate and accumulation of dissolved mineral salts. Lakes FRESHWATER EARTH:ABLUEPLANET Water in glacial lakes has accumulated in depressions carved out by glaciers and in valleys where moraines (glacial deposits), some of which are 200 m high, have created dams. Most lakes in the northern hemisphere are of this type. Tectonic lakes occupy natural basins that result from movements of Earth’s crusts along folds and faults. Many are situated below sea level, and some form closed systems with no distributaries. The craters of some volcanoes fill with water. These volcanic lakes may also form in valleys where lava flows hold back water. Oxbow lakes sometimes form in the areas around rivers.They are formed in meanders, or oxbows, abandoned by the watercourse. Unless they are regularly fed by new water, they rapidly dry up. An oasis is formed in a desert when the wind erodes the ground and exposes the water table. Oases also appear where a fault line causes water to flow toward a particular point. Reservoirs, artificial lakes whose waters are usually held in by dams, supply water for human consumption, irrigation, or production of hydroelectric power. : 41
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
E a r t h : A P l a n e t i n B a l a n c e Earthisenvelopedinathinlayerofaircalledtheatmosphere.Depending on the characteristics of air masses around the globe, different regions have more or less cold, humid, and windy climates. Most weather phenomena take place in the 15 kilometers of the atmosphere closest to the ground.This layer of the atmosphere is also home to many living species. Together, air, water, and a layer of earth form the biosphere, the habitable part of the planet. Living beings and their environments form ecosystems. The constant interactions between the components of an ecosystem maintain its equilibrium. For the last hundred years, the intensification of human activities has caused air, water, and soil pollution and threatens to upset the equilibrium of our planet. TOP: Elk, in Yellowstone National Park, United States LEFT: Emperor penguins, on South Georgia Island, in the South Atlantic Ocean
EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER T HERMAL EQUATOR NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA ANTARCTICPOLA R CIRCLE Temperatures, precipitation, humidity, and winds vary enormously from one region of the world to another. So, Earth has a number of very different climates, each one with specific atmospheric and meteorological conditions.The distribution of climatic zones on the surface of the planet depends primarily on latitude, because sunshine conditions (length of the day, alternation of seasons, angle of solar rays) play the most important role in determining climate. Other factors are also involved, such as the lay and orientation of the land, dominant winds, altitude, landforms, and ocean currents. Antarctica A number of low temperature records have been set in Antarctica. Death Valley, United States 56.6°C, July 10, 1913 Henderson Lake, Canada 6,502 mm Arctic Bay, Canada 12 mm Northice, Greenland –66.1°C, January 9, 1954 Lloro, Colombia 8,992 mm Arica, Chile 0.4 mm Villa Maria, Argentina 49.1°C, January 2, 1920 Valle de los Patos Superior, Argentina –39°C, July 17, 1972 Vanda Station 15°C, January 5, 1974 Amundsen-Scott Station 20.3 mm Vostok –89.4°C July 21, 1983 44 : CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE Mount Waialeale, Hawaii 11,684 mm Climates of the world One-quarter of the planet’s landmass has a dry (arid or semiarid) climate, characterized by drought throughout the year. Regions in the intertropical zone, between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, have a tropical climate with high temperatures due to regular and continual sunshine conditions.The wet tropical climate has abundant and constant humidity, which encourages growth of the tropical rainforest, while the wet tropical climate with dry winter has a wet season with monsoon rains and a dry winter season.Temperate regions have a mild climate and four well-defined seasons.Temperate climates are very diverse, however, as they are influenced by geographic factors such as altitude, relief features, and proximity to the ocean. Mountainous regions and high plateau zones have a cold climate with low temperatures. Finally, at the poles, the temperature rarely rises above 0°C and the ground remains frozen for most of the year.
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE ANTARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE ASIA AFRICA EUROPE OCEANIA INFLUENCE OF RELIEF FEATURES ON CLIMATE Some arid regions are dry because of the configuration of landforms that surround them. For instance, when a mountain range borders a shoreline, it holds back much of the humidity contained in the marine air masses.The regions in the lee of this mountain barrier then receive very little precipitation.This is the case for the Patagonia, Great Basin, and Gobi deserts. humid air mass dry air mountain range desert zone Seville, Spain 50°C, August 4, 1881 Ust’Shchugor, Russia –55°C, over 15 years Crkvice, Bosnia 4,648 mm Astrakan, Russia 162.6 mm Tirat Tsvi, Israel 53.9°C, June 22, 1942 Debunja, Cameroon 10,287 mm Aswan, Egypt 1 mm Ifrane, Morocco –23.9°C February 11, 1935 El Azizia, Libya 57.8°C September 13, 1922 Oymyakon, Russia –67.8°C, February 6, 1933 Verkhoyansk, Russia –67.8°C, February 7, 1892 Aden, Yemen 45.7 mm Cloncurry, Australia 53.3°C, January 16, 1889 Charlotte Pass, Australia –23°C, June 29, 1994 Mulka, Australia 102.9 mm Mawsynram, India 11,871 mm Cold Ice cap Tundra Mountain Cold temperate Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Warm temperate Coastal (no dry season, cool summer) Mediterranean (dry summer) Subtropical humid Dry Arid Semiarid CLIMATE TYPES Maximum temperature (°C) per continent Minimum temperature (°C) per continent Annual maximum precipitation (mm) per continent Annual minimum precipitation (mm) per continent Regional border Sources: NOAA; Argentina National Weather Service Temperature and precipitation recordsTropical Wet Wet with dry winter CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 45
Contrary to popular belief, the cycle of the seasons—that is, the periodic changes in climate as the months go by—is due not to the distance of Earth from the Sun but to its inclination: our planet’s axis of rotation is tilted by about 23.5˚ in relation to the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane).This inclination is directly responsible for the variation in sunlight conditions, and therefore for the succession of seasons throughout the year. This also explains why the seasons in the two hemispheres are opposite: summer in the South always takes place during winter in the North. Temperate regions have four alternating seasons: after spring comes summer, then autumn, and finally winter. Elsewhere in the world, the march of the seasons is less distinct. Subtropical regions have only two seasons: a dry season and a wet season. As the seasons pass, the air temperature and atmospheric pressure vary. Atmospheric pressure is the force that air exerts upon a given surface. It may differ by altitude and temperature. There are therefore zones of high and low pressure. In general, a high-pressure zone, or anticyclone, is responsible for good weather and a low-pressure zone, or depression, is responsible for bad weather. The Cycle of the Seasons The summer solstice is the longest day of the year (June 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere). The Sun rises high in the sky and warms the atmosphere. Earth is at its aphelion, or maximum distance from the Sun (152.1 million km), on July 3. The heat that reigns in the North on this date is due to Earth’s inclination. The spring equinox takes place on March 20 or 21 in the Northern Hemisphere. The Sun rises exactly in the East and sets exactly in the West, and day and night are the same length. The shortest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere is December 21 or 22. This is the winter solstice. The sun stays low in the sky and does not warm the atmosphere much. On September 22 or 23, day and night are the same length. This is the fall equinox in the Northern Hemisphere. As it does at the spring equinox, the Sun rises exactly in the East and sets exactly in the West. On January 3, Earth is at its perihelion, its closest position to the Sun (147.3 million km). INFLUENCE OF LATITUDE ON LENGTH OF DAY summer solstice SPRING EQUINOX WINTER SOLSTICE AUTUMN EQUINOX poles (90˚) 24 hr 12 hr 0 hr 12 hr Helsinki (60˚) 19 hr 12 hr 6 hr 12 hr Montreal (45˚) 16 hr 12 hr 8 hr 12 hr Cairo (30˚) 14 hr 12 hr 10 hr 12 hr equator (0˚) 12 hr 12 hr 12 hr 12 hr N S E W N S E W N S E W N S E W Schoolchildren in snowsuits, Canada Canada has four distinct seasons. Winters are particularly cold and snowy. African savanna, Kenya Kenya has two dry seasons, from December to March and July to October; these alternate with two rainy seasons: one from April to June, and one in November, which sometimes extends to mid-December. CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 46 :
AIR TEMPERATURE IN JULY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 ≥ 25°C 15 to 24.9°C 5 to 14.9°C –9.9 to 4.9°C –29.9 to –10°C Sources: NOAA; NCEP; CPC AIR TEMPERATURE IN JANUARY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 ≥ 25°C 15 to 24.9°C 5 to 14.9°C –9.9 to 4.9°C –29.9 to –10°C ≤ –30°C Sources: NOAA; NCEP; CPC SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN AIR TEMPERATURE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN JULY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN JANUARY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 On June 21, it is summer in Algiers, in the Northern Hemisphere. On June 21, it is winter in Capetown, in the Southern Hemisphere. The temperature on the surface of Earth depends directly on the angle at which the Sun’s rays penetrate the atmosphere. When this angle of incidence is small—when the rays graze the planet’s surface—the Sun’s energy is dispersed. On the contrary, heat is at its maximum when the Sun’s rays reach the ground at a 90° angle. Because of Earth’s inclination, sunlight reaches the Northern Hemisphere at a maximum angle during the Northern summer. At the same time, the Sun’s rays graze the Southern Hemisphere and it is winter in the South. CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 47 ≥ 1032 hPa 1026–1031.9 hPa 1020–1025.9 hPa 1014–1019.9 hPa 1008–1013.9 hPa 1002–1007.9 hPa 996–1001.9 hPa < 996 hPa Sources: NOAA; CDAS; NCEP-NCAR The Angle of Solar Rays ≥ 1032 hPa 1026 - 1031.9 hPa 1020 - 1025.9 hPa 1014 - 1019.9 hPa 1008 - 1013.9 hPa 1002 - 1007.9 hPa 996 - 1001.9 hPa < 996 hPa Sources : NOAA, CDAS, NCEP-NCAR
South Magnetic Pole Larsen Ice Shelf Filchner Ice Shelf Amery Ice ShelfRonne Ice Shelf Ross Ice Shelf Lambert Glacier AN TARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE South Geographic Pole ANTARCTIC TROPICOFCAPR ICORN BRAZIL ARGENTINA AUSTRALIANEW- ZEALAND In the coldest oceans on the planet, especially at the poles, the seawater is covered by a floating layer of ice, a stretch of frozen seawater formed when the water temperature falls below –1.9°C. These masses of ice, called pack ice, may be 3 to 4 m thick. In winter, Arctic pack ice invades fjords, bays, estuaries, and straits. Hudson Bay is totally icebound during the winter. Antarctica ,covered by an ice cap,is also surrounded by pack ice. This layer of ice forms a vast sheet measuring 20 million km2 at its maximum winter extent, but it shrinks a great deal in the summer. Pack ice is different from the ice shelves (the Ross Ice Shelf, the Larsen Ice Shelf, etc.) that form the edge of some parts of Antarctica.These are actually floating glaciers, several hundred meters thick, contiguous to the continental ice cap. Pack ice Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina Some 30 km long and covering some 250 km2 , Perito Moreno is an immense continental glacier. COLD ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 48 : COLD ENVIRONMENTS Snow, glacier, or continental ice cap Ice shelf Average extension of the pack ice in July (summer at the North Pole, winter at the South Pole) Average extension of the pack ice in January (winter at the North Pole, summer at the South Pole) Source: NSIDC At the highest latitudes, close to the poles, the climate is dominated by polar air masses, which do not heat up much even during the long period of summer sunshine. In the center of Antarctica and Greenland, where the temperature never rises above 0°C, the ground remains permanently frozen and covered with a thick ice cap, the continental ice sheet. The northern edges of Eurasia and North America have a more temperate climate: summer temperatures rise above the freezing point, which enables a thin top layer of ground to thaw and tundra vegetation to grow. The main cold regions The coldest regions of the planet are the poles and mountain summits.The poles are permanently frozen, but how far the pack ice stretches toward the middle latitudes varies with the seasons.The highest mountain peaks are also covered with glaciers.
TROPIC OF CANCER 48TH PARALLEL North Magnetic Pole North Geographic Pole ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE RUSSIA ALASKA (US) CANADA NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND ICELAND GROENLAND (DK) EXTENSION OF THE ICE CAP DURING THE ICE AGE For 2 million years, cold periods, called glacial periods (or ice ages), have alternated with warmer, interglacial, periods due to variations in Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Currently, we are in an interglacial period.The last ice age was 18,000 years ago. A huge ice cap covered the continents of the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, on the other hand, the ice cap was the same size as today’s, since no continent is close enough to Antarctica to support the ice cap during glacial periods. MAXIMUM EXTENSION OF GLACIERS DURING THE LAST ICE AGE (–18,000 YEARS) glaciers Source: Frenzel et al Icebergs In cold regions, glaciers reach the sea before they melt. Waves and tides then break up glacier tongues into gigantic blocks of floating freshwater ice blocks called icebergs, only the tip of which rises above the surface of the water. Pushed by the wind and ocean currents, icebergs travel thousands of kilometers, sometimes drifting as far as the tropics, before melting due to the combined effects of waves, salt, and solar rays. Iceberg, north of the 48th parallel Icebergs usually drift along the coast. Most of those that come from the Arctic melt before crossing the 48th parallel. COLD ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 49
TROPIC OF CANCER ANTARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE EQUATOR Mojave Desert rocky desert Atacama Desert sand and salt desert Sonoran Desert rocky desert Patagonia steppe Chihuahuan Desert steppe Great Basin steppe Colorado Plateau steppe One-quarter of the planet’s landmass (about 35 million square kilometers) has an arid or semiarid climate. All of these regions have very low precipitation. Vegetation grows slowly, leaving the ground almost bare. In most cases, this aridity is related to the presence of permanent high-pressure zones that impede the development of clouds.This is the case for “high-pressure” deserts such as the Sahara Desert, the Arabian Desert, the Kalahari Desert, and the Great Sandy Desert. These deserts are situated at latitudes adjacent to the tropics, where the climate features very dry air and high atmospheric pressure. Geographic factors may also be the cause of aridity. “Rain shadow” deserts are situated at the foot of mountains that block humid air from the ocean; examples are the Patagonia Desert, the Atacama Desert and the Gobi Desert. Desertification Under the combined effects of climatic variations and human activity, more and more previously arable regions are being transformed into deserts. For instance, 4,000 years ago, the Sahara was a fertile region.Today, it is a desert. Desertification involves the degradation of arable land. Each year, 5 to 6 million hectares are affected by desertification on every continent. ARIDITY Arid regions are characterized by water resources that are insufficient in comparison to the needs of the vegetation, because there is not enough precipitation or because the water is frozen and thus not usable by plants. Arid regions can be classified according to the volume of precipitation that they receive per year. A very arid zone receives very little precipitation, between 10 and 15 mm per year.This is an absolute desert, and an example is the Namib. Arid zones, such as the Arabian Desert, receive no more than 200 mm of precipitation per year. In semiarid zones, precipitation is below 500 mm in the winter and below 800 mm in the summer. Such zones—for example, the Sahel—are in a state of advanced desertification. ARID ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 50 :
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE Thar Desert sandy desert Gobi Desert rocky desert and steppe Namib Desert sandy desert S a h e lherbaceous and bushy savanna Gibson Desert herbaceous savanna Arabian Desert rock and sand desert S a h a r a D e s e r t rock and sand desert Simpson Desert sandy desertKalahari Desert sandy desert Karakum Desert gray-sand desert Kyzylkum Desert sandy desert Takla Makan Desert sandy desert Great Sandy Desert sandy desert DESERTIFICATION Desertic zone Zone at very high risk of desertification Zone at high risk of desertification Zone at moderate risk of desertification Zone at little or no risk of desertification Snow, glacier, or continental ice cap Source: USDA Desertification of the Sahel, in Burkina Faso The Sahel region, which extends from Senegal to Sudan at the southern edge of the Sahara, is greatly affected by desertification. Its soil has become sterile due to climatic variations and human activity, particularly the intensive farming practiced over the last half-century. THE MAIN DESERTS DESERT AREA (km2 ) CONTINENT ARIDITY MIN. TEMP. (°C) MAX. TEMP. (°C) DESERT AREA (km2 ) CONTINENT ARIDITY MIN. TEMP. (°C) MAX. TEMP. (°C) Sahara 8,000,000 Africa arid to very arid 10–20 > 30 Kalahari 335,500 Africa arid 0–10 20–30 Sahel 3,053,200 Africa semiarid 20–30 > 30 Colorado Plateau 326,400 N. America semiarid < 0 20–30 Arabian 1,851,300 Asia arid 10–20 > 30 Great Sandy Desert 317,800 Oceania arid 10–20 > 30 Gobi 1,300,000 Asia arid < 0 20–30 Kyzylkum 297,800 Asia arid < 0 20–30 Takla Makan 741,900 Asia very arid < 0 20–30 Thar 238,700 Asia arid 0–10 20–30 Simpson 584,500 Oceania arid 10–20 > 30 Sonoran 223,000 N. America arid 10–20 > 30 Chihuahuan 509,500 N. America arid 0–10 20–30 Gibson 155,900 Oceania arid 10–20 20–30 Patagonia 487,200 S. America arid 0–10 10–20 Mojave 130,600 N. America arid 10–20 > 30 Karakum 349,600 Asia arid < 0 > 30 Atacama 105,200 S. America very arid 10–20 20–30 Great Basin 335,900 N. America arid < 0 10–20 Namib 80,900 Africa very arid 10–20 10–20 Sources: WWF; University of Arizona ARID ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 51
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER In spite of industrial and technological progress in recent decades, human beings are still at the mercy of major weather disasters. Tornadoes, cyclones, snowstorms, and hailstorms cause serious destruction and thousands of deaths every year all over the world. Lightning is responsible for electrical blackouts and huge forest fires. And rainstorms may cause floods and landslides. The most affected regions Cyclones cause the most damage in coastal regions of the intertropical zone.Tornadoes are most frequent in the eastern United States, while thunderstorms usually hit warm, humid regions near the equator.The more densely populated the region, such as Southeast Asia, the more victims claimed by climatic catastrophes. THE MOST LETHAL TORNADOES SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR Bangladesh 800 1989 India 250 1998 United States 600 1984 United States 203 1963 Comores 500 1951 Bangladesh 200 1972 India 500 1978 Senegal 165 1999 ex-USSR 400 1984 Bangladesh 121 1991 United States 322 1974 India 120 1981 United States 257 1965 United States 104 1985 Source: Em-dat THE MOST LETHAL THUNDERSTORMS SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR United Kingdom 4,000 1952 India 500 1990 Haiti 1,122 1994 India 470 1981 Bangladesh 1,000 1978 India 450 1975 Bangladesh 700 1973 China 448 1992 Bangladesh 600 1977 Japan 419 1954 Bangladesh 525 1995 India 350 1952 Bangladesh 525 1996 Germany 347 1962 Source: Em-dat DISTRIBUTION OF CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES Cyclones (density of cyclones) Very high High Average Main paths of cyclones Cyclones that have caused more than 2,000 deaths since 1900 Sources: Em-dat; UNEP Tornadoes Lethal tornadoes since 1980 Source: Em-dat Thunderstorms (lightning density) ≥ 10 lightning bolts/yr/km2 Source: NASA Population density (inhabitants/km2 ) ≥ 10,000 1,000–9,999 500–999 ≤ 500 Source: SEDAC, University of Columbia CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 52 :
BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE KIRIBATI TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE I N D I A B U R M A BANGLADESH THE MOST LETHAL CYCLONES SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR Bangladesh 300,000 1970 India 40,000 1942 Bangladesh 138,866 1991 Bangladesh 36,000 1965 Myanmar > 130000 2008 Honduras 14,600 1998 China 100,000 1922 India 14,204 1971 Bangladesh 61,000 1942 Bangladesh 12,047 1965 India 60,000 1935 Bangladesh 11,500 1963 China 50,000 1912 China 11,000 1937 Source: Em-dat THE MOST LETHAL FLOODS SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR China 3,700,000 1931 China 30,000 1954 China 2,000,000 1959 Venezuela 30,000 1999 China 500,000 1939 Bangladesh 28,700 1974 China 142,000 1935 China 18,000 1933 China 100,000 1911 Bangladesh 10,000 1960 China 57,000 1949 China 6,200 1980 Guatemala 40,000 1949 India 4,892 1968 Source: Em-dat CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 53
Andrew, Allen, Mitch, Katrina—these innocuous names are attached to one of the most devastating weather phenomena: cyclones. At their strongest, these gigantic tropical storms may be accompanied by winds of more than 250 km/h. And yet cyclones need only a few factors in place to trigger them: a large mass of warm water, an initial depression, and moderate winds blowing in a constant direction. Like immense steam machines, cyclones transform the humid heat of the atmosphere and oceans into a circular motion. Cyclones are formed only in the intertropical zone, between 5° and 20° latitude on either side of the equator, and have different names depending on the region. In the Pacific Northwest, they are called typhoons; in the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, hurricanes; and in the Indian Ocean and Southwest Pacific, cyclones. Cyclones Dominant winds (such as the trade winds) push cyclones at an average speed of 25 km/h. The eye of the cyclone is a very- low-pressure zone, about 30 km in diameter, of relative calm. The radius of a cyclone may be up to 500 km. A cyclone may be from 10 to 15 km thick. inside a cyclone Wind speed may increase to more than 250 km/h near the eye wall (a thick layer of cloud at the periphery of the eye). A cyclone is composed of storm bands formed by the elevation of warm, humid air above the ocean. storm surge During a storm surge, ocean water is pulled by the strong sucking effect of the hurricane.This causes the formation of a small “mountain of water” under the hurricane. When the cyclone reaches land, this mass of water unfurls on the coast and floods vast stretches. Hurricane Dennis, United States Much of the damage caused by Hurricane Dennis, which hit Florida on July 10, 2005, was caused by a storm surge several meters high. climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance 54 :
the Saffir-Simpson scale Since the 1970s, cyclones have been classified according to various characteristics, including wind speed and height of the storm surge. The Saffir-Simpson scale, with five cyclone categories, enables scientists to assess the dangers of a storm and predict the scope of the damage. category 3 Wind speed: 177–208 km/h Surge height: 2.7–3.8 m Foliage torn off trees, large trees uprooted; mobile homes destroyed; some roofs, windows, and doors of houses damaged. category 4 Wind speed: 209–248 km/h Surge height: 3.9–5.5 m Traffic lights knocked over; roofs, windows, and doors of houses seriously damaged. category 5 Wind speed: over 248 km/h Surge height: over 5.5 m Some buildings destroyed; many roofs of houses collapsed. VICTIMS of CYCLONES Number of dead per country since 1900 ≥ 50,000 5,000–49,999 500–4,999 50–499 < 50 No data Source: Em-dat Cyclones play an essential role in the planet’s energy balance, but they are also responsible for the deaths of an average of 20,000 people every year.The destructive effects of a cyclone are felt when it reaches the coast. Violent winds rip up trees and destroy structures.Torrential rains make rivers overflow and cause landslides. Finally, storm surges lead to floods, often with tragic results: more than 300,000 drowned during a cyclone in 1970, when the sea rose 12 m. Category 1 Wind speed: 118–152 km/h Surge height: 1.2–1.7 m Trees and shrubs damaged; mobile homes, docks, and moorings of small boats damaged. category 2 Wind speed: 153–176 km/h Surge height: 1.8–2.6 m Small trees uprooted; mobile homes seriously damaged; some roofs damaged. cyclones: lethal natural disasters climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance : 55
Like cyclones, tornadoes result from the spinning of ascending winds around a low-pressure zone. However, unlike cyclones, tornadoes are of short duration (a number of minutes) and generate extremely violent winds (spikes of 512 km/h were observed by radar at Oklahoma City, in the United States, in 1999).The diameter of a tornado generally varies between 100 and 600 m. It may reach a height of several kilometers. Although tornadoes are usually very localized and of short duration, their violence makes them particularly dangerous and destructive. North America, where an average of 750 occur each year, is the most affected continent, but tornadoes also touch down regularly in Europe, Asia, and Australia. Tornadoes victims of tornadoes Number of dead per country since 1950 ≥ 1,000 100–999 10–99 < 10 No data Source: Em-dat The suddenness and brevity of tornadoes makes scientific observation of them difficult. In addition, traditional anemometers are not strong enough to resist the winds that accompany the strongest tornadoes. Therefore, a retrospective analysis of the damage must usually be used to assess the violence of the phenomenon.The Fujita scale (named after the Japanese meteorologist T.Theodore Fujita) establishes a six- category classification of tornadoes that links the type and scale of the damage caused to wind speed.The three least violent categories account for 88% of all tornadoes observed. F5 tornadoes, much rarer, are the most lethal. the Fujita scale category F0 With winds not over 199 km/h, an F0 tornado causes only minor damage: broken tree branches, twisted TV antennas. CATEGORY F1 An F1 tornado, with winds of 120 to 180 km/h, may blow down small trees, overturn trailers, and rip shingles off houses. category F2 The winds in an F2 tornado reach 180 to 250 km/h and are capable of destroying wooden structures, moving small vehicles, and knocking down mature trees. CATEGORY F3 With winds of 250 to 330 km/h, an F3 tornado may overturn large vehicles. Walls collapse and objects weighing a number of kilograms are lifted into the air and become projectiles. category F4 An F4 tornado (winds of 330 to 420 km/h) destroys solid houses, lifts vehicles, and throws into the air objects weighing about 100 kilograms. category F5 An F5 tornado is the most violent. Its winds are over 420 km/h and destroy all sorts of vehicles and structures as they pass. climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance 56 :
Although most floods are linked to a river or lake overflowing its banks after heavy rain, some floods have sea-related causes.This is the case, for example, for storm surges during a cyclone, and for the formation of gigantic waves (tsunamis) following an earthquake. Floods cause not only major material damage but also much loss of life. Floods victims of floods Number of dead per country since 1950 ≥ 50,000 5,000–49,999 500–4,999 50–499 < 50 No data Source: Em-dat Flood in New Orleans, United States The passage of Hurricane Katrina, in August 2005, caused the dams protecting the American city of New Orleans to fail. Within a few hours, entire neighborhoods were submerged underwater and several hundred thousand people had to be evacuated. It was one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States. climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance : 57
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA Living organisms occupy a layer of earth, water, and air that is very thin in comparison to the volume of the planet.This habitable part of Earth, called the biosphere, is composed of many ecosystems. Each ecosystem is an ecological unit in which animals, plants, and bacteria (the biocenosis) live in a close relationship with their physical environment (the biotope). An ecosystem may be as small as a stone wall or as vast as an ocean. Biotope and biocenosis are tightly interwoven: the different aspects of the biotope (geology, climate, geography, chemistry, etc.) determine the composition and diversity of the biocenosis, which, in turn, influences the environment and may even change it radically. Biomes A biome is a homogeneous community of organisms that live in similar geographic and climatic conditions. Most often, a biome refers to a terrestrial community. There are 9 different terrestrial biomes spread throughout the biosphere.They are named according to their dominant vegetation, which is dependent on the climatic conditions. Aquatic communities may also be classified as biomes: marine biomes include coral reefs, estuaries, and the ocean floor, while freshwater biomes include lakes, ponds, and watercourses. 58 : Boreal forest, Canada The boreal forest is a vast stretch of forest composed mainly of conifers, but it may also contain some deciduous trees. Temperate prairie, Argentina The temperate prairie is a herbaceous zone with very few trees. Graminaceous plants predominate, and the winters are relatively dry and cold. Tropical rainforest, Amazonia (Brazil) The tropical rainforest is a dense forest with very high biodiversity. It is fed by abundant and regular precipitation. Temperate forest, France The temperate forest is composed mainly of deciduous trees, among them oak, ash, and beech. THE BIOSPHERE EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE
BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE R U S S I A Tundra, Siberia (Russia) The tundra is a plant formation found in cold, arid regions, composed of mosses, lichens, grasses, bushes, and dwarf trees. Desert, South Africa The desert is an arid region where precipitation is under 200 mm per year and with little vegetation. Ice, Antarctica The polar regions are covered with ice all year long. How far the ice extends varies, however, according to whether it is summer or winter. BIOMES Terrestrial biomes Tundra Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert Rock and ice Source: FAO Example of a marine biome Coral reef Source: WRI Savanna, Kenya The savanna, found in warm regions with a rainy season, is a grassy area in which tall graminaceous plants and shrubs predominate. Maquis, Greece The maquis has a vegetation cover, today degraded, composed of evergreen shrubs that are adapted to drought. THE BIOSPHERE EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 59
About one-third of the planet’s landmass is covered with forests. Forests are complex ecosystems characterized by generally dense plant cover composed mainly of trees. The composition of forests varies from region to region as a function of the climate, the nature of the soil, the altitude, and the latitude.The last parameter greatly influences the diversity of animal and plant species (biodiversity) in the forest. In the North, the boreal forest, populated with conifer species such as spruce, larch, and fir, is very homogeneous. Farther south, mixed forests are composed of conifers and deciduous trees, such as birch and willow.They form a transition zone between the boreal forest and the deciduous forests in more temperate zones, where, under the branches of large trees such as oaks and beeches, the undergrowth is generally dense. The subtropical regions are too dry for forests to grow.The intertropical zones, on the other hand, have the lushest forests on the planet.The tropical rainforest, or equatorial forest, contains incredible biodiversity. Although it covers only 7% of Earth’s landmass, it houses half of all living species on the planet and 20 times more species of trees than do temperate forests.The equatorial forest of Borneo, in the Pacific Ocean, holds the record for biodiversity with no fewer than 10,000 species of plants. Forests The tropical rainforest has an average of more than 40 different species of trees per hectare. the tropical rainforest In equatorial regions, day and night are of equal length throughout the year. This regular luminosity encourages the growth of plants. The canopy is the top story of the forest, situated at a height of between 30 and 45 m. It is home to the majority of plant and animal species. In the tropical rainforest, the soil does not have time to become enriched and thick because decomposed plant matter is very quickly reused by other plants. Soil: a living environment Far from being inert, soil is crawling with life; it is estimated that one cubic meter of soil is home to about a billion living organisms.The important biological, chemical, and physical processes that take place there have led scientists who study soil (pedologists) to consider it to be a true ecosystem. the biosphere earth:aplanetinbalance 60 :
Mixed forest, Canada In autumn, deciduous trees are distinguished from conifers, as their leaves change color before falling. The evolution of the area of forest Per country, between 1990 and 2005 area of forest per country The countries that have the smallest area of forest are those in desert regions, where the climate and nature of the soil are not propitious to the growth of plants.The map opposite shows in red the countries in which forest cover shrank between 1990 and 2005, and in green the countries in which forest cover grew between 1990 and 2005. No data Source: FAO Negative balance Positive balance ≥ 100 Mha 10–99.9 Mha 1–9.9 Mha < 1 Mha : 61the biosphere earth:aplanetinbalance
62 : For almost two centuries, intensification of human activities has seriously accelerated the pace of extinction of plant and animal species on the surface of the planet.Today, for every new species that appears, 1,000 others become extinct. Protected areas are zones in which measures of various degrees of strictness are taken to preserve biodiversity. Since the creation in 1872 of the first national park (Yellowstone Park, in the United States), the number of protected areas has increased exponentially, and today there are over 100,000. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the diversity of living species in a given environment. It is usually measured by ecoregion. An ecoregion is a region of Earth that has a unique ecosystem.The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) defines 867 ecoregions, some of which are divided up. Area of protected areas Compared to total area, by region Boreal felt lichen, in Canada Affected by air pollution, boreal felt lichen has completely disappeared from Scandinavia. This lichen survives only in eastern Canada. 10.9% 10.9% 8.6% 21.1% 8.4% 10.2% 8.3% 7.7% ≥ 1,000 500–999 250–499 50–249 < 50 No data Source: IUCN Number of threatened species per countryAbout 15,500 species are threatened with extinction due to pollution, deforestation, intensive farming, urban sprawl, and mining. The regions of the intertropical zone are those where biodiversity is most threatened. the conservation of species earth:aplanetinbalance In protected areas, human activities such as cutting down trees, exploiting rivers, and even walking are regulated in order to preserve ecosystems. Some protected areas are gigantic: the biggest, Greenland National Park, has an area of 972,000 km2 . In 2003, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) counted more than 100,000 protected areas, covering more than 18 million km2 . No data Source: IUCN THREAT AND PROTECTION
some threatened species animal species plant species Northern right whale Mediterranean monk seal Ring-tailed lemur Babirussa Giant sequoia Leathery turtle Common chimpanzee Aye-aye Malleefowl Pincushion cactus California condor Lion Indri Giant clam Venus flytrap Marine iguana African elephant Snow leopard Blue bird-of-paradise Boreal felt lichen Wandering albatross Proteus Yak Brown kiwi Baobab Three-wattled bellbird Black rhinoceros Orangutan Cucumber tree Poison frog African wild dog Giant panda Pitcher plant Hyacinth macaw Gorilla Siberian tiger Ginkgo biloba Source: IUCN biodiversity Ecoregion border Sources: Olson et al.; WWF Number of plant species per ecoregion ≥ 5,000 3,000–4,999 2,000–2,999 1,000–1,999 < 1,000 Sources: Nees-Institut für Biodiversität der Pflanzen; ESRI Species threatened with extinction Critically endangered Endangered Vulnerable Source: IUCN Cucumber tree, Socotra The cucumber tree, which is found now only on the Yemeni island of Socotra, is cut down during droughts to provide fodder for cattle. Ginkgo biloba, China The ginkgo biloba is the only survivor of a family of plants that appeared more than 150 million years ago. Cultivated for centuries, it now exists in its natural state only in China. the conservation of species earth:aplanetinbalance : 63
CHILE PARAGUAY B R A Z I L A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS C A N A D A U N I T E D S TAT E S FRANCE SPAIN ITALY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA UNITED KINGDOM GREECE UKRAINE HUNGARY IRELAND AUSTRIA LITHUANIA BULGARIA CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND SLOVAKIA PORTUGAL BELARUS NETHERLANDS SERBIA BELGIUM ALBANIA RUSSIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA DENMARK LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY The atmosphere, composed of 99% nitrogen and oxygen, has had a remarkably stable composition for millions of years. Gaseous and particulate pollutants make up only a tiny part of the atmosphere, and most of them have a natural origin (volcanoes, decomposition). However, the development of industrial activities over the last two centuries has considerably increased their concentration. Due to the presence of polluting gases, some rain may be 1,000 times more acid than normal. Atmospheric pollution causes particular damage to the health of populations residing in industrial regions, but the effects of this pollution are also felt elsewhere. The wind disperses pollutants to all continents, sometimes very far from the source of the pollution.There are even pollutant particles, such as lead, in the fur of polar bears. The greenhouse effect Some gases in the atmosphere are able to absorb infrared rays emitted by Earth.This natural phenomenon, called the greenhouse effect, helps to maintain our planet at a temperature conducive to life. Without it, the average temperature on the surface of Earth, which is now 15°C, would be only –18°C. However, because some human activities release quantities of “greenhouse gases” (methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, CFCs, etc.) into the atmosphere, they contribute to further increases in the planet’s temperature. The quantities of greenhouse gases have been increasing in the lower atmosphere for a century and a half. According to numerous studies, this increase is directly responsible for the current global warming. THE MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES GAS NATURAL SOURCE ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE carbon dioxide (CO2 ) volcanic eruption - forest fires - transportation - use of fossil fuels (industry, heating) methane (CH4 ) decomposition of matter by microorganisms - agriculture (animals’ digestion, flooded rice paddies) - extraction of natural gas nitrogen oxide (N2 O) decomposition of matter by microorganisms - use of fossil fuels - agriculture (nitrogenous fertilizers) - transportation chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) chloromethane produced by plants in coastal marshes in the tropics - aerosol sprays - refrigerators - foam insulation Responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer, CFCs have been banned in countries that have signed the Montreal Protocol (1987). They are still present in the atmosphere, since their life span is between 60 and 110 years. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 64 :
GABON ICELAND GUINEA I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN NORWAY SWEDEN M A L A Y S I A pessimistic hypothesis optimistic hypothesis TEMPERATURE INCREASES While the average annual temperature on Earth’s surface grew by 0.6°C over the last century, studies indicate that it may climb another 1°C to 4.5°C over the next 100 years if greenhouse-gas emissions continue to increase at the current pace. 1900 2000 2100 TEMPERATURE CHANGES 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 THE KYOTO PROTOCOL This international treaty, written in 1997, provides for the reduction in greenhouse-gas emissions by an average of 5.2% from 1990 levels by 2012. Most countries have signed the treaty, but it has come into effect only in countries that have ratified it. Forest fires, United States They contribute to the greenhouse effect by releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. In addition, climatic warming, a consequence of the greenhouse effect, leads to more forest fires. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION Emissions of carbon dioxide Very high Low Source: NSIDC Forest fires Zones affected in 2000 Source: UNEP Kyoto Protocol Not all overseas territories have necessarily ratified the agreement. In effect Signed No position Source: CCNUCC ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 65 Year T (°C)
St. Petersburg, Russia > The chimneys in this industrial complex release black smoke into the St. Petersburg sky. The high population density in cities is related to concentration in pollution sources, notably motor vehicles and industry. As a consequence, urban air is more polluted. Air pollution has a major impact on the health of urban populations. Respiratory problems (coughing, bronchitis, lung cancer, etc.) are more common in cities. Mortality attributable to urban air pollution is particularly high in Southeast Asia.This public-health problem will be amplified in coming years, as forecasts call for most population growth to be absorbed by cities. Urban pollution and health mortality caused by air pollution Number of dead per country urban pollution Particulate-pollution level in the most polluted cities with a population of more than 3 million inhab., in micrograms per m3  of air city country particulate- polLution level city country particulate- pollution level Karachi Pakistan 220 Calcutta India 153 Baghdad Iraq 189 Tianjin China 149 Delhi India 187 Chongqing China 147 Cairo Egypt 178 Shenyang China 120 Lahore Pakistan 178 Surabaja Indonesia 120 Dhaka Bangladesh 174 Riyadh Saudi Arabia 118 Xi’an China 167 Jinan China 112 Alexandria Egypt 163 Nanjiang China 110 Source: World Bank atmospheric particulate pollution Atmospheric pollutants are not exclusively gases. Nongaseous pollution includes particulates of different sizes. Soot and dust are coarse particles. Lead, copper, zinc, and cadmium are small metal particles. Finally, nitrates and sulfates are very fine salt particles. Atmospheric particulate pollution is harmful to the health. Particles may come from combustion plants and industrial processes such as mineral extraction, but also from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions or simply erosion of landforms. ≥ 100,000 10,000–99,999 1,000–9,999 100–999 < 100 No data Source: WHO earth:aplanetinbalance atmospheric pollution66 :
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA Metula (1974, 50,000 t) Odyssey (1988, 132,000 t) Exxon Valdez (1989, 37,000 t) Argo Merchant (1976, 28,000 t) Hawaiian Patriot (1977, 95,000 t) Atlantic Empress (1979, 287,000 t) RA-2, 1983 Three-Mile Island, 1979 KIRIBATI Industries, farming operations, mines, street cleaning, and even housecleaning—many human activities release dirty water into nature. Since water constantly circulates, it transports and redistributes around the planet the pollutants, including pesticides, bacteria, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.The soil is polluted by millions of tons of industrial waste, household trash, fertilizers, and pesticides released into the environment every year. Pollution of inland waters and oceans In spite of the London Convention, which, since 1972, has banned dumping of household waste into the sea, huge amounts of solid waste (plastic packaging, cans, fishing nets) continue to float on the surface of the oceans. In addition, many cities all over the world do not always treat their wastewater before releasing it into rivers, seas, and oceans. Every year, 6 million tons of petroleum products are also released into the oceans due to oil spills and leaks from oil refineries and offshore drilling rigs. Finally, during nuclear tests and incidents at nuclear plants (power plants, for example), radioactive elements may be dispersed into watercourses, water tables, seas, and oceans, as well as the soil and the atmosphere. The Argo Merchant, off the coast of the United States The shipwreck of the oil tanker, in 1976, caused heavy pollution off the Massachusetts coast. POLLUTION OF INLAND WATERS Emission of organic pollutants into rivers, lakes, and water tables ≥ 300,000 kg/day 100,000–299,999 kg/day 25,000–99,999 kg/day 10,000–24,999 kg/day < 10,000 kg/day No data Source: World Bank Emission of radioactive pollutants following tests or nuclear events (name of reactor concerned and date of event) Major accident Serious accident Accident leading to a risk outside the site Accident not leading to a major risk outside the site Serious incident Sites of nuclear tests Sources: SMDC; IAEA POLLUTION OF OCEANS Oil spills Oil tanker (year, quantity of oil spilled) ≥ 200,000 t 100,000–199,000 t < 100,000 t Source: ITOPF WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 68 :
SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP Nova (1985, 70,000 t) Braer (1993, 85,000 t) Khark 5 (1989, 80,000 t) Sea Star (1972, 115,000 t) Katina P. (1992, 72,000 t) ABT Summer (1991, 260,000 t) Independenta (1979, 95,000 t) Tasman Spirit (2003, 30 000 t) Castillo de Bellver (1983, 252,000 t) Kyshtym, 1957 Tchernobyl, 1986 M O N G O L I A FRANCE SPAIN ITALY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA UNITED KINGDOM GREECE UKRAINE HUNGARY IRELAND AUSTRIA LITHUANIA BULGARIA CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND SLOVAKIA PORTUGAL BELARUS NETHERLANDS SERBIA BELGIUM ALBANIA RUSSIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA DENMARK LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO VATICAN CITY MONTENEGRO Prestige (2002, 63,000 t) Sea Empress (1996, 72,000 t) Aegean Sea (1992, 74,000 t) Jakob Maersk (1975, 88,000 t) Irenes Serenade (1980, 100 000 t) Torrey Canyon (1967, 119,000 t) Haven (1991, 144,000 t) Amoco Cadiz (1978, 223,000 t) Erika (1999, 20,000 t) Urquiola (1976, 100,000 t) Tanio (1980, 13,500 t) Vandellos, 1989 Windscale, 1957 and 1973 St. Laurent, 1980 Industrial pollution, United States Industries release more than 700 different substances into the soil, among them mercury, lead, and trichloroethylene. Rainwater is naturally acid, since the air contains carbon dioxide, which is transformed into carbonic acid in contact with water. However, some polluting gases, notably sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), help to increase this acidity.There are certainly natural sources of these gases, such as volcanic eruptions and certain microbial and chemical processes in the soil, but there are many anthropogenic sources, including use of fossil fuels (thermal power plants, refineries, foundries) and transportation. Rain observed in 1974 in Pitlochry, Scotland, was as acid as lemon juice, or about 1,000 times more acid than normal rainwater.This phenomenon has disastrous effects on the environment, especially forests and lakes. SOIL POLLUTION The origins of soil pollution are domestic, agricultural, and industrial. Household waste is made mainly of biodegradable materials, but it also contains plastics, detergents, solvents, and heavy metals. Spreading of fertilizers increases the quantity of nitrates and phosphates in the soil, disturbing natural nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. However, most nonbiodegradable pollutants come from industry. USE OF FERTILIZERS PER COUNTRY ACID RAIN WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 69 ≥ 1,500,000 t/yr 250,000–1,499,999 t/yr 50,000–249,999 t/yr 10,000–49,999 t/yr < 10,000 t/yr No data Source: FAO
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
E a r t h : A n I n h a b i t e d P l a n e t The appearance of human beings on Earth changed the face of the world. Very quickly, the first peoples drew borders to define their territories, and the continents were gradually divided into nations, where today a wide variety of peoples—with different languages, religions, and lifestyles—live. Conflicts arising from these territorial divisions are still boiling over in a number of regions,but there are also peaceful interactions such as cultural exchanges,development projects, economic transactions, and sports tournaments. TOP: The holy city of Varanasi, on the shores of the Ganges, India LEFT: The Idumata Market, in Lagos, Nigeria
Ottawa Havana Nassau Panama La Paz Lima Quito Belmopan Asunción Santiago Brasília Georgetown Montevideo Tegucigalpa Mexico Washington, D.C. Roseau Bogotá Caracas Managua Castries Kingston San Jose Kingstown Guatemala Paramaribo Bridgetown Basseterre Saint John's San Salvador Buenos Aires Port of Spain Santo Domingo Saint George's Port-au-Prince CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT ANDTHE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Belmopan LomeAccra Dakar Praia Niamey Bamako Bissau Banjul Conakry Monrovia Freetown Cotonou Ouagadougou Yamoussoukro MALI NIGER MAURITANIA TOGOSIERRA LEONE GHANA GUINEA BURKINA FASO SENEGAL CÔTE D'IVOIRE BENIN LIBERIA GUINEA- BISSAU GAMBIA CAPEVERDE THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET A nation encompasses a people—that is, a group of individuals who share more or less the same culture and traditions and who generally live in the same country. A country is a geographic territory with clearly established borders, belonging to a nation or a group of nations. A country has its own government laws, armed forces, money, capital, and flag. It offers its nationals political rights such as citizenship. Countries are not necessarily homogeneous. Some, such as China, group together a number of nations. Others, such as Switzerland, recognize a number of official languages. Out of the some 240 territories claiming the status of country, 193 are recognized as sovereign; with the exception of the Vatican City, these are all members of the United Nations (UN). Official flag of the UN The emblem of the United Nations, adopted in 1946, portrays a planisphere centered on the North Pole and surrounded by two olive branches, the symbol of peace. The United Nations Created in 1945 to maintain world peace, the UN also has mandates concerning the environment, public health, and humanitarian aid. Issues involving international peace are submitted to the Security Council, formed of 15 members, five of which are permanent: China, the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and Russia. Headquarters of the UN, United States The headquarters of the United Nations, located in New York, were opened in 1951. COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD BRAZIL: country FRENCH GUYANA (FR): territory (sovereign country) Capital Date of entry to the UN 1995–2006 1985–1994 1975–1984 1965–1974 1955–1964 1946–1954 1945 Non-member Source: UN 72 :
Maseru Harare Moroni Manila Muscat Maputo Lusaka Astana Moscow Luanda Riyadh Tehran Ankara MaleBangui Malabo Honiara Jakarta Bairiki Palikir Bangkok Naypyidaw Suva Kiev Oslo Apia Yaren Hanoi Kabul Koror Seoul Sana'a Cairo Abuja Rabat Tunis Bishkek Nairobi Beijing Tallinn Yerevan Tripoli Algiers Canberra Victoria Pretoria Gaborone Tashkent Lilongwe Ashgabat Helsinki Windhoek Djibouti Khartoum Ndjamena Valletta Port Vila Vientiane Islamabad New Delhi Singapore Abu Dhabi Mogadishu Stockholm Reykjavik Wellington Pyongyang Nouakchott Ulaanbaatar Brazzaville Addis Ababa Nuku' alofa Port Moresby Antananarivo Kuala Lumpur Dodoma Dalap-Uliga-Dorrit Bandar Seri Begawan Dili Baku Doha Tokyo Dhaka Vaiaku Mbabane Kigali Kuwait Asmara Thimphu Colombo Kampala Baghdad Yaoundé Dushanbe Kinshasa Tbilisi Sao Tome Kathmandu Bujumbura Phnom Penh Al Manamah Libreville BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQU E UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA Kampala KENYA Kampala MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND GEORGIA BANGLADESH PHILIPPINES SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT DJIBOUTI QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS.SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES BAHRAIN KIRIBATI Port Louis MAURITIUS SOUTH AFRICA Maputo Thimphu Riga Rome Minsk Sofia Vaduz Bern Paris Berlin Vienna Prague Tirana Monaco Madrid Dublin Vilnius Athens The Hague London Chisinau Bucharest Belgrade Sarajevo Lisbon Budapest Warsaw Brussels Copenhagen Luxembourg San Marino Andorra La Valla Zagreb Skopje Ljubljana Bratislava Podgorica FRANCE SPAIN POLAND ITALY GERMANY UNITED KINGDOM ROMANIA UKRAINE GREECE SERBIA HUNGARY IRELAND LITHUANIA BULGARIA AUSTRIA LATVIA CZECH REP. MOLDOVA SWITZERLAND PORTUGAL BELARUS CROATIA SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS BELGIUM ALBANIA DENMARK RUSSIA BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA Ljubljana SLOVENIA Ljubljana MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MONACO VATICAN CITY LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO EGYPT SYRIA JORDAN ISRAEL LEBANON CYPRUS WESTBANK GAZA STRIP Amman Damascus Nicosia Tel Aviv Beirut THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET THE LARGEST COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY AREA 1 Russia 17,075,400 km2 2 Canada 9,970,610 km2 3 United States 9,629,091 km2 4 China 9,596,961 km2 5 Brazil 8,514,047 km2 6 Australia 7,741,220 km2 7 India 3,287,263 km2 8 Argentina 2,780,400 km2 9 Kazakhstan 2,724,900 km2 10 Sudan 2,505,813 km2 11 Algeria 2,381,741 km2 12 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,344,858 km2 13 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 km2 14 Mexico 1,958,201 km2 Source: UN THE SMALLEST COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY AREA 193 Vatican City 0.4 km2 192 Monaco 1 km2 191 Nauru 21 km2 190 Tuvalu 26 km2 189 San Marino 61 km2 188 Liechtenstein 160 km2 187 Marshall Islands 181 km2 186 Saint Kitts and Nevis 261 km2 185 Maldives 298 km2 184 Malta 316 km2 183 Grenada 344 km2 182 Saint Vincent and The Grenadines 388 km2 181 Antigua and Barbuda 442 km2 180 Seychelles 455 km2 Source: UN : 73
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS PERU ECUADOR THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Political systems A state’s political system is the way in which power is organized and exercised in that state. About one-third of the states in the world have a democratic system, in which the people theoretically hold the power. Another third aspire to a democratic system (emerging democracies).The other countries are under authoritarian systems, in which power is held by an individual (absolute ruler) or a small group of individuals (single party, state religion, army) who impose their authority by force and strictly regulate the lives of their fellow citizens without consulting them. Depending on whether the system is democratic or authoritarian, the powers of the head of state, monarch, or president of a republic are more or less extensive. A PARLIAMENT The press may follow and record debates. There is seating reserved for the public. The Speaker of the House coordinates and moderates debates. Members sometimes address the chamber from a podium rather than from their seat. Hansard reporters transcribe the assembly’s discussions. The elected opposition representatives sit facing the representatives of the party in power. Members of the government participate in debates and answer questions from elected representatives. Elected representatives affiliated with the same party as the government usually form the majority in the assembly. DEMOCRACY In a democracy, each citizen may make his or her voice heard through elections. Representatives elected by the people form the parliament, which debates and votes on laws.The parliament is formed of one or two chambers (upper and lower chambers).The upper chamber, often called a senate, usually has less power than the lower chamber, often called the National Assembly or House of Commons. Democracy is the political system that is most respectful of individual freedoms; in principle, citizens are equal before the law and enjoy freedom of opinion, expression, and worship, the press is independent, and a number of political parties coexist. In practice, all democracies are imperfect to some degree (discrimination against minorities, government corruption, etc.). TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Parliament Parliament and head of state (joint power) President (limited power) President (extensive power) Communist party Absolute monarch Army Transitional government Sources: J. Derbyshire, Encyclopedia of World Political Systems; CIA World Factbook; Ministère français des Affaires étrangères 74 :
BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP FRANCE SPAIN POLAND ITALY GERMANY UNITED KINGDOM ROMANIA UKRAINE GREECE SERBIA HUNGARY IRELAND LITHUANIA BULGARIA AUSTRIA LATVIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND PORTUGAL BELARUS CROATIA SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS BELGIUM ALBANIA DENMARK RUSSIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA MONACO VATICAN CITY LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET SEPARATION OF POWERS Separation of powers is one principle of democracy. Its aim is to avoid having a small group of people seizing control of an entire country.There are usually three types of power within a democratic nation. Legislative power is in the hands of the people’s representatives (parliament), who formulate and pass laws.These laws are applied by judges and magistrates, who thus hold judicial power. Executive power, which consists in administering the state, is in the hands of the government.The government’s policy is submitted to the control of parliament: if the assembly disagrees with the policy, it may oppose or even defeat the government.The press, which monitors all three branches of power, is sometimes considered to be a fourth power. Supreme Court in Washington, United States The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States. It guarantees equal justice for all American citizens in compliance with the law. Judicial power, independent of executive power, also guarantees that the government’s actions comply with the law. : 75
Westminster Palace in London, United Kingdom Westminster Palace is the seat of the British Parliament, where the House of Lords (upper chamber) and the House of Commons (lower chamber) sit. Westminster Palace is known for its majestic clock tower, which houses the bell nicknamed Big Ben.
the political world earth:aninhabitedplanet Although women form about half of the world’s population, their place in politics remains secondary in most countries in the world. Women occupy an average of 16% of parliamentary seats (40% in Nordic countries, less than 7% in Arab countries). Only a dozen countries are currently led by a woman, including Chile, Finland, and Germany. About 7% of ministerial positions, most of them in the social affairs field, are filled by women. A number of countries are trying to improve women’s representation in political bodies through quotas. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, out of the 39 countries that held parliamentary elections in 2005, 15 had implemented measures in favour of women (voluntary or statutory quotas requiring that political parties present more female candidates or reserving parliamentary seats for women).These countries have twice as many elected women as do countries where no measure has been undertaken (26.9% vs. 13.6%). However, several countries still do not recognize the right of women to run for office in an election; some, such as Saudi Arabia, do not even allow women to vote. Kuwait allowed women to vote and run for office only in 2005. Women in politics Presidential election in Chile, March 2006 Elected president of the Republic of Chile, Michelle Bachelet is one of the few female heads of state. ≥ 40% 30%–39.9% 20%–29.9% 10%–19.9% 0.1%–9.9% 0% No data Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union women in parliament Proportion of women in the lower chamber of parliament : 77
N O R T H A M E R I C A S O U T H A M E R I C A C E N T R A L A M E R I C A T H E C A R I B B E A N Seattle New York Medellín Salvador Santiago Brasília Rio de Janeiro Fortaleza São Paulo Washington, D.C. Los Angeles Pôrto Alegre Buenos Aires San Francisco Lima Miami Boston Bogotá Dallas Recife Atlanta Chicago Detroit Toronto Phoenix Houston Belo Horizonte Mexico City Montréal Monterrey Guadalajara Philadelphia CANADA BRAZIL UNITED STATES ARGENTINA MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS 474,000 258,000 SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES 1,399,000 WORLD POPULATION In the summer of 2005, the world’s population passed the 6.5 billion mark.The population is very unequally distributed on the planet, since developing countries contain a total of 80% of the world’s inhabitants, as well as the highest birth rates. Demographers predict that the population of the 50 least-developed countries may more than double by 2050, while that in developed countries should remain at 1.2 billion.The world’s population would then reach 9.1 billion. Demographers are also predicting an overall aging of the population. The proportion of people aged over 60 years, which went from 8% to 10% over the last 50 years, may double by 2050. Continents with more or less people Although it covers a huge area, Oceania, which includes Australia, New Zealand, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, contains only 33 million people, most of them in urban areas (72%). In contrast, Asia is by far the most populous continent, with 3.9 billion inhabitants, most of whom still live in the countryside (62%).Today, four people out of 10 live in China or India. 78 : THE MOST POPULATED URBAN AREAS RANK CITY COUNTRY POPULATION Tokyo Japan 35.2 M inhab. Mexico Mexico 19.4 M inhab. New York United States 18.7 M inhab. São Paulo Brazil 18.3 M inhab. Bombay India 18.2 M inhab. Delhi India 15.0 M inhab. Shanghai China 14.5 M inhab. Calcutta India 14.3 M inhab. Jakarta Indonesia 13.2 M inhab. Buenos Aires Argentina 12.5 M inhab. Dhaka Bangladesh 12.4 M inhab. Los Angeles United States 12.3 M inhab. Karachi Pakistan 11.6 M inhab. Rio de Janeiro Brazil 11.5 M inhab. Osaka-Kobe Japan 11.3 M inhab. Source: UN EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION Population density ≥ 400 inhab./km2 300–399 inhab./km2 150–299 inhab./km2 75–149 inhab./km2 25–74 inhab./km2 < 25 inhab./km2 Source: UN Main urban areas ≥ 10 M inhab. 5–9.9 M inhab. 3–4.9 M inhab. 1–2.9 M inhab. Source: UN Net migration per region (migrants/yr) 8 mm = 200,000 Net loss (more emigrants than immigrants) Net gain (more immigrants than emigrants) Null migration (equivalent emigration and immigration) Source: UN Regional border Source: UN
E A S T E R N E U R O P E E A S T A S I A N O R T H A F R I C A C E N T R A L A F R I C A W E S T E R N A S I A A U S T R A L I A A N D N E W Z E A L A N D C E N T R A L A N D S O U T H A S I A E A S T A F R I C A W E S T A F R I C A S O U T H E R N A F R I C A N O R T H E R N E U R O P E S O U T H E A S T A S I A W E S T E R N E U R O P E S O U T H E R N E U R O P E M E L A N E S I A POLYNESIA M I C R O N E S I A Kano Tel Aviv Hyderabad Kanpur Guiyang Dongguan Shenzhen Surabaja Kinshasa Khartoum Istanbul Cairo Melbourne Hong Kong Bangalore Guangzhou Chongqing Singapore Chittagong Alexandria Casablanca Johannesburg Pune Hanoi Xian Dhaka Riyadh Algiers Lagos Sydney Bombay Madras Moscow Cape Town Baghdad Ankara Jakarta Bandung ManilaBangkok Yangon Chengdu Abidjan Calcutta Saint Petersburg Surat Delhi Kabul Lahore Karachi Tehran Ahmadabad Ho Chi Minh City RUSSIA CHINA AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN SUDAN ALGERIA MONGOLIA NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU KIRIBATI MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN 320,000 246,000669,000 475,000 221,000 320,000 KIRIBATI NEW ZEALAND Rome Milano Paris Berlin Madrid Athens London Barcelona SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS MONTENEGRO BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO VATICAN CITY SAN MARINO SERBIA Osaka-Kobe Tokyo Seoul Pusan Beijing Wuhan Nagoya Tianjin Shenyang Shanghai Changchun Pyongyang Harbin Dalian Zibo Nanjing JAPAN CHINA NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA : 79WORLD POPULATION : 79 EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET ≥ 75% 50–74.9% 25–49.9% < 25% Source: UN PART OF THE POPULATION THAT LIVES IN THE CITIES URBANIZATION OF THE POPULATION Almost half of the world’s population lives in cities. Although some countries, such as Laos, are still very rural, others, such as Israel, are almost completely urbanized. Urbanization of the population, a recent phenomenon, is intensifying. According to UN estimates, in 30 years, cities will be home to more than 60% of the world’s population.The cities in developing countries should grow the most rapidly, such as Dhaka, Bangladesh; Lagos, Nigeria; and Delhi, India. In developed countries, where urban dwellers already represent three-quarters of the population, the urban population will grow more slowly. Today’s megalopolises, such as Tokyo and Mexico, which together contain almost 4% of the world’s population, will remain the most populous, but will expand less quickly.
80 : WORLD POPULATION Population growth The rate of population growth is the rate at which a country’s total population has increased or decreased during a given year. This rate takes account of births, deaths, and migration. In Germany, for example, population growth between 2000 and 2005 was slightly positive, thanks to the arrival of immigrants and in spite of a low birth rate. However, population growth will be negative in 2005–2010, since decreasing immigration will no longer be able to compensate for the drop in births and increased mortality due to the aging of the population. After reaching a peak in the late 1960s (2.04%), growth of the world’s population will stand at 1.17% per year for 2005–2010. Annual rate of population growth 2005–2010 ≥ 3% 2–2.9% 1–1.9% 0–0.9% Demographic decline No data Source: UN Earth:Aninhabitedplanet 80 : Around 1340, the plague decimated almost one-third of Europe’s population. 1987 1975 1998 1800 1925 2100 World population grew fastest in the 1960s, thanks to progress in economics and in health, such as the discovery of antibiotics. Year -100,000 -1000 -7000 -6000 -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 0 1000 2000 3000 Worldpopulation(billionsofinhabitants) 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 changes in world population Modern human beings, who appeared about 200,000 years ago in Africa, gradually colonized the planet.The first estimates of world population go back to year zero, when Earth had about 300 million inhabitants. A thousand years later, there were only 320 million. Birth and death rates were high but so balanced that the world’s population remained stable for hundreds of years. During the Renaissance in Europe, living conditions improved. A demographic transition began: mortality dropped, but the birth rate remained high.The overall population began to grow, reaching 1 billion in 1800, 2 billion in 1925, and 3 billion in 1960.The demographic transition in industrialized countries was then complete: the birth rate and death rate evened out at a low level. In developing countries, this transition is currently underway: over the last 50 years, the death rate has fallen, and in certain countries, such as China, the birth rate is now on the same path. A century from now, a new population balance should be established in the world, with low birth and death rates, returning stability to the world’s population.
: 81WORLD POPULATION THE median age of the population The median age is the age that divides a population into two halves: one-half of the population is older; the other half, younger.The higher the median age, the older the population. For 30 years, the median age worldwide has risen constantly, going from 22.2 years in 1970 to 28.0 years in 2005. However, population aging does not affect all regions of the world in the same way. Between 1950 and 2005, the proportion of people aged over 60 years went from 11.7% to 20.1% in developed regions, but only from 6.4% to 8.1% in developing countries. In Africa, it even dropped slightly, reaching 5.2% in 2005. world population in 2050 Population estimates take account of many demographic variables, among them population growth, population age, and fertility rate (number of children per woman). It is estimated that the world’s population will reach 9.1 billion in 2050. Europe’s demographic load should fall, while Africa’s should rise.The share of the other continents should remain stable. By mid-century, Asia will be home to almost three-quarters of the world’s population. ≥ 35 yr 25–34.9 yr 20–24.9 yr < 20 yr Source: UN ≥ 1 B inhab. 300–999 M inhab. 100–299 M inhab. 40–99 M inhab. < 40 M inhab. Source: UN Earth:Aninhabitedplanet Street in Old Delhi, India India’s rate of population growth (1.46% per year between 2005 and 2010) is slightly above the world average. The country’s demographic load should remain stable in coming years. : 81
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA LANGUAGES EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Language, exclusive to human beings, is the faculty to express thought through speech, in a linguistic system that has been transmitted. It is one of the main characteristics of a people’s culture. Almost 7,000 different languages are spoken in the world.The division of its population according to language spoken reflects a country’s cultural diversity. About half of all countries have one or several languages designated as official in the constitution or a statute. An official language is often, but not always, spoken by a large proportion of the population. Language families A language family is a group of languages that are derived from a single language of origin.There are more than 10 major language families.The Indo-European family includes more than 400 languages with a common Indo-European origin that may go back to 2000 .The languages in this family are the most widely spoken in the world, with almost 3 billion speakers from Europe to Asia.The Indo-European family includes languages spoken in India, the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish), Greek, the Germanic languages (German, English, Flemish, Norwegian, etc.), the Celtic languages, and the languages of Latin origin (French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.). Smaller families, like the Papuan languages (in Papua New Guinea), include almost 3,400 languages, spoken by less than 4% of the world population. Amerindian languages belong to indigenous languages, as well as Australian (mainly Aborigene), Eskimo-Aleut and Tasmanian languages. THE MAIN LANGUAGE FAMILIES FAMILY NUMBER OF LANGUAGES MAIN LANGUAGES Nigero-Congolese 1,514 Wolof, Dogon, Swahili, Zulu Austronesian 1,268 Javanese, Malay Amerindian about 900 Inuktituk, Cree, Nahuatl, Yucateco Indo-European 449 Hindi, English, Spanish, Bengali, Russian, Portuguese, French Sino-Tibetan 403 Chinese (13 different languages), Tibetan Afro-Asiatic 375 Somali, Arabic, Hebrew, Kabyle Dravidian 73 Telugu, Tamil Altaic 66 Turkish, Manchurian Uralian 39 Finnish, Hungarian Japanese 12 Japanese and 11 languages that are becoming extinct Sources: Ethnologue, SIL International; J. Leclerc, TLFQ, Univ. Laval DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN LANGUAGE FAMILIES Indo-European Amerindian and other indigenous languages Afro-Asiatic Nigero-Congolese Nilo-Saharan Khoisian Austronesian Uralian Altaic Sino-Tibetan Austro-Asiatic Japanese Papuan languages Other, including Dravidian Sources: J. Leclerc, TLFQ, Univ. Laval; Ethnologue, SIL International; Meyers Großer Weltatlas 82 :
BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET LANGUAGES Languages and writing The most widespread language in the world is Mandarin (Chinese), with more than 870 million speakers. Many other languages are used by only several hundred people. Half of all current languages may rapidly disappear, as they are abandoned for international languages. A language is usually associated with a writing system, a group of symbols allowing the language to be transcribed onto a medium. Many writing systems are alphabetic (Latin, Arab, Cyrillic, etc.), with the alphabetic characters used to construct the sounds of the language. But there are also syllabic writing systems, in which the symbols represent syllables (Japanese) and logographic writing systems, in which each symbol corresponds to a word or group of words (Chinese). Sign in a Shanghai street, China Chinese writing uses characters called sinographs. Not all of them are ideographs that represent a single word or idea. Most of these characters are ideophonographs that associate a phonetic indication and a semantic indication. THE MOST WIDELY SPOKEN LANGUAGES LANGUAGE SPEAKERS MAIN COUNTRIES Mandarin (Chinese) 874 M China Hindi 366 M India English 341 M United Kingdom, countries of North America and Oceania Spanish 322 M Spain, countries of South and Central America Bengali 207 M Bangladesh Arab 206 M countries of the Middle East and North Africa Source: Ethnologue, SIL International : 83
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA RELIGIONS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET A religion is a group of doctrines and rituals designed to connect the human soul to the realm of the divine and the sacred. For centuries, religions have overlapped and competed with each other.Their origins are sparked by a person or an event, and some are much older than others. Religions play a cultural and social role, the importance of which varies depending on the people, the period, and the country. The main religions of the world Christianity is the most widespread religion today, with almost 2 billion believers worldwide. Its influence is great in European and North American countries, but the greatest number of practitioners is now found in South America and southern Africa. Islam currently has more than 1 billion followers, mainly in Asia and North Africa. Most adherents to Buddhism and Hinduism are in Asia, while most Jews live in the United States and Israel. In some societies, especially in Africa and Oceania, people practice “traditional” forms of religion, in which the beliefs are often transmitted orally. THE MOST WIDELY PRACTICED RELIGIONS RELIGION CHARACTERISTICS FOLLOWERS Christianity Religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and drawing on the New Testament. 1,928 M Catholicism Christian religion that admits the authority of the Pope in Rome. 968 M Protestantism Group of religions (Anglicanism, Calvinism, Lutheranism, etc.) formed of Christian churches resulting from the Reform launched in the 16th century by Luther, who was protesting against the mores and practices of the Catholic church. 394 M Orthodoxy The group of Eastern Christian churches that separated from Rome in 1054. 218 M Islam Religion practiced by Muslims based on the belief in a single god, Allah. The Koran, a collection of the revelations made by Allah to the prophet Muhammad, is the holy book of Muslims. 1,100 M Sunnism Branch of Islam based on the texts of the Sunna, which contains accounts of Muhammad’ s words, behaviors, and judgments. 913 M Shiism When Muhammad died, those who recognized his son-in-law Ali as his successor founded Shiite Islam, Shiism, considered the historical branch of Islam. 176 M Judaism Religion according to which God elected the Jewish people and made an alliance with them. 14 M Hinduism Polytheist religion of India descended from ancient tribal religions. 781 M Buddhism Eastern religion founded by an Indian wise man, Buddha. 324 M Other Asian religions Confucianism is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of Confucius, a philosopher rather than a religious leader. Founded, like Confucianism, in the 6th century BCE, Taoism is a Far Eastern religion based on the philosophy of Lao-tzu and folk beliefs. Shintoism is a polytheist Japanese religion whose divinities are personifications of natural forces (stars, animals, plants, etc.). 246 M Source: adherents.com, from Britannica Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, Israel Three religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—have made Jerusalem a holy city. The Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque embody Muslim Jerusalem. 84 :
Medina Mount Fuji Mecca Najaf Kerbala BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE PHILIPPINES HRV UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD BAHRAIN LIE SMR VAT MNE Lumbinî Dharamsala Varanasi Bodh-Gaya C H I N A I N D I A NEPAL Hebron Nazareth Jerusalem SYRIA EGYPT JORDAN ISRAEL WESTBANK GAZASTRIP Bethlehem RELIGIONS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Pilgrims at Mecca, Saudi Arabia According to the precepts of Islam, every Muslim who has the means must make the pilgrimage to Mecca once in his or her life. The Ganges in Varanasi, India The Ganges is a holy river for the Hindus, who go there to perform their ablutions. DOMINANT RELIGIONS Catholicism Protestantism Orthodoxy Sunnism Shiism Judaism Hinduism Buddhism Confucianism, Taoism Shintoism Traditional religions No data Major Jewish communities Sources: UNESCO; Atlas of the World, National Geographic Holy sites Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Judaism Temple Mount Esplanade in Jerusalem, Israel Jewish Jerusalem is represented by the Temple Mount Esplanade, also known as the Western Wall or the Wailing Wall. It is the only vestige of the temple of Herod, king of the Jews, destroyed in 70 CE, of which only the west wall has survived. Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, Israel Standing outside the old city of Jerusalem, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a venerated sanctuary for Christians. It is said to have been built on the site of Christ’s crucifixion, His tomb, and His resurrection. : 85
US Open Québec Boston New York Cap Horn Rio de Janeiro Noronha arch. Baltimore Pointe-à-Pitre North and Central America and Caribbean (CONCACAF) 43.1 million players South America (CONMEBOL) 27.8 million players VendéeGlobe VolvoOceanRace Route du Rhum English Transat Transat Québec–Saint-Malo 1930 1970 and 1986 HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE C A N A D A MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAMESURINAME NICARAGUA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT ANDTHE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS 1994 UNITED STATES SPORTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET There is an extremely wide variety of sports. Whether individual or team, based on physical strength or tactical intelligence, they have in common a striving to outdo oneself, a respect for rules that enable performances to be compared, and the notion of pleasure. Since the explosion of coverage in the media, the social and economic impact of sports has increased considerably.Today, sports is a mass cultural phenomenon, conveying the social values of recognition and success.The Olympic movement has been a major contributor to this trend. A worldwide phenomenon Several hundred sports are played around the world. Some, such as Sumo wrestling in Japan, are practiced in only one or a few countries, but most disciplines involve athletes all over the globe. Every year, international-level competitions take place around the world. SOCCER Soccer, called football outside of North America, is the most popular sport on the planet. Almost one person in 25, or 260 million altogether, plays soccer. Most professional players play in Europe and South America, but the United States may soon catch up, as almost 18 million American children play soccer. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), founded in 1904, now has 207 member national associations. An Olympic sport since 1908, soccer owes its universal appeal to its simple rules and the lack of specialized equipment required, but also to the amazing popularity of the World Cup. No other international event draws as much attention, mainly due to television broadcast of the games: 1.7 billion viewers watched the France–Brazil final in 1998. THE WORLD CUP OF SOCCER YEAR ORGANIZING COUNTRY CHAMPION/FINALIST YEAR ORGANIZING COUNTRY CHAMPION/FINALIST 1930 Uruguay Uruguay/Argentina 1974 FRG FRG/Netherlands 1934 Italy Italy/Czechoslovakia 1978 Argentina Argentina/ Netherlands 1938 France Italy/Hungary 1982 Spain Italy/FRG 1950 Brazil Uruguay/Brazil 1986 Mexico Argentina/FRG 1954 Switzerland FRG/Hungary 1990 Italy FRG/Argentina 1958 Sweden Brazil/Sweden 1994 United States Brazil/Italy 1962 Chile Brazil/ Czechoslovakia 1998 France France/Brazil 1966 England England/FRG 2002 South Korea and Japan Brazil/Germany 1970 Mexico Brazil/Italy 2006 Germany Italy/France 86 :
Australian Open Cape Town Éclipse Is. Wellington Melbourne Africa (CAF) 46.3 million players Asia (AFC) 85.2 million players Oceania (OFC) 0.5 million players Europe (UEFA) 61.6 million players TransatJacquesVabre(2007) VendéeGlobe Volvo Ocean Race GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA ISRAEL BURUNDI R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA TOGO RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN PALESTINE ydney-Hobart Goteborg NORWAY 2002 JAPAN 1958 RUSSIA MONTENEGRO UKRAINE FRANCE SPAIN ITALY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA BELARUS UNITED KINGDOM GREECE HUNGARY BULGARIA IRELAND LITHUANIA AUSTRIA PORTUGAL CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS BELGIUM SLOVENIA MACEDONIA SERBIA ALBANIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO Vigo Plymouth Portsmouth Saint-Malo Lizard Point Les Sables d’Olonne Le Havre RotterdamWimbledon Roland- Garros London Paris 1982 1966 1974 and 2006 1938 and 1998 1934 and 1990 1954 EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET SPORTS Young African soccer players, Mozambique A fun game that requires very little equipment, soccer is very popular in Africa. SELECTED MAJOR SPORTS EVENTS Soccer World Cup of Soccer Boundaries of confederations Number of players per confederation Women Men Source: FIFA Tennis Grand Slam tournaments Source: ITF Sailboat races Start, leg, and finish Race routes Source: Official Web site of each race : 87
sports earth:aninhabitedplanet The Olympic Games originated in antiquity.The first games took place in 776 bce in Olympia, Greece.These ancient games had only a few sports disciplines, among which where foot races in the stadium, and they took place every four years. This tradition lasted more than 1,000 years. It was revived by Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin: in 1896, the first Olympic Games of the modern era brought 241 athletes and nine sports together in Athens, Greece.Today, more than 10,000 athletes compete at the Olympic Games.The program for the Summer Games includes 28 sports, while the Winter Games, created in 1924, has seven sports. Since 1994, the Summer and Winter Olympic Games have not occurred at the same time every four years, but have alternated every two years. For instance, the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, China, will be followed by the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver, Canada. From Nadia Comaneci to Carl Lewis, numerous athletes have achieved greatness at the Games, following the Olympic motto “Faster, Higher, Stronger.” The Olympic Games olympic medals at the summer games Total medals won per country since 1896 olympic medals at the winter games Total medals won per country since 1924 ≥ 1,000 100–999 10–99 1–9 0 Source: IOC ≥ 150 50–149 10–49 1–9 0 Source: IOC olympic medals through history Over the history of the Olympic Games, some countries have disappeared and others have appeared.The table below lists the number of Olympic medals won at Summer and Winter Games by some former countries.The colors in the table correspond to outlined zones on the maps below. former country (Year of participation) summer games medals winter games medals Yugoslavia (between 1924 and 2000) 90 4 Czechoslovakia (between 1920 and 1992) 143 25 German Democratic Republic (GDR) (between 1968 and 1990) 409 110 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) (between 1968 and 1990) 204 41 USSR (between 1952 and 1994) 1,122 217 88 :
Rome (1960) Seoul (1988) Beijing (2008) Tokyo (1964) Sydney (2000) Moscow (1980) Mexico (1968) Sapporo (1972) Athens (1896 and 2004) Atlanta (1996) Helsinki (1952) St. Louis (1904) Melbourne (1956) Barcelona (1992)Los Angeles (1932 and 1984) Los Angeles (1932 and 1984) Los Angeles Squaw Valley (1960) Salt Lake City (2002) Oslo (1952) Nagano (1998) Montréal (1976) Stockholm (1912) Lake Placid (1932 and 1980) Lillehammer (1994) Calgary (1988) Sarajevo (1984) Sochi (2014) Vancouver (2010) Calgary (1988)Calgary (1988) Sarajevo (1984)Sarajevo (1984) Rome (1960)Rome (1960) Nagano (1998)Nagano (1998) Paris (1900 and 1924) Turin (2006) Munich (1972) Grenoble (1968) Chamonix (1924) Innsbruck (1964 and 1976) Berlin (1936) Antwerpen (1920) Amsterdam (1928) Albertville (1992) Saint-Moritz (1928 and 1948) Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956) Garmisch-Partenkirchen (1936) London (1948 and 2012) SPORTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET OLYMPIC GAMES HOST CITIES First Olympic stadium, Athens, Greece The first Games of the modern era were held there in 1896. : 89 Olympic cities Summer Games Winter Games Source: IOC National Olympic committees (year of recognition) 1990–2004 1975–1989 1960–1974 1945–1959 1920–1944 1900–1919 1898–1899 Not recognized No data Source: IOC
NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AM., CENTRAL AM., AND CARIBBEAN SURINAME NICARAGUA CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET To meet their needs and satisfy their desires, human beings use goods, such as housing or books, and services, such as a bank account or a visit to a doctor. An economy comprises the activities of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, as well as the resulting distribution of wealth. Usually, goods and services are exchanged for money by different actors in the economy (individuals, companies, the state). In recent decades, the economy has become globalized and international trade has intensified. Some of the goods and services that are produced by multinational corporations (with facilities in a number of countries) are consumed thousands of kilometers from where they originated. Economic sectors Traditionally, three economic sectors are distinguished.The primary sector involves direct exploitation of natural resources (fishing, agriculture, livestock production, mining, etc.).The industries that transform resources form the secondary sector, which includes a very diverse range of activities, from the agri- food industry to shipbuilding to the pharmaceutical industry to energy production. The tertiary sector encompasses all service activities (banking services, retail, health- care services, telecommunications, transportation, etc.). Money, Europe Euro coins and bills have been the currency in a number of countries in the European Union since 2002. THE LARGEST MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS RANK* COMPANY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR EMPLOYEES TOTAL NUMBER ABROAD 1 General Electric United States Electric and electronic equipment 307,000 46.3% 2 Vodafone Group United Kingdom Telecommunications 57,378 80.1% 3 Ford Motor United States Automobile 225,626 45.5% 4 General Motors United States Automobile 324,000 35.4% 5 British Petroleum United Kingdom Oil 102,900 83.1% 6 Exxon Mobil United States Oil 105,200 50.3% 7 Royal Dutch Shell The Netherlands Oil 114,000 84.2% 8 Toyota Japan Automobile 265,753 35.6% 9 Total France Oil 111,401 55.9% 10 France Télécom France Telecommunications 206,524 39.5% *Ranked by foreign assets Source: UNCTAD/Erasmus University database 90 :
COMMUNITY OF INDEPENDENT STATES AFRICA ASIA EUROPE MIDDLE EAST MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET MONEY Money, also called currency, is the legal means of paying a debt. Physically, it consists of coins and bills that are exchanged when a payment is made. Currency is also a unit of account: the prices of goods and services are calculated in this monetary unit. Most sovereign countries have their own currency. Money from one country can be exchanged for money from another country at an exchange rate that is fixed or that varies according to supply and demand on the exchange market. However, certain currencies, such as the Cuban peso, are not convertible. Share of GDP generated by each economic sector, by region agriculture industry services Regional borders Source: WTO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Industrial GDP per inhabitant (million $) ≥ 10,000 5,000–9,999 1,000–4,999 500–999 100–499 < 100 No data Source: World Bank ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRIES A number of economic units are used to compare countries’ economies. One of these units, the gross domestic product (GDP), measures the total value of goods and services created during one year within the country only.The industrial GDP per inhabitant is used to put into perspective the data regarding industrial activities only, as these are most comparable between rich and poor countries. : 91
NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND CARIBBEAN 2.3 20.2 1.8 4.7 14.6 SURINAME NICARAGUA CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET International trade International trade consists of all of the exchanges of goods and services between one country and another.The goods that enter a country constitute its imports, while its exports are the goods that leave it.The nature of the goods exchanged depends on the industrial strengths of the respective country; Brazil, for example, has a wealth of bauxite ore and exports massive amounts of this mineral, while Canada imports large amounts of bauxite to feed its powerful aluminum industry. A country’s import- export flows comprise its balance of trade.The balance of trade is positive when a country exports more than it imports (trade surplus) and negative in the opposite case (trade deficit). The World Trade Organization (WTO) governs trade practices among its member countries (151 in 2007, including most of the trade powers in the world). When there are disagreements between partner countries, the WTO must make a ruling. In its first eight years of existence, from 1995 to 2002, the WTO was called upon to decide on about 300 disputes. North America (14.5%) Eastern Europe and Russia (3.3%) Western Europe (43%) Asia (27.4%) Middle East (5.3%) Africa (2.9%) In 2003, exports from South and Central America represented 3.5% of total exports worldwide. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPORTS WORLDWIDE Western Europe and Asia are the most active regions in terms of international trade.Together, they are responsible for more than two- thirds of exports (70.4%) and almost two-thirds of imports (40.1% and 22.8%, respectively; 62.9% total). INTERNATIONAL TRADE BY REGION Intercontinental trade (trade between one continent and another as a proportion of total trade) ≥ 10% 2%–9.9% < 2% Source: WTO Regional borders Balance of trade (trade surplus and trade deficit) ≥ $50 B $1 B to $49.9 B –$0.9 B to $0.9 B –$49.9 B to –$1 B < –$50 B No data Source: WTO TRADE ON THE GLOBAL SCALE 92 : Source: WTO
COMMUNITY OF INDEPENDENT STATES AFRICA ASIA EUROPE MIDDLE EAST 0.6 2.3 0.3 0.2 2.9 0.1 2.4 6.6 0.4 19.1 4.8 1.8 8.5 5.5 0.5 0.3 MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP C H I N A SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET THE TRADE POWERS Annual volume of trade (billion $) COUNTRY EXPORTS IMPORTS Germany 970 774 United States 904 1,732 China 762 660 Japan 595 515 France 460 498 The Netherlands 402 359 United Kingdom 383 510 Italy 367 380 Canada 359 320 Belgium 334 319 Source: WTO WORLDWIDE EXPORTS OF GOODS (billion $) GOODS ANNUAL VOLUME Agricultural products 852 Fuels and products from extractive industries 1,748 Manufactured products, including: 7,312 iron and steel 318 chemical products 1,104 telecommunications and office equipment 1,275 products of the automobile industry 914 textiles and clothing 479 Source: WTO : 93
economics earth:aninhabitedplanet Individuals participate in the economy by consuming goods and services, but also by working. Employment is defined as remunerated work. It enables individuals to meet their own needs and sometimes those of their families. Assessing the employment situation involves measuring the unemployment rate—that is, the proportion of people who do not have a job but are available to work. According to estimates by the International Labour Organization (ILO), there were about 190 million unemployed people in the world (6.3% of the labor force in 2005). However, having a job does not protect against poverty: in 2005, out of the 2.8 billion employed workers, 1.4 billion earned less than $2 per day. All over the world, young people and women are the most vulnerable to unemployment and job insecurity. Employment unemployment In 2005, unemployment rates varied from 3.8% in East Asia to 13.2% in the Middle East and North Africa. About half of those who are unemployed are young people aged 15 to 24 years. female labor In spite of the progress made with regard to employment equity, there is still a gap between men and women. Women comprise about 40% of workers worldwide. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the proportion of employed women tends to drop. In the Middle East and North Africa, it is growing, but from a very low starting level. Proportion of the labor force that is unemployed ≥ 30% 20%–29.9% 10%–19.9% 5%–9.9% < 5% No data Source: CIA World Factbook ≥ 45% 35%–44.9% 25%–34.9% < 25% No data Source: World Bank women at work Proportion of women in the total labor force 94 :
distribution of labor in selected countries country total labor force unemployment rate AGRICULTURE industry SERVICES United States 146,319,600 4.7% 2.4% 22.4% 75.2% Indonesia 99,749,750 6.1% 45.3% 17.3% 37.3% Poland 19,879,810 16.1% 19.1% 30.5% 50.4% Source: World Bank economics earth:aninhabitedplanet Young woman in a wooden-furniture plant, Canada In 2004, the female labor force represented 46% of the total labor force in Canada. Only 11% of the female labor force, however, worked in the secondary sector, which employs 32% of the male labor force. On the other hand, the tertiary sector employs 87% of the female labor force and 64% of the male labor force. : 95
SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS M E X I C O 96 : ENERGY The world economy is based on an essential resource: energy.Today, the most widely used energy source is oil. The most optimistic experts estimate that underground reserves will be exhausted by 2030 at the latest. Anticipating the oil shortage, the United States, some European countries—such as France—and Japan began to turn to nuclear energy in the 1960s, while countries such as Canada and Brazil adopted hydroelectricity. Other renewable energy sources are now being developed. The main energy sources Oil, the main source of energy, is used as a fuel for most vehicles and for lighting, heating, and electricity production. Like natural gas and coal, it is a fossil fuel. It is the product of the transformation of organic matter buried in the ground for millions of years. Nuclear energy also produces electricity, but it generates radioactive waste that is highly toxic to human beings and their environment. Renewable energy sources do not have this drawback.The most highly developed renewable resource is hydroelectricity: energy from a watercourse is transformed into electrical energy. Other renewable energy sources are being developed: wind energy (from the force of the wind), solar energy (from the Sun’s rays), and geothermal energy (from the heat of Earth’s mantle). EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Oil production (thousands of barrels per day) ≥ 3,000 1,000–2,999 < 1,000 Source: BP Hydroelectric production 20 main producing countries (billions of kWh) ≥ 150 75–149 < 75 1 kWh (kilowatt-hour) = 1,000 Wh Source: Energy Information Administration Nuclear power plants Source: International Nuclear Safety Center Wind energy 20 main producing countries (MW installed) ≥ 5,000 1,000–4,999 < 1,000 1 MW (megawatt) = 1 million watts Source: World Wind Energy Association Energy consumption (kWh/person/year) ≥ 10,000 5,000–9,999 2,000–4,999 500–1,999 < 500 No data Source: International Energy Agency WORLD ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP : 97 THE OIL CRISIS Between 1960 and 1970, world oil consumption more than doubled, making oil a major economic stake.This put the producing countries of the Persian Gulf—notably Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia—in a position of strength. In 1973, they gained a larger share of oil revenues and control over the stages of production on their territories, which enabled them to keep prices artificially high. Oil prices shot up and the oil crisis began. Consuming countries made an effort to reduce consumption and develop alternate energy sources (nuclear energy, hydroelectricity, etc.). Gradually, the balance of power was reversed, and in the 1980s the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) countries agreed to reestablish normal prices. Currently, however, oil prices are still unstable due to international conflicts, the growing energy needs of countries such as China, and the exhaustion of world oil reserves. Diversification of energy sources is more important than ever today. ENERGY EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET CHANGES IN THE PRICE OF A BARREL OF CRUDE OIL AND IN OIL CONSUMPTION In the 1980s, the price of oil dropped to its level before the crisis. Priceperbarrel(US$) Consumption(millionsofbarrelsperday) Year 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 MAIN ENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-CONSUMING COUNTRIES THE MAIN OIL PRODUCERS THE MAIN CONSUMERS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY Saudi Arabia 10.9 million barrels per day United States 829 billion kWh per year Russia 9.8 million barrels per day France 451 billion kWh per year United States 6.9 million barrels per day Japan 303 billion kWh per year THE MAIN OIL CONSUMERS THE MAIN CONSUMERS OF HYDROELECTRICITY United States 20.6 million barrels per day China 417 billion kWh per year China 7.4 million barrels per day Canada 350 billion kWh per year Japan 5.2 million barrels per day Brazil 350 billion kWh per year Source: British Petroleum Source: British Petroleum 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S T A T E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA GUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS HONDURAS BELIZE 98 : AGRICULTURE EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Agriculture is the basis of our food supply.The term covers all exploitation of the land for crop and livestock production.The agriculture sector employs more than 40% of the labor force worldwide. Most farmers live in developing countries. However, today developing countries import more agricultural products than they export, the reverse of the situation up to the early 1990s. Serious food shortages are ravaging about 30 of these countries. Farmers in developing countries practice small-scale agriculture, while many farmers in wealthy countries own vast, highly productive operations. Agricultural production The main agricultural plant products are sugar cane, cereals (wheat, rice, corn, etc.), roots and tubers (potatoes, sugar beets, manioc, etc.), soybeans, citrus fruits, and forage plants. When the plants are irrigated by rainwater only, it is called rain-fed agriculture. Rice cultivation, for instance, may be rain-fed, in which case it is a low-yield crop. It may also be irrigated and give better yields. AGRICULTURE AROUND THE WORLD Farmland Rain-fed farmland and pasture Irrigated farmland and pasture Fragmented farmland Source: USGS (from data from a NOAA satellite) Agricultural production (12 top producing countries for each product) Source: FAO Food aid received ≥ 250,000 t 100,000–249,999 t 50,000–99,999 t 10,000–49,999 t < 10,000 t None Source: FAO rice wheat corn soybeans potatoes beef poultry sea fish sugarcane coffee
BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY : 99AGRICULTURE EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET FARMLAND Farmland comprises zones used, either permanently or temporarily, for plant crops or livestock production. India and a number of countries in eastern Europe stand out with more than 45% of their territory devoted to agriculture. PERCENTAGE OF LAND USED FOR AGRICULTURE ≥ 45% 25%–44% 10%–24% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: FAO Rice paddy, Indonesia Indonesia is one of the major rice-producing countries. Most rice cultivation is irrigated, but some is rain-fed.
100 : agriculture earth:aninhabitedplanet the main cereal-producing countries Cereals are plants usually cultivated on a large scale.The main producing countries are also among the largest (China, United States, India, Russia). Consumption of cereals has been dropping for more than a century in wealthy countries, while in developing countries cereals are still the main source of dietary energy.The most-consumed cereals in the world are wheat and rice. The main countries producing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Genetically modified plants are agricultural plants whose characteristics have been modified, for instance, to increase yield or resistance to insects.They are cultivated commercially in some 20 countries.The most widely grown genetically modified plants are soybeans and corn. the main meat-producing countries The main meat-producing countries are China, the United States, and Brazil.They are also the main consumers of meat. A wide variety of animals are raised for their meat, but only three kinds of meat are produced in large quantities: pork, beef, and chicken. Livestock also produce milk and eggs. cereal production area used for gmo cultivation meat PRODUCTION ≥ 75 M t 50–74 M t 4–49 M t 1–3 M t < 1 M t No data Source: FAO ≥ 18 M ha 5–17.9 M ha 1–4.9 M ha 0.05–0.9 M ha < 0.05 M ha No data Source: ISAAA ≥ 1,500,000 M t 500,000–1,499,999 M t 200,000–499,999 M t 100,000–199,999 M t < 100,000 M t No data Source: FAO
Corn field in Illinois, United States In Illinois, a state situated in the northern United States, corn is cultivated intensively; this form of agriculture consumes more resources (water, fertilizer) with the goal of increasing the yield of the land farmed. In contrast, subsistence farming produces food mainly for local populations.
SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO RomeVATICAN CITY Frankfurt Barcelona Milano Paris Algiers Berlin Madrid Athens London Hamburg Amsterdam Rome Rotterdam C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Lima Miami Boston Mexico Dallas Recife Atlanta Chicago Detroit Toronto Phoenix Houston Montréal New York Medellín Salvador Santiago Brasília Monterrey Fortaleza São Paulo Washington, D.C. Guadalajara Pôrto Alegre Buenos Aires San Francisco Belo Horizonte Bogotá Los Angeles Philadelphia Rio de Janeiro Las Vegas Denver Minneapolis Orlando Seattle 102 : TRANSPORTATION EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Most human activities require the transportation of people or goods.There are different modes of transportation depending on whether they move on land (ground transportation, including roads and railroads), on water (inland waterways and maritime transport), or in the atmosphere (air transport). The geography of transportation Transportation infrastructure is distributed around the planet as a function of geographic constraints and the needs and means of populations. MAIN AIRPORTS (millions of passengers) Atlanta 85.91 Chicago 76.51 London (Heathrow) 67.91 Tokyo (Tokyo Int.) 63.28 Los Angeles 61.49 Paris 53.80 Frankfurt 52.22 Dallas 51.18 Amsterdam 44.16 Las Vegas 43.99 Source: Airports Council International MAIN SUBWAYS (millions of passengers) Moscow 3,200 Tokyo 2,700 Mexico 1,400 Seoul 1,300 New York 1,200 Paris 1,100 Osaka-Kobe 1,000 Hong Kong 780 London 770 São Paulo 700 Sources: Transport Geography on the Web, Hofstra University MAIN PORTS (millions of TEUs) TEU: equivalent to loading a container 20 feet (6.1 m) long Hong Kong 21.93 Singapore 20.60 Shanghai 14.57 Shenzhen 13.65 Pusan 11.43 Kaohsiung 9.71 Rotterdam 8.30 Los Angeles 7.32 Hamburg 7.03 Dubai 6.43 Source: Containerisation International Yearbook Main transportation infrastructure Roads Source: ESRI Railroad lines Source: ESRI High-speed-train lines Sources: CER, raileurope.com; SNCF Shipping lanes Source: OECD Cities served by the 30 largest airports by number of passengers Source: Airports Council International Main port cities ≥ 10 M inhab. 5–9.9 M inhab. 3–4.9 M inhab. 1–2.9 M inhab. < 1 M inhab. Source: Containerisation International Yearbook Main urban areas ≥ 10 M inhab. 5–9.9 M inhab. 3–4.9 M inhab. 1–2.9 M inhab. Source: UN International borders MAJOR TRANSPORTATION NETWORKS
Zibo Osaka-Kobe Tokyo Pusan Beijing Nagoya Harbin Tianjin Shenyang Shanghai Changchun Seoul Dalian Pyongyang Wuhan Nanjing C H I N A J A P A N SOUTH KOREA NORTH KOREA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A INDIA K A Z A K H S TA N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN Pune Surat Hanoi Delhi Xi'an Lagos Sydney Bombay Madras Kabul Lahore Moscow Cape Town Baghdad Ankara Jakarta Bandung ManilaBangkok Yangon Karachi Chengdu Tehran Abidjan Calcutta Kinshasa Khartoum Cairo Melbourne Hong Kong Bangalore Hyderabad Ahmadabad Guangzhou Chongqing Singapore Alexandria Casablanca Ho Chi Minh City Johannesburg Saint Petersburg DhakaRiyadh Istanbul Chittagong Dubai Shenzhen Kano Tel Aviv Kanpur DongguanGuiyang Surabaja Kaoshsiung : 103TRANSPORTATION EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Container ship, port of Rotterdam With traffic of more than 8 million TEUs, the port of Rotterdam is the seventh-largest port in the world. Maritime transportation Ships are the form of transportation most used for long distances (international trade) and for transportation of heavy goods, in bulk and in containers. It is estimated that 71% of world freight (96% by weight) transits through shipping lanes, oceanic routes several kilometers wide that link the main ports of the globe. Some major rivers, such as the Amazon and the St. Lawrence, provide ships with routes to the interior of continents. Since the advent of air transport, maritime transport of passengers has been limited to sea cruises in passenger ships and short crossings on ferries.
104 : earth:aninhabitedplanet transportation Road traffic on the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, United States In 2003, the United States had 3.6 times as many cars per 100 inhabitants as did Mexico. On the other hand, road traffic was less dense in the U.S., with 13 vehicles per vehicular route, compared to 59 in Mexico. Road network Total length of roads Vehicles Number of vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants Maglev, China The Maglev, for Magnetic Levitation, is a train that uses magnetic forces to move and is therefore not in contact with the rails when it runs. It has reached a speed of over 500 km/h. rail network Total length of train tracks Road transportation Ground transportation is by far the most widely used form. In developing countries, non-motorized means of ground transportation—walking, bicycles, and horse and cart—are still very widespread. In developed countries, on the other hand, ground transportation has taken over from all other forms of transportation, due to its rapidity and flexibility. In the wealthiest countries, there are 45 cars per 100 inhabitants and the road networks have more than 10 million kilometers of roads. Road traffic is regulated more or less strictly from country to country. In most countries, drivers must have a driving permit that is adapted to their vehicle, and they must obey speed limits. Heavily used in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, rail transportation then declined as road transportation became more popular.The development of high-speed trains in the 1980s, with a maximum speed of 513 km/h, revived interest in railroads. Most of these trains are in operation in Europe and Japan. In spite of its lack of flexibility, rail transportation has several advantages over road transportation. Because most trains run on electricity, they are less polluting than trucks and automobiles. In addition, rail transportation is a form of public transit: trains, subways, and tramways transport hundreds of people at a time without clogging the road network. Rail transportation ≥ 1,500,000 km 500,000–1,499,999 km 150,000–499,999 km 50,000–149,999 km < 50,000 km No data Source: World Bank ≥ 500 150–499 100–149 50–99 < 50 No data Source: World Bank ≥ 50,000 km 30,000–49,999 km 10,000–29,999 km 2,000–9,999 km < 2,000 km No data Source: World Bank
: 105transportation earth:aninhabitedplanet The history of air transportation dates back to the early 20th century: in 1903, Orville Wright’s airplane flew for 12 seconds over a distance of 36 m. More than a century later, the performance of airplanes is of a completely different order.The largest airliners can carry more than 800 passengers from one continent to another. In November 2005, a Boeing 777 airplane established the record for the longest commercial flight by flying the 21,600 km between Hong Kong and London without touching down. Democratized in the 1960s, air travel has become the favorite means of transportation over long distances. Today, the limitations of air transportation are linked less to the capacity of airplanes than to problems with managing air traffic. In 2003, more than 1.6 billion people flew on airplanes, and there were over 21 million commercial flights. Air transportation number of passengers transported per year air travel country number of takeoffs per year number of passengers per year country number of takeoffs per year number of passengers per year United States 7,789,100 589 M France 695,900 47 M Canada 1,036,100 36 M Japan 638,500 104 M China 946,400 86 M Australia 529,600 41 M United Kingdom 891,200 76 M Spain 518,800 42 M Germany 844,800 72 M Brazil 486,800 32 M Source: World Bank Beluga cargo plane, United States The Beluga is often used to transport different parts of a plane (wings, fuselage, etc.) that must be assembled at a site different from where they are made. The Beluga is loaded by the front through a door 17 m high. The cockpit is at the bottom of the plane to make room for this immense opening. ≥ 50,000,000 5,000,000–49,999,999 500,000–4,999,999 50,000–499,999 < 50,000 No data Source: World Bank
NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE CANADA BRAZIL UNITED STATES ARGENTINA MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Omaha (3) Dallas (20) Phoenix (3) Wichita (3) Caracas (2) Atlanta (4) Seattle (7) Houston (6) Columbia (3) Hamilton (1) Edmonton (1) Honolulu (1) Santiago (2) Las Vegas (4) Monterrey (1) Vancouver (1) Sao Paulo (6) Saint John (1) George Town (1) Mexico City (9) Antofagasta (1) Buenos Aires (1) Salt Lake City (3) Rio de Janeiro (2) Bogota (2) Nassau (1) Denver (5) San Jose (17) San Diego (5) Bentonville (4) San Antonio (4) Los Angeles (36) Minneapolis (6) San Francisco (23) Fort Lauderdale (5) Philadelphia (3) Washington D.C. (6) Racine (4) Ottawa (1) Québec (2) Boston (9) Chicago (18) Detroit (6) Toronto (6) Montréal (4) New York (45) Cleveland (3) Charleston (3) Kalamazoo (3) EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 106 : INEQUALITIES Despite economists’ forecasts that globalization of the economy will benefit the poorest the most, inequalities in the world are getting worse in terms of health, nutrition, education, housing, and other areas. Gross national product (GNP) per capita, a country’s main socioeconomic development indicator, ranges from about 100 in the poorest countries to almost 60,000 in the wealthiest. These disparities are aggravated by the fact that in the 1970s, the Third World became heavily indebted in order to finance its development.The borrowed funds, often poorly managed or misappropriated, have not had the anticipated effect. Today, unable to pay back its debt, the Third World is demanding that the debt be written off. At the same time, the wealthiest countries donate to the most disadvantaged countries in the form of official development assistance. Measuring wealth The GNP is an indicator that measures the total value of the goods and services produced in a country during one year, as well as its net revenues from foreign countries.Total GNP is used to measure a country’s wealth. Divided by the number of inhabitants, it gives an indication of the standard of living of a country’s population. Number of billionaires (per metropolitan region) Source: Forbes 10 5 1 45 DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH GNP per capita ≥ $25,000 $10,000–$24,999 $3,000–$9,999 $1,000–$2,999 $500–$999 < $500 Sources: World Bank; UN The expression “Third World”was coined during the Cold War to designate countries that belonged to neither the capitalist nor the communist sphere of influence. Since the 1970s,“Third World”has referred to the poorest countries on the planet. Many of these countries’populations live in extreme misery. About 1.3 billion people, representing 20% of the world’s population, survive on less than 1 per day—that is, under the poverty line defined by the United Nations. POVERTY LINE Share of the population living on less than $1 per day ≥ 50% 20%–49% 10%–19% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: UN THE COUNTRIES OF THE THIRD WORLD 106 :
NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA RUSSIA CHINA AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN SUDAN ALGERIA MONGOLIA NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPE VERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES MICRONESIA NAURU TUVALU MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP Sibu (1) Oslo (4) Kudus (1) Perth (1) Kyoto (3) Delhi (3) Seoul (3) Dubai (2) Mecca (1) Surgut (1) Sydney (3) Almaty (3) Taipei (7) Moscow (24) Riyadh (2) Bangkok (3) Beijing (1) T'ainan (1) Shanghai (1) Donets'k (2) Istanbul (7) Cairo (1) Melbourne (2) Hong Kong (18) Bangalore (1) Stockholm (5) Kuwait (2) Stellenbosch (1) Magnitogorsk (1) Manila (3) Kuala Lumpur (4) Johannesburg (1) Bombay (5) Tefen (1) Tokyo (13) Jeddah (4) Surabaja (1) Tel Aviv (5) Singapore (5) Osaka (2) Dnipropetrovs'k (1) Stuttgart (4) Heidelberg (3) Rome (2) Milano (3) Paris (12) Berlin (3) Vienna (3) Madrid (3) Dublin (2) Warsaw (1) London (19) Hamburg (9) La Coruna (3) Zurich (4) Luzern (3) Geneva (3) Bad Homburg (3) SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO DENMARK SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offer aid to developing countries by agreeing to reduce their debt or by providing them with new funding. INEQUALITIES MAIN DONOR COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP United States $27,622 M 0.2 Japan $13,147 M 0.3 United Kingdom $10,767 M 0.5 Germany $10,082 M 0.4 France $10,026 M 0.5 Netherlands $5,115 M 0.8 Italy $5,091 M 0.3 Canada $3,756 M 0.4 Sweden $3,362 M 0.9 Spain $3,018 M 0.3 Source: OECD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 107 MAIN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP Afghanistan $2,192 M 31.3 Sudan $1,472 M 6.4 Ethiopia $1,202 M 10.8 Dem. Rep. of the Congo $1,034 M 14.8 Tanzania $871 M 6.8 Zambia $836 M 14.4 Mozambique $771 M 12.5 Uganda $704 M 8.8 Bangladesh $563 M 0.8 Madagascar $500 M 8.7 Source: OECD
Development indicators Development indicators are numerical indicators used to estimate the development of nations.They measure different parameters that affect the quality of life of human beings. GNP measures a country’s wealth or poverty, while life expectancy and infant mortality rate reflect its state of health. Other indicators assess satisfaction of basic human needs, such as access to drinking water, sufficient food, and housing. Still others measure level of education, the guarantee of a population’s future. To integrate these different parameters into a single indicator, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) calculates the human development index.This index, which takes account of longevity, education, literacy, and standard of living (purchasing power) assesses development on a scale from 0 to 1. In 2004, the index ranged from 0.311 for Niger to 0.965 for Norway. human development index High Average Low No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES RANKING of countries according to the human development index The highest-ranked countries the lowest-ranked countries rank country index rank country index Norway 0.965 Mozambique 0.390 Iceland 0.960 Burundi 0.384 Australia 0.957 Ethiopia 0.371 Ireland 0.956 Chad 0.368 Sweden 0.951 Central African Republic 0.353 Canada 0.950 Guinea-Bissau 0.349 Japan 0.949 Burkina Faso 0.342 United States 0.948 Mali 0.338 Switzerland 0.947 Sierra Leone 0.335 Netherlands 0.947 Niger 0.311 World average: 0.741 Source: UNDP EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 108 :
Access to water is one of the main development indicators. It corresponds to the proportion of the population that has access to at least 20 liters of water per day per person from an improved source (pipeline, protected well, rainwater collection, etc.) less than one kilometer from their residence. In many regions of the world, populations lack water, leading to serious sanitary problems. The East Asia/Pacific region has the largest number of inhabitants without access to improved water sources. Inhabitants of urban areas have a better chance of benefiting from an improved source. Mongolia, for example, has very wide disparities between drinking-water access in urban zones (87%) and rural zones (30%). access to drinking water Water point, Tanzania Access to a source of drinking water is one of the main development indicators. share of the population with access to drinking water 90%–100% 70%–89% 50%–69% 30%–49% 0%–29% No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES earth:aninhabitedplanet : 109
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA NORTH AMERICA LATIN AMERICA CARIBBEAN 110 : FRESHWATER RESOURCES EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Less than 3% of all water on the planet is freshwater. It is a resource that is unequally distributed, as most of it is frozen at the poles and the rest is found in water tables, which refill very slowly. Nevertheless, world freshwater reserves would satisfy the needs of humanity if they were better distributed and used. While subtropical regions (North Africa, South Africa, the Middle East, etc.) suffer from a serious lack of water, the temperate and intertropical regions (Canada, Russia, Brazil, etc.) have an abundance of freshwater. In the future, due to population growth, these inequalities are likely to rise. The risk of water shortages may cause conflicts to break out between countries that share watersheds. Water consumption Water consumption has greatly increased in recent decades. Although the overall increase is attributable to population growth, the rise in consumption per capita results from the easy access to water and economic development in some countries. Water consumption for domestic use rises along with the standard of living of populations. Running water, sewer systems, and household appliances such as dishwashers and washing machines have propelled consumption up to 60 billion m3 per year in the United States. WATER CONSUMED FOR DOMESTIC USE (m3 /year/inhab.) DOMESTIC USE ≥ 250 200–249.9 100–199.9 50–99.9 25–49.9 < 25 No data Source: FAO On the global scale, the agricultural sector is the greatest consumer of water. About 70% of water consumed in the world is used for farmland irrigation.The countries that irrigate the most are situated in Asia (China, India, Pakistan). Due to insufficient precipitation, the most arid countries have little capacity for irrigation. WATER CONSUMED FOR AGRICULTURAL USE (Gm3 /yr) AGRICULTURAL USE ≥ 200 100–199.9 50–99.9 20–49.9 3–19.9 < 3 No data (1 Gm3 = 1 billion cubic meters) Source: FAO
BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE ASIA EUROPE AFRICA OCEANIA : 111FRESHWATER RESOURCES EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Lake Nasser, Egypt Formed at the border between Egypt and Sudan following construction of the Aswan dam on the Nile, Lake Nasser is a freshwater reservoir containing almost 162 billion m3 of freshwater. By reducing the amount of alluvia in the Nile’s river bed downstream of the dam, this structure is likely responsible for erosion of the Nile Delta. FRESHWATER RESERVES Freshwater available ≥ 50,000 m3 /year/inhab. 10,000–49,999 m3 /year/inhab. 5,000–9,999 m3 /year/inhab. 1,000–4,999 m3 /year/inhab. 100–999 m3 /year/inhab. ≤ 100 m3 /year/inhab. No data Source: FAO Use of freshwater by sector Source: FAO Regional borders In the most highly industrialized countries, about the same amount of water is consumed for industry as for agriculture. The industries that consume the most water are transformation industries, such as chemistry and metallurgy. In addition, industrial waste is a major contributor to water pollution.Thus, not only does the quantity of available water diminish, but its quality does, too. WATER CONSUMED FOR INDUSTRIAL USE (Gm3 /yr) INDUSTRIAL USE ≥ 50 20–49,9 10–19,9 5–9,9 2–4,9 < 2 No data (1 Gm3 = 1 billion cubic meters) Source: FAO agriculture domestic industrial
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURAS GUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA 112 : HEALTH EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET The health of populations varies from country to country depending on their respective wealth levels, and even on wealth differences within individual countries.The mortality of children under 5 years of age, which is a good reflection of a population’s health, rises as the gross national product (GNP) drops. In many countries in Africa, this figure is above 15%. Children with malnutrition are predisposed to falling ill during epidemics. In wealthy countries, on the other hand, adult obesity is lowering life expectancy, since it is likely to lead to heart disease. Health- care personnel are also unequally distributed around the planet: the countries faced with the direst health crises must make do with the fewest health-care professionals. Epidemics and life expectancy In developing countries, infectious and parasitic diseases cause most deaths, all age groups combined. Helped along by malnutrition, a shortage of drinking water, lack of vaccinations, and illiteracy, epidemics propagate rapidly. Inequalities of life expectancy at birth, which had narrowed during the 1980s, have increased considerably since.The main cause of this growing disparity is the AIDS epidemic that has struck Africa. More than 7% of the population on the continent is infected. In southern Africa, about one- quarter of the population is affected (and up to 38.8% in Swaziland). DISEASE AND DEVELOPMENT LEVEL Heart disease and cancer are the scourges of the wealthiest countries, while communicable diseases affect developing countries. As the risk factors for communicable diseases (malnutrition, lack of water, etc.) diminish, the risk factors for chronic conditions (obesity, smoking, etc.) are amplified. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the annual number of deaths due to smoking in the world should grow from 4.9 million in 2000 to more than 10 million in 2020.The increase will be steepest in developing countries. THE MAIN MEDICAL CAUSES OF DEATH IN THE WORLD Going to the vaccination center, Zambia Vaccination campaigns conducted by nongovernmental organizations, such as the Red Cross, were responsible in large part for 84% of Zambian children over 1 year old being vaccinated against measles in 2004. communicable diseases and nutrition problems 30% heart disease 30% cancer 13% chronic respiratory diseases 7% traumas 9% other chronic diseases 9% Source: WHO diabetes 2%
BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE GEORGIA KIRIBATI : 113HEALTH EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET HEALTH-CARE EXPENDITURES ($/year/inhab.) INVESTING IN HEALTH The share of the national budget devoted to health varies from less than 5% in the poorest countries to more than 20% in the wealthiest ones.Thus, national revenue has a major impact on the state of health and the life expectancy of a country’s population. However, it does not explain on its own the inequalities from one country to another. Malaysia, for example, has an infant-mortality rate equal to that of the United States (0.7%), while its GNP is one-quarter the size. Governments that invest in water quality, hygiene education, and installation of an extended health-care system (sufficient number of physicians, vaccinations, etc.) improve their health situation. With a GNP per capita identical to that of India, Vietnam has a life expectancy that is longer by eight years (68 years) and an infant-mortality rate almost four times lower (2.3%), notably because 99% of children under 1 year old are vaccinated, as compared to 70% in India. Population infected with malaria > 1% Source: WHO Population (15–49 years) infected with HIV/AIDS > 1% Source: UNAIDS Doctors Without Borders Countries where the organization is active Source: Doctors Without Borders Life expectancy at birth (average age that people born in 2003 can expect to live) ≥ 80 years 70–79.9 years 60–69.9 years 50–59.9 years 40–49.9 years < 40 years Source: UN ≥ 3,000 2,000–2,999 1,000–1,999 500–999 100–499 < 100 No data Source: WHO THE HEALTH SITUATION
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA 114 : ILLITERACY EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET More than 750 million people around the world are illiterate, and about 64% of them are women.The illiteracy rate varies hugely from country to country and between genders: in many countries, more women than men are illiterate. The less access a population has to basic education, the higher the illiteracy rate and the more widespread the bad living conditions. In order to make up for the lack of basic education, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is helping to set up nonconventional schooling structures in many developing countries that offer training to everyone in a community—children, teenagers, and adults—and are run by members of the community. The illiteracy rate counts people over 15 years of age who are unable to read and write a short sentence about their everyday life. It is high in all developing countries where basic education is not systematic. In developed countries, few of which publish data on this subject, illiteracy is less visible, but it exists nevertheless, especially among those excluded from mainstream society. Bolivia Brazil Vietnam Haiti Iraq India Bhutan Chad Afghanistan Mali Men Women Sources: UN; CIA World Factbook THE ILLITERACY RATE 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE : 115ILLITERACY EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Child writing, United Kingdom Learning to read and write begins when a child is about 6 years old. To fight illiteracy, obligatory school attendance for young children must be a priority. Nonconventional schooling, Uganda The young students in this school are learning English. Nonconventional schooling includes basic education programs in reading, writing, and arithmetic, for children and adults. ILLITERACY IN THE WORLD Illiteracy rate per country ≥ 75% 50%–74.9% 25%–49.9% 10%–24.9% < 10% No data Sources: UNESCO; État du monde
CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA 116 : CONFLICTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET The number of conflicts has dropped significantly since the end of the Cold War, but there are still numerous zones where confrontations occur.The nature of conflicts has changed: although there are still several wars between states and a number of border disputes, most conflicts are civil wars.The parties confront each other within a single country for ideological, ethnic, religious, or economic reasons. In some civil wars, a group claims independence for its territory (armed independence movements). Although officially confined to a single country, civil wars often involve a number of states, which support one or another of the belligerents financially or militarily. Number of armed conflicts per country (1989–2006) 8–9 6–7 4–5 2–3 1 0 Source: Uppsala Conflict Database Armed conflicts in the last 15 years International conflict Border dispute Armed independence movement Civil war Sources: Le Monde diplomatique; BBC News ARMED INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS For independence of Palestine occupied by Israel (since 1964) Basque separatist group (ETA) against the Spanish government for independence of the Basque Country (since 1959) Islamist groups for independence of the Mindanao region in the southern Philippines (since 1969) For independence of Casamance in southern Senegal (1982–2004) Corsican separatist group against the French government for independence of the island (since 1976) For independence of East Timor, obtained in 2002 (1975–2002) Polisario Front against the Moroccan government for independence of the Western Sahara (since 1991) Tamul Tiger separatist group in northern and eastern Sri Lanka (since 1976) Separatist group on Bougainville, an island in Papua New Guinea (1989–1997) Separatist Kurdish group in Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria (1994–1998) Maoist groups for the creation of an independent communist state, in Nepal (since 1996) Separatist group in Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia (since 1992) Irish Republican Army (IRA) against the British government for independence of Northern Ireland (1919–2005) For independence of Tibet occupied by China (since 1959) Chechen separatist group in Russia (since 1994) INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS Israel against Lebanon to stop activities by terrorists established in Lebanon (1978–2006) Israel against Syria for possession of the Golan Heights (since 1981) Eritrea against Ethiopia for control of the city of Badme (1998–2000) Invasion of Iraq by the United States to end the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein (2003) Invasion of Afghanistan by the United States to combat terrorism (2001) BORDER DISPUTES Peru and Ecuador for control of the Condor cordillera (1981–1998) Cameroon and Nigeria for control of the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula (1994–1996) India and Pakistan for control of the Kashmir region (since 1948) Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Brunei, the Philippines, and Malaysia, for control of the Spratly Islands (since 1988) THE MAIN ARMED CONFLICTS
EGYPT SYRIA JORDAN ISRAEL LEBANON CYPRUS WESTBANK GAZA STRIP BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP.CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GRÈCE PHILIPPINES HRV UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALBANIA LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES GAMBIA MKD BAHRAIN LIE SMR VATICAN MNE : 117CONFLICTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET CIVIL WARS In Guatemala, guerrillas against the military government for a change of regime (1960–1996) Ethnic conflict for control of the Congo (1997–2003) In Somalia, clan conflict for control of the country (1991–2004) In Colombia, communist group (FARC) against the government for control of the country (since 1966) Popular liberation movement of Angola against the Unita rebel group for control of the country (1975–2002) Confrontation between Shiite and Sunni Muslims in Iraq (since 2005) In Sierra Leone, armed group against the government for control of diamond production (1991–2002) In Chad, ethnic and religious conflict for control of the country (1998–2003) In Afghanistan, mujahadin against the Taliban for control of the country (1992–2001) In Côte d’Ivoire, ethnic and religious conflict for control of the country (1999–2005) In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, rebel group against the government for control of the country (1997–2002) In Tajikistan, Islamists and democrats against the pro- Russian army for control of the country (1992–1997) In Algeria, Islamists against the government for control of the country (1991–2005) In Sudan, animists and Christians against the Islamist government and ethnic conflict in Darfur (1983–2005) Ethnic conflict between Tutsis and Hutus for control of Rwanda (1994–2001)
118 : conflicts earth:aninhabitedplanet Media propaganda is used in many conflicts to manipulate opinion and the adversary. Freedom of the press is a bulwark against this propaganda. Each year, the French association Reporters Without Borders, through its network of correspondents, lists attacks against journalists (assassinations, imprisonments, assaults, threats, etc.) and the media (censorship, seizures, searches, pressure, etc.). On the basis of this information, it assigns each country a ranking that reflects its freedom of the press.The lower the ranking, the greater the freedom of the press. In 2007, 169 countries were ranked.Their rankings ranged from 0.75 in Iceland to 114.75 in Eritrea. Freedom of the press Military expenditures are the total amounts allocated to armed forces, governmental defense agencies, and military activities in space but exclude, among other things, the cost of destroying weapons. Although they often represent only a low proportion of government expenditures, they form a major geopolitical indicator for analyzing conflicts in the world. In 2006, world military expenditures stood at 184 per person on average, or 2.5% of the world gross domestic product (GDP). Military expenditures amount of military expenditures (compared to GDP, per country) Very good Good Fair Difficult Serious Very serious No data Source: Reporters Without Borders ≥ 10% 3%–9% 1%–2% < 1% No data Source: CIA World Factbook
Antitank mines Antitank mines are part of the war arsenal long used in many conflicts, alongside powerful antipersonnel mines, which cause many civilian deaths.
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
T h e C o n t i n e n t s The seven continents take up almost one-third of the planet’s surface. Their main characteristics, such as shape, area, relief features, and climate, vary widely. The continents have changed greatly over geological time,as they have been shaped by plate tectonics,volcanism, and sedimentation for millions of years.From the Canadian Far North to the plains of Patagonia, from the Sahara Desert to the steppes of Siberia, our planet offers a huge diversity of landscapes, inhabited by a great variety of peoples. TOP: Badlands National Park, United States LEFT: Kimmeridge Bay, Great Britain
-4,177 m -243 m Devon Is. Banks Is. Guadaloupe Roca Alijos Victoria Is. Melville Is. EllesmereIs. Baffin Is. VancouverIs. Revillagigedo Is. Prince Patrick Is. Prince of Wales Is. Queen Charlotte Is. Florida BajaCalifornia St. Lawrence Is. Nunivak Is. Isthmus of Tehuantepec A l e u t i a n I s . Kodiak Is. North Magnetic Pole (2006) Beaufort Sea Hudson Bay Baffin Bay Davis Strait Amundsen Gulf N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Gulf of Alaska Ungava Bay James Bay GulfofCalifornia Bering Strait Bering Sea MOJAVE DESERT SO N ORANDESERT CHIHUAHUAN DESERT ASIA Mount Odin, 2,147 m Mount Borah, 3,859 m Mount Logan, 5,956 m Death Valley, -86 m Orizaba, 5,700 m Mount McKinley, 6,194 m Mount Waddington, 4,019 m Mount Mitchell, 2,037 m Mont d’Iberville, 1,652 m Mount Washington, 1,917 m Tombstone Mountain, 2,196 m Mount Roosevelt, 2,814 m Grand Canyon Mount Barbeau, 2,616 m Mount Robson, 3,959 m Keele Peak, 2,972 m Pikes Peak, 4,301 m Ottawa Mexico Washington, D.C. Edmonton Riverside Ciudad Juárez Torreón Tijuana León Monterrey Gulf of Mexico -4,131 m Yucatán San Diego Vancouver Baltimore Milwaukee Cleveland Providence Philadelphia Indianapolis San Francisco Virginia Beach Minneapolis Miami Tampa Boston Toluca Puebla Austin Dallas Denver Orlando Phoenix Memphis Seattle Calgary Houston Atlanta Chicago Detroit Toronto Montréal New York St. Louis San Jose Portland Columbus Las Vegas Sacramento Cincinnati Pittsburgh Guadalajara San Antonio Kansas City Los Angeles New Orleans R O C K I E S COASTMOUNTAINS A P P A LACHIA N S M A C K E N ZIE MOUNTAINS S IERRA MADREORIEN TA L SIERRAMADRE OCCIDENTAL S I E R R A M A D R E D E L S U R SIERRANEVADA BROOK S RANGE CASCADERANGE LAURENTIANS A L A S K A R A N G E A t l a n t i c C o a s ta l Plain G r e a t P l a i n s Great Basin C a n a d i a n S h i e l d Ozark Plateau Colorado Plateau Lake Huron Lake Superior LakeMichigan Lake Erie Lake Winnipeg Great Bear Lake Lake Ontario Great Slave Lake Lake Athabasca Reindeer lake Cedar Lake Lake Nipigon Nettilling Lake Lake Manitoba Great Salt Lake Lake Winnipegosis Brazos Thelon Hudson Bal sas Fraser Yaqui Rio Grande de Santiago Tombigbee Alaba ma Usuma cint a Sacram ento Susquehanna Ohi o Yukon Missouri Mississippi Arkansas Ri oGran d e Colorado Snak e M ackenzie Saskatc hewan N elson Peace Riv. SlaveRiv. St.La w re n ce Great Bear River GREENLAND(DK) C A N A D A MEXICO NICARAGUA ALASKA(US) Col umbia U N I T E D S T A T E S INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE 122 THECONTINENTS Great Salt Lake, Utah, United States The Great Salt Lake resulted from the gradual evaporation of a much larger prehistoric lake, Lake Bonneville. 0 500 1,000 km PHYSICAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 -500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Altitude(m)Depth(m)
Newfoundland Anticosti Is. Cape Breton Is. Prince Edward Is. Nova Scotia N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N Denmark Strait Labrador Sea EUROPEMount Gunnbjorn, 3,694 m ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON(FR) BERMUDA(GB) TROPIC OF CANCER ARCTIC POLAR C I RCLE NORTH AMERICA THECONTINENTS North America is a large continent extending from the Tropic of Cancer to the North Pole region.Surrounded on three sides by the Pacific,Atlantic, and Arctic oceans,it represents 16% of the planet’s landmass.The oldest part of the continent,the Canadian Shield ,borders Hudson Bay . All around it,the North American platform is home to major watersheds (the St.Lawrence and the Great Lakes ,the Mississippi ,the Rio Grande ,and the Mackenzie ).While the ancient,eroded Appalachian Mountains form the main relief feature of the eastern part of the continent, the west is marked by high mountain ranges (Rockies , Sierra Madre , etc.) following the Pacific coast all the way from Alaska to Mexico. Relatively sparsely populated except along the coasts, North America has a wide variety of landscapes, from the Chihuahuan desert to the Arctic tundra, including temperate forests and prairies. North America is bordered on the south by Central America, a mountainous isthmus that links it to South America. New York, United States New York’s port is one of the 15 largest in the world. The Appalachians in Tennessee, United States The eroded Appalachian Mountains form the main relief feature of eastern North America. The Mississippi, United States The combined course of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers is 5,970 km. : 123
Mexico City, Mexico The most populous city in North America, with 19.4 million inhabitants in 2005, Mexico’s capital is also one of the most polluted cities in the world. THECONTINENTS NORTH AMERICA POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN NORTH AMERICA THE CLIMATES OF NORTH AMERICA THE BIOMES OF NORTH AMERICA Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated Source: FAO Polar at the ice cap Polar tundra Mountain Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Semiarid Arid Humid with dry winter Humid ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 124 : Rock and ice Tundra Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert
-8,605 m-4,131 m -5,581 m -7,848 m Andros Abaco Is. Grand Bahama Is. Great Inagua Is. Florida Yucatán Isthmus of Tehuantepec Isthmus of Panama Caribbean Sea Sargasso Sea Gulf of Mexico Gulf of Honduras SOUTH AMERICA Lago Enriquillo, -46 m Volcán Tajumulco, 4,220 m Roseau Panama Nassau Managua Castries Kingston Belmopan San José Kingstown Guatemala Havana Basseterre Tegucigalpa Saint John's San Salvador Saint George's Port of Spain Santo Domingo Port-au-Prince Bridgetown San Juan Panama Canal Lake Nicaragua San Juan PUERTO RICO (US) GUADELOUPE(FR) MARTINIQUE(FR) ARUBA (NL) NETHERLANDS ANTILLES(NL) CAYMAN IS.(GB) VIRGIN IS.(US) ANGUILLA(GB) MONTSERRAT (GB) TURKS AND CAICOS IS.(GB) BRITISH VIRGIN IS.(GB) NICARAGUA HONDURAS CUBA PANAMA GUATEMALA COSTA RICA HAITI BELIZE EL SALVADOR DOMINICAN REP. JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO DOMINICA BARBADOS SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS TROPIC OF CANCER -6,647 m N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N North America and South America are linked by a narrow strip of mountainous land that stretches almost 2,000 km in length between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean.This region, known as Central America, is defined by two isthmuses: the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 200 km wide, to the north , and the Isthmus of Panama, 80 km wide, to the south . Central America was shaped by tectonic activity, and its highest point is Tajumulco (4,220 m), one of the many volcanoes in the region, situated in Guatemala.The numerous valleys and basins create a very compartmentalized landscape that is reflected in the political fragmentation in the region.The Antilles archipelago, an island arc between Florida and Venezuela, includes two separate groups.The Greater Antilles, to the north, contain the largest and most populous islands of the archipelago: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (which consists of Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and Puerto Rico.To the southeast, the Lesser Antilles are composed of a long string of volcanic islands encircling the Caribbean Sea. Constantly swept by trade winds, the Antilles archipelago has a hot, humid climate, punctuated by frequent hurricanes. Central America and the Antilles THECONTINENTS THE PANAMA CANAL The Panama Canal, 80 km long, crosses the Isthmus of Panama to connect the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean. Opened in 1914, the canal was first administered by the United States. It was returned to Panama in 1999 and has since been a major source of revenue for the country. In 2004, 14,035 ships, or almost 40 per day, have passed through the canal, paying more than 750 million in tolls. NORTH AMERICA 0 500 1,000 km : 125 Lock in the Panama Canal, Panama To fit into the canal’s locks, ships must be no more than 32.3 m wide and 294.1 m long. PHYSICAL MAP OF CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ANTILLES Administrative capital Cities with a population of over 1 M inhab.
north america theCONTINENTS the countries of north america flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Canada 9,900,000 32.85 El Salvador 21,041 6.85 United States 9,600,000 305.69 Bahamas 13,878 0.331 Mexico 1,900,000 106.62 Jamaica 10,991 2.71 Nicaragua 130,000 5.61 Trinidad and Tobago 5,130 1.33 Honduras 112,088 7.10 Dominica 751 0.068 Cuba 110,861 11.26 Saint Lucia 539 0.165 Guatemala 108,889 13.35 Antigua and Barbuda 442 0.083 Panama 75,517 3.34 Barbados 430 0.294 Costa Rica 51,100 4.46 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 388 0.120 Dominican Republic 48,511 9.75 Grenada 344 0.105 Haiti 27,750 9.59 Saint Kitts and Nevis 261 0.049 Belize 22,966 0.288 the territories of north america territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign country territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign country Greenland 2,175,600 0.057 Denmark Cayman Islands 264 0.046 United Kingdom Puerto Rico 8,875 3.99 United States Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 242 0.006 France Guadeloupe 1,705 0.444 France Aruba 180 0.103 The Netherlands Martinique 1,102 0.398 France British Virgin Islands 151 0.022 United Kingdom Dutch Antilles 800 0.191 The Netherlands Montserrat 102 0.006 United Kingdom Turks and Caicos Islands 430 0.024 United Kingdom Anguilla 91 0.012 United Kingdom Virgin Islands 347 0.111 United States Bermuda 53 0.064 United Kingdom 126 :
north america theCONTINENTS Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica A range of volcanic mountains crosses this small Central American country. Mountains, Jamaica The mountains of central Jamaica have a temperate climate, while the coasts have a tropical climate. : 127
GALAPAGOS IS. (EC) South America accounts for 12% of the planet’s landmass. Its relief features are similar to those in North America.The east side of the continent is an ancient bedrock, formed of the Guyana Plateau in the north, the Brazilian Plateau in the center and the Patagonian Plateau in the south.The plateaus are separated by depressions through which major rivers flow: the Orinoco , the Amazon , and the Parana .The major mountain ranges are found on the west coast: the Andes Cordillera stretches north to south, from Venezuela to southern Chile. From the high peaks of the Andes to the cold Patagonia region, including the equatorial plains of Amazonia, South America has a number of climatic zones. South of the Tropic of Capricorn , warm temperate climates dominate, with some arid and semiarid regions, while the north has tropical climates.The Andes Cordillera generates a wide variety of climates, depending on latitude, altitude, and orientation of the slopes. Salto Angel, Venezuela With a height of 979 m, the Salto Angel falls are the highest in the world. The Amazon, Brazil With its source in the Andes, the Amazon flows more than 6,500 km. It crosses through a dense rainforest and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Machu Picchu, Peru The ruins of the Inca city of Machu Picchu are situated at about 2,400 m altitude in the Andes Cordillera. Torres del Paine, Chile Torres del Paine National Park, with an area of 181,000 ha, stretches from the Chilean Andes to the steppes of Patagonia. SOUTH AMERICA THECONTINENTS 128 :
EQUATOR TROPIC OF CAPRICORN FRENCH GUIANA (FR) FALKLAND IS. (GB) B R A Z I L A R G E N T I N A PERU BOLIVIA CHILE COLOMBIA VENEZUELA PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY SURINAME SERRA D O M A R Gran Chaco B r a z i l i a n P l a t e a u Parana Plateau Altiplano A N D E S C O R D IL L E R A Patagonia G u y a n a P l a t e a u Mato Grosso A m a z o n i a L l a n o s P a m p a s NORTH AMERICA Xingu Purus A m a z o n Parana Japura Ucayali Rio Negro Arag u aia Tocantins Pa raguay Madeira SãoFrancisco Ma gda lena Tapajos Orinoco Juruena Rio Grande TelesPires Marañón Guapore RioBranco Madr e d e Di os Paranaiba A m a z o n Parana Uruguay Parn aíba Chubut Colorado Rio de la Plata Lake Titicaca Lake Maracaibo Pico Cristóbal Colón, 5,776 m Chimborazo, 6,310 m Aconcagua, 6,962 m Sajama, 6,542 m Laguna del Carbón, -105 m Huascarán, 6,768 m Ojos del Salado, 6,893 m Cali Belém Maceió Recife Manaus Maracay Goiânia Córdoba Rosario Medellín Curitiba Valencia Campinas Maracaibo São Paulo Guayaquil Santa Cruz Bucaramanga Barranquilla Pôrto Alegre Rio de Janeiro Vitória Belo Horizonte Santos Barquisimeto Natal Lima Quito Bogotá La Paz Caracas Santiago Brasília Asunción Paramaribo Georgetown Montevideo Buenos Aires ATACAMA DESERT N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Cape Horn Strait of Magellan Gulf of San Jorge Gulf of San Matias Chiloé Is. Tierra del Fuego Trindade Is. Margarita Is. Wellington Is. Juan Fernandez Is. Fernando de Noronha Is. Martin Vaz Is. Valdes Pen. Marajó Is. Yerupajá, 6,617 m Bonete, 6,759 m Pico Bolivar, 4,981 m Tupungato, 6,565 m Pico da Neblina, 2,994 m Pico da Bandeira, 2,890 m Mercedario, 6,700 m Illimani, 6,438 m Llullaillaco, 6,739 m Cachi, 6,380 m Cotopaxi, 5,897 m -6,015 m -5,753 m -6,618 m -7,694 m -6,403 m -8,073 m Salvador Fortaleza P utuma yo 0 500 1,000 km THECONTINENTS PHYSICAL MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA Altitude(m) 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Depth(m) 129
south america theCONTINENTS POPULATION distribution in south america Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Situated in southeast Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, with a population of 11.5 million inhabitants, is the second-most populous city in South America after São Paulo. the climates of south america Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated the biomes of south america Source: FAO ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Mountain Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical humid Semiarid Arid Humid with dry winter Humid Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert 130 :
south america theCONTINENTS With a population of 1.8 million inhabitants in its urban area, Manaus is the only large city in Amazonia. The Rio Negro, 2,000 km long, has its source in Colombia and flows into the Amazon at the Brazilian city of Manaus. Before joining with the Rio Negro, the Amazon is often called the Solimões. Bolivia Brazil The Amazon The Madeira, with its source in the Bolivian mountains, is the longest tributary of the Amazon and one of the longest rivers in the world (3,350 km). The source of the Amazon is in the Andes. It crosses Peru and Brazil and then flows into the Atlantic Ocean.This river, which has the greatest rate of flow in the world, pours almost 200,000 m3 of water into the ocean per second. Its watershed covers 7 million km2 , or more than one-third of the continent. Shared among several South American countries (including Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia), the Amazonian forest extends over 3.5 million km2 , or 30% of all rainforests in the world.This natural environment is home to a very wide variety of endemic species. It is estimated that one-quarter of all bird species in the world live in Amazonia. The Amazon DEforestation The area of the Amazonian forest is constantly shrinking. The main causes of deforestation are overcutting of the forest’s trees, fires (accidental or deliberate), and land clearing for farming or urban development. Deforestation poses a considerable threat to the biodiversity of the Amazonian forest. Some species of trees that have only one representative per hectare may quickly disappear. In addition, the destruction of forest habitats threatens the survival of many animal species. A total of more than 1,000 species are currently threatened with extinction in the forests of South America. Deforestation of the Amazonian forest, Brazil Since 1970, more than 17% of the Brazilian part of the Amazonian forest has disappeared. Peru Colombia : 131
Spanish is the national language of nine of the 12 countries in South America, while in Brazil the national language is Portuguese. Since Brazil alone accounts for half the continent in terms of both area and population, South America has just about an equal number of speakers of Spanish and Portuguese. The explanation for this language distribution dates back to the 15th century. In 1494, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas. Following Christopher Columbus’s discovery of America (1492), this treaty was aimed at presenting disputes between Spain and Portugal in the distribution of land yet to be discovered.The Treaty of Tordesillas stipulated that an imaginary line passing 370 leagues (about 2,000 km) west of the Cape Verde archipelago divided Earth in two: the territories situated east of this meridian were declared Portuguese; those to the west, Spanish. In the ensuing decades, Spain built an empire stretching from Mexico to Argentina, while Portugal settled its colonies in Africa and on the coast of Brazil, officially discovered in 1500. Gradually, the Portuguese pushed the border of their territory westward to the current borders of Brazil.Thus, if we trace the Tordesillas meridian on a modern map of South America, at 46° 37' west longitude, we note that much of Brazil is situated in the Spanish zone. Language distribution in South America south america theCONTINENTS Brazil Peru Portugal Spain Tordesillas meridian (1494) Cape Verde Mexico Argentina Angola Mozambique Sao Tome and Principe Guinea-Bissau French is the official language of French Guyana, still a possession of France. An English colony from 1831 to 1966, Guyana is the only English-speaking country in South America. Suriname was a colony of the Netherlands from 1667 to 1975. Its official language is still Dutch. English-speaking countries Spanish-speaking countries French-speaking territory Dutch-speaking country Portuguese-speaking country Tordesillas, Spain Tordesillas, a small town in Castile, has many monuments inherited from the Middle Ages. 132 :
SOUTH AMERICA THECONTINENTS Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela With an area of 13,512 km2 , this lake in northwest Venezuela covers one of the largest oil deposits on the continent. THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA FLAG COUNTRY AREA (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) DATE OF INDEPENDENCE Brazil 8,514,047 191.57 1822 Argentina 2,780,400 39.53 1816 Peru 1,285,216 27.91 1824 Colombia 1,138,914 46.10 1819 Bolivia 1,098,581 9.51 1825 Venezuela 912,050 27.63 1810 Chile 756,626 16.62 1818 Paraguay 406,752 6.12 1811 Ecuador 283,561 13.34 1822 Guyana 214,969 0.74 1966 Uruguay 175,016 3.34 1828 Suriname 163,820 0.457 1975 : 133
Novaya Zemlya Cornwall Hebrides Is. Shetland Is.(GB) Jutland Kola Pen. Lofoten Is. Peloponnese Rhodes (GR) Lesbos (GR) Sjælland Öland Gotland (SE) Crete (GR) Euboea North Sea White Sea Baltic Sea Norwegian Sea M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a North Cape Gulf of Bothnia N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Strait of Gibraltar Gulf of Gascogne Barents Sea Skagerrak Kattegat Gulf of Finland Bosporus Strait Thyrrenian Sea Ionian Sea Sea of Marmara Kiev Riga Rome Oslo Minsk Sofia VaduzBern Paris Moscow Tirana Skopje Madrid Dublin Berlin Zagreb Vienna Prague Monaco Vilnius Tallinn Athens London The Hague Chisinau Helsinki Bucharest Belgrade Sarajevo Lisbon Budapest Warsaw Reykjavik Ljubljana Stockholm Brussels Copenhagen Luxembourg Valletta San Marino Andorra La Valla Bratislava Podgorica Odessa Munich Naples Istanbul Hamburg Glasgow Zurich Rotterdam Amsterdam Barcelona Manchester Birmingham Lyon Bursa Izmir Milano Turin Porto Leeds Lille Nizhni Novgorod Saint Petersburg Marseille Mont Blanc, 4,807 m Etna, 3,323 m Moncayo, 2,313 m Jezerce, 2,694 m Mulhacén, 3,482 m El Teleno, 2,183 m Mount Botev, 2,376 m Kebnekaise, 2,111 m Aneto Peak, 3,404 m Monte Cinto, 2,706 m Mount Olympus, 2,917 m Mount Cervin, 4,478 m Almanzor Peak, 2,592 m Gerlachovska, 2,655 m Galdhøppigen, 2,469 m Puy de Sancy, 1,885 m Corno Grande, 2,912 m Grossglockner, 3,798 m Mount Moldoveanu, 2,543 m Hvannadalshnúkur, 2,119 m Crêt de la Neige, 1,718 m Lake Ladoga Lake Onega Lake Vanern Lake Vättern Lake Peipus Vol ga Danube Dnieper R hine Suir Neva Po Tage Loire Ebro Oder Duero V istula S eine Glomma D a lalven Kemijoki Gar onne Laagen Norther nDvin a Elb e Rhone Weser Guadalquivir NORTH AMERICA AFRICA A L P S A P E N N I N E S S C A N D I N A V I A N M O U N T A I N S B A L K A N C A R P A T H I A N S PIN D U S J U R A P Y R E N E E S D I N A R I C A L P S S I E R R A N E V A D A S U D E T E S PENNINES VOSGES CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS CAMBRIAN MOUNTAINS G e r m a n o - P o l i s h P la i n TRANSYLVANIAN ALPS C E N T R A L M A S S I F Hungarian Basin Central Russian Uplands Highlands GREENWICHMERIDIAN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE ISLE OF MAN (GB) FAROE IS. (DK) JAN MAYEN (NO) JERSEY (GB) GUERNSEY (GB) GIBRALTAR (GB) SWEDEN FRANCE UKRAINE SPAIN ITALY FINLAND NORWAY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA GREECE BELARUS UNITED KINGDOM SERBIA ICELAND -694 m -3,741 m -5,317 m -2,962 m -2,954 m -3,151 m -3,931 m HUNGARY PORTUGAL AUSTRIA IRELAND LITHUANIA LATVIA CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND ESTONIA SLOVAKIA ALBANIA MOLDOVA BELGIUM MACEDONIA SLOVENIA NETHERLANDS BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK MONTENEGRO LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO KALININGRADO (RU) VATICAN CITY English Channel Dniester SARDINIA (IT) CORSICA (FR) BALEARIC IS. (ES) SICILY (IT) Musala Peak, 2,925 m KOSOVO BULGARIA NN THECONTINENTS 134
Crimea Black Sea Sea of Azov Baku Yerevan Ankara Nicosia Tbilisi Samara Kharkiv Volgograd Rostov-on-Don Ufa Adana Kazan Dnepropetrovsk -28 m Mount Shkhara, 5,200 m Mount Ararat, ,5,137 m Elbrus, 5,643 m Demirkazik, 3,756 m Caspian Sea Lake Van Don Ural Eu phr ates Pecho ra Kama Murat Firat Volga Araks Kura Kizi lirm ak ASIA ASIA C A U C A S U S U R A L M O U N T A INS T A U R U S M O U N T A I N S Caspian D e p r e s s i o n Anatolian Plain Volga Uplands R U S S I A TURKEY -2,276 m AZERBAIJAN GEORGIA ARMENIA CYPRUS AZE EUROPE THECONTINENTS The western part of the huge Eurasian continental ensemble, Europe represents only 7% of the planet’s landmass. Its territory, with very jagged coastlines, is tightly interwoven with the surrounding seas, including the Mediterranean Sea , in which there are numerous islands. Europe is divided into four major zones: the old, low mountains of the northwest , marked by glaciation; the broad northern plains ; old eroded mountains in the center (Massif Central, Urals ); and Alpine- Mediterranean Europe to the south, formed of high mountain ranges (Alps , Pyrenees and Carpathians ).The warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the ocean current that crosses the North Atlantic from west to east, considerably moderates the climate of the Atlantic coast of the continent. Farther east, where the Gulf Stream’s influence is not perceptible, continental climates dominate, with large spreads in temperature over the year. Finally, the southern part of the continent benefits from a generally warm, dry Mediterranean climate. Rome, Italy Powerful civilizations developed in Europe in antiquity, such as the one here in Rome. PHYSICAL MAP OF EUROPE Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 0 250 500 km Altitude(m) 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Depth(m) : 135
EUROPE theCONTINENTS POPULATION distribution in EUROPE Source: SEDAC, Columbia University the CLIMATeS of EUROPE Source: Kotter et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated the BIOMES of EUROPE Source: FAO Paris, France Almost three-quarters of Europe’s population live in cities. Crete, Mediterranean Sea Crete is a Greek island that, like the rest of Greece, has a Mediterranean- type temperate climate, with hot, dry summers. Seaside, Scotland Outside of forests, Scotland has a vegetation of heaths and peat bogs, composed mainly of briars and graminaceous plants. Boreal Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Desert Polar tundra Mountain Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Semiarid ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 136 :
EUROPE theCONTINENTS With a length of 1,200 km, the Alps are the largest mountain system in western Europe. A huge natural barrier, the Alps block humid air masses and receive great quantities of precipitation. A number of Europe’s rivers (Rhine, Rhone, Po) and their tributaries have their source in the Alpine massif. Because temperature drops as altitude rises, the slopes of an Alpine valley present a succession of climates comparable to those that one finds as one travels toward the poles. In the Alps, the valley floors have a climate similar to those of the neighboring plains. Farther up, forests replace farming, and coniferous trees become increasingly dominant, as in boreal forests. At the alpine level, the climate is comparable to that in the Arctic tundra and trees give way to pastures. Finally, the highest land, permanently covered with snow, has the same kind of climate as the ice caps. The Alps Mont Blanc Rhine Rhone Po Italy France Switzerland Austria Mont Blanc Massif, seen from the Italian side The highest point of the Alps is Mont Blanc (4,807 m), on the border between France and Italy. : 137
Denmark Turkey France Sweden Spain Italy Finland PolandGermany Romania Bulgaria Hungary Greece United Kingdom Portugal Austria Ireland Lithuania Latvia Croatia Czech Rep. Estonia Slovakia Netherlands Belgium Macedonia Slovenia Luxembourg Malta Cyprus EUROPE THECONTINENTS The European Union is an international organization with 27 member European states. Its earliest version was formed in the 1950s, in the wake of World War II, with the objective of maintaining peace among the countries of Europe and improving the standard of living of Europeans. The member states of the Union have set up common institutions.The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making body. It defines the orientations of member states in areas as diverse as energy, agriculture, the environment, and trade. It shares legislative power with the European Parliament, elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. Finally, the European Commission holds executive power. It implements policies, manages the budget, sees to the application of laws, and proposes legislation.These institutions function in no fewer than 20 official languages, in conformity with the Union’s motto, “United in Diversity.” Twenty-four of the 27 countries of the European Union have formed a zone where people and goods move without restrictions, the Schengen area. In this zone, trade is facilitated and travelers do not have to present identification documents at borders. The European Union EXPANSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION THE CONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE The history of the European Union began in 1951, when Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands united within the European Coal and Steel Community.This successful integration led to the creation, in 1957, of the European Atomic Energy Commission (EAEC) and the European Economic Community (EEC). In 1967, these three communities merged within the EEC. In 1992, the Maastricht Treaty transformed the EEC into the European Union, with expanded mandate and responsibilities. Over the years, the six founding countries were joined by 21 other states. Bulgaria and Romania entered in January 2007.Turkey, Croatia, and Macedonia also wish to be admitted into the European Union.To do this, they must demonstrate that they have a stable democratic political system and an operational and competitive market economy. Since 2002, a new currency, the euro, replaced the national currencies of 15 countries of the European Union (Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Germany, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain). The European flag On a sky-blue background, the stars symbolizing the peoples of Europe form a circle signifying a union. The unchanging number of stars is 12, symbol of perfection and plenty. Date of admission into the European Union 1957 1973 1981 1986 1995 2004 2007 Candidate countries 138 :
EUROPE theCONTINENTS The countries whose names are underlined are members of the European Union. * : Figures presented here factor in the European part and the Asian part of Russia. * * : Without Greenland *** : Vatican City is not a UN member but maintains a permanent observer mission at the organization’s headquarters. the countries of europe flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Russia 17,075,400* 142.49* Lithuania 65,300 3.39 Turkey 783,562 74.82 Latvia 64,600 2.28 Ukraine 603,700 46.21 Croatia 56,538 4.54 France 551,500 61.59 Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,197 3.93 Spain 505,992 44.07 Slovakia 49,033 5.39 Sweden 449,964 9.12 Estonia 45,100 1.34 Norway 385,155 4.70 Denmark 43,094** 5.44 Germany 357,022 82.54 Netherlands 41,528 16.40 Finland 338,145 5.28 Switzerland 41,284 7.48 Poland 323,250 38.08 Moldavia 33,851 3.81 Italy 301,318 58.80 Belgium 30,528 10.45 United Kingdom 242,900 60.75 Albania 28,748 3.19 Romania 238,391 21.43 Macedonia 25,713 2.04 Belarus 207,600 9.69 Slovenia 20,256 1.99 Greece 131,957 11.15 Montenegro 13,812 0.605 Bulgaria 110,912 7.63 Cyprus 9,251 0.854 Iceland 103,000 0.30 Luxembourg 2,586 0.467 Hungary 93,032 10.03 Andorra 468 0.073 Portugal 91,982 10.61 Malta 316 0.406 Serbia 88,361 9.89 Liechtenstein 160 0.035 Austria 83,858 8.35 San Marino 61 0.030 Czech Republic 78,866 10.19 Monaco 1 0.033 Ireland 70,273 4.29 Vatican City*** 0.4 0.001 Georgia 69,700 4.40 : 139
THAR DESERT ARABIAN DESERT KARAKUM DESERT TAKLA MAKAN DESERT KYZYLKUM DESERT ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE AFRICA EUROPE W e s t S i b e r i a n P l a i n Indus Plain Deccan Plateau A SIR H I M A K U N L U N ZAGROSMOUNTAINS HIJAZ T I A N S H A N E L B R U S WESTERNGHATS U R A L M O U N T A I N S H A D R A M O U T PAMIRS KARAKORAM SUL AIMANRANGE HINDU KUSH LADAKH Caspian Depress ion Godavari Tapti Krishna Narmada M ahanadi Ob Irtych Indus Ganges Tigris Ural Tobol S yrDarya Euphrates AmuDarya Caspian Sea Aral Sea Lake Balkhash Issyk Kul Lake Urmia Vpadina Akchanaya, -81 m -28 m Nanga Parbat, 8,126 m Annapurna, 8,091 m Dhaulagiri, 8,167 m K2, 8,614 m Vpadina Kaundy, -132 mLake Tiberias, -200 m Dead Sea, -408 m Palk Strait Strait of Hormuz I N D I A N O C E A N RedSea Arabian Sea Mediterranean Sea Gulf ofOman Gulf of Aden PersianGulf Male Doha Riyadh Sana'a Amman Damascus Kabul Astana Al Manamah Kuwait Bishkek Muscat Colombo Tehran TashkentAshgabat Tel Aviv Beirut Dushanbe Islamab ad New Delhi Abu Dhabi Mashhad Jeddah Faridabad Pune Aleppo Surat Delhi Bombay Madras Nagpur Kanpur Jaipur Lahore LucknowKarachi Bangalore Hyderabad Ahmadabad Meerut Qom Faisalabad Dubai Agra Karaj Omsk Mecca Cochin Almaty Bhopal Indore Tabriz Shiraz Madurai Esfahan Varanasi Peshawar Amritsar Srinagar Nashik Multan Rajkot Hyderabad Mosul Rawalpindi Chelyabinsk Visakhapatnam Jabalpur Ludhiana Vadodara Allahabad Ghaziabad Vijayawada Coimbatore Gujranwala Ekaterinburg Solapur Aurangabad Durg- Bhilainagar -4,119 m -5,626 m -5,707 m -5,631 m Socotra Lakshadweep Khuriya Muriya Is. WEST BANKGAZA STRIP BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY(GB) I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N I R A N SAUDI ARABIA PAKISTAN IRAQ YEMEN OMAN AFGHANISTAN TURKMENISTAN SYRIA UZBEKISTAN NEPAL KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN SRI LANKA JORDAN UNITED ARAB EMIRATES ISRAEL KUWAIT QATAR LEBANON BAHRAIN MALDIVES Zargun, 3,578 m Zard Kuh, 4,548 m Damavand, 5,610 m Doda Betta, 2,636 m Pik Pobedy, 7,439 m Baghdad A ASIA THECONTINENTS Asia alone represents one-third of the planet’s landmass, and 60% of the world’s population lives there, half of them in China and India. Separated from Africa by the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez , Asia encompasses the Indonesian , Philippine , and Japanese archipelagos, situated to the south and east of the mainland. Asia and Europe belong to the same continental mass, Eurasia.Their common border has been fixed arbitrarily along the Ural Mountains . Asia has a wide variety of relief features, from the plains and plateaus of Siberia, India, and Arabia to the imposing mountain ranges that cross the continent from west to east (Hindu Kush , Himalayas ). Asia also presents a broad range of climates. Southeast Asia, irrigated by abundant monsoon rains, has a tropical climate. In Arabia and the interior of the continent, where mountains keep humidity from penetrating, there are immense arid and semiarid areas. In northern Asia, the Siberian anticyclone creates very contrasting climatic conditions, with severe winters and very hot summers. 0 1,000 2,000 km PHYSICAL MAP OF ASIA Administrative capital City with more than 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Altitude(m)Depth(m) 140 :
GOBI DESERT EQUATOR TROPICOFCANCER OCEANIA Manchurian Plain Qaidam Basin T i b e t a n P l a t e a u South China Plateau Khorat Plain C e n t r a l S i b e r i a n P l a t e a u Sichuan Basin L A Y A S A L T A I B A R I S A N R A N G E S H A N KOLYMA MOUNTAINS ARAKANYOM A C H E R S K Y R A N G E YABLONOVY R ANGE ANNAMITIC CORDIL LE R A STANOVOY RANGE VERKHOYANSK MOUNTAINS ALTUN SHAN Hong Tarim Indigirka K apuas Mahak a m YaluJiang Chao Phraya L ena Mekong Jenissei Salween Yan gziJiang Hu angHe Am ur Vilyuy Kolyma Aldan Angara Irrawaddy Xi JiangBrahmaputra Ob Lake Baikal Koko Nor Mount Everest, 8,850 m Puncak Jaya, 4,884 m Cho Oyu, 8,201 m Kanchenjunga, 8,586 m Turpan Pendi, -154 m Manaslu, 8,156 m Makalu, 8,463 m Bay of Bengal Golf of Tonkin Gulf of Thailand Strait of Malacca Molucca Sea Sunda Strait N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Yellow Sea Sulu Sea Java Sea Kara Sea Timor Sea Banda Sea Sea of Japan Arafura Sea Flores Sea Sea of Okhotsk Laptev Sea Celebes Sea Bismarck Sea Philippine Sea East China Sea South China Sea Dili Tokyo Seoul Beijing Dhaka Hanoi Manila Bangkok Jakarta Naypyidaw Thimphu Kathmandu Pyongyang Singapore Vientiane Phnom Penh Ulaanbaatar Kuala Lumpur Bandar Seri Begawan Tianjin Nan jing Qingdao Guiyang Bandung Chengdu Makassar Calcutta Shenyang Shanghai Surabaja Zibo Osaka-Kobe Medan Taeg u Pusan Jinan Wuhan Linyi Xi'an Harbin Taipei Dalian Handan Fukuoka Yangon Hong Kong Changchun Zhengzhou Guangzhou Chongqing Taian Fuyu Liupanshui Chittagong Ho Chi Minh City Benxi Huhot Goyang Nagoya Inch'on Taiyuan Wuxi Heze Ulsan Suwon Jinxi Yulin Nampho Daqing Yantai Hu zhou Huaian Jining Kyoto Patna Davao Jilin Hef ei Ningbo Khulna Taejon Datong Yiyang Zigong Leshan Anshan Fuzhou Baotou Fushun Sapporo Kwangju Nanning Kunming LuoyangLanzhou Tangshan Changsha Nanchang Hangz hou Shenzhen Wenzhou Weifang Chifeng Shantou Xiantao Taichung Palembang Kaoshsiung Novosibirsk Shijiazhuang Tianmen Changde Asansol Dhanbad Dongguan Nanchong Tianshui Mianyang Jamshedpur Suzhou Suining Neijiang Zaozhuang Zhanjiang Urumqi Luzhou Xiamen Sendai Zhuzhou Xinyang Nanyang Liuzhou Baoding Xianyang Xiangfa n Shangqiu Quanzhou Qiqihaer Haiphong Chang zhou Hiroshima Mudanjiang Zhangjiakou -100 m -5,862 m -5,016 m -6,035 m -1,714 m -7,519 m -6,533 m -7,457 m -9,533 m -7,205 m -7,586 m -7,125 m -10,164 m Java Luzon Kyushu Honshu Borneo Sumatra Shikoku Sulawesi Mindanao Hokkaido Sak halin(RU) Kamchatka Marcus Is. (JP) R yu kyu Is.(JP) Nicobar Is. (IN) Andaman Is. (IN) Mentawai Is. Severnaya Zemlya Komandor Is.(RU) New Siberia Is. Hainan KurilIs.(RU) Malacca Peninsula Flores Sumba Ceram S p r a t ly Is. Bangka Halmahera TAIWAN (CN) WAKE IS.(US) R U S S I A C H I N A MONGOLIA I N D O N E S I A BURMA THAILAND LAOS VIETNAM CAMBODIA JAPAN M A L A Y S I A PHILIPPINES BANGLADESH NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA BHUTAN TIMOR LESTE BRUNEI SINGAPORE TLS Muztag, 6,987 m Kinabalu, 4,095 m Phu Bia, 2,830 m Saramati, 3,826 m Monte Fuji, 3,776 m Gyala Peri, 7,294 m Maotou Shan, 3,306 m Minya Konka, 7,556 m Monte Belukha, 4,506 m Chuo Yang Sin, 2,420 m Gunung Kerinci, 3,805 m Bulu Rantekombola, 3,478 m Liua n Xuzh ou Huain anSuzh ou M A O K E M O U N T A I N S THECONTINENTS Siberia, Russia Siberia has an area of more than 12 million km2 , from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Shanghai, China Chinese metropolises increasingly resemble Western cities. 141
theCONTINENTS asia POPULATION distribution in asia Tokyo, Japan Tokyo is by far the most populous city in the world, with more than 35 million inhabitants. the climates of asia the biomes of asia Yak caravan, Tibet The vast Tibetan Plateau in western China is a high plateau with a dry, cold climate. The Chocolate Hills on the island of Bohol, Philippines On Bohol, one of the 7,107 islands of the Philippine archipelago, many of the hills that rise above the rainforest turn brown in the summer. Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Polar tundra Mountain Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Arid Semiarid Humid with dry winter Humid Source: FAO Tundra Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert 142 :
theCONTINENTS asia With an average altitude of 4,000 m, the Tibetan Plateau is where the largest rivers of southern Asia (Indus, Brahmaputra, etc.) have their sources. Indus Ganges Kangchenjunga, 8,586 m Annapurna, 8,091 m Mount Everest, 8,850 m Brahmaputra K2, 8,614 m Himalayas HinduKus h Karakoram The Himalayas The Himalayas have 10 peaks rising above 8,000 m (including Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, and Annapurna), making them the highest mountain range in the world. With a length of 2,500 km and a width of 200 to 400 km, it stretches in an arc from the high Tibetan plateau to the north to the Ganges plain to the south. To the west, the high-altitude Indus Valley separates the Himalayas from the Hindu Kush and the Karakoram range, where the peak of K2 rises. Mount Everest seen from the north, Tibet The “roof of the world,” reaching an altitude of 8,850 m, is situated in the heart of the Himalayas. : 143
theCONTINENTS asia The Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos, which comprise more than 20,000 islands, form the zone most affected by volcanism on the planet.The explosion of the volcanic island of Krakatau, in 1883, was of unparalleled violence. The Japanese archipelago includes four main islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku) and more than 3,000 small islands, stretched over a distance of 3,000 km from north to south. Bordered to the east by the deep Japan Trench (10,374 m), the archipelago is the result of the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine and Eurasian plates, and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanic activity is manifested by frequent earthquakes, such as those that destroyed Tokyo (1923) and Kobe (1995). The Asian archipelagos the archipelagos of southeast asia The island of Borneo is shared among three countries: Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Krakatau The island of New Guinea is divided between Indonesia (Asia) and Papua New Guinea (Oceania). Malaysia The capital of the Philippines, Manila, is situated on the island of Luzon. Java Sumatra Mindanao Molucca Islands Sulawesi, formerly called Celebes, is part of Indonesia. East Timor Philippines Indonesia the japanese archipelago Honshu Hokkaido Kyushu Shikoku Korean Peninsula China The island of Sakhalin belongs to Russia. Tokyo Kobe Russia Bromo Volcano, Indonesia Situated in the eastern part of the island of Java, Mount Bromo is not very active, but it continuously emits a plume of white smoke. Its eruptions, though infrequent, pose a risk to the many tourists who venture to the summit. Brunei 144 : Japan Trench
theCONTINENTS asia the countries of asia flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) China 9,596,961 1,328.25 Syria 185,180 19.86 India 3,287,263 1,167.77 Cambodia 181,035 14.45 Kazakhstan 2,724,900 15.43 Nepal 147,181 28.17 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 24.68 Bangladesh 143,998 158.44 Indonesia 1,904,569 231.34 Tajikistan 143,100 6.75 Iran 1,648,195 71.31 North Korea 120,538 23.78 Mongolia 1,566,500 2.63 South Korea 99,538 48.19 Pakistan 796,095 163.95 Jordan 89,342 5.89 Burma 676,578 48.79 Azerbaijan 86,600 8.4 Afghanistan 652,090 27.03 United Arab Emirates 83,600 4.34 Yemen 527,968 22.37 Sri Lanka 65,610 19.30 Thailand 513,115 63.84 Bhutan 47,000 0.655 Turkmenistan 488,100 4.96 Armenia 29,800 3.01 Uzbekistan 447,400 27.36 Israel 22,145 6.92 Iraq 438,317 29.04 Kuwait 17,818 2.83 Japan 377,873 127.85 Timor Leste 14,874 1.14 Vietnam 331,689 87.29 Qatar 11,000 0.83 Malaysia 329,847 26.53 Lebanon 10,400 4.10 Oman 309,500 2.61 Brunei 5,765 0.389 Philippines 300,000 87.81 Bahrein 694 0.751 Laos 236,800 5.86 Singapore 683 4.43 Kyrghyzstan 199,900 5.32 Maldives 298 0.305 : 145
S A H E L S A H A R A D E S E R T KALAHARI DESERT TÉNÉRÉ NUBIAN DESERT SINAI Kano Lagos Durban Cape Town Ibadan Abidjan Ekurhulen i Alexandria Casablanca Johannesburg Lubumbashi Douala Kaduna Kolwezi Vereeniging Benghazi Kumasi Benin City Mbuji-Mayi Sebkha Tah, -55 m Mount Stanley, 5,109 m Chott Melrhir, -40 m Sabkhat Ghuzayyil, -47 m Qattara Depression, -133 m Mount Koussi, 3,445 m Mount Cameroon, 4,070 m Adrar Bou Nasser, 3,340 m Thabana Ntlenyana, 3,482 m Jebel Toubkal, 4,167 m Nile Niger Congo Ubangi Or ang e Zambezi Benue BlueNile Lu a laba WhiteNile Chir e Lukuga Sénégal Kwa nza Ogo oué Li mpopo Okav an go Kunene Oued Draa D A R F U R FOUTA DJALLON E N N E D I A H A G G A R M A S S I F T I B E S T I C o n g o B a s i n Okavango Basin A n g o l a P l a t e a u Jos Plateau Djado Plateau A Ï R M A S S I F A T L A S D R A K E N S BERG MITUMBAMOUNTAINS ADAMAWA MASSIF S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N Red Sea M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a Cape Agulhas Suez Canal Gulf of Guinea Lake Victoria Lake Malawi Lake Tanganyika Lake Turkana Lake Albert Lake Chad Lake Volta Lake Mweru Lome Abuja Accra Rabat Tunis Dakar Algiers Harare Maputo Kigali Lusaka Maseru Luanda Dodoma Bangui Niamey Malabo Bamako Bissau Banjul Mbabane Tripoli Yaoundé Cotonou Kampala Conakry Pretoria Gaborone Kinshasa Windhoek Lilongwe Khartoum Cairo Ndjamena Sao Tome Monrovia Freetown Bujumbura Nouakchott Libreville Brazzaville Ouagadougou Yamoussoukro Praia WESTERN SAHARA (MA) SAINT HELENA(GB) LIBYA SUDAN ALGERIA CANARY IS.(ES) MADEIRA(PT) MALI NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT NIGERIA ZAMBIA NAMIBIA TANZANIA MAURITANIA SOUTH AFRICA DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO MOZAMBIQUE MOROCCO BOTSWANA CONGO CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON GUINEA GHANA BURKINA FASO UGANDA CÔTE D'IVOIRE SENEGAL CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC TUNISIA BENIN MALAWI LIBERIA SIERRA LEONE TOGO LESOTHO BURUNDI RWANDA GUINEA- BISSAU SWAZILAND GAMBIA EQUATORIAL GUINEASAO TOME AND PRINCIPE CAPE VERDE AGO CEUTA (ES) MELILLA (ES) EUROPE EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER GREENWICHMERIDIAN Bioko (GQ) Ascension Is. (GB) Principe Sao Tome -6,180 m -7,743 m EastGreatRiftValley We s t G reatRift V a l l e yN AMIBDESERT Oasis, Morocco Permanent towns have been built in some oases in the Moroccan desert. THECONTINENTS 146 PHYSICAL MAP OF AFRICA Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Altitude(m)Depth(m)
Dar es Salaam Kulul, -75 m Lake Assal, -155 m Mount Kenya, 5,199 m Kilimanjaro, 5,892 m Denakil Plain, -125 m Batu, 4,400 m Rufiji Jubba Shebele Mania Mangoky E T H I O P I A N M A S S I F Gulf of Aden I N D I A N O C E A N MozambiqueChannel Lake Tana Moroni Asmara Nairobi Djibouti Mogadishu Addis Ababa Antananarivo Victoria MAYOTTE(FR) ETHIOPIA KENYA SOMALIA MADAGASCAR ERITREA DJIBOUTI COMOROS REUNION (FR) MAURITIUS S E Y C H E L L E S ASIA TROPIC OF CAPRICORN Zanzibar Farquhar Is. Glorioso Is. (FR) Juan De Nova Is. (FR) Rodrigues Is. Aldabra Amirante Is. Mahé Bassas da India (FR) -4,091 m -5,455 m AFRICA Bisected by the equator ,Africa has an area of 30,365,000 square kilometers,or 20% of the planet’s landmass.It is formed mainly of very old bedrock.The mountains,modest in size,are concentrated in the northern part of the continent (Atlas ),the south (Drakensberg ), and especially in the east (Ethiopian Massif ), where they have been chiseled by a series of fault troughs, the Great Rift Valley, which includes the West Great Rift Valley and the East Great Rift Valley . Although the regions situated at the northern and southern ends of the continent have warm temperate climates, most of Africa has tropical or desert climatic conditions.The intertropical zone, covered with forest and savanna, is irrigated by powerful rivers (Congo , Niger ), while the regions adjacend to the tropics, where the deserts are found (Sahara , Namib , Kalahari ), have almost none.The population is very unequally distributed in Africa.The desert regions are almost uninhabited, as opposed to high-density zones such as the northern Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco,Tunisia), the Nile River Valley, and the Great Rift Valley region. Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa The Blyde River Canyon stretches some 30 km in length and reaches a depth of 800 m in places. Feluccas on the Nile, Egypt The Nile is the longest river in the world. Its source is in Burundi, and it flows into the Mediterranean Sea 6,670 km away. Sahel region, Sudan Large numbers of nomads still live in the arid lands of the Sahel. : 147 THECONTINENTS 0 500 1,000 km
AFRICA POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA Cairo, Egypt With a population of over 11 million inhabitants, Cairo is the largest city in Africa. the climates of africa the BIOMEs of africa Source: FAO Source: SEDAC, Columbia University 148 : THECONTINENTS Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated Mountain Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Arid Semiarid Humid with dry winter Humid ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Boreal forest Temperate forest Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert
AFRICA With an area of more than 8 million km2 , the Sahara is the largest desert in the world. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea and covers most of North Africa (Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan). Fertile 4,000 years ago, the Sahara is now one of the most arid deserts in the world: southern Libya and Egypt receive less than 10 mm of rain per year. Humans have lived in the Sahara since prehistory.Today, despite its extremely arid environment, more than 5 million people live in the Sahara.This rapidly growing population is increasingly urbanized.The main peoples of the desert, originally nomadic (the Tuaregs in Algeria, Libya, Mali, and Niger; the Sahrawis in the western Sahara and Algeria; and the Tubus in Chad, Niger, and Libya), are becoming city dwellers. Most of the cities are situated in the Maghreb Sahara (Morocco, Algeria, Libya), where some urban areas have a population of over 100,000. The Sahara Mount Koussi, situated in the Tibesti mountains, is the highest point in the Sahara (3,415 m). Lake Chad has lost 90% of its area in the last 30 years. To the south, the Sahara is bordered by the Sahel, a semiarid territory threatened by desertification. With the exception of a few mountain ranges, such as the Hoggar Mountains, the Sahara has few relief features. Atlantic Ocean Mediterranean Sea Red Sea Atlas Arid regions Semiarid regions Situated on the edge of the desert, Nouakchott (pop. 560,000) is considered the largest city in the Sahara. El Aaiun (pop. 150,000) Tamanrasset (pop. 80,000) Biskra (pop. 180,000) Béchar (pop. 135,000) El Oued (pop. 105,000) Wargla (pop. 140,000) Ghardaïa (pop. 128,000) Nouadhibou (pop. 110,000) Sabha (pop. 150,000) Mount Kenya, 5,199 m Lake Tanganyika (32,900 km2 ) Red Sea Lake Victoria (69,500 km2 ) West Great Rift Valley Ethiopian Massif Zambezi River Lake Malawi (29,500 km2 ) Mount Kilimanjaro, 5,895 m More than 4,000 km long, the Great Rift Valley tectonic fault, which includes the West and East Great Rift valleys, crosses eastern Africa from the Red Sea to the mouth of the Zambezi River. It results from the gradual separation of the Somalian lithospheric plate.This process is just beginning: in several million years, East Africa will detach itself to become an independent continent. The intense volcanic activity in the region has led to the formation of the highest mountains in Africa, such as Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya.The largest lakes in Africa (Victoria,Tanganyika, Malawi), tectonic in origin, are also situated along the Great Rift Valley. Paleontologists think that the Great Rift region was the birthplace of the first human beings, more than 2 million years ago. the great rift valley East Great Rift Valley thecontinents : 149 Algeria Morocco Libya Egypt Mauritania Western Sahara Mali Niger Chad Sudan Tunisia
AFRICA Starting with the “great discoveries” of the 15th century, the European countries colonized all of Africa (with the exception of Ethiopia) to profit from its natural wealth. Exploitation of African natural resources and labor, often going as far as slavery, lasted until the 20th century. The countries of Africa became emancipated one after another, between 1910 and 1993, under a wide variety of circumstances. Although some obtained their sovereignty in the 1960s without resistance, others won it after an insurrection or a full war of independence. In 1963, African countries united to form a common front to deal with the problems facing the continent (political instability, human rights, public health, underdevelopment, etc.).Today, the African Union’s membership extends to almost all of the continent’s countries as members. In some cases, former colonizing countries maintain a strong economic grip on their former territories, a grip sometimes called neocolonialism. Independence of African states the decolonization of africa Spanish troops left the Western Sahara in 1975, but the region has since been occupied by Morocco. South Africa, independent since 1910, was administered by descendants of colonists until apartheid was ended, in 1991. An Italian then British colony, Eritrea was annexed to Ethiopia in 1962. It became independent in 1993 by referendum, after decades of violence. Ethiopia was never colonized, but it was occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941. Colonized by Germany in 1886, Namibia was merged with South Africa in 1915. Territories colonized by Germany, such as Cameroon, were divided between France and the United Kingdom after World War II. Liberia was created in 1822 by the United States to settle freed slaves. A British colony, Uganda came under the domination of Kenya in 1902. Algeria 1962 The last colonizing country The year of independence is indicated for each country except Ethiopia, which was never colonized. Belgium Spain France Italy Portugal United Kingdom Other Never colonized Morocco 1956 Tunisia 1956 Libya 1951 Egypt 1922 Sudan 1956 Chad 1960 Niger 1960 Mali 1960 Mauritania 1960 Senegal 1960 Somalia 1960 Kenya 1963 Tanzania 1961 Zambia 1964 Zimbabwe 1965 Botswana 1966 Angola 1975 Madagascar 1960 Rwanda 1962 Dem. Rep. Congo 1960 Burundi 1962 Djibouti 1977 1993 Mauritius 1968 1910 Lesotho 1966 Swaziland 1968 Mozambique 1975 Central African Republic 1960 Congo 1960 1960 Gabon 1960 Equatorial Guinea 1968 Benin 1960 Nigeria 1960 Burkina 1960 Togo 1960 Ghana 1957 Côte d’Ivoire 1960 Guinea 1958 Sierra Leone 1961 Guinea Bissau 1974 Gambi 1965 Cape Verde 1975 1962 Malawi 1964 1975 1847 1990 150 : theCONTINENTS Sao Tome and Principe 1975 Seychelles 1975 Comoros 1975
AFRICA : 151 theCONTINENTS the countries of africa flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Sudan 2,505,813 38.56 Burkina Faso 274,000 14.75 Algeria 2,381,741 33.85 Gabon 267,668 1.33 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,344,858 62.59 Guinea 245,857 9.40 Libya 1,759,540 6.15 Uganda 241,038 30.85 Chad 1,284,000 10.74 Ghana 238,533 23.44 Niger 1,267,000 14.21 Senegal 196,722 12.36 Angola 1,246,700 17.00 Tunisia 163,610 10.32 Mali 1,240,192 12.32 Malawi 118,484 13.92 South Africa 1,221,037 48.47 Erytrea 117,600 4.83 Ethiopia 1,104,300 83.00 Benin 112,622 9.01 Mauritania 1,025,520 3.12 Liberia 111,369 3.76 Egypt 1,001,449 75.44 Sierra Leone 71,740 5.82 Nigeria 923,768 147.85 Togo 56,785 6.57 Tanzania 883,749 40.40 Guinea Bissau 36,125 1.69 Namibia 824,292 2.07 Lesotho 30,355 2.01 Mozambique 801,590 21.34 Equatorial Guinea 28,051 0.507 Zambia 752,618 11.92 Burundi 27,834 8.48 Somalia 637,657 8.68 Rwanda 26,338 9.75 Central African Republic 622,984 4.35 Djibouti 23,200 0.832 Madagascar 587,041 19.65 Swaziland 17,364 1.14 Botswana 581,730 1.88 Gambia 11,295 1.70 Kenya 580,367 37.51 Cape Verde 4,033 0.530 Cameroon 475,442 18.51 Comoros 2,235 0.838 Morocco 446,550 31.23 Mauritius 2,040 1.26 Zimbabwe 390,757 13.37 Sao Tome and Principe 964 0.158 Congo 342,000 3.76 Seychelles 455 0.086 Côte d’Ivoire 322,463 19.28
Perth Sydney AucklandAdelaide Brisbane Melbourne TROPIC OF CAPRICORN A S I A M O U N T M C D O N N E L L H A M E R S L E Y R A N G E Kimberley Plateau A U S T RALIAN CO R D I L L E R A M A O K E M O U N T A I N S NEW ZEALAND AL PS FLINDERSRANGES N u l l a r b o r P l a i n Da rling Murr ay Fly Sepik Burd e kin Lake Eyre, -12 m Mount Cook, 3,764 m Mount Wilhelm, 4,509 m Mount Kosciusko, 2,228 m Suva Koror Yaren Vaiaku Bairiki Palikir Honiara Canberra Port Vila Wellington Port Moresby Dalap-Uliga-Dorrit -6,912 m -7,374 m -9,000 m -9,779 m -7,519 m -8,767 m -8,930 m -7,205 m -10,164 m Mariana Trench, -11,034 m Timor Sea Arafura Sea Tasmanian Sea Bismarck Sea Philippine Sea Gulf of Carpentaria Great Australian Bight Coral Sea Bass Strait Cook Strait Malaita Chuuk Is. Tasmania South Is. Viti Levu North Is. Vanua Levu Stewart Is. Loyalty Is. Gilbert Is. Chatham Is. Guadalcanal Senyavin Is. Choiseul Kermadec Is. (NZ) Saint Croix Is. Bougainville Is. New Ireland Admiralty Is. New Britain Santa Isabel Is. Caroline Is. arch. Melville Is. New Guinea Kangaroo Is. Ogasawara Gunto (JP) Antipodes Is. (NZ) GIBSON DESERT SIMPSON DESERT GREAT SANDY DESERT GREAT VICTORIA DESERT NEW CALEDONIA (FR) GUAM (US) NORTHERN MARIANA IS.(US) NORFOLK IS.(AU) WALLIS AND FUTUNA (FR) A U S T R A L I A PAPUA NEW GUINEA NEW ZEALAND FIJI VANUATU S O L O M O N I S L A N D S PALAU M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S L A N D S Agrihan, 965 m Mount Ord, 937 m Mount Zeil, 1,531 m Mount Ossa, 1,617 m Mount Balbi, 2,715 m Mount Meharry, 1,251 m Mount Ruapehu, 2,797 m St. Mary’s Peak, 1,165 m THECONTINENTS 152 Fiji The some 300 islands that make up the Fiji archipelago have a total area of 18,274 km2 .
EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER INTERNATIONALDATELINE Apia Nuku' alofa -8,071 m Tonga Trench, -10,719 m S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Tahiti Tubuai Is. Phoenix Is. Gardner Is. Gambier Is. Caroline Is. Tabuaeran Is. Palmyra Atoll Kiritimati Is. Palmerston Atoll Society Is. Tuamotu Arch. Hawaii Maui Oahu Kauai Mururoa F R E N C H P O L Y N E S I A ( F R ) NIUE (NZ) AMERICAN SAMOA (US) COOK IS. (NZ) JARVIS IS. (US) TOKELAU (NZ) HOWLAND IS.(US) BAKER IS.(US) JOHNSTON ATOLL (US) HAWAII ARCH. (US) PITCAIRN IS. (GB) SAMOA K I R I B A T I TONGA Mauna Kea, 4,205 m Mount Orohena, 2,241 m OCEANIA Oceania represents 6% of the planet’s landmass and has 33 million inhabitants. Unlike other continents, Oceania consists not of a landmass surrounded by seas, but of a large number of islands sprinkled in the Pacific Ocean. With an area of 7,740,000 square kilometers, Australia is the true continent of Oceania. Among the continent’s thousands of other islands, fewer than 10 have an area over 10,000 square kilometers. Although they have some climatic and geographic features in common, the islands of Oceania do not form a homogeneous grouping. Bisected by the Tropic of Capricorn , Australia has a number of climatic zones.The north part of the island, with its monsoon rains, has a tropical climate, while the south and east coasts have a warm temperate climate. In the center, desert conditions dominate.The archipelagos, except for New Zealand, have high temperatures and abundant precipitation all year round.They are frequently swept by cyclones during the austral winter. Mount Cook, New Zealand New Zealand’s South Island has 18 peaks with an altitude of more than 3,000 m. The tallest one, Mount Cook, has an altitude of 3,764 m. THECONTINENTS : 153 0 500 1,000 km PHYSICAL MAP OF OCEANIA Administrative capital City with more than 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA Altitude(m) 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 -500 -2,500 -5,000 -8,000 -11,034 Depth(m)
oceania theCONTINENTS POPULATION distribution in oceania Sydney, Australia Australia’s largest city, Sydney, has a population of over 4.2 million inhabitants. Lake Wanaka, New Zealand The islands of New Zealand have a coastal climate, moderated by the Pacific Ocean. Great Barrier Reef, Australia The Great Barrier Reef, a coral reef stretching along the northeast coast of Australia, is an extraordinary marine biome. It is about 2,500 km long and is home to almost 1,500 species of fish, 4,000 species of mollusks, and 400 species of coral. the climates of oceania The BIOMES of oceania Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated Source: FAO ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Boreal forest Temperate forest Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert Mountain Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Semiarid Arid Humid with dry winter Humid 154 :
theCONTINENTS Situated in the center of a lithospheric plate, Australia has remained isolated from the other continents for more than 100 million years.This isolation explains the large number of plant and animal species endemic to Australia—that is, found nowhere else in the world. The kangaroo, Australia’s emblematic animal, belongs to the group of mammals called marsupials, whose females raise their young in a stomach pouch. Almost all marsupials come from Australia,Tasmania, and New Guinea.The koala and the wallaby are also marsupials. Among the other animals native to Australia are the duckbill platypus, an archaic mammal species that reproduces by laying eggs. The Australian flora is composed of species adapted to the extreme climatic conditions that reign in a large part of the country. Eucalyptus is one of the species originating on the island. Australian biodiversity oceania Some australian animals The duckbill platypus is an amphibian mammal with a beak resembling a duck’s. Koalas eat eucalyptus leaves, ingesting from 500 g to 1 kg each day. There are 50 species of kangaroos, among them the grey kangaroo. Parry wallabies are very sociable and live in groups of 30 to 50 individuals. The Australian forest has 600 species of eucalyptus. The red kangaroo is the largest (up to 1.5 m in height) and most common kangaroo. : 155
theCONTINENTS oceania The 7,500 islands in the Pacific, about 500 of which are inhabited, are divided into three regional groupings, determined essentially by geographic, ethnic, and cultural factors. Melanesia includes the largest and highest islands. Because these islands are of volcanic origin, many of them are fertile and mineral-rich. Micronesia and Polynesia, on the other hand, are tiny islands that generally rise barely above sea level. New Zealand, in Polynesia, is an exception; its two mountainous islands are separated by Cook Strait.The North Island has volcanic activity, while the South Island is crossed by the New Zealand Alps. The islands of Oceania Pacific Ocean The North Island is home to two- thirds of the 3.6 million inhabitants of New Zealand. Polynesia Micronesia Only the eastern part of the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea) is part of Oceania. Like many Pacific islands, those in the Vanuatu archipelago are formed of lava accumulations. With just under 1 million inhabitants, Fiji is one of the most populous states in Oceania. Cook Strait Many volcanoes are still active in the Hawaiian Archipelago. The Caroline Islands archipelago is shared between two states: Micronesia, to the east, and Palau, to the west. melanesia Australia australia Australia is a gigantic island, often considered the true continent of Oceania. It has a fairly uniform geologic profile: most of its territory is composed of a plateau 300 to 600 m in altitude.The landscapes of eastern Australia are more varied. Along the east coast is a mountain range, the Australian Cordillera. Finally, the center of the island, from the Gulf of Carpentaria, in the north, to the mouth of the Murray River, in the south, is marked by low- altitude watersheds (lakes Eyre, Darling, Murray). Five major Australian cities (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide) contain one-third of the population of Oceania, while the interior of Australia is almost uninhabited. Gulf of Carpentaria Great Barrier Reef Murray River Great Australian Bight Lake Eyre Sydney Melbourne Adelaide Brisbane Australian Cordillera Darling Tasmania belongs to Australia. Perth Auckland, New Zealand> Auckland is the most populated city and the largest port of New Zealand. It is situated on the North Island. South Island Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn equator 156 :
theCONTINENTS oceania the countries of oceania flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Australia 7,741,220 20.72 Kiribati 726 0.092 Papua New Guinea 462,840 6.32 Micronesia 702 0.111 New Zealand 270,534 4.17 Tonga 650 0.100 Solomon Islands 28,896 0.494 Palau 459 0.020 Fiji 18,274 0.838 Marshall Islands 181 0.057 Vanuatu 12,189 0.225 Tuvalu 26 0.010 Samoa 2,831 0.187 Nauru 21 0.010 the territories of oceania Territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign country territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign New Caledonia 18,575 0.241 France Tokelau Islands 12 0.001 New Zealand French Polynesia 4,000 0.263 France Wake Island 6.5 uninhabited United States Guam 549 0.173 United States Midway Islands 6.2 40 inhab. United States Northern Mariana Islands 464 0.080 United States Pitcairn Island 5.0 48 inhab. United Kingdom Niue 260 0.002 New Zealand Jarvis Island 4.5 uninhabited United States Cook Islands 236 0.014 New Zealand Johnston Atoll 2.8 uninhabited United States Wallis and Futuna 200 0.015 France Howland Island 1.6 uninhabited United States American Samoa 199 0.064 United States Baker Island 1.4 uninhabited United States Norfolk Island 36 0.002 Australia : 157
T R A N S A N T A R C T I C MOUNTAIN S Dome Argus, 4,000 m Mount Erebus, 3,795 m Mount Tyree, 4,965m Vinson Massif, 4,897m Mount Kirkpatrick, 4,528m Bentley Subglacial Trench, -2,540 m Scott (NZ) Syowa (JP) Troll (NO) Halley (GB) Jubany (AR) Maitri (IN) Palmer (US) Vostok (RU) Artigas (UY) McMurdo (US) Orcadas (AR) Rothera (GB) Marambio (AR) Neumayer (NO) SANAE IV (ZA) Arctowski (PL) Dome Fuji (JP) Vernadsky (UA) Arturo Prat (CL) Belgrano II (AR) Concordia (FR/IT) Molodezhnaya (RU) Amundsen-Scott (US) Dumont d'Urville (FR) Comandante Ferraz (BR) Princesse Elisabeth (BE) Esperanza (AR) Great Wall (CN) San Martín (AR) King Sejong (KR) Bellingshausen (RU) Presidente Frei (CL) Novolazarevskaja (RU) Bernardo O'Higgins (CL) St. Kliment Ohridski (BG) Ross Sea Weddell Sea Amundsen Sea Bellingshausen Sea S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N ADÉLIE LAND ENDERBY LAND GRAHAM LAND PALMER LAND VICTORIA LAND ELLSWORTH LAND MARIE BYRD LAND MAC. ROBERTSON LAND QUEEN MAUD LAND WILKES LAND Berkner Is. Alexander Is. South Orkney Is. Peter I Is (NO) SouthShetlandIs. LARSEN ICE SHELF LAMBERT GLACIER ROSS ICE SHELF South Magnetic Pole FILCHNER ICE SHELF RONNE ICE SHELF AMERY ICE SHELF ANTARCTICPOLARCIRCLE South Geographic Pole GREENWICHMERIDIAN Beaufort Island On this small island, with an area of 22 km2 , in the Ross Sea, the fauna and flora are protected. Transantarctic Mountains The Transantarctic Mountains, which reach an altitude of more than 4,800 m, separate Western Antarctica from Eastern Antarctica. SECTION OF ANTARCTICA Western Antarctica Eastern Antarctica West East Altitude (m) Distance (km) 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 –1,000 –2,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 –1,000 –2,000 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 bedrock Bellinghausen Sea western ice cap eastern ice cap Ross Ice Shelf Transantarctic Mountains Davis Sea Sources: Frédérique RÉMY; LEGOS; IPEV PHYSICAL MAP OF ANTARCTICA Research station (operating country) Cut line across Antarctica Ice shelf Sources: NIMA; NASA Altitude(m)Depth(m) 0 500 1,000 km 158 THECONTINENTS 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 -500 -2,500 -5,000 -8,000 -11,034
Davis (AU) Mirny (RU) Mawson (AU) Progress (RU) Zhong Shan (CN) Davis Sea I N D I A N O C E A N PRINCESS ELIZABETH LAND ANTARCTICA THECONTINENTS Antarctica is the only continent that is not inhabited on a permanent basis and it is also the coldest continent. Its total area of 14,200,000 square kilometers is 98% covered with an ice cap that is up to 4,000 meters thick in some places. Its high relief profile (an average of 2,300 meters altitude) contributes to the severity of the climate. Powerful winds sweep down the mountain slopes and cool the atmosphere.The temperature drops below –70°C in the center of the continent in the winter, and it does not rise above 0°C in summer, except on the coasts.The air is very dry and most of the continent receives less than 100 millimeters of precipitation per year. An uninhabited continent The inhospitable climatic conditions prevent permanent population settlement in Antarctica.The only inhabitants of the continent are several thousand researchers in scientific stations.They are there temporarily, as long as it takes to fulfill their missions. Scientific research in Antarctica has led to important discoveries, notably that of the reduction of the ozone layer. Antarctica also offers a privileged site for studying the climate and the effects of global warming. For the past 10 years, other visitors have been arriving on the southernmost continent: tourists. Almost 28,000 of them, mostly from the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia, came in 2004–2005 to wander across the ice cap or tour the continent by boat.The main tourist attractions are the fauna and the scientific stations. Some 30 companies throughout the world offer trips to Antarctica. In spite of the precautions that they take, the growth of the tourism industry may disrupt the environment and the scientific research on the continent. The icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer This American research ship, built to sail through ice, can navigate off the shores of Antarctica throughout the year. THE TERRITORIAL CLAIMS Once it was discovered, in the 19th century, Antarctica quickly became the subject of territorial claims by many countries. Neighboring countries, such as Chile and Australia, as well as very distant countries, such as France and Norway, tried to carve out a part of the continent for themselves.The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 to avoid partition of the territory, gives the continent international status. It suspends territorial claims, proscribes military activities, and provides for international cooperation with regard to scientific research. Over the years, a number of international agreements have been added to the treaty to protect fauna (seals, whales) and impose a 50-year moratorium on exploitation of mineral resources (starting in 1998). Today, however, in spite of the legal arsenal that protects Antarctica, the debate continues. A number of countries maintain their claims and some are trying to keep the door open to exploitation of natural resources. Others would like the continent to become a vast ecological reserve. New Zealand Australia France Norway United Kingdom Chile Argentina Source: Australian Antarctic Data Centre : 159
Arabian Desert The wind sweeps through some high grasses that have taken root in a sand dune.
A affluent Watercourse that flows into another watercourse. alluvia Rocks and other debris carried and deposited by a watercourse. altitude Vertical distance of a point in relation to a reference level, generally sea level. amphibian That which lives or moves as well on ground as in the water. anemometer Instrument that measures wind speed. anthropogenic Caused by human beings. anticyclone Zone of high atmospheric pressure. apartheid Regime in South Africa that imposed racial segregation against blacks in favor of the white minority. arable Relating to land that can be cultivated. archipelago Group of islands. artificial satellite Device placed in orbit around a celestial body. ascent Action of climbing a mountain to its peak. asteroid Small celestial body in orbit around the Sun. atmosphere Gaseous layer that surrounds certain celestial bodies, including Earth. atmospheric pressure The force that air exerts by pressing on a given area. B bay A body of water partially enclosed by land and open to the sea. A bay is generally smaller than a gulf. bedrock Ancient eroded land on which volcanic or sedimentary rock rests. biodiversity The variety of living species that populate a given environment. birth rate Number of births in a population over a given period, usually one year. C chronic disease A disease of long duration, the symptoms of which are minor at first but may evolve into serious complications. conifer Tree whose leaves, in the form of needles or scales, generally persist through the winter, and whose fruits are cones. container Metallic crate of standardized size, used for shipping merchandise. continent Large landmass surrounded by water. coral Primitive animal usually living in arborescent colonies that form reefs. cordillera Long, narrow mountain range. D deciduous tree Tree in the flowering plants group whose leaves are wide, as opposed to the narrow needles of conifers. demographer Expert in the study of populations. depression A part of a landmass that is sunk below its surroundings. Meteorology: low-pressure zone. detergent Cleaning product. development Improvement in the situation of a region or a population, usually from an economic standpoint. domestic Relating to life in the home. dominant wind Wind that blows in a constant direction in a region, such as the trade winds. E Earth’s crust Solid layer on the surface of Earth. emigration Departure of individuals from their country of origin to move to another country. endemic Relating to a species that lives only in a given region. epidemic Sudden, rapid propagation of a transmissible disease. equator Imaginary line that circles Earth midway between the poles. estuary Mouth of a river where the current meets the tides, forming an indentation in the coastline that may be more or less wide and more or less deep. extinction Complete and irreversible disappearance. F fault Fracture in Earth’s crust that causes a horizontal or vertical movement in relation to the other. fauna All of the animal species that live in a given region. fertilizer Organic or mineral product that is introduced into the soil to increase its capacity to support plant growth. flood Sudden rise in the level of a watercourse due to heavy precipitation or snow melting. flora All of the plant species that live in a given region. fossil fuel Fuel that was formed millions of years ago from the remains of plants and animals buried in rock (oil, coal, natural gas). freight Transportation of goods. freshwater Water containing very low amounts of mineral salts. G geographic Relating to geography, the science that describes and explains the existing physical and human aspects of Earth’s surface. geographic pole Each of the two points (North Pole and South Pole) of Earth’s surface through which Earth’s axis of rotation passes. geological Relating to geology, the science that studies the Earth, the materials that compose it, and the forces and processes that shape and transform it. government Political system of a nation or group of individuals who administer the nation, usually called ministers. graben Wide, elongated depression with steep sides, formed by the subsidence of a block of terrain between two faults. Glossary : 161
Graminaceous plants Family of plants that includes the high grasses that dominate savannahs. gulf A large area of sea partially enclosed by land, more or less open to the sea. A gulf is generally larger and more enclosed than a bay. H heavy metals Metals such as lead and mercury, which have special chemical properties and many of which are toxic to humans and the environment. hemisphere One of the two halves of the globe, defined by the equator (Northern and Southern hemispheres) or by the Greenwich meridian (Western and Eastern hemispheres). humidity Water vapor contained in the air, the result of transpiration of plants and evaporation from the oceans, rivers and lakes. hydrocarbons Substances formed solely of carbon and hydrogen molecules, present in crude oil and natural gas. hydroelectricity Electricity produced from the force of water. I ice cap Mass of continental ice that permanently covers the polar regions, also called inlandsis. ice shelf Thick layer of floating ice that borders some parts of Antarctica, distinct from the pack ice and ice cap. immigration The arrival of people from another country who are moving to the new host country. intensive farming Agriculture that consumes more resources (water, fertilizer, etc.) in order to increase the yield of cultivated land. irrigation Artificial watering of farmland. isthmus Narrow band of land between two stretches of water, connecting two larger landmasses. L labor force The total mass of workers. latitude Coordinate of a point on Earth’s surface that indicates, in degrees, the angular distance of this point from the equator. lightning Brief, intense flash of light caused by an electrical discharge between two clouds or between a cloud and the ground during a storm. lithospheric plates Immense portions of the lithosphere that slide on top of the asthenosphere and whose movements shape Earth’s relief features. longitude Coordinate of a point on Earth’s surface that indicates, in degrees, the angular distance of this point from the Greenwich meridian. M magma Very viscous liquid formed of molten rocks from the depths of Earth. malnutrition Pathologic state cased by poor nutrition, usually due to an insufficient or incomplete diet. manufactured Produced industrially. mass The amount of matter contained in a body, expressed in grams. megalopolis Extremely large urban area. meridian Imaginary line from pole to pole, perpendicular to the equator. meteorite Fragment of rock originating in space, which is not completely consumed as it passes through the atmosphere and lands on Earth. metropolis The largest city in a given region. monarch Head of state who is a hereditary member of royalty. monsoon Seasonal wind that brings heavy precipitation in some tropical regions. moraine Rocks or other debris carried and deposited by a glacier. moratorium Voluntary suspension of a decision to allow time to study its consequences. mortality Number of deaths in a population over a given period, usually one year. mouth Place where a watercourse flows into the sea or into a lake. N natural satellite Celestial body in orbit around a planet or another celestial body. net migration Difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants. nomadic Relating to a migratory people that are constantly moving. nuclear Relating to atoms and their energy. O oasis Region of a desert made fertile by the presence of water. ocean current Movement of great masses of seawater along a stable path at a regular speed. orbit Trajectory described by one celestial body circling around another due to the effects of gravity. organic Relating to living beings and the materials derived from them. P pack ice Vast layer of ice floating on the sea in polar regions. parallel Imaginary circle whose plane is parallel to the equator. pasture Land where livestock may graze. peninsula Portion of land surrounded by the sea on all sides but one, where an isthmus that may be wide or narrow connects it to the mainland. pesticides Products that destroy harmful organisms. phytoplankton All of the plants that live in suspension in seawater and are moved from place to place by sea currents. planisphere Map that portrays both hemispheres of Earth. polar circle Imaginary line situated at latitude 66° 34’ north (Arctic polar circle) or south (Antarctic polar circle). It designates the edge of the polar zone in which the day lasts 24 hours at the summer solstice and the Sun does not appear at all at the winter solstice. polytheist Said of religions in which a number of gods are worshipped, as opposed to monotheist religions. 162 : Glossary
population growth Increase in the total population of a region taking account of the number of births, deaths, and migrations. The population growth rate may be positive or negative. precipitation All of the liquid and solid forms in which water contained in the atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface (rain, snow, sleet, fog, dew, etc.). propaganda All of the actions orchestrated to manipulate public opinion. Q quota Quantitative limit to be reached or not to be passed. R radioactive Said of the property to spontaneously emit electromagnetic particles or rays that are often dangerous. referendum Consultation of all of the citizens regarding a specific question. relief features All of the differences in ground level (depressions and elevations) of the surface of a region. renewable energy Energy whose source can regenerate naturally. rural Relating to the countryside, as opposed to the city. S sanitary Relating to health. sediment Solid mineral material (rocks, sand, mud) that has been weathered away from its original surroundings by an erosion agent, carried by water, ice, or wind, and deposited in another place. Organic material may also form sediment. seismic wave Vibration generated by an earthquake that propagates in all directions and causes the surface of Earth to shake. shield Large territory composed of eroded primary rock. slope Each of the sides of a mountain. speaker An individual who speaks a given language. strait Natural, relatively narrow maritime passage between two coasts. subduction Phenomenon through which one oceanic plate slides under another lithospheric plate. T tectonic Relating to Earth’s crust, its formation, and its deformations. territory In the political sense, region under the jurisdiction of a nation that is more or less distant from it. tide Daily rise and fall in the level of the ocean, due mainly to the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon. toponym Proper name that designates a place. trade wind Constant wind blowing from east to west in the intertropical zone, notably over the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. tributary See affluent. tropics Parallels situated at 26° 23’ north latitude (Tropic of Cancer) and south latitude (Tropic of Capricorn). They correspond to the latitudes at which the Sun is at its zenith at the solstices. U universal suffrage Electoral system in which all citizens who have reached the age of majority have the right to vote. urban Relating to the city, as opposed to the countryside. urban area Large urban concentration composed of a city and its suburbs. urban dweller Individual who lives in a city. W waterfall Almost-vertical drop of a watercourse due to a sudden change in the level of its bed. watershed Area trained by a watercourse or by all of its tributaries. water table Vast stretch of underground water formed by infiltration of rainwater into the ground. It feeds springs. wave Undulation at the surface of a sea or lake caused by the wind. GlossaRY : 163
164 : STATISTICAL DATA SOURCES adherents.com, from Britannica Airports Council International (ACI) Atlas of the World, National Geographic Australian Government Antarctic Division BBC News British Petroleum (BP) CIA World Factbook Climate Prediction Center (CPC) Community of European Railway (CER) Containerisation International Yearbook Doctors without Borders (MSF) Earth Impact Database, University of New Brunswick Encyclopedia of World Political Systems, J. Derbyshire Energy Information Administration (EIA) ESRI État du monde Ethnologue, SIL International European Union (EU) Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Forbes International Atomic Energy Agency (AIEA) International Disaster Database, Université Catholique de Louvain, Bruxelles (Em-Dat) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Nuclear Safety Center (INSC) International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) International Tennis Federation (ITF) International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Interparliamentary Union (IPU) J. Leclerc, TLFQ, Université Laval Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated Le Monde diplomatique Meyers Grosser Weltatlas Ministère français des Affaires étrangères National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) National Centers for Environmental Predictions (NCEP) National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) Nees-Institut für Biodiversität des Pflanzen Olson et al Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) raileurope.com Reporters Without Borders (RSF) Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego Service météorologique national d’Argentine Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, University of Columbia (SEDAC) Transport Geography on the Web, Hofstra University United Nations (UN) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Development Program (UNDP) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) United States Geological Survey (USGS) University of California at San Diego (UCSD) Uppsala Conflict Database World Bank World Health Organisation (WHO) World Resources Institute (WRI) World Trade Organization (WTO) World Urbanization Prospects, Population Division, UN World Wildlife Fund (WWF) World Wind Energy Association Country names: AGO Angola ALB Albania AND Andorra AZE Azerbaijan BEL Belgium BGR Bulgaria BIH Bosnia and Herzegovina HRV Croatia KNA Saint Kitts and Nevis LIE Liechtenstein LUX Luxembourg MCO Monaco MKD Macedonia MNE Montenegro NLD Netherlands SMR San Marino SRB Serbia SVK Slovakia SVN Slovenia TLS Timor Leste VAT Vatican City VCT Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sovereign countries of territories: AR Argentina AU Australia BE Belgium BG Bulgaria BR Brazil CL Chile CN China DK Denmark EC Ecuador ES Spain FR France GB United Kingdom GQ Equatorial Guinea GR Greece IN India IT Italy JP Japan KR South Korea MA Morocco NL Netherlands NO Norway NZ New Zealand PL Poland PT Portugal RU Russia SE Sweden UA Ukraine US United States UY Uruguay ZA South Africa *Permission to use extracts from ISO 3166-1:2006 was provided by Standards Council of Canada, in cooperation with IHS Canada. No further reproduction is permitted without prior written approval from Standards Council of Canada. ISO code elements* used in the Atlas
Abbreviations mount. range: mountain range res. sta.: research station terr.: nonindependent territory Countries are indicated in bold characters. A Abaco Island … 125 B1 Abidjan, city … 146 C4 Abu Dhabi, capital … 140 D6 Abuja, capital … 146 D4 Accra, capital … 146 D4 Aconcagua, summit … 21, 129 C6 Adamawa Massif … 146 E4 Adana, city … 135 G5 Addis Ababa, capital … 147 G4 Adelaide, city … 152 C7 Adélie Land … 158 D2 Aden, Gulf of … 140 C7, 147 H3 Admiralty Islands … 152 D4 Adrar Bou Nasser, summit … 146 C1 Adriatic Sea … 134 E4 Aegean Sea … 134 F5 Afghanistan … 140 E5 Agra, city … 140 F6 Agrihan, summit … 152 D2 Agulhas, Cape … 146 E8 Ahaggar Massif … 146 D2 Ahmadabad, city … 140 D6 Aïr Massif … 146 D3 Al Manamah, capital … 140 D6 Alabama, watercourse … 122 G4 Alaska, Gulf of … 122 C3 Alaska, peninsula … 122 B2 Alaska Range … 122 B2 Albania … 134 F4 Albert, Lake … 146 G4 Aldabra atoll … 147 H5 Aldan, watercourse … 141 L3 Aleppo, city … 140 B5 Aleutian Islands … 27, 122 A3 Alexander Island … 158 H2 Alexandria, city … 66, 146 F1 Algeria … 146 D2 Algiers, capital … 146 D1 Allahabad, city … 140 G6 Almanzor Peak … 134 C4 Almaty, city … 140 F4 Alps, mount. range … 21, 137, 134 E4 Altai, mount. range … 141 H4 Altiplano, plateau … 129 D4 Altun Shan, mount. range … 141 H5 Amazon, watercourse … 38, 128, 131, 129 D3 Amazonia, plain … 129 D3 American Samoa, terr. … 153 I5 Amery Ice Shelf … 158 B2 Amirante Islands … 147 I5 Amman, capital … 140 B5 Amritsar, city … 140 F5 Amsterdam, city … 134 D3 Amu Darya, watercourse … 140 E5 Amundsen Gulf … 122 D2 Amundsen-Scott, res. sta. … 158 C1 Amundsen Sea … 158 F2 Amur, watercourse … 38, 141 K3 Anatolian Plain … 135 G5 Andaman Islands … 141 H7 Andes Cordillera … 21, 128, 129 C4 Andorra … 134 D4 Andorra La Valla, capital … 134 D4 Andros, island … 125 B1 Aneto Peak … 134 D4 Angara, watercourse … 38, 141 I3 Angel Falls … 39, 128 Angola … 146 E6 Angola Plateau … 146 F6 Anguilla, terr. … 125 C1 Ankara, capital … 135 G5 Annamitic Cordillera … 141 I7 Annapurna, summit … 21, 140 G6 Anshan, city … 141 K4 Antananarivo, capital … 147 H6 Antarctica … 44, 48, 158, 159 Anticosti Island … 123 H3 Antigua and Barbuda … 125 C1 Antipodes Islands … 152 G8 Apennines, mount. range … 134 E4 Apia, capital … 153 H5 Appalachians, mount. range … 122 G4 Arabian Desert … 51, 140 C6 Arabian Sea … 140 E7 Arafura Sea … 141 L10, 152 C4 Araguaia, watercourse … 129 E3 Arakan Yoma, mount. range … 141 H6 Araks, watercourse … 135 H4 Aral Sea … 140 E4 Ararat, Mount … 135 H5 Arctic … 49 Arctowski, res. sta. … 158 H2 Argentina … 48, 129 D5 Argus, Dome … 158 B1 Arkansas, watercourse … 122 F4 Armenia … 135 H4 Artigas, res. sta. … 158 H2 Arturo Prat, res. sta. … 158 H2 Aruba, terr. … 125 C2 Asansol, city … 141 G6 Ascension Island … 146 B5 Ashgabat, capital … 140 D5 Asir, mount. range … 140 C7 Asmara, capital … 147 G3 Assal, Lake … 147 H3 Astana, capital … 140 F3 Asunción, capital … 129 E5 Atacama Desert … 51, 129 D5 Athabasca, Lake … 122 E3 Athens, capital … 134 F5 Atlanta, city … 122 G4 Atlantic Coastal Plain … 122 G4 Atlas, mount. range … 146 D1 Auckland, city … 152 G7 Aurangabad, city … 140 F7 Austin, city … 122 F4 Australia … 37, 155, 156, 152 C5 Australian Cordillera … 19, 152 D7 Austria … 134 E4 Azerbaijan … 135 H4 Azov, Sea of … 135 G4 B Baffin Bay … 122 H2 Baffin Island … 37, 122 H2 Baghdad, capital … 66, 140 C5 Bahamas … 125 B1 Bahrain … 140 D6 Baikal, Lake … 39, 141 J3 Bairiki, capital … 152 G3 Baja California, peninsula … 122 E5 Baker Island … 153 H3 Baku, capital … 135 H4 Balbi, Mount … 152 E4 Balearic Islands, terr. … 134 D5 Balkan, mount. range … 134 F4 Balkhash, Lake … 13, 140 F4 Balsas, watercourse … 122 F5 Baltic Sea … 134 E3 Baltimore, city … 122 G4 Bamako, capital … 146 C3 Banda Sea … 141 K9 Bandar Seri Begawan, capital … 141 J8 Bandeira, Pico da … 129 F5 Bandung, city … 141 I9 Bangalore, city … 140 F7 Bangka, island … 141 I9 Bangkok, capital … 141 I7 Bangladesh … 141 H6 Bangui, capital … 146 E4 Banjul, capital … 146 B3 Banks Islands … 122 D2 Baoding, city … 141 J5 Baotou, city … 141 I4 Barbados … 125 D2 Barbeau, Mount … 122 H1 Barcelona, city … 134 D4 Barents Sea … 32, 134 G2 Barisan Range … 141 I8 Barquisimeto, city … 129 D2 Barranquilla, city … 129 C1 Bass Strait … 152 D7 Bassas da India, island … 147 H7 Basseterre, capital … 125 C1 Batu, summit … 147 H4 Beaufort Sea … 32, 122 C2 Beijing, capital … 141 J4 Beirut, capital … 140 B5 Belarus … 134 F3 Belém, city … 129 F3 Belgium … 134 D3 Belgrade, capital … 134 F4 Belgrano II, res. sta. … 158 I2 Belize … 125 B1 Bellingshausen, res. sta. … 158 H2 Bellingshausen Sea … 158 G2 Belmopan, capital … 125 B1 Belo Horizonte, city … 129 F4 Belukha, Mount … 141 G4 Ben Nevis, summit … 37 Bengal, Bay of … 32, 141 G7 Benghazi, city … 146 F1 Benin … 146 D3 Benin City, city … 146 D4 Bentley Subglacial Trench … 158 G1 Benue, watercourse … 146 E4 Benxi, city … 141 K4 Bering Sea … 122 A3 Bering Strait … 122 A2 Berkner Island … 158 H2 Berlin, capital … 134 E3 Bermuda, terr. … 123 H4 Bern, capital … 134 D4 Bernardo O'Higgins, res. sta. … 158 H2 Bhopal, city … 140 F6 Bhutan … 141 H6 Bioko, island … 146 D4 Birmingham, city … 134 C3 Bishkek, capital … 140 F4 Bismarck Sea … 141 M9, 152 D4 Bissau, capital … 146 B3 Black Sea … 32, 135 G4 Blue Nile, watercourse … 146 G3 Bogotá, capital … 129 C2 Bolivar, Pico … 129 C2 Bolivia … 129 D4 Bombay, city … 140 F7 Bonete, summit … 129 D5 Borah, Mount … 122 E4 Borneo, island … 37, 60, 141 J9 Bosnia and Herzegovina … 134 E4 Bosporus Strait … 134 F4 Boston, city … 122 H4 Botev, Mount … 134 F4 Bothnia, Gulf of … 134 E2 Botswana … 146 F7 Bougainville Island … 152 E4 Brahmaputra, watercourse … 141 H6 Brasília, capital … 129 F4 Bratislava, capital … 134 E4 Brazil … 129 E4 Brazilian Plateau … 129 F4 Brazos, watercourse … 122 F4 Brazzaville, capital … 146 E5 Bridgetown, capital … 125 D2 Brisbane, city … 152 E6 British Virgin Islands, terr. … 125 C1 Brooks Range … 122 C2 Brunei … 141 J8 Brussels, capital … 134 D3 Bucaramanga, city … 129 C2 Bucharest, capital … 134 F4 Budapest, capital … 134 F4 Buenos Aires, capital … 129 E6 Bujumbura, capital … 146 F5 Bulgaria … 134 F4 Bulu Rantekombola, summit … 141 K9 Burdekin, watercourse … 152 D5 Burkina Faso … 146 C3 Burma … 141 H6 : 165 GEographical Index
Bursa, city … 134 F4 Burundi … 146 G5 C Cachi, summit … 129 D5 Cairo, capital … 46, 66, 148, 146 G1 Calcutta, city … 66, 141 G6 Calgary, city … 122 E3 Cali, city … 129 C2 California, Gulf of … 122 E5 Cambodia … 141 I7 Cambrian Mountains … 134 C3 Cameroon … 146 E4 Cameroon, Mount … 27, 146 D4 Campinas, city … 129 F5 Canada … 33, 46, 61, 122 F3 Canadian Shield, plateau … 122 G3 Canary Islands, terr. … 36, 146 B2 Canberra, capital … 152 D7 Cantabrian Mountains … 134 C4 Cape Breton Island … 123 H3 Cape Town, city … 146 E8 Cape Verde … 146 A3 Caracas, capital … 129 D1 Carbón, Laguna del … 129 D7 Caribbean Sea … 32, 125 B1 Caroline Island … 153 J4 Caroline Islands archipelago … 152 D3 Carpathians, mount. range … 134 F4 Carpentaria, Gulf of … 152 C5 Casablanca, city … 146 C1 Cascade Range … 122 D3 Caspian Depression … 135 I4, 140 C4 Caspian Sea … 39, 135 H4, 140 C4 Castries, capital … 125 C2 Caucasus, mount. range … 21, 135 H4 Cayman Islands, terr. … 125 B1 Cedar Lake … 122 F3 Celebes Sea … 141 K8 Central African Republic … 146 F4 Central Massif … 134 D4 Central Russian Uplands … 134 G3 Central Siberian Plateau … 141 I2 Ceram, island … 141 K9 Cervin, Mount … 134 D4 Ceuta, terr. … 146 C1 Chad … 146 E3 Chad, Lake … 146 E3 Changchun, city … 141 K4 Changde, city … 141 J6 Changsha, city … 141 J6 Changzhou, city … 141 J5 Chao Phraya, watercourse … 141 I7 Chatham Islands … 152 H8 Chelyabinsk, city … 140 E3 Chengdu, city … 141 I5 Chersky Range … 141 M2 Chicago, city … 122 G4 Chifeng, city … 141 J4 Chihuahuan Desert … 51, 122 F5 Chile … 18, 77, 129 C6 Chiloé Island … 129 C7 Chimborazo, summit … 129 C3 China … 29, 141 H5 Chire, watercourse … 146 G6 Chisinau, capital … 134 F4 Chittagong, city … 141 G6 Cho Oyu, summit … 21, 141 G6 Choiseul, island … 152 E4 Chongqing, city … 66, 141 I6 Chott Melrhir, depression … 146 D1 Chubut, watercourse … 129 D7 Chuo Yang Sin, summit … 141 I7 Chuuk Islands … 152 E3 Cincinnati, city … 122 G4 Ciudad Juárez, city … 122 E4 Cleveland, city … 122 G4 Coast Mountains … 122 D3 Cochin, city … 140 F8 Coimbatore, city … 140 F7 Colombia … 27, 129 C2 Colombo, capital … 140 G8 Colorado (N. America), watercourse … 122 E4 Colorado (S. America), watercourse … 129 D6 Colorado Plateau … 51, 122 E4 Columbia, watercourse … 122 E3 Columbus, city … 122 G4 Comandante Ferraz, res. sta. … 158 H2 Comoros … 147 H6 Conakry, capital … 146 B4 Concordia, res. sta. … 158 D2 Congo … 146 E5 Congo, watercourse … 38, 146 F4 Congo Basin … 146 F4 Cook Islands, terr. … 153 I5 Cook, Mount … 152 F8 Cook Strait … 152 G8 Copenhagen, capital … 134 E3 Coral Sea … 152 E5 Córdoba, city … 129 D6 Corno Grande, summit … 134 E4 Cornwall, peninsula … 134 C3 Corsica, terr. … 134 D4 Costa Rica … 127, 125 B2 Côte d’Ivoire … 146 C4 Cotonou, capital … 146 D4 Cotopaxi, summit … 129 C3 Crêt de la Neige, summit … 134 D4 Crete, island … 136, 134 F5 Crimea, peninsula … 135 G4 Cristobal Colon, Pico … 129 C1 Croatia … 134 E4 Cuba … 125 B1 Curitiba, city … 129 F5 Cyprus … 135 G5 Czech Republic … 134 E4 D Dakar, capital … 146 B3 Dalalven, watercourse … 134 E2 Dalap-Uliga-Dorrit, capital … 152 G3 Dalian, city … 141 K5 Dallas, city … 122 F4 Damascus, capital … 140 B5 Damavand, summit … 140 D5 Danube, watercourse … 134 F4 Daqing, city … 141 K4 Dar es Salaam, city … 147 G5 Darfur, mount. range … 146 F3 Darling, watercourse … 38, 152 D7 Datong, city … 141 J5 Davao, city … 141 K8 Davis, res. sta. … 159 B2 Davis Sea … 159 C2 Davis Strait … 122 I2 Dead Sea … 140 B5 Death Valley, depression … 122 E4 Deccan Plateau … 140 F7 Delhi, city … 66, 140 F6 Della, waterfall … 39 Demirkazik, summit … 135 G5 Democratic Republic of the Congo … 27, 146 F5 Denakil Plain, depression … 147 H3 Denmark … 134 E3 Denmark Strait … 123 K2 Denver, city … 122 F4 Detroit, city … 122 G4 Devon Island … 122 G1 Dhaka, capital … 66, 141 H6 Dhanbad, city … 141 G6 Dhaulagiri, summit … 21, 140 G6 Dili, capital … 141 K9 Dinaric Alps, mount. range … 134 E4 Djado Plateau … 146 E2 Djibouti … 147 H3 Djibouti, capital … 147 H3 Dnepropetrovsk, city … 135 G4 Dnieper, watercourse … 134 G4 Dniester, watercourse … 134 F4 Doda Betta, summit … 140 F7 Dodoma, capital … 146 G5 Doha, capital … 140 D6 Dome Fuji, res. sta. … 158 B2 Dominica … 125 C1 Dominican Republic … 125 C1 Don, watercourse … 135 H4 Dongguan, city … 141 J6 Douala, city … 146 D4 Drakensberg, mount. range … 146 F8 Dubai, city … 140 D6 Dublin, capital … 134 C3 Duero, watercourse … 134 C4 Dumont d'Urville, res. sta. … 158 D2 Durban, city … 146 G7 Durg-Bhilainagar, city … 140 G6 Dushanbe, capital … 140 E5 E East China Sea … 32, 141 K5 East Great Rift Valley, basin … 146 G6 Ebro, watercourse … 134 C4 Ecuador … 129 C2 Edmonton, city … 122 E3 Egypt … 146 F2 Ekaterinburg, city … 140 E3 Ekurhuleni, city … 146 F7 El Chichón, volcano … 27 El Salvador … 125 B2 El Teleno, summit … 134 C4 Elbe, watercourse … 134 E3 Elbrus, mount. range … 140 D5 Elbrus, summit … 21, 135 H4 Ellesmere Island … 122 G1 Ellsworth Land … 158 H2 Enderby Land … 158 B2 English Channel, sea … 134 C3 Ennedi, mount. range … 146 F3 Enriquillo, Lago … 125 C1 Equatorial Guinea … 146 E4 Erebus, Mount … 158 E2 Erie, Lake … 122 G4 Eritrea … 147 G3 Esfahan, city … 140 D5 Esperanza, res. sta. … 158 H2 Estonia … 134 F3 Ethiopia … 147 H4 Ethiopian Massif … 147 H3  Etna, summit … 16, 134 E5 Euboea, island … 134 F5 Euphrates, watercourse … 135 G5, 140 C5 Everest, Mount … 21, 141 G6 Eyre, Lake … 152 C6 F Faisalabad, city … 140 F5 Falkland Islands, terr. … 129 E8 Faridabad, city … 140 F6 Faroe Islands, terr. … 134 C2 Farquhar Islands … 147 I5 Fernando de Noronha Island … 129 G3 Fiji … 152 G5 Filchner Ice Shelf … 158 I2 Finland … 134 F2 Finland, Gulf of … 134 F3 Firat, watercourse … 135 H5 Flinders Ranges … 152 C7 Flores, island … 141 K9 Flores Sea … 141 K9 Florida, peninsula … 122 G5, 125 B1 Fly, watercourse … 152 D4 Fortaleza, city … 129 G3 Fouta Djallon, mount. range … 146 B3 France … 134 D4 Fraser, watercourse … 122 D3 Freetown, capital … 146 B4 French Guiana, terr. … 129 E2 French Polynesia, terr. … 153 K5 Fuji, Mount … 37, 141 L5 Fukuoka, city … 141 L5 Fundy, Bay of … 33 Fushun, city … 141 K4 Fuyu, city … 141 K4 Fuzhou, city … 141 J6 G Gabon … 146 E5 Gaborone, capital … 146 F7 Galapagos Islands … 128 A3 Galdhøppigen, summit … 134 D2 Gambia … 146 B3 Gambier Islands … 153 L6 166 : Geographical Index
Ganges, watercourse … 140 G6 Gardner Island … 153 H4 Garonne, watercourse … 134 D4 Gascogne, Gulf of … 134 C4 Gavarnic, waterfall … 39 Gaza Strip, terr. … 140 B5 Georgetown, capital … 129 E2 Georgia … 135 H4 Gerlachovska, summit … 134 F4 Germano-Polish Plain … 134 E3 Germany … 134 E3 Ghana … 146 C4 Ghaziabad, city … 140 F6 Gibraltar, terr. … 134 C5 Gibraltar, Strait of … 134 C5 Gibson Desert … 51, 152 B6 Gilbert Islands … 152 G3 Glasgow, city … 134 C3 Glass, waterfall … 39 Glomma, watercourse … 134 E2 Glorioso Islands … 147 H6 Gobi Desert … 45, 51, 141 I4 Godavari, watercourse … 140 F7 Goiânia, city … 129 F4 Gotland, island … 134 E3 Goyang, city … 141 K5 Graham Land … 158 H2 Grampian Mountains … 134 C3 Gran Chaco, plain … 129 D5 Grand Bahama Island … 125 B1 Grand Canyon, depression … 122 E4 Great Australian Bight … 152 C7 Great Basin … 45, 51, 122 E4 Great Bear Lake … 39, 122 D2 Great Bear River … 122 D2 Great Britain, island … 37 Great Inagua Island … 125 C1 Great Plains … 122 F3 Great Salt Lake … 122 E4 Great Sandy Desert … 51, 152 B6 Great Slave Lake … 39, 122 E2 Great Victoria Desert … 152 B6 Great Wall, res. sta. … 158 H2 Greece … 134 F5 Greenland, terr. … 37, 49, 122 I1 Grenada … 125 C2 Grossglockner, summit … 134 E4 Guadalajara, city … 122 F5 Guadalcanal, island … 152 E5 Guadaloupe, island … 122 E5 Guadalquivir, watercourse … 134 C5 Guadeloupe, terr. … 125 C1 Guam, terr. … 152 D2 Guangzhou, city … 141 J6 Guapore, watercourse … 129 D4 Guatemala … 125 A1 Guatemala, capital … 125 A2 Guayaquil, city … 129 B3 Guernsey, terr. … 134 C4 Guinea … 146 C4 Guinea, Gulf of … 146 D4 Guinea-Bissau … 146 B3 Guiyang, city … 141 I6 Gujranwala, city … 140 F5 Gunnbjorn, Mount … 37, 123 J2 Gunung Kerinci, summit … 37, 141 I9 Guyana … 129 E2 Guyana Plateau … 129 E2 Gyala Peri, summit … 141 H6 H Hadramout, mount. range … 140 C7 Hainan, island … 141 I7 Haiphong, city … 141 I6 Haiti … 125 C1 Halley, res. sta. … 158 I2 Halmahera, island … 141 K8 Hamburg, city … 134 E3 Hamersley Range … 152 A6 Handan, city … 141 J5 Hangzhou, city … 141 J6 Hanoi, capital … 141 I6 Harare, capital … 146 G6 Harbin, city … 141 K4 Havana, capital … 125 B1 Hawaii archipelago … 27, 153 J2 Hawaii Island … 153 J2 Hebrides Islands … 134 C3 Hefei, city … 141 J5 Helsinki, capital … 46, 134 F2 Heze, city … 141 J5 Highlands, plateau … 134 C3 Hijaz, mount. range … 140 B6 Himalayas, mount. range … 21, 143, 141 G6 Hindu Kush, mount. range … 140 F5 Hiroshima, city … 141 L5 Ho Chi Minh City, city … 141 I7 Hokkaido, island … 141 M4 Honduras … 125 B1 Honduras, Gulf of … 125 B1 Hong, watercourse … 141 I6 Hong Kong, city … 141 J6 Honiara, capital … 152 E4 Honshu, island … 37, 141 L5 Hormuz, Strait of … 140 D6 Horn, Cape … 129 D8 Houston, city … 122 F5 Howland Island, terr. … 153 H3 Huaian, city … 141 J5 Huainan, city … 141 J5 Huang He, watercourse … 39, 141 I5 Huascarán, summit … 21, 129 C3 Hudson, watercourse … 122 H4 Hudson Bay … 48, 122 G3 Huhot, city … 141 J4 Hungarian Basin … 134 F4 Hungary … 134 E4 Huron, Lake … 39, 122 G3 Huzhou, city … 141 J5 Hvannadalshnúkur, summit … 134 B2 Hyderabad (India), city … 140 F7 Hyderabad (Pakistan), city … 140 E6 IJ Ibadan, city … 146 D4 Iberville, Mont d’ … 122 H3 Iceland … 134 B2 Illimani, summit … 129 D4 Inch'on, city … 141 K5 India … 140 F6 Indianapolis, city … 122 G4 Indigirka, watercourse … 141 M2 Indonesia … 27, 29, 144, 141 K9 Indore, city … 140 F6 Indus, watercourse … 140 E6 Indus Plain … 140 E6 Ionian Sea … 134 E5 Iran … 29, 140 D5 Iraq … 140 C5 Ireland … 134 C3 Irrawaddy, watercourse … 141 H6 Irtych, watercourse … 38, 140 F3 Islamabad, capital … 140 F5 Israel … 140 B5 Issyk Kul, lake … 140 F4 Istanbul, city … 134 F4 Italy … 29, 134 E4 Izmir, city … 134 F5 Jabalpur, city … 140 G6 Jaipur, city … 140 F6 Jakarta, capital … 141 I9 Jamaica … 127, 125 B1 James Bay … 122 G3 Jamshedpur, city … 141 G6 Jan Mayen, terr. … 134 C1 Japan … 26, 27, 29, 144, 141 L5 Japan, Sea of … 32, 141 L5 Japura, watercourse … 129 D3 Jarvis Island, terr. … 153 I3 Java, island … 27, 141 J9 Java Sea … 141 J9 Java Trench … 33 Jebel Toubkal, summit … 146 C1 Jeddah, city … 140 B6 Jenissei, watercourse … 38, 141 G2 Jersey, terr. … 134 C4 Jerusalem, city … 84 Jezerce, summit … 134 E4 Jilin, city … 141 K4 Jinan, city … 66, 141 J5 Jining, city … 141 J5 Jinxi, city … 141 K4 Johannesburg, city … 146 F7 Johnston Atoll, terr. … 153 I2 Jordan … 140 B5 Jos Plateau … 146 D3 Juan de Nova Island … 147 H6 Juan Fernandez Islands … 129 C6 Jubany, res. sta. … 158 H2 Jubba, watercourse … 147 H4 Jura, mount. range … 134 D4 Juruena, watercourse … 129 E4 Jutland, peninsula … 134 D3 K K2, summit … 21, 140 F5 Kabul, capital … 140 E5 Kaduna, city … 146 D3 Kalahari Desert … 51, 146 F7 Kaliningrado … 134 F3 Kama, watercourse … 135 I2 Kamchatka, peninsula … 141 N3 Kampala, capital … 146 G4 Kanchenjunga, summit … 21, 141 G6 Kangaroo Island … 152 C7 Kano, city … 146 D3 Kanpur, city … 140 G6 Kansas City, city … 122 F4 Kaoshsiung, city … 141 K6 Kapuas, watercourse … 141 J8 Kara Sea … 141 G1 Karachi, city … 66, 140 E6 Karaj, city … 140 D5 Karakoram, mount. range … 21, 140 F5 Karakum Desert … 51, 140 D5 Kathmandu, capital … 141 G6 Kattegat, strait … 134 E3 Kauai Island … 153 J1 Kazakhstan … 13, 140 F4 Kazan, city … 135 H3 Kebnekaise, summit … 134 E2 Keele Peak … 122 D2 Kelut, volcano … 27 Kemijoki, watercourse … 134 F2 Kenya … 46, 147 G4 Kenya, Mount … 21, 147 G5 Kermadec Islands … 152 H7 Kharkiv, city … 135 G4 Khartoum, capital … 146 G3 Khorat Plain … 141 I7 Khulna, city … 141 G6 Khuriya Muriya Islands … 140 D7 Kiev, capital … 134 G3 Kigali, capital … 146 G5 Kilimanjaro, summit … 21, 147 G5 Kimberley Plateau … 152 B5 Kinabalu, summit … 37, 141 J8 King Sejong, res. sta. … 158 H2 Kingston, capital … 125 B1 Kingstown, capital … 125 C2 Kinshasa, capital … 146 E5 Kiribati … 153 I4 Kiritimati Island … 153 J3 Kirkpatrick, Mount … 158 E1 Kizilirmak, watercourse … 135 G4 Kodiak Island … 122 B3 Koko Nor, lake … 141 H5 Kola, peninsula … 134 G2 Kolwezi, city … 146 F6 Kolyma, watercourse … 141 N2 Kolyma Mountains … 141 N2 Komandor Islands … 141 O3 Koror, capital … 152 C3 Kosciusko, Mount … 19, 37, 152 D7 Kosovo … 134 F4 Koussi, Mount … 146 E3 Krimmler, waterfall … 39 Krishna, watercourse … 140 F7 Kuala Lumpur, capital … 141 I8 Kulul, depression … 147 H3 Kumasi, city … 146 C4 Kunene, watercourse … 146 E6 Kunlun Shan, mount. range … 140 G5 Geographical Index : 167
Kunming, city … 141 I6 Kura, watercourse … 135 H4 Kuril Islands … 141 M4 Kuwait … 140 C6 Kuwait, capital … 140 C6 Kwangju, city … 141 K5 Kwanza, watercourse … 146 E5 Kyoto, city … 141 L5 Kyrgyzstan … 140 F4 Kyushu, island … 141 L5 Kyzylkum Desert … 51, 140 E4 L La Paz, capital … 129 D4 Laagen, watercourse … 134 E2 Labrador Sea … 123 I3 Ladakh, mount. range … 140 F5 Ladoga, Lake … 134 G2 Lagos, city … 146 D4 Lahore, city … 66, 140 F5 Lakshadweep, islands … 140 F7 Lambert Glacier … 158 B2 Lanzarote, island … 36 Lanzhou, city … 141 I5 Laos … 141 I6 Laptev Sea … 141 K1 Larsen Ice Shelf … 158 H2 Las Vegas, city … 122 E4 Latvia … 134 F3 Laurentians, mount. range … 122 H3 Lebanon … 140 B5 Leeds, city … 134 C3 Lena, watercourse … 38, 141 I3 León, city … 122 F5 Lesbos, island … 134 F5 Leshan, city … 141 I6 Lesotho … 146 F7 Liberia … 146 C4 Libreville, capital … 146 D4 Libya … 146 E2 Liechtenstein … 134 D4 Lille, city … 134 D3 Lilongwe, capital … 146 G6 Lima, capital … 129 C4 Limpopo, watercourse … 146 G7 Linyi, city … 141 J5 Lisbon, capital … 134 C5 Lithuania … 134 F3 Liuan, city … 141 J5 Liupanshui, city … 141 I6 Liuzhou, city … 141 I6 Ljubljana, capital … 134 E4 Llanos, plain … 129 D2 Llullaillaco, summit … 129 D5 Lofoten Islands … 134 E2 Logan, Mount … 21, 122 C2 Loire, watercourse … 134 D4 Lome, capital … 146 D4 London, capital … 134 C3 Los Angeles, city … 122 E4 Loyalty Islands … 152 F6 Lualaba, watercourse … 146 F5 Luanda, capital … 146 E5 Lubumbashi, city … 146 F6 Lucknow, city … 140 G6 Ludhiana, city … 140 F5 Lukuga, watercourse … 146 F5 Luoyang, city … 141 J5 Lusaka, capital … 146 F6 Luxembourg … 134 D4 Luxembourg, capital … 134 D4 Luzhou, city … 141 I6 Luzon, island … 141 K7 Lyon, city … 134 D4 M Mac. Robertson Land … 158 B2 Macedonia … 134 F4 Maceió, city … 129 G3 Mackenzie, watercourse … 38, 122 D2 Mackenzie Mountains … 122 D2 Madagascar … 37, 147 H6 Madeira, terr. … 146 B1 Madeira, watercourse … 129 D3 Madras, city … 140 G7 Madre de Dios, watercourse … 129 D4 Madrid, capital … 134 C4 Madurai, city … 140 F7 Magdalena, watercourse … 129 C2 Magellan, Strait of … 129 D8 Mahakam, watercourse … 141 J8 Mahanadi, watercourse … 140 G6 Mahé, island … 147 I5 Maitri, res. sta. … 158 A2 Makalu, summit … 21, 141 H6 Makassar, city … 141 J9 Malabo, capital … 146 D4 Malacca Peninsula … 141 I8 Malacca, Strait of … 141 I8 Malaita, island … 152 F4 Malawi … 146 G6 Malawi, Lake … 39, 146 G6 Malaysia … 141 I8 Maldives … 140 F8 Male, capital … 140 F8 Mali … 146 C3 Malta … 134 E5 Man, Isle of, terr. … 134 C3 Managua, capital … 125 B2 Manaslu, summit … 21, 141 G6 Manaus, city … 129 E3 Manchester, city … 134 C3 Manchurian Plain … 141 K4 Mangoky, watercourse … 147 H7 Mania, watercourse … 147 H6 Manila, capital … 141 K7 Manitoba, Lake … 122 F3 Maoke Mountains … 141 L9, 152 D4 Maotou Shan, summit … 141 I6 Maputo, capital … 146 G7 Maracaibo, city … 129 C1 Maracaibo, Lake … 133, 129 C2 Maracay, city … 129 D1 Marajó Island … 129 F3 Marambio, res. sta. … 158 H2 Marañón, watercourse … 129 C3 Marcus Island … 141 N6 Margarita Island … 129 D1 Mariana Trench … 24, 33, 152 D2 Marie Byrd Land … 158 G1 Marmara, Sea of … 134 F4 Maromokotro, Mount … 37 Marseille-Aix-en-Provence, city … 134 D4 Marshall Islands … 152 G3 Martin Vaz Islands … 129 H5 Martinique, terr. … 125 C2 Maseru, capital … 146 F7 Mashhad, city … 140 D5 Mato Grosso, plateau … 129 E4 Maui Island … 153 J1 Mauna Kea, summit … 153 J2 Mauritania … 146 B3 Mauritius … 147 I7 Mawson, res. sta. … 159 B2 Mayon, volcano … 27 Mayotte, terr. … 147 H6 Mbabane, capital … 146 G7 Mbuji-Mayi, city … 146 F5 McDonnell, Mount … 152 C6 McKinley, Mount … 21, 122 B2 McMurdo, res. stat. … 158 E2 Mecca, city … 85, 140 B6 Medan, city … 141 H8 Medellín, city … 129 C2 Mediterranean Sea … 32, 134 D5, 140 A5, 146 E1 Meerut, city … 140 F6 Meharry, Mount … 152 A6 Mekong, watercourse … 38, 141 I7 Melbourne, city … 152 D7 Melilla, terr. … 146 C1 Melville Island (N. America) … 122 E1 Melville Island (Oceania) … 152 C5 Memphis, city … 122 G4 Mentawai Islands … 141 H8 Merapi, volcano … 27 Mercedario, summit … 129 C6 Mexico … 27, 122 F5 Mexico, capital … 124, 122 F5 Mexico, Gulf of … 32, 122 G5, 125 B1 Miami, city … 122 G5 Mianyang, city … 141 I5 Michigan, Lake … 39, 122 G4 Micronesia … 152 D3 Milano, city … 134 D4 Milwaukee, city … 122 G4 Mindanao, island … 141 K8 Minneapolis, city … 122 F4 Minsk, capital … 134 F3 Minya Konka, summit … 141 I6 Mirny, res. sta. … 159 C2 Mississippi, watercourse … 38, 122 F4 Missouri, watercourse … 38, 122 F4 Mitchell, Mount … 122 G4 Mitumba Mountains … 146 F5 Mogadishu, capital … 147 H4 Mojave Desert … 51, 122 E4 Moldova … 134 F4 Moldoveanu, Mount … 134 F4 Molloy Hole … 33 Molodezhnaya, res. sta. … 158 B2 Molucca Sea … 141 K9 Monaco … 134 D4 Monaco, capital … 134 D4 Moncayo, summit … 134 C4 Mongolia … 141 I4 Monoun, Lake … 27 Monrovia, capital … 146 B4 Mont Blanc, summit … 21, 134 D4 Monte Cinto, summit … 134 D4 Montenegro … 134 E4 Monterrey, city … 122 F5 Montevideo, capital … 129 E6 Montréal, city … 46, 122 H3 Montserrat, terr. … 27, 125 C1 Morocco … 146 C1 Moroni, capital … 147 H6 Moscow, capital … 134 G3 Mosul, city … 140 C5 Mozambique … 146 G6 Mozambique Channel … 147 H6 Mtarazi, waterfall … 39 Mudanjiang, city … 141 K4 Mulhacén, summit … 134 C5 Multan, city … 140 F6 Munich, city … 134 E4 Murat, watercourse … 135 H5 Murray, watercourse … 38, 152 D7 Mururoa, island … 153 L6 Musala Peak … 134 F4 Muscat, capital … 140 D6 Muztag, summit … 141 G5 Mweru, Lake … 146 F5 N Nagoya, city … 141 L5 Nagpur, city … 140 F6 Nairobi, capital … 147 G5 Namib Desert … 51, 146 E7 Namibia … 13, 146 E7 Nampho, city … 141 K5 Nanchang, city … 141 J6 Nanchong, city … 141 I5 Nanga Parbat, summit … 21, 140 F5 Nanjing, city … 66, 141 J5 Nanning, city … 141 I6 Nanyang, city … 141 K5 Naples, city … 134 E4 Narmada, watercourse … 140 F6 Nashik, city … 140 F7 Nassau, capital … 125 B1 Natal, city … 129 G3 Nauru … 152 F4 Naypyidaw, capital … 141 H7 Ndjamena, capital … 146 E3 Neblina, Pico da … 129 D2 Neijiang, city … 141 I6 Nelson, watercourse … 122 F3 Nepal … 140 G6 Netherlands … 134 D3 Netherlands Antilles, terr. … 125 C2 Nettilling Lake … 122 H2 Neumayer, res. sta. … 158 I2 168 : GEographical Index
Neva, watercourse … 134 G3 Nevado del Ruiz, volcano … 27 New Britain, island … 152 E4 New Caledonia, terr. … 152 F6 New Delhi, capital … 140 F6 New Guinea, island … 37, 152 D4 New Ireland, island … 152 E4 New Orleans, city … 57, 122 G5 New Siberia Islands … 141 M1 New York, city … 122 H4 New Zealand … 40, 154, 152 G7 New Zealand Alps, mount. range … 152 G8 Newfoundland, island … 123 I3 Niagara Falls … 39 Niamey, capital … 146 D3 Nicaragua … 125 B2 Nicaragua, Lake … 125 B2 Nicobar Islands … 141 H8 Nicosia, capital … 135 G5 Niger … 146 D3 Niger, watercourse … 38, 146 C3 Nigeria … 146 D4 Nile, watercourse … 38, 146 G2 Ningbo, city … 141 K6 Nipigon, Lake … 122 G3 Niue, terr. … 153 I5 Nizhni Novgorod, city … 134 G3 Norfolk Island, terr. … 152 F6 North Cape … 134 F1 North Island … 152 G7 North Korea … 141 K5 North Sea … 32, 134 D3 Northern Dvina, watercourse … 134 H2 Northern Mariana Islands, terr. … 152 D2 Norway … 134 D3 Norwegian Sea … 134 D2 Nouakchott, capital … 146 B3 Nova Scotia, island … 123 H4 Novaya Zemlya, island … 134 I1 Novolazarevskaja, res. sta. … 158 A2 Novosibirsk, city … 141 G3 Nubian Desert … 146 G2 Nuku' alofa, capital … 153 H6 Nullarbor Plain … 152 C7 Nunivak Island … 122 A3 Nyiragongo, volcano … 27 Nyos, Lake … 27 O Oahu Island … 153 J1 Ob, watercourse … 38, 141 G3 Oder, watercourse … 134 E3 Odessa, city … 134 G4 Odin, Mount … 37, 122 H2 Ogasawara Gunto, island … 152 D1 Ogooué, watercourse … 146 E4 Ohio, watercourse … 122 G4 Ojos del Salado, summit … 129 D5 Okavango, watercourse … 146 F6 Okavango Basin … 146 F7 Okhotsk, Sea of … 141 M3 Oklahoma City … 56 Öland, island … 134 E3 Olympus, Mount … 134 F4 Oman … 140 D7 Oman, Gulf of … 140 D6 Omsk, city … 140 F3 Onega, Lake … 134 G2 Ontario, Lake … 122 G4 Orange, watercourse … 146 F7 Orcadas, res. sta. … 158 H2 Ord, Mount … 152 B5 Orinoco, watercourse … 129 D2 Orizaba, summit … 21, 122 F5 Orlando, city … 122 G5 Orohena, Mount … 153 K5 Osaka-Kobe, city … 29, 141 L5 Oslo, capital … 134 E3 Ossa, Mount … 152 D8 Ottawa, capital … 122 G3 Ouagadougou, capital … 146 C3 Oued Draa, watercourse … 146 C2 Ozark Plateau … 122 F4 P Pakistan … 29, 140 E6 Palau … 152 C3 Palembang, city … 141 I9 Palikir, capital … 152 E3 Palk Strait … 140 F8 Palmer, res. sta. … 158 H2 Palmer Land … 158 H2 Palmerston Atoll … 153 I5 Palmyra Atoll … 153 I3 Pamirs, mount. range … 140 F5 Pampas, plain … 129 D6 Panama … 125 B2 Panama, capital … 125 B2 Panama Canal … 125 B2 Panama, Isthmus of … 125 B2 Papua New Guinea … 152 D4 Paraguay … 129 E5 Paraguay, watercourse … 129 E4 Paramaribo, capital … 129 E2 Parana, watercourse … 38, 41, 129 E5 Parana Plateau … 129 E5 Paranaiba, watercourse … 129 F4 Paris, capital … 136, 134 D4 Parnaíba, watercourse … 129 F3 Patagonia, plateau … 51, 129 D7 Patna, city … 141 G6 Peace River … 122 E3 Pechora, watercourse … 135 I2 Peipus, Lake … 134 F3 Peloponnese, peninsula … 134 F5 Pennines, mount. range … 134 C3 Persian Gulf … 32, 140 D6 Perth, city … 152 A7 Peru … 29, 128, 129 C3 Peshawar, city … 140 F5 Peter I Island … 158 G2 Philadelphia, city … 122 G4 Philippine Sea … 141 K7, 152 B1 Philippines … 27, 142, 144, 141 K7 Phnom Penh, capital … 141 I7 Phoenix, city … 122 E4 Phoenix Islands … 153 H4 Phou Bia, summit … 141 I7 Pikes Peak … 122 F4 Pinatubo, volcano … 27 Pindus, mount. range … 134 F5 Pitcairn Islands, terr. … 153 M6 Pittsburgh, city … 122 G4 Po, watercourse … 134 E4 Pobedy, Pik … 140 F4 Podgorica, capital … 134 E4 Poland … 134 E3 Port Moresby, capital … 152 D4 Port of Spain, capital … 125 C2 Port Vila, capital … 152 F5 Port-au-Prince, capital … 125 C1 Portland, city … 122 D3 Porto, city … 134 C4 Pôrto Alegre, city … 129 E5 Portugal … 134 C5 Prague, capital … 134 E3 Praia, capital … 146 A3 Presidente Frei, res. sta. … 158 H2 Pretoria, capital … 146 F7 Prince Edward Island … 123 H3 Prince of Wales Island … 122 F2 Prince Patrick Island … 122 E1 Princesse Elisabeth, res. sta. … 158 A2 Princess Elizabeth Land … 159 C2 Principe, island … 146 D4 Progress, res. sta. … 159 B2 Providence, city … 122 H4 Puebla, city … 122 F5 Puerto Rico, terr. … 125 C1 Puerto Rico Trench … 33 Puncak Jaya, summit … 37, 141 L9 Pune, city … 140 F7 Purus, watercourse … 129 D3 Pusan, city … 141 K5 Putumayo, watercourse … 129 C3 Puy de Sancy, summit … 134 D4 Pyongyang, capital … 141 K5 Pyrenees, mount. range … 134 D4 QR Qaidam Basin … 141 H5 Qatar … 140 D6 Qattara Depression … 146 F2 Qingdao, city … 141 K5 Qiqihaer, city … 141 K4 Qom, city … 140 D5 Quanzhou, city … 141 J6 Queen Charlotte Islands … 122 D3 Queen Maud Land … 158 A2 Quito, capital … 129 C3 Rabat, capital … 146 C1 Rajkot, city … 140 F6 Rawalpindi, city … 140 F5 Recife, city … 129 G3 Red Sea … 32, 140 B6, 146 G2 Reindeer lake … 122 F3 Reunion, terr. … 147 I7 Revillagigedo Islands … 122 E5 Reykjavik, capital … 134 A2 Rhine, watercourse … 134 D3 Rhodes, island … 134 F5 Rhone, watercourse … 134 D4 Riga, capital … 134 F3 Rio Branco, watercourse … 129 D2 Rio de Janeiro, city … 130, 129 F5 Rio de la Plata, watercourse … 38, 40, 129 E6 Rio Grande (N. America) watercourse … 122 E4 Rio Grande (S. America) watercourse … 129 F4 Rio Grande de Santiago, watercourse … 122 F5 Rio Negro, watercourse … 129 D2 Riverside, city … 122 E4 Riyadh, capital … 66, 140 C6 Robson, Mount … 122 E3 Roca Alijos, island … 122 E5 Rockies, mount. range … 21, 122 E3 Rodrigues Island … 147 J6 Romania … 134 F4 Rome, capital … 134 E4 Ronne Ice Shelf … 158 H2 Roosevelt, Mount … 122 D3 Rosario, city … 129 D6 Roseau, capital … 125 C1 Ross Ice Shelf … 158 E1 Ross Sea … 158 E2 Rostov-on-Don, city … 135 G4 Rothera, res. sta. … 158 H2 Rotterdam, city … 134 D3 Ruapehu, Mount … 152 G7 Rufiji, watercourse … 147 G5 Russia … 21, 135 H3, 141 H3 Rwanda … 146 G5 Ryukyu Islands … 141 K6 S Sabkhat Ghuzayyil, depression … 146 F2 Sacramento, city … 122 D4 Sacramento, watercourse … 122 D4 Sahara Desert … 51, 149, 146 E2 Sahel, desert … 51, 146 D3 Saint Croix Island … 152 F5 Saint George's, capital … 125 C2 Saint Helena, terr. … 146 C6 Saint Helens, volcano … 27 Saint John’s, capital … 125 C1 Saint Kitts and Nevis … 125 C1 Saint Kliment Ohridski, res. sta. … 158 H2 Saint Lawrence, watercourse … 122 H3 Saint Lawrence Island … 122 A2 Saint Louis, city … 122 F4 Saint Lucia … 125 C2 Saint Mary’s Peak … 152 C7 Saint Petersburg, city … 66, 134 G3 Saint Pierre and Miquelon, terr. … 123 I3 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines … 125 C2 Sajama, summit … 129 D4 Sakhalin, island … 141 M3 Salvador, city … 129 G4 Salween, watercourse … 141 H6 Samara, city … 135 I3 Samoa … 153 H5 GEographical Index : 169
San Antonio, city … 122 F5 San Diego, city … 122 E4 San Francisco, city … 122 D4 San Jorge, Gulf of … 129 D7 San José, capital … 125 B2 San Jose, city … 122 D4 San Juan, city … 125 C1 San Juan, watercourse … 125 B2 San Marino … 134 E4 San Marino, capital … 134 E4 San Martín, res. sta. … 158 H2 San Matias, Gulf of … 129 D7 San Salvador, capital … 125 B2 Sana'a, capital … 140 C7 SANAE IV, res. sta. … 158 I2 Santa Cruz, city … 129 D4 Santa Isabel Island … 152 E4 Santiago, capital … 129 C6 Santo Domingo, capital … 125 C1 Santos, city … 129 F5 São Francisco, watercourse … 129 F4 São Paulo, city … 129 F5 Sao Tome, capital … 146 D4 Sao Tome, island … 146 D5 Sao Tome and Principe … 146 D4 Sapporo, city … 141 M4 Sarajevo, capital … 134 E4 Saramati, summit … 141 H6 Sardinia, terr. … 134 D4 Sargasso Sea … 125 C1 Saskatchewan, watercourse … 122 E3 Saudi Arabia … 140 C6 Scandinavian Mountains … 134 E2 Scott, res. sta. … 158 E2 Seattle, city … 122 D3 Sebkha Tah, depression … 146 B2 Seine, watercourse … 134 D4 Semeru, volcano … 27 Sendai, city … 141 M5 Senegal … 146 B3 Sénégal, watercourse … 146 B3 Senyavin Islands … 152 E3 Seoul, capital … 141 K5 Sepik, watercourse … 152 D4 Serbia … 134 F4 Serra do Mar, mount. range … 129 F5 Severnaya Zemlya, islands … 141 H1 Seychelles … 147 I5 Shanghai, city … 141 K5 Shangqiu, city … 141 J5 Shantou, city … 141 J6 Shebele, watercourse … 147 H4 Shenyang, city … 66, 141 K4 Shenzhen, city … 141 J6 Shetland Islands … 134 C2 Shijiazhuang, city … 141 J5 Shikoku, island … 141 L5 Shiraz, city … 140 D6 Shkhara, Mount … 135 H4 Sichuan Basin … 141 I5 Sicily, terr. … 134 E5 Sierra Leone … 146 B4 Sierra Madre del Sur, mount. range … 122 F5 Sierra Madre Occidental, mount. range … 122 E5 Sierra Madre Oriental, mount. range … 21, 122 F5 Sierra Nevada (Europe), mount. range … 134 C5 Sierra Nevada (N. America), mount. range … 122 E4 Simpson Desert … 51, 152 C6 Sinai, desert … 146 G2 Singapore … 141 I8 Singapore, capital … 141 I8 Sjælland, island … 134 E3 Skagerrak, strait … 134 D3 Skopje, capital … 134 F4 Slave River … 122 E2 Slovakia … 134 E4 Slovenia … 134 E4 Snake, watercourse … 122 E3 Society Islands … 153 J5 Socotra, island … 63, 140 D7 Sofia, capital … 134 F4 Solapur, city … 140 F7 Solomon Islands … 152 F4 Somalia … 147 H4 Sonoran Desert … 51, 122 E4 Soufrière, volcano … 27 South Africa … 146 F8 South China Plateau … 141 I6 South China Sea … 32, 141 J7 South Island … 152 F8 South Korea … 141 K5 South Orkney Islands … 158 H2 South Shetland Islands … 158 H2 Spain … 36, 134 C5 Spratly Islands … 141 J8 Sri Lanka … 140 G8 Srinagar, city … 140 F5 Stanley, Mount … 146 F4 Stanovoy Range … 141 K3 Stewart Island … 152 F8 Stockholm, capital … 134 E3 Sudan … 146 F3 Sudetes, mount. range … 134 E3 Suez Canal … 146 G1 Suining, city … 141 J5 Suir, watercourse … 134 G2 Sulaiman Range … 140 E5 Sulawesi, island … 141 K9 Sulu Sea … 141 K8 Sumatra, island … 37, 141 I9 Sumba, island … 141 J9 Sunda Strait … 141 I9 Superior, Lake … 39, 122 G3 Surabaja, city … 66, 141 J9 Surat, city … 140 F6 Suriname … 129 E2 Susquehanna, watercourse … 122 G4 Suva, capital … 152 G5 Suwon, city … 141 K5 Suzhou (Anhui), city … 141 K5 Suzhou (Jiangsu), city … 141 J5 Swaziland … 146 G7 Sweden … 134 E2 Switzerland … 134 D4 Sydney, city … 154, 152 E7 Syowa, res. sta. … 158 B2 Syr Darya, watercourse … 140 E4 Syria … 140 B5 T Tabriz, city … 140 C5 Tabuaeran Island … 153 J3 Taegu, city … 141 K5 Taejon, city … 141 K5 Tage, watercourse … 134 C5 Tahiti, island … 153 K5 Taian, city … 141 J5 Taichung, city … 141 K6 Taipei, city … 141 K6 Taiwan, terr. … 141 K6 Taiyuan, city … 141 J5 Tajikistan … 140 F5 Tajumulco, summit … 125 A1 Takla Makan Desert … 51, 140 F5 Tallinn, capital … 134 F3 Tampa, city … 122 G5 Tana, Lake … 147 G3 Tanganyika, Lake … 39, 146 G5 Tangshan, city … 141 J5 Tanzania … 146 G5 Tapajos, watercourse … 129 E3 Tapti, watercourse … 140 F6 Tarim, watercourse … 141 G4 Tashkent, capital … 140 E4 Tasmania, island … 152 D8 Tasmanian Sea … 152 E8 Taurus Mountains … 135 G5 Tbilisi, capital … 135 H4 Tegucigalpa, capital … 125 B2 Tehran, capital … 140 D5 Tehuantepec, Isthmus of … 122 F5, 125 A1 Tel Aviv, capital … 140 B5 Teles Pires, watercourse … 129 E3 Ténéré, desert … 146 E3 Thabana Ntlenyana, summit … 146 F7 Thailand … 141 I7 Thailand, Gulf of … 141 I7 Thar Desert … 51, 140 F6 The Hague, capital … 134 D3 Thelon, watercourse … 122 F2 Thimphu, capital … 141 G6 Thyrrenian Sea … 134 E5 Tian Shan, mount. range … 140 F4 Tianjin, city … 66, 141 J5 Tianmen, city … 141 J5 Tianshui, city … 141 I5 Tiberias, Lake … 140 B5 Tibesti, mount. range … 146 E2 Tibetan Plateau … 142, 141 H5 Tierra del Fuego, islands … 129 D8 Tigris, watercourse … 140 C5 Tijuana, city … 122 E4 Timor Leste … 141 K9 Timor Sea … 141 K10, 152 B5 Tirana, capital … 134 E4 Titicaca, Lake … 129 D4 Tobol, watercourse … 140 E3 Tocantins, watercourse … 129 F4 Togo … 146 D4 Tokelau, terr. … 153 H4 Tokyo, capital … 142, 141 M5 Toluca, city … 122 F5 Tombigbee, watercourse … 122 G4 Tombstone Mountain … 122 C2 Tonga … 153 H5 Tonkin, Golf of … 141 I7 Toronto, city … 122 G4 Torreón, city … 122 F5 Transantarctic Mountains … 158 E1 Transylvanian Alps, mount. range … 134 F4 Trindade Island … 129 H5 Trinidad and Tobago … 125 C2 Tripoli, city … 146 E1 Troll, res. sta. … 158 A2 Tuamotu Archipelago … 153 K5 Tubuai Island … 153 K6 Tunis, capital … 146 D1 Tunisia … 146 D1 Tupungato, summit … 129 D6 Turin, city … 134 D4 Turkana, Lake … 146 G4 Turkey … 29, 135 G5 Turkmenistan … 29, 140 E5 Turks and Caicos Islands, terr. … 125 C1 Turpan Pendi, depression … 141 G4 Tuvalu … 152 G4 Tyree, Mount … 158 G2 UVW Ubangi, watercourse … 146 F4 Ucayali, watercourse … 129 C4 Ufa, city … 135 I3 Uganda … 146 G4 Ukraine … 134 G4 Ulaanbaatar, capital … 141 I4 Ulsan, city … 141 K5 Ungava Bay … 122 H3 United Arab Emirates … 140 D6 United Kingdom … 134 C3 United States … 14, 22, 27, 35, 122 F4 Ural, watercourse … 135 I3, 140 D4 Ural Mountains … 135 I2, 140 D2 Urmia, Lake … 140 C5 Uruguay … 129 E6 Uruguay, watercourse … 41, 129 E5 Urumqi, city … 141 G4 Usumacinta, watercourse … 122 F5 Uzbekistan … 140 E4 Vadodara, city … 140 F6 Vaduz, capital … 134 D4 Vaiaku, capital … 152 G4 Valdes Peninsula … 129 D7 Valencia, city … 129 D1 Valletta, capital … 134 E5 Van, Lake … 135 H5 Vancouver, city … 122 D3 Vancouver Island … 122 D3 Vanern, Lake … 134 E3 170 :170 : Geographical Index
Vanua Levu, island … 152 G5 Vanuatu … 152 F5 Varanasi, city … 140 G6 Vatican City … 134 E4 Vättern, Lake … 134 E3 Venezuela … 129 D2 Vereeniging, city … 146 F7 Verkhoyansk Mountains … 141 K2 Vernadsky, res. sta. … 158 H2 Victoria, capital … 147 I5 Victoria Island … 37, 122 E2 Victoria, Lake … 39, 146 G5 Victoria Land … 158 D2 Vienna, capital … 134 E4 Vientiane, capital … 141 I7 Vietnam … 141 I7 Vijayawada, city … 140 G7 Vilnius, capital … 134 F3 Vilyuy, watercourse … 141 K2 Vinson Massif … 21, 158 G2 Virgin Islands, terr. … 125 C1 Virginia Beach, city … 122 G4 Visakhapatnam, city … 140 G7 Vistula, watercourse … 134 F3 Viti Levu, island … 152 G5 Vitória, city … 129 F5 Volga, watercourse … 38, 134 G3 Volga Uplands … 135 H3 Volgograd, city … 135 H4 Volta, Lake … 146 C4 Vosges, mount. range … 134 D4 Vostok, res. sta. … 158 C2 Vpadina Akchanaya, depression … 140 D4 Vpadina Kaundy, depression … 140 D4 Waddington, Mount … 122 D3 Wake Island, terr. … 141 O7 Wallaman, waterfall … 39 Wallis and Futuna, terr. … 152 G5 Warsaw, capital … 134 F3 Washington, D.C., capital … 122 G4 Washington, Mount … 122 H4 Weddell Sea … 32, 158 H2 Weifang, city … 141 J5 Wellington, capital … 152 G8 Wellington Island … 129 C7 Wenzhou, city … 141 K6 Weser, watercourse … 134 D3 West Bank, terr. … 140 B5 West Great Rift Valley, basin … 146 G5 West Siberian Plain … 140 E2 Western Ghats, mount. range … 140 F7 Western Sahara, terr. … 146 B2 White Nile, watercourse … 146 G4 White Sea … 134 G2 Wilhelm, Mount … 152 D4 Wilkes Land … 158 C2 Windhoek, capital … 146 E7 Winnipeg, Lake … 122 F3 Winnipegosis, Lake … 122 F3 Wuhan, city … 141 J5 Wuxi, city … 141 K5 XYZ Xi Jiang, watercourse … 141 J6 Xiamen, city … 141 J6 Xi'an, city … 66, 141 I5 Xiangfan, city … 141 I6 Xiantao, city … 141 J5 Xianyang, city … 141 I5 Xingu, watercourse … 129 E3 Xinyang, city … 141 J5 Xuzhou, city … 141 J5 Yablonovy Range … 141 J3 Yalu Jiang, watercourse … 141 K4 Yamoussoukro, capital … 146 C4 Yangon, city … 141 H7 Yangzi Jiang, watercourse … 38, 141 H5 Yantai, city … 141 K5 Yaoundé, capital … 146 E4 Yaqui, watercourse … 122 E5 Yaren, capital … 152 F4 Yellow River (see Huang He) … 39 Yellow Sea … 141 K5 Yellowstone River … 40 Yemen … 140 C7 Yerevan, capital … 135 H4 Yerupajá, summit … 129 C4 Yiyang, city … 141 J6 Yosemite, waterfall … 39 Yucatán, peninsula … 122 G5, 125 B1 Yukon, watercourse … 122 D2 Yulin, city … 141 J6 Zagreb, capital … 134 E4 Zagros Mountains … 140 C5 Zambezi, watercourse … 146 G6 Zambia … 146 F6 Zanzibar, island … 147 G5 Zaozhuang, city … 141 J5 Zard Kuh, summit … 140 D5 Zarghun, summit … 140 E5 Zeil, Mount … 152 C6 Zhangjiakou, city … 141 J4 Zhanjiang, city … 141 J6 Zhengzhou, city … 141 J5 Zhong Shan, res. stat. … 159 B2 Zhuzhou, city … 141 J6 Zibo, city … 141 J5 Zigong, city … 141 I6 Zimbabwe … 146 F6 Zurich, city … 134 D4 GEOGRAPHICAL Index : 171: 171
172 :172 : thematic Index A abyssal plain 24, 25 accretionary wedge 20 acid rain 64, 69 Africa 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151 African Union 150 age, median 81 agricultural product 98 agriculture 64, 69, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 110, 111 intensive 51, 62, 101 irrigated 98 rain-fed 98 subsistence farming 101 AIDS 112 air pollution 62, 66 air temperature 45, 46, 47 air travel 102, 105 airplane 105 airport 102 alluvia 39, 41 Alps 20, 21, 135, 137 altitude 18, 44, 46, 60, 137 Amazon 38, 40, 128, 131 Antarctic Treaty 159 Antarctica 48, 49, 158, 159 anticyclone 34, 46, 140 Antilles 125 aphelion 46 arable land 50 archipelago 27, 33, 125, 140, 142, 144, 153, 156 arid environment 50, 51 aridity 50, 149 armed forces 118 armed independence movement 116 army 116, 118 Asia 140, 141, 142, 143,144, 145 asteroid 10, 12 asthenosphere 16 atmosphere 10, 11, 34, 47, 54, 64, 66, 68 atmospheric pollution 64, 65, 66, 67 atmospheric pressure 46, 47 high-pressure 46, 50 low-pressure 46, 54, 56 atoll 36 Australia 155, 156 authoritarian system 74 B balance of trade 92 barrier reef 36 bedrock 18, 147 billionaire 106 biocenosis 58 biodegradable 69 biodiversity 58, 60, 62, 63, 131, 155 biome 58, 59, 124, 130, 136, 142, 148, 154 boreal forest 58, 59, 60, 137 maquis 59 savanna 59,147 temperate forest 58, 59, 60,123 temperate prairie 58, 123 tropical rainforest 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 tundra 45, 48, 59, 123, 137 biosphere 58, 59, 60, 61 biotope 58 birth rate 80 border dispute 116 boreal forest 58, 59, 60, 123 Buddhism 84, 85 C canopy 60 canyon 18, 24, 147 carbon dioxide 27, 64, 65, 69 Central America 123, 125 cereal 98, 100 Christianity 84, 85 cinder 26, 27 citizenship 72 city 57, 66, 68, 79, 84, 85, 124, 130, 136, 142, 148, 149, 154, 156 civil war 116, 117 cliff 36 climate 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 60, 124, 130, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 147, 148, 153, 154, 159 arid 44, 45, 50, 51, 59, 140, 149 coastal 45, 154 cold 44, 45, 142 cold temperate 45 continental with cool summer 45 continental with hot summer 45 continental with short, cold summer 45 dry 45 Mediterranean 45, 135, 136 mountain climate 45 semiarid 44, 45, 50, 51, 140 subtropical humid 45 tropical 44, 45, 127, 140, 147, 153 warm temperate 45, 147, 153 wet tropical 44, 45 wet tropical with dry winter 44, 45 climatic catastrophes 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 cold environment 48, 49 collision mountain 20 composition of Earth 16 conflict 110, 116, 117, 118, 119 conifer 58, 60, 61, 137 conservation of species 62, 63 container 103 continental crust 16, 24 continental drift 15, 16 continental ice sheet 48 continental plate 20, 27 continental shelf 25 continental slope 25 convection 16 coral reef 36, 58, 154 core 16 Coubertin, Pierre de 88 country 72, 73 crater 12, 13, 26, 41 crop 98 crust 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 41 current, ocean 32, 34, 44, 49, 135 cyclone 12, 34, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 153 D dam 41, 111 day 46 death rate 66, 80, 108, 112, 113 debt 106, 107 deciduous tree 58, 60 decolonization 150 deforestation 62, 131 delta 36, 40, 41, 111 democratic system 74, 138 demographer 78 demographic transition 80 depression 18, 24, 41, 46, 54, 128 desert 12, 41, 45, 50, 51, 59, 123, 146, 147, 149, 153 absolute 50 high-pressure 50 rain shadow 50 desertification 50, 51, 149 developing country 78, 79, 80, 81, 98, 100, 104, 107, 112, 114 Development Assistance Committee 107 development indicator 106, 108, 109 disease 112 dominant wind 44, 54 drought/dry 44, 45, 50, 59, 60, 63 dwarf planet 10 E Earth 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 composition 16 observation 12, 34 structure 14, 15, 16, 17 earthquake 14, 28, 29, 57, 144 ecliptic 46 economics 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 economic development 91 economic sector 90 ecoregion 62, 63 ecosystem 58, 60, 62 education 106, 108, 114, 115 El Niño 34 172 : Main subjects are in bold.
: 173: 173thematic Index election 74, 77 electricity 96 emigrant 78 employment 94 energy 96, 97 fossil fuel 69, 96 geothermal 96 hydroelectric 41, 96, 97 nuclear 96, 97 renewable 96 solar 96 wind 96 epicenter 28 epidemic 112 erosion 18, 20, 22, 38, 40, 41, 66, 111 erosion cycle 22 eruption, volcanic 14, 16, 26, 27, 66, 69, 144 estuary 41, 48, 58 eucalyptus 155 euro 90, 138 Europe 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 European Union 138 evaporation 34, 38, 40, 41 executive power 75, 138 export 92, 93, 98 extinction 62, 63, 131 eye of a cyclone 54 F farmland 98, 99 farmland irrigation 110 fault 14, 20, 28, 36, 41, 149 fertility rate 81 fertilizer 68, 69, 101 fjord 36, 48 flood 52, 54, 55, 57 flow 40 focus 28 food aid 98 food supply 98 football 86, 87 forest 58, 59, 60, 61, 69, 123, 128, 131, 137, 142, 147 boreal 58, 59, 60, 137 conifer 58, 60 deciduous tree 58, 60 mixed 60 temperate 58, 59, 60, 123 tropical 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 forest fire 52, 64, 65 fossil fuel 64, 69, 96 freedom 74, 118 freedom of the press 118 freshwater 38, 39, 40, 41, 58, 110, 111 freshwater resource 110, 111 fuel 64, 69, 96 Fujita scale 56 Fujita, Theodore 56 fumarole 26 G galaxy 10 genetically modified organism (GMO) 100 geothermal energy 96 geyser 26 glacial valley 40 glacier 36, 38, 40, 41, 48, 49 global warming 64, 65, 159 GMO (genetically modified organism) 100 gorge 18, 40 government 72, 74, 75 Great Barrier Reef 154 Great Rift Valley 19, 147, 149 greenhouse effect 64 greenhouse gas 64, 65 gross domestic product (GDP) 91, 118 gross national product (GNP) 106, 108, 112, 113 Gulf Stream 34, 135 H hail 52 health 64, 66, 106, 108, 112, 113 heavy metals 68, 69 high-speed train 104 Himalayas 20, 21, 143 Hinduism 84, 85 hot spot 26, 27 House of Commons 74 human development 108 human development index 108 humidity 44, 45 hurricane 12, 54, 125 hydroelectricity 41, 96, 97 I ice 48, 49, 59, 159 ice age 49 ice cap 45, 48, 49, 159 extension during the ice age 49 ice sheet, continental 48 ice shelf 48 iceberg 49 illiteracy 112, 114, 115 illiteracy rate 114 immigrant 78, 80 import 92, 93, 98 inclination 46 independence 116, 150 independence movement 116 industry 66, 68, 69, 90, 95, 111 inequality 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112 infant mortality 108, 112, 113 international conflict 116 International Labour Organization (ILO) 94 international trade 90, 92, 103 Inter-Parliamentary Union 77 intertropical zone 44, 52, 54, 60, 62 intrusion 26 irrigation 41, 98, 110 Islam 84, 85 island 25, 27, 36, 37, 125, 135, 136, 142, 144, 153, 154, 155 island arc 25, 125 islands of Oceania 153, 156 J Judaism 84, 85 judicial power 75 Jupiter 11 K kangaroo 155 koala 155 Kyoto Protocol 65 L labor force 94 lagoon 36 lake 12, 13, 32, 38, 39, 40, 41, 57, 58, 69, 122, 133, 149, 154, 156 artificial 41 glacial 41 oxbow 41 tectonic 41, 149 volcanic 41 landforms on the ocean floor 24, 25 landslide 52, 55 language 72, 82, 83, 132, 138 language family 82 latitude 34, 44, 46, 48, 50, 54, 60 lava 16, 24, 26, 27, 41, 156 law 72, 74, 75 legislative power 75, 138 life expectancy 108, 112, 113 lightning 52 literacy 108 lithosphere 14, 16 lithospheric plate 14, 15, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 144, 149, 155 littoral 36 livestock 98, 99, 100 living, standard of 106, 108, 110 London Convention 68 longevity 108 lower chamber 74, 76 lunar mission 12 M Maastricht Treaty 138 magma 16, 20, 24, 26, 27 magma chamber 26, 27 magnitude 28, 29 malnutrition 112 mantle 14, 16, 20, 26, 27 maquis 59 maritime transportation 34, 102, 103 Mars 10 marsupial 155 meander 40, 41 meat 100 median age 81 megalopolis 79 Melanesia 156 Mercury 10 metamorphic rock 20 meteorite 12, 13 Micronesia 156 migration 78, 80 emigrant 78 immigrant 78, 80 military expenditures 118
Milky Way 10, 11 mixed forest 60 money 72, 90, 91 monsoon 44, 140, 153 Montreal Protocol 64 Moon 12, 32 moraine 41 mortality 66, 80, 108, 112, 113 mountain 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 24, 38, 40, 44, 45, 50, 123, 127, 128, 131, 135, 137, 140, 143, 147, 156, 159 coastal 20 collision 20 formation 20 old 20, 135 range 20, 24, 25, 45, 123, 127, 135, 140, 143, 156 subduction 20 young 18, 20 mouth (of river) 36, 40, 41 multinational corporation 90 N nation 72 National Assembly 74 national park 62 natural resources 90, 150, 159 Neptune 11 night 46 North America 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127 Northern Hemisphere 46, 47, 49 nuclear plant 68, 96 nutrition 100, 106 0 oasis 41, 146 ocean 12, 14, 24, 25, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 44, 54, 58, 68 ocean current 32, 34, 44, 49, 135 ocean floor 24, 25 Oceania 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157 oceanic crust 16, 20, 24 oceanic plate 20, 25, 27 oceanic ridge 24, 25 official development assistance 106, 107 official language 72, 82 offshore drilling 34, 68 oil 68, 96, 97, 133 oil crisis 97 oil spill 68 oil tanker 68 Olympic Games 88, 89 Olympic movement 86 orbit 10, 46 organic pollutant 68 Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD) 107 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 97 orogenesis 20 ozone layer 64, 159 P Pacific Ring of Fire 26, 27, 144 pack ice 38, 48 Panama Canal 125 Pangaea 15 Panthalassa 15 park, national 62 parliament 74, 75, 76, 77, 138 House of Commons 74 lower chamber 74, 76 upper chamber 74, 76 pasture 98 peneplain 22 people (nation) 72, 82 perihelion 46 pesticides 68 petroleum 68, 96, 97 phytoplankton 13, 34 pipe 26 plain 18, 24, 25, 38, 135, 140, 143 planet 10, 11, 12, 16 planet, dwarf 10 plate tectonics 14, 15 plateau 18, 24, 25, 44, 128, 140, 142, 143, 156 platypus 155 pole 44, 48, 59, 110, 123 political system 74, 138 authoritarian 74 democratic 74, 138 politics 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 pollutant, organic 68 pollution 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 124 air pollution 62, 66 atmospheric pollution 64, 65, 66, 67 pollutant particle 64, 66 polluting gas 64, 66, 69 radioactive pollutant 68 soil pollution 68, 69 urban pollution 66 water pollution 68, 69, 111 Polynesia 156 population 78, 79, 80, 81, 124, 130, 136, 140, 142, 147, 148, 154 aging 78, 80, 81 balance 80 density 52, 66, 78 distribution 78, 124, 130, 136, 142, 148, 154 growth 66, 80, 81, 110 urban 79 port 102, 123 poverty line 106 power 74, 75, 138 executive 75, 138 judicial 75 legislative 75, 138 prairie, temperate 58, 123 precipitation 34, 38, 44, 50, 58, 59, 159 press 74, 76, 118 pressure 46, 47, 50, 54, 56 high 46, 50 low 46, 54, 56 protected area 62 R radioactive waste 68, 96 rail network 104 railroad 102, 104 rain 40, 44, 52, 55, 57, 64, 69, 98, 140, 149, 153 rainforest 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 reading 114, 115 records, temperature and precipitation 45 relief 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 45, 123, 140, 159 religion 74, 84, 85 Reporters Without Borders 118 reservoir 41, 111 ria 36 Richter, Charles Francis 28 Richter scale 28, 29 rift 19, 24, 149 Rift Valley 19, 147, 149 Ring of Fire 26, 27, 144 river 38, 40, 41, 55, 57, 68, 131, 137 affluent 13 distributary 40 meander 40, 41 tributary 40, 131, 137 riverbed 40 road 102, 104 road network 104 rock 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27 metamorphic 20 volcanic 16, 20 S Saffir-Simpson scale 55 Sahara 50, 51, 147, 149 Sahel 51, 147, 149 salinity 34, 41 satellite 10, 11,12, 13, 34 artificial 12, 13, 34 natural 10, 11, 12 Saturn 11 savanna 59, 147 Schengen area 138 schooling 115 sea 32, 34, 135 season 44, 46, 48, 59 dry season 46 fall 46 rainy season (monsoon) 59, 140, 153 spring 46 spring equinox 46 summer 46, 48 summer solstice 46 wet season 46 winter 46, 48 winter solstice 46 seasons, cycle of the 46 Security Council 72 sediment 20, 22, 36, 40, 41 seism 28 seismic activity 28 seismic wave 28 senate 74 separation of powers 75 executive 75, 138 judicial 75 legislative 75, 138 174 : thematic Index
service activity 90, 95 ship 103 shipping lane 102, 103 shore cliff 36 shoreline 38, 45 slavery 150 snow 48, 52 soccer 86, 87 soil 51, 60, 68, 69 soil pollution 68, 69 solar energy 96 Solar System 10, 11 South America 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 Southern Hemisphere 46, 47, 49 space mission 12 species, conservation of 62, 63 species, threatened 62, 63 sport 86, 87, 88, 89 spring 40 standard of living 106, 108, 110 storm surge 54, 55, 57 stream 40 subduction 20, 25, 144 subway 102, 104 summit 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 48, 143, 144 Sun 10, 32, 46, 47, 49 angle of solar rays 47 solar ray 44, 47 sunlight 34, 46 sunshine 44, 48 supercontinent 15 T tectonic fault 149 tectonic lake 41, 149 tectonic shocks 20 tectonics, plate 14, 15 temperate forest 58, 59, 60, 123 temperate prairie 58, 123 temperature 10, 11, 16, 26, 34, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 64, 65, 159 territory 72, 116, 126, 157 Third World 106 threatened species 62, 63 thunderstorm 52 tide 32, 33, 36, 41, 49 Tordesillas meridian 132 Tordesillas, Treaty of 132 tornado 52, 56 torrent 40 trade, balance of 92 trade, international 90, 92, 103 train 104 transportation 64, 69, 102, 103, 104, 105 air 102, 105 ground 102, 104 maritime 34, 102, 103 rail 102, 104 road 102, 104 Treaty of Tordesillas 132 tree 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 131, 137 conifer 58, 60 deciduous 58, 60 trench 24, 25, 144 tropical rainforest 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 tsunami 29, 57 tundra 45, 48, 59, 123, 137 typhoon 54 U unemployment 94 United Nations (UN) 72 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 108 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 114 Universe 10 Upper chamber 74, 76 Uranus 11 urban area 78, 102 urban sprawl 62 urbanization 79 V vaccination 112, 113 valley 18, 22, 25, 36, 38, 40, 41, 137, 143, 147, 149 vegetation 58, 59 vehicle 66, 96, 104 Venus 10 volcanism 26, 144 volcano 16, 20, 24, 26, 27, 41, 64, 125, 127, 144, 149, 156 volcanic eruption 14, 16, 26, 27, 64, 66, 69, 144 volcanic island 25, 27, 36, 144 volcanic rock 16, 20 W wallaby 155 war 116, 117, 150 warming, global 64, 65, 159 waste 68, 69, 96 water 12, 18, 22, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 54, 57, 68, 69, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113 drinking water 108, 109, 112 freshwater 38, 39, 40, 41, 58, 110, 111 groundwater 26, 38 seawater 34, 48 wastewater 68 water cycle 38, 40 water pollution 68, 69, 111 water table 41, 68, 110 watercourse 18, 22, 36, 38, 40, 41, 68, 96 waterfall 38, 39, 40, 128 watershed 38, 110, 123, 131, 156 wave 32, 34, 49, 57 wealth 106 Wegener, Alfred 15 wind 18, 22, 32, 34, 36, 41, 44, 54, 55, 56, 64, 159 wind energy 96 women 77, 94, 95, 114 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 62 World Health Organisation (WHO) 112 world ocean 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 world population 78, 79, 80, 81, 140 World Trade Organization (WTO) 92 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 62 writing 83, 114, 115 thematic Index : 175
Cover NASA Goddard/Space Flight Center p. VII Rocky Planet NOAA/NESDIS/NGDC Blue Planet © Patricia Bruno Planet in Balance © François Fortin Inhabited Planet © iStockphoto.com Continents © Felix Möckel/iStockphoto.com p. 8 © Mike Bentley/iStockphoto.com p. 9 © Daniel Stein/iStockphoto.com p. 11 © Noël Cramer p. 12 tl NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL, MISR Team cr Marit Jentoft-Nilsen, NASA GSFC Visualization Analysis Lab p. 13 bl Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC br Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team p. 14 NOAA/NESDIS/NGDC p. 17 © Tom Pfeiffer/VolcanoDiscovery p. 18 t Glacier National Park/NPS Photo b © José Carlos Pires Pereira/iStockphoto.com p. 19 l © David Peterson r © Barbara Harris p. 21 © Oleg Kozlov/iStockphoto.com p. 23 © Bryan Delodder/iStockphoto.com p. 24 Galapagos Rift 2005 Exploration, NOAA-OE p. 26 USGS p. 29 Dr. Roger Hutchison/NOAA p. 30 & p. 31 © Alexander Hafemann/iStockphoto. com p. 33 New Brunswick Department of Tourism and Parks p. 35 © David Freund/iStockphoto.com p. 36 & p. 37 © J.M. Mata/iStockphoto.com p. 39 l © Vlad Ghiea r © Xiaorui Wang p. 40 t © Mike Norton/iStockphoto.com b © Graham Prentice/iStockphoto.com p. 41 l Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC r Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC p. 42 © Alexander Hafemann/iStockphoto.com p. 43 © Steven Robertson/iStockphoto.com p. 46 t © Stéphanie Lanctôt b © Lauri Wiberg/iStockphoto.com p. 48 © Simon Chignard p. 49 © Corel Stock Photo Library p. 51 © S. Colvey/CRDI p. 54 Jim Brooks/U.S. Navy p. 57 Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA p. 58 tr © Michel Claquin tl © Mélanie Morin cc © E. George/CRDI b © Yuval Simonov p. 59 tl patrick.verdier.free.fr tr © Andrey Mirzoyants/iStockphoto.com cr © Stéphanie Lanctôt cc © Jean-Claude Corbeil b Michael Van Woert/NOAA/NESDIS/ORA p. 61 © François Fortin p. 62 © Einar Timdal, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo p. 63 l © Alain Christophe/www.plantemania.com r © The Arboretum of Penn State Behrend p. 65 State of Texas Forestry Service and the USFS p. 67 © Dmitry Maslov/iStockphoto.com p. 68 & p. 69 Office of Response and Restoration NOS/NOAA p. 70 © David Steets p. 71 © Jeremy Edwards/iStockphoto.com p. 72 l © UN r © iStockphoto.com p. 75 © Andrei Tchernov/iStockphoto.com p. 76 © Joe Gough/iStockphoto.com p. 77 © Claudio Robles p. 81 © Peter Garnhum p. 83 © Daniel Price p. 84 © Tommy Junger p. 85 tl © Moti Meiri/iStockphoto.com tr © Steven Allan/iStockphoto.com bl © Fraz Ahmed Ismat br © David Cussac p. 87 © Adam Valvasori/World Vision Australia p. 89 © Krishna Santhanam p. 90 © Olga Shelego/iStockphoto.com p. 95 © Christopher O Driscoll/iStockphoto.com p. 99 © François Fortin p. 101 © Tony Campbell/iStockphoto.com p. 103 © Gertjan Hooijer/iStockphoto.com p. 104 t © Michael Fletcher b © Joe Flasher p. 105 NASA p. 109 © Mark Linnard/iStockphoto.com p. 111 © Ken H. Dennis p. 112 © Marko Kokic/Canadian Red Cross p. 115 t © Steve Stone/iStockphoto.com b F. Young/USAID p. 119 © Diego Cervo/iStockphoto.com p. 120 © iStockphoto.com p. 121 © Bruce Bean/iStockphoto.com p. 122 © Keith Vaught p. 123 cc © Norbert Woehnl cr © Kenn W. Kiser b Bob Nichols/USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service p. 124 © Laird M. Le p. 125 Quartermaster Joe Schebal, NOAA p. 127 t © Arden C. Llewellyn III b © John Miller/iStockphoto.com p. 128 cl © Marc St-Germain cr © Federico Donatini bl © John Rose br © Fabiano Coura p. 130 © Alexander Vervoort p. 131 © Leonardo F. Freitas p. 132 © José-Manuel Benito Alvarez p. 133 © Miles Wallis p. 135 © John Woodworth/iStockphoto.com p. 136 t © Xavier Marchant/iStockphoto.co c © Martina Misar/iStockphoto.com b © Gary Li p. 137 © Tomasz Resiak/iStockphoto.com p. 141 t © Franco Pecchio b © Melisa Tuya p. 142 t © Daniel Price c © Chaun Soh b © Alexander Hafemann/iStockphoto.com p. 143 © Kate Guthrie p. 144 © Holger Mette/iStockphoto.com p. 146 © François Fortin p. 147 t © iStockphoto.com c © David Haberlah b © Marie-Anne Legault p. 148 © David Erroll p. 152 © Janice Dunn p. 153 © Mike Morley/iStockphoto.com p. 154 t © Lauren Gabelhouse c © Joe Gough/iStockphoto.com b © iStockphoto.com p. 157 © Janice Dunn p. 158 l National Science Foundation/Josh Landis r Michael Van Woert, NOAA/NESDIS, ORA p. 159 Michael Van Woert, NOAA/NESDIS, ORA t: top; b: bottom; c: center; r: right; l: left 176 : PHOTO CREDITS
The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh
7 Access to water is one of the main development indicators. It corresponds to the proportion of the population that has access to at least 20 liters of water per day per person from an improved source (pipeline, protected well, rainwater collection, etc.) less than one kilometer from their residence. In many regions of the world, populations lack water, leading to serious sanitary problems. The East Asia/Pacific region has the largest number of inhabitants without access to improved water sources. Inhabitants of urban areas have a better chance of benefiting from an improved source. Mongolia, for example, has very wide disparities between drinking-water access in urban zones (87%) and rural zones (30%). ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER Development indicators Development indicators are numerical indicators used to estimate the development of nations.They measure different parameters that affect the quality of life of human beings. GNP measures a country’s wealth or poverty, while life expectancy and infant mortality rate reflect its state of health. Other indicators assess satisfaction of basic human needs, such as access to drinking water, sufficient food, and housing. Still others measure level of education, the guarantee of a population’s future. To integrate these different parameters into a single indicator, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) calculates the human development index.This index, which takes account of longevity, education, literacy, and standard of living (purchasing power) assesses development on a scale from 0 to 1. In 2004, the index ranged from 0.311 for Niger to 0.965 for Norway. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX High Average Low No data Source: UN Water point, Tanzania Access to a source of drinking water is one of the main development indicators. SHARE OF THE POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER 90%–100% 70%–89% 50%–69% 30%–49% 0%–29% No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES RANKING OF COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX THE HIGHEST-RANKED COUNTRIES THE LOWEST-RANKED COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY INDEX RANK COUNTRY INDEX Norway 0.965 Mozambique 0.390 Iceland 0.960 Burundi 0.384 Australia 0.957 Ethiopia 0.371 Ireland 0.956 Chad 0.368 Sweden 0.951 Central African Republic 0.353 Canada 0.950 Guinea-Bissau 0.349 Japan 0.949 Burkina Faso 0.342 United States 0.948 Mali 0.338 Switzerland 0.947 Sierra Leone 0.335 Netherlands 0.947 Niger 0.311 World average: 0.741 Source: UNDP EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 109108 : An overview of the state of the world for under standing g lobal issues Enlargements provide a detailed view of specific regions in the world. Charts and graphics show statistics that are linked to the subject being presented. Secondary maps illustrate distinctive perspectives. Inside you will find: • more than 110 thematic maps, • more than 50 fact tables from world-renown organizations, • more than 130 photographs, • a glossary and detailed indexes, • rich encyclopedic content, reviewed by experts. NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH HONDURAS JORD AN GUATEMALA PHILIPPINES SYRIA PANAMA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOSHAITI SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN COSTA RICA LESOTHO ARMENIA BELIZE CANADA RUSSIA CHINA BRAZIL AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN UNITED STATES SUDAN ALGERIA ARGENTINA MEXICO MONGOLIA NIGER PERU CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT BOLIVIA TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA COLOMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMA LIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA CHILE NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MO ZAMB IQU E SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCA R PARAGUAY MOROCCO VIE TNAM GHANA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL GUYANA ECUADOR UGANDA URUGUAY SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN VENEZUELA CUBA TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN SURINAME TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDO VA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA JAMAICA VANUATU BAHAMAS TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS DOMINICA MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SAINT LUCIA SINGAPORE CAPE VERDE GREENLAND(DK) WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE GRENADA SEYCHELLES FRENCHGUIANA(FR) ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA MICRONESIA NAURU TUVALU MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN BARBADOS GAZA STRIP SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Sibu (1) Oslo (4) Kudus (1) Omaha (3) Perth (1) Kyoto (3) Delhi (3) Seoul (3) Dubai (2) Mecca (1) Surgut (1) Sydney (3) Almaty (3) Taipei (7) Moscow (24) Riyadh (2) Dallas (20) Phoenix (3) Wichita (3) Bangkok (3) Beijing (1) T'ainan (1) Caracas (2) Atlanta (4) Seattle (7) Houston (6) Shanghai (1) Donets'k (2) Istanbul (7) Cairo (1) Columbia (3) Hamilton (1) Edmonton (1) Honolulu (1) Santiago (2) Las Vegas (4) Melbourne (2) Hong Kong (18) Bangalore (1) Stockholm (5) Monterrey (1) Vancouver (1) Sao Paulo (6) Saint John (1) Kuwait (2) George Town (1) Mexico City (9) Antofagasta (1) Stellenbosch (1) Magnitogorsk (1) Manila (3) Kuala Lumpur (4) Buenos Aires (1) Johannesburg (1) Salt Lake City (3) Rio de Janeiro (2) Bombay (5) Bogota (2) Tefen (1) Tokyo (13) Nassau (1) Denver (5) Jeddah (4) Surabaja (1) Tel Aviv (5) San Jose (17) Singapore (5) San Diego (5) Osaka (2) Bentonville (4) San Antonio (4) Los Angeles (36) Minneapolis (6) San Francisco (23) Fort Lauderdale (5) Dnipropetrovs'k (1) Stuttgart (4) Heidelberg (3) Rome (2) Milano (3) Paris (12) Berlin (3) Vienna (3) Madrid (3) Dublin (2) Warsaw (1) London (19) Hamburg (9) La Coruna (3) Zurich (4) Luzern (3) Geneva (3) Bad Homburg (3) SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO DENMARK SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY Philadelphia (3) Washington D.C. (6) Racine (4) Ottawa (1) Québec (2) Boston (9) Chicago (18) Detroit (6) Toronto (6) Montréal (4) New York (45) Cleveland (3) Charleston (3) Kalamazoo (3) EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 106 : INEQUALITIES Despite economists’forecasts that globalization of the economy will benefit the poorest the most, inequalities in the world are getting worse in terms of health, nutrition, education, housing, and other areas. Gross national product (GNP) per capita, a country’s main socioeconomic development indicator, ranges from about 100 in the poorest countries to almost 60,000 in the wealthiest. These disparities are aggravated by the fact that in the 1970s, the Third World became heavily indebted in order to finance its development.The borrowed funds, often poorly managed or misappropriated, have not had the anticipated effect. Today, unable to pay back its debt, the Third World is demanding that the debt be written off. At the same time, the wealthiest countries donate to the most disadvantaged countries in the form of official development assistance. Measuring wealth The GNP is an indicator that measures the total value of the goods and services produced in a country during one year, as well as its net revenues from foreign countries.Total GNP is used to measure a country’s wealth. Divided by the number of inhabitants, it gives an indication of the standard of living of a country’s population. OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offer aid to developing countries by agreeing to reduce their debt or by providing them with new funding. Number of billionaires (per metropolitan region) Source: Forbes 10 5 1 45 DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH GNP per capita ≥ $25,000 $10,000–$24,999 $3,000–$9,999 $1,000–$2,999 $500–$999 < $500 Sources: World Bank; UN The expression “Third World”was coined during the Cold War to designate countries that belonged to neither the capitalist nor the communist sphere of influence. Since the 1970s,“Third World”has referred to the poorest countries on the planet. Many of these countries’populations live in extreme misery. About 1.3 billion people, representing 20% of the world’s population, survive on less than 1 per day—that is, under the poverty line defined by the United Nations. POVERTY LINE Share of the population living on less than $1 per day ≥ 50% 20%–49% 10%–19% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: UN THE COUNTRIES OF THE THIRD WORLD INEQUALITIES MAIN DONOR COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP United States $27,622 M 0.2 Japan $13,147 M 0.3 United Kingdom $10,767 M 0.5 Germany $10,082 M 0.4 France $10,026 M 0.5 Netherlands $5,115 M 0.8 Italy $5,091 M 0.3 Canada $3,756 M 0.4 Sweden $3,362 M 0.9 Spain $3,018 M 0.3 Source: OECD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 107106 : MAIN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP Afghanistan $2,192 M 31.3 Sudan $1,472 M 6.4 Ethiopia $1,202 M 10.8 Dem. Rep. of the Congo $1,034 M 14.8 Tanzania $871 M 6.8 Zambia $836 M 14.4 Mozambique $771 M 12.5 Uganda $704 M 8.8 Bangladesh $563 M 0.8 Madagascar $500 M 8.7 Source: OECD www.qa-international.com TheVisualWorldAtlas Clear captions make maps easy to read. Photographs from the four corners of the globe reveal the extraordinary diversity of our planet’s landscapes and inhabitants. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLASDesigned for the whole family, The Visual World Atlas covers hundreds of subjects that touch on different aspects of life on Earth with clarity and precision (geology, environment, politics, demography, economy, etc.) Presenting thousands of statistical facts on the world’s 193 countries, this thematic atlas features accessible text linked to visual content of exceptional quality. Unique to its genre, for school as well as home, The Visual World Atlas is essential reading for discovering and understanding the world in all its diversity. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLAS Cover_AtlasNotreMonde.indd 1 27/01/09 09:39:57

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The visual world atlas facts and maps of the current world -mantesh

  • 1. 7 Access to water is one of the main development indicators. It corresponds to the proportion of the population that has access to at least 20 liters of water per day per person from an improved source (pipeline, protected well, rainwater collection, etc.) less than one kilometer from their residence. In many regions of the world, populations lack water, leading to serious sanitary problems. The East Asia/Pacific region has the largest number of inhabitants without access to improved water sources. Inhabitants of urban areas have a better chance of benefiting from an improved source. Mongolia, for example, has very wide disparities between drinking-water access in urban zones (87%) and rural zones (30%). ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER Development indicators Development indicators are numerical indicators used to estimate the development of nations.They measure different parameters that affect the quality of life of human beings. GNP measures a country’s wealth or poverty, while life expectancy and infant mortality rate reflect its state of health. Other indicators assess satisfaction of basic human needs, such as access to drinking water, sufficient food, and housing. Still others measure level of education, the guarantee of a population’s future. To integrate these different parameters into a single indicator, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) calculates the human development index.This index, which takes account of longevity, education, literacy, and standard of living (purchasing power) assesses development on a scale from 0 to 1. In 2004, the index ranged from 0.311 for Niger to 0.965 for Norway. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX High Average Low No data Source: UN Water point, Tanzania Access to a source of drinking water is one of the main development indicators. SHARE OF THE POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER 90%–100% 70%–89% 50%–69% 30%–49% 0%–29% No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES RANKING OF COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX THE HIGHEST-RANKED COUNTRIES THE LOWEST-RANKED COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY INDEX RANK COUNTRY INDEX Norway 0.965 Mozambique 0.390 Iceland 0.960 Burundi 0.384 Australia 0.957 Ethiopia 0.371 Ireland 0.956 Chad 0.368 Sweden 0.951 Central African Republic 0.353 Canada 0.950 Guinea-Bissau 0.349 Japan 0.949 Burkina Faso 0.342 United States 0.948 Mali 0.338 Switzerland 0.947 Sierra Leone 0.335 Netherlands 0.947 Niger 0.311 World average: 0.741 Source: UNDP EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 109108 : An overview of the state of the world for under standing g lobal issues Enlargements provide a detailed view of specific regions in the world. Charts and graphics show statistics that are linked to the subject being presented. Secondary maps illustrate distinctive perspectives. Inside you will find: • more than 110 thematic maps, • more than 50 fact tables from world-renown organizations, • more than 130 photographs, • a glossary and detailed indexes, • rich encyclopedic content, reviewed by experts. NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH HONDURAS JORD AN GUATEMALA PHILIPPINES SYRIA PANAMA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOSHAITI SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN COSTA RICA LESOTHO ARMENIA BELIZE CANADA RUSSIA CHINA BRAZIL AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN UNITED STATES SUDAN ALGERIA ARGENTINA MEXICO MONGOLIA NIGER PERU CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT BOLIVIA TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA COLOMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMA LIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA CHILE NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MO ZAMB IQU E SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCA R PARAGUAY MOROCCO VIE TNAM GHANA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL GUYANA ECUADOR UGANDA URUGUAY SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN VENEZUELA CUBA TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN SURINAME TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDO VA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA JAMAICA VANUATU BAHAMAS TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS DOMINICA MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SAINT LUCIA SINGAPORE CAPE VERDE GREENLAND(DK) WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE GRENADA SEYCHELLES FRENCHGUIANA(FR) ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA MICRONESIA NAURU TUVALU MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN BARBADOS GAZA STRIP SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Sibu (1) Oslo (4) Kudus (1) Omaha (3) Perth (1) Kyoto (3) Delhi (3) Seoul (3) Dubai (2) Mecca (1) Surgut (1) Sydney (3) Almaty (3) Taipei (7) Moscow (24) Riyadh (2) Dallas (20) Phoenix (3) Wichita (3) Bangkok (3) Beijing (1) T'ainan (1) Caracas (2) Atlanta (4) Seattle (7) Houston (6) Shanghai (1) Donets'k (2) Istanbul (7) Cairo (1) Columbia (3) Hamilton (1) Edmonton (1) Honolulu (1) Santiago (2) Las Vegas (4) Melbourne (2) Hong Kong (18) Bangalore (1) Stockholm (5) Monterrey (1) Vancouver (1) Sao Paulo (6) Saint John (1) Kuwait (2) George Town (1) Mexico City (9) Antofagasta (1) Stellenbosch (1) Magnitogorsk (1) Manila (3) Kuala Lumpur (4) Buenos Aires (1) Johannesburg (1) Salt Lake City (3) Rio de Janeiro (2) Bombay (5) Bogota (2) Tefen (1) Tokyo (13) Nassau (1) Denver (5) Jeddah (4) Surabaja (1) Tel Aviv (5) San Jose (17) Singapore (5) San Diego (5) Osaka (2) Bentonville (4) San Antonio (4) Los Angeles (36) Minneapolis (6) San Francisco (23) Fort Lauderdale (5) Dnipropetrovs'k (1) Stuttgart (4) Heidelberg (3) Rome (2) Milano (3) Paris (12) Berlin (3) Vienna (3) Madrid (3) Dublin (2) Warsaw (1) London (19) Hamburg (9) La Coruna (3) Zurich (4) Luzern (3) Geneva (3) Bad Homburg (3) SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO DENMARK SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY Philadelphia (3) Washington D.C. (6) Racine (4) Ottawa (1) Québec (2) Boston (9) Chicago (18) Detroit (6) Toronto (6) Montréal (4) New York (45) Cleveland (3) Charleston (3) Kalamazoo (3) EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 106 : INEQUALITIES Despite economists’forecasts that globalization of the economy will benefit the poorest the most, inequalities in the world are getting worse in terms of health, nutrition, education, housing, and other areas. Gross national product (GNP) per capita, a country’s main socioeconomic development indicator, ranges from about 100 in the poorest countries to almost 60,000 in the wealthiest. These disparities are aggravated by the fact that in the 1970s, the Third World became heavily indebted in order to finance its development.The borrowed funds, often poorly managed or misappropriated, have not had the anticipated effect. Today, unable to pay back its debt, the Third World is demanding that the debt be written off. At the same time, the wealthiest countries donate to the most disadvantaged countries in the form of official development assistance. Measuring wealth The GNP is an indicator that measures the total value of the goods and services produced in a country during one year, as well as its net revenues from foreign countries.Total GNP is used to measure a country’s wealth. Divided by the number of inhabitants, it gives an indication of the standard of living of a country’s population. OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offer aid to developing countries by agreeing to reduce their debt or by providing them with new funding. Number of billionaires (per metropolitan region) Source: Forbes 10 5 1 45 DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH GNP per capita ≥ $25,000 $10,000–$24,999 $3,000–$9,999 $1,000–$2,999 $500–$999 < $500 Sources: World Bank; UN The expression “Third World”was coined during the Cold War to designate countries that belonged to neither the capitalist nor the communist sphere of influence. Since the 1970s,“Third World”has referred to the poorest countries on the planet. Many of these countries’populations live in extreme misery. About 1.3 billion people, representing 20% of the world’s population, survive on less than 1 per day—that is, under the poverty line defined by the United Nations. POVERTY LINE Share of the population living on less than $1 per day ≥ 50% 20%–49% 10%–19% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: UN THE COUNTRIES OF THE THIRD WORLD INEQUALITIES MAIN DONOR COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP United States $27,622 M 0.2 Japan $13,147 M 0.3 United Kingdom $10,767 M 0.5 Germany $10,082 M 0.4 France $10,026 M 0.5 Netherlands $5,115 M 0.8 Italy $5,091 M 0.3 Canada $3,756 M 0.4 Sweden $3,362 M 0.9 Spain $3,018 M 0.3 Source: OECD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 107106 : MAIN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP Afghanistan $2,192 M 31.3 Sudan $1,472 M 6.4 Ethiopia $1,202 M 10.8 Dem. Rep. of the Congo $1,034 M 14.8 Tanzania $871 M 6.8 Zambia $836 M 14.4 Mozambique $771 M 12.5 Uganda $704 M 8.8 Bangladesh $563 M 0.8 Madagascar $500 M 8.7 Source: OECD www.qa-international.com TheVisualWorldAtlas Clear captions make maps easy to read. Photographs from the four corners of the globe reveal the extraordinary diversity of our planet’s landscapes and inhabitants. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLASDesigned for the whole family, The Visual World Atlas covers hundreds of subjects that touch on different aspects of life on Earth with clarity and precision (geology, environment, politics, demography, economy, etc.) Presenting thousands of statistical facts on the world’s 193 countries, this thematic atlas features accessible text linked to visual content of exceptional quality. Unique to its genre, for school as well as home, The Visual World Atlas is essential reading for discovering and understanding the world in all its diversity. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLAS Cover_AtlasNotreMonde.indd 1 27/01/09 09:39:57 Mantesh
  • 3. The Visual World Atlas Facts and maps of the current world
  • 4. CREDITS Editor François Fortin Editorial Director Martine Podesto Chief Writers Julie Cailliau Cécile Poulou-Gallet Assistant Writer Marie-Anne Legault Cartographer François Turcotte-Goulet Graphic Designers Anne Tremblay Josée Noiseux Layout Émilie Bellemare Émilie Corriveau Mélanie Giguère-Gilbert Pascal Goyette Danielle Quinty Photo Acquisition Gilles Vézina Illustrator Alain Lemire Computer Graphics Mathieu Douville Translator Kathe Roth Proofreading Veronica Schami Editorial Services Project Manager Nathalie Fréchette Preprinting Julien Brisebois François Hénault Karine Lévesque Human Geography Consultant Jean-Guy Vaillancourt The Visual World Atlas [document cartographique] was created and produced by QA International 329 De la Commune West, 3rd Floor Montreal, Quebec H2Y 2E1 Canada T : 514.499.3000 F : 514.499.3010 ISBN : 978-2-7644-0889-6 www.quebec-amerique.com © QA International, 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing by QA International. Mantesh
  • 5. QA INTERNATIONAL The Visual World Atlas Facts and maps of the current world Mantesh
  • 6. Subject Each subject covers two to eight pages and offers a complete comprehension of the theme addressed. Introduction An introductory text gives a basic overview of the subject. Explanatory texts Explanatory texts complement the visual information. Legend A legend describes the symbols used in the main map. KEY TO SYMBOLS ON MAP What it stands for Visual presentation What it stands for symbol Visual presentation mountain range summit plateau depression plain and basin lake desert watercourse ocean capital sea geographic reference point coastal element main road — island international border — continent regional boundary — region Abbreviated forms of the names of countries comply with the recommendations of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), detailed on page 164. country territory (ISO country code) city How to use this bookIV :
  • 7. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK : V Visual tab A photographic excerpt reminds you of the chapter within which the subject falls. Main map The main map gives you an at-a-glance overview of the theme discussed. Enlargements Portions of the main map are enlarged to give a detailed view of certain regions. Photographs The photographs are linked by lines to the places where they were taken. Boxes Supplementary information is given in secondary maps, illustrations, graphs, and statistical tables. MAIN ABBREVIATIONS USED Metric Unit Abbreviation U.S. Unit Equivalent millimeter mm — centimeter cm 0.4 inches meter m 3.28 feet kilometer km 0.62 miles square kilometer km2 0.39 square miles cubic meter m3 1.31 cubic yards cubic kilometer km3 0.24 cubic miles gram g 0.03 ounces kilogram kg 2.2 pounds metric ton t 1.1 short tons million M the same billion B the same degrees Celsius °C 33.8 degrees Fahrenheit hectopascal hPa 0.03 inches of mercury liter L 33.8 ounces million hectares M ha 2.47 million acres hour, second h, s the same kilometer per hour km/h the same kilowatt-hour kWh the same megawatt MW the same degree ° the same before the Common Era bce inhabitant inhab. U.S. dollar $ gross domestic product GDP gross national product GNP
  • 8. We live in an amazing world! Earth,our blue planet,has a special something that makes it unique: it is home to life.For millions of years,despite countless natural disasters and wild fluctuations in climate, life has persisted. For about the past 150 years, life on Earth, as tenacious as it may be, has come under increasing threat. The growing impact of human activities on the planet’s fragile balance is putting its inhabitants at risk.The forecasted ecological catastrophe can be avoided, if we equip ourselves with the means to do so. And Earth is worth protecting.Our tiny piece of the Universe offers a panoply of breathtaking landscapes, from the vertiginous heights of the Himalayas and the extraordinary aridity of the Sahara to the bursts of color in tropical seas. With so much beauty and diversity, Earth deserves all of our respect. In order to respect Earth, we have to know it better. Each region of the world stands out,whether for its geography,its geology,its fauna,its population,its political organization,or its economy.You will find out about all of these aspects in The Visual World Atlas. Today,all the continents have been explored and uncovered,but the knowledge that has accumulated makes sense only if it is explained and deciphered.This book does not present the most minute details on each region,but offers a careful selection of relevant information that will enable you to discover our world and understand the phenomena that sweep across it. The Visual World Atlas provides a complete,detailed overview of Earth.It covers 31 subjects in physical and human geography and offers thousands of statistical facts concerning the 193 countries of the world.It contains more than 110 thematic maps, as well as photographs taken all over the world. With this book in your hands, Earth, in all its diversity, is within your reach. In a world in perpetual change, The Visual World Atlas gives you the keys to comprehending the present and grasping the challenges to be met in the future. INTRODUCTIONVI :
  • 9. Contents : VII 72 The political world 78 World population 82 Languages 84 Religions 86 Sports 90 Economics 96 Energy 98 Agriculture 102 Transportation 106 Inequalities 110 Freshwater resources 112 Health 114 Illiteracy 116 Conflicts 122 North America 128 South America 134 Europe 140 Asia 146 Africa 152 Oceania 158 Antarctica 44 Climates 48 Cold environments 50 Arid environments 52 Climatic catastrophes 58 The biosphere 62 The conservation of species 64 Atmospheric pollution 68 Water and soil pollution E A RT H : A P L A N E T I N BA L A N C E :: 42 T H E CO N T I N EN T S :: 120 32 The world ocean 38 Freshwater 10 The Solar System 12 The planet Earth 14 The structure of Earth 18 Continental relief features 24 Landforms on the ocean floor 26 Volcanoes 28 Earthquakes E A RT H : A RO C K Y P L A N E T :: 8 E A RT H : A B LU E P L A N E T :: 30 E A RT H : A N I N H A B I T ED P L A N E T :: 70 161 Glossary 164 Statistical data sources 172 Thematic index 176 Photo credits 165 Geographical index Mantesh
  • 11. E a r t h : A R o c k y P l a n e t Earth is the largest rocky planet in the Solar System. It offers a variety of ever-changing landscapes. As the immense plates that form Earth’s crust slowly move toward and away from each other, mountains rise, oceans open up, volcanoes erupt. Erosion is also constantly shaping the planet’s relief features: mountains flatten,valleys are dug,coastlines recede. Observing Earth’s landscapes enables us to understand the history of our planet, explain its structure, and anticipate its future transformations. TOP: Rocky beach, California, United States LEFT: The Glen Coe Valley, Scotland
  • 12. THE SOLAR SYSTEM The Universe contains an almost unimaginable number of galaxies—no fewer than 100 billion! In the midst of this immensity is our galaxy, the Milky Way.The Solar System is located on the periphery of the Milky Way. It includes one star, the Sun, and eight planets, three dwarf planets (Ceres, Eris, and Pluto), more than 160 natural satellites orbiting these planets, millions of asteroids (small, rocky celestial bodies), millions of comets (balls of dirty snow), billions of pebbles, and cosmic dust and gases. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET The planets of the Solar System The planets closest to the Sun are rocky planets.They are also called the inner planets, since they are situated between the Sun and the main asteroid belt. Earth is one of them.The planets situated outside the main asteroid belt are called the outer planets. They are gaseous giants, composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. THE INNER PLANETS MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS diameter (km) 4,879 12,104 12,756 6,794 average distance from the Sun (AU) 1 AU (astronomical unit) = 149,600,000 km 0.39 0.72 1 1.52 period of rotation 58.6 days 243 days 23.9 hr 24.6 hr mass (relative to Earth) 0.055 0.82 1 (5.9 × 1024 kg) 0.11 gravity at the equator (relative to Earth) 38% 91% 100% (9.766 m/s2 ) 38% temperature (ºC) –173 to 427 462 –88 to 58 –87 to –5 number of known natural satellites 0 0 1, the Moon 2 composition of the atmosphere no substantial atmosphere carbon dioxide, nitrogen nitrogen, oxygen carbon dioxide, nitrogen date of discovery known since antiquity known since antiquity known since antiquity known since antiquity Source: NASA THE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS AND DWARF PLANETS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM Ceres Jupiter SaturnMarsEarthVenusMercurySun 10 :
  • 13. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Center of the Milky Way Our Solar System is situated about 28,000 light-years—that is, 280 million billion km—from the center of the Milky Way. Uranus THE SOLAR SYSTEM : 11 THE OUTER PLANETS jupiter saturn uranus neptune diameter (km) 142,984 120,536 51,118 49,528 average distance from the Sun (AU) 1 AU (astronomical unit) = 149,600,000 km 5.2 9.54 19.19 30.07 period of rotation 9.8 hr 10.6 hr 17.2 hr 16.1 hr mass (relative to Earth) 318 95 14 17 gravity at the equator (relative to Earth) 214% 107% 86% 110% temperature (ºC) – 148 –178 –216 –214 number of known natural satellites 62 60 27 13 composition of the atmosphere hydrogen, helium hydrogen, helium hydrogen, helium, methane hydrogen, helium, methane date of discovery known since antiquity known since antiquity 1781 1846 Source: NASA NeptunePluto Eris
  • 14. Kodiak Air Base (USA) Guyana Space Center (Europe) Edwards Air Force Base (USA) Virginia Air & Space Center (USA) Vandenberg Air Force Base (USA) Alacantara Launch Center (BRA) Kennedy Space Center/ Cape Canaveral (USA) 9 2 7 6 5 31 24 21 20 17 16 13 17 16 15 1412 11 Sinus Medii Rupes Altai Mare Nubium Montes Rook Montes Jura Rima Brayley Mare Smythii Mare Imbrium Mare Humorum Mare Crisium Vallis Rheita Mare Nectaris Mare Frigoris Mare Cognitum Montes Haemus Rimae Riccioli Mare Insularum Vallis Snellius Rimae Gutenberg Montes Caucasus Montes Carpatus Lacus Somniorum Montes Apenninus Mare Serenitatis Mare Fecunditatis Oceanus Procellarum Mare Tranquillitatis Dorsum Buckland Montes Cordillera Lacus Veris Mare Marginis Rimae Sirsalis the planet earth EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Formed 4.6 billion years ago, Earth is the largest of the four rocky planets in the Solar System. It has a single natural satellite: the Moon. Earth is the densest celestial body in the Solar System: each cubic meter of the planet weighs an average of 5.5 metric tons. It is also the only planet that has vast oceans of liquid water, within which life appeared 3.5 billion years ago. Lake Manicouagan, Canada The crater of Lake Manicouagan, in northeast Canada, results from the impact of a meteorite 212 million years ago. Earth seen from space Earth’s vast oceans, from which it gets its nickname “the blue planet,” can be seen from space. Its continents, with jagged coastlines, are formed of mountains, deserts, lakes—all relief features that are visible from space. Observation satellites can also detect a number of impact craters (the imprints of collisions between Earth and meteorites) and forests. Earth observation satellites are sent into space from launch bases dispersed around the globe. Hurricane Iris Cyclones are visible from space. They form cloud disks almost 1,000 km in diameter. THE visible FACE OF THE MOON Lunar relief features and landing sites for lunar missions The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite. It makes one revolution around Earth in 28 days and always has the same face turned toward the planet (the visible face). Its diameter is 3,476 km, and its surface is pocked with craters produced by collisions with asteroids. Situated only 384,400 km from Earth, the Moon is the most-studied celestial body after our planet. Since the late 1950s, several dozen space missions, manned and unmanned, have explored it. Lunar mission landing sites Apollo (manned missions, USA) Surveyor (USA) Luna (USSR) The figure represents the mission number. Sources: USGS; NASA THE MOON 12 :
  • 15. Svobodny Cosmodrome (RUS) Gando Air Base (USA) Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center (CHN) Xichang Space Launch Center (CHN) Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (CHN) Plesetsk Cosmodrome (RUS) Baikonur Cosmodrome (KAZ) Palmachim Air Base (ISR) Kagoshima Space Center (JPN) Sriharikota Air Base (IND) Tanegashima Space Center (JPN) Christmas Island launch base (AUS) Odyssey/Sea Launch launch platform (USA) EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Lake Balkhash, Kazakhstan The affluents of Lake Balkhash are visible on satellite images. Phytoplankton, offshore of Namibia Artificial satellites allow us to study the development and movement of phytoplankton. THE PLANET EARTH : 13 EARTH SEEN BY Satellite Launch bases Artificial satellites, space probes, and manned vessels Meteorites Diameter of impact crater 100–300 km 10–99.9 km 1–9.9 km 0.1–0.9 km Source: The Earth Impact Database, University of New Brunswick Composite image built from data recorded by NASA satellites in 2001
  • 16. THE STRUCTURE OF EARTH The interior of our planet, with its extreme pressure and temperature conditions, is still a mysterious place. It is where minerals are created and metamorphosed through processes that span millions of years.The immense plates that form Earth’s crust float on the surface of a mass of partially liquid rock. As these plates collide with each other, they build mountains and open up oceans. Plate tectonics Although it seems to be immobile, the land on which we live moves several centimeters each year. India and Asia, for example, are moving toward each other by 4 to 6 cm every year. This phenomenon, called plate tectonics, results from the fact that the lithosphere, the outer layer of Earth, is fragmented into a dozen huge plates, the tectonic plates, about 100 km thick, that slide over the surface of Earth’s mantle. Plate tectonics is responsible for most of the components of Earth’s surface, including oceans, created when two plates move apart (divergent plates), and mountain ranges (convergent plates) that come into existence when two plates collide. Sometimes, two plates simply slip against each other along what is called a transform fault. Although the movement of lithospheric plates is slow and continuous, it is nonetheless the cause of the most violent and devastating phenomena on the planet: volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. THE TECTONIC PLATES Edges of the plates Relative movements between two plates Divergent plates Convergent plates Transform fault Movement of a plate Direction of movement of a plate Sources: USGS; ESRI San Andreas Fault, California, United States Frictions along the San Andreas Fault, at the juncture of the Pacific and North American plates, cause frequent earthquakes. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET P A C I F I C P L A T E N O R T H A M E R I C A N P L A T E A N T A R C T I C P L A T E N A Z C A P L A T E C O C O S P L A T E C A R I B B E A N P L A T E S O U T H A M E R I C A N P L A T E 14 :
  • 17. CONTINENTAL DRIFT In the early 20th century, the German geophysicist and climatologist Alfred Wegener noted that the continents looked like they might be able to fit together. He observed, for example, that the contours of the west coast of Africa were an almost perfect match with those of the east coast of South America. He thus formulated the hypothesis, demonstrated in the 1960s, that millions of years ago there was just one huge continent, Pangaea, in a single ocean, Panthalassa.This supercontinent apparently broke up gradually, forming new continents and new oceans that continued to drift on the surface of the globe. The expansion of the sea floor and plate tectonics are responsible for the mechanism of continental drift.The plates carrying continents are moving toward or away from each other at speeds varying from 1 to 18 cm per year. Panthalassa Pangaea Earth 250 million years ago Earth today EARTH:AROCKYPLANET THE structure OF EARTH E u r a s i a n P l a t e P a c i f i c P l a t e P h i l i pp i n e Se a P l a t e I n d i a n - A u s t r a l i a n P l a t e A f r i c a n P l a t e : 15 a r a b i a n p l a t e
  • 18. THE structure OF EARTH Volcanic eruption of Etna (Italy), in 2002 > The lava that flows from erupting volcanoes comes from magma rising from Earth’s mantle. COMPOSITION OF EARTH oxygen (30%) silicon (15%) sulfur (2%) nickel (2%) magnesium (13%) iron (35%) other elements (3%) It is impossible to have a completely clear picture of Earth’s internal structure. However, study of the transformations of the planet’s surface and analysis of other planets in the Solar System have supplied much information about the interior of Earth. Our planet has a total mass of about 6 trillion tons and is formed of three concentric layers—from densest to lightest, core, mantle, and crust. Each has an individual chemical composition and specific physical properties. Earth’s crust, composed of oceanic crust and continental crust, represents barely 3% of the planet’s volume. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Most of Earth’s surface consists of oceanic crust about 10 km thick. The continental crust is 20 to 40 km thick, and up to 70 km thick under mountain ranges. The lithosphere, Earth’s rigid outer part, is composed of terrestrial crust (continental or oceanic) and part of the mantle. In the asthenosphere, the temperature reaches more than 1,200°C, a temperature at which rock partially melts. The plasticity of this layer makes continental drift possible. The mantle takes up 80% of Earth’s total volume. Composed mainly of volcanic rock, it is in a state of partial fusion (magma) at a temperature of about 3,000°C. Convection currents transport Earth’s internal heat toward the surface. Although the core takes up 16% of the volume of Earth, it makes up only 33% of its mass. It contains the heaviest elements on the planet, such as iron and nickel. The outer core is composed of molten metal. The inner core is composed of metals in a solid state, even though the temperature is above 6,000°C. CROSS SECTION OF EARTH The interior of Earth 16 :
  • 20. Sajama 6,542 m Huascarán 6,768 m Mount Logan 5,956 m Mount Vinson 4,892 m Death Valley -86 m Mount McKinley 6,194 m Lago Enriquillo -46 mOrizaba, 5,700 m Aconcagua, 6,962 m Ojos del Salado 6,893 m Chimborazo 6,310 m Laguna del Carbón -105 m Pico Cristóbal Colón 5,776 m Mount Washington 1,917 m Mont d'Iberville 1,652 m Mount Odin 2,147 m Mount Gunnbjorn 3,694 m Pico Bolívar 4,981 m Pico da Neblina 2,994 m Bonete 6,759 m Pico da Bandeira 2,890 m Mount Barbeau 2,616 m SERRA DO MAR G r e a t P l a i n s Gran Chaco C a n a d i a n S h i e l d Brazilian Plateau Ozark PlateauColorado Plateau Chiquitos Highlands Great Basin Parana Plateau Altiplano R O C K I E S Patagonia APPALAC H I A N S AN D E S CORDILLERA C O A S T M O U N TA I N S BROOKS RANGE ALAS KA RANGE SIERRA MADRE ORIENTAL SIERRA MADRE OCCIDENTAL SIERRA NEVADA SIERRA MADREDEL SUR CASCADERANGE ELLSW ORTH MOUNTAINS LAURENTIANS A m a z o n i a Llano s Pampas Atl a n t i c c o a s t a l pl ain Guyana Plateau Mato Grosso M A C K E N Z I E M O U NTAINS # # # # #A#A # # CONTINENTAL RELIEF FEATURES18 : Altiplano, Chile The Altiplano region stretches through Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. At more than 3,000 m altitude, it is one of the highest plateaus in the world. Glacier National Park, United States The steep, snowy slopes of the young Rocky Mountains tower over the landscape of western North America. The movements of Earth’s crust and the erosive action of the wind and water shape a variety of relief features on Earth’s surface, such as mountains, plains, and plateaus. In spite of the diversity of landforms, all continents have a similar structure, with older and more recent parts.The continents rest on a bedrock formed of very old rocks dating from the Precambrian Era (4.6 billion to 570 million years ago). Most major bedrock zones are situated in the center of the continents. The landforms of continents Mountains are the most prominent of Earth’s relief features.They are characterized by more or less steep slopes, and their altitude depends on their age. Plains are vast flat areas in which shallow valleys are carved out by watercourses. Plateaus are large flat stretches edged by escarpments, sometimes very steep. Rivers carve encased valleys, or sometimes gorges or canyons, into them. Many plateaus are not very high, but some, such as the Tibetan Plateau, may reach more than 3,000 m in altitude. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET CONTINENTAL RELIEF FEATURES Summits and depressions Summit, altitude Depression, altitude Landforms MOUNTAIN RANGES Plateaus Plains and basins Altitude 6,000–8,850 m 5,000–5,999 m 4,000–4,999 m 3,000–3,999 m 2,000–2,999 m 1,000–1,999 m 500–999 m 250–499 m 1–249 m –408–0 m Sources: NIMA; NASA
  • 21. K2 8,614 m Kulul -75 m Elbrus 5,643 m Lake Eyre, -12 m Mount Cook 3,764 m Dead Sea, -408 m Lake Assal, -155 m Mount Kenya, 5,199 m Kilimanjaro, 5,892 m Puncak Jaya 4,884 m Mount Ararat, 5,137 m Mount Wilhelm 4,509 m Mount Stanley 5,109 m Turpan Pendi -154 m Caspian Sea -28 m Chott Melrhir -40 m Mount Kosciusko 2,228 m Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 mSebkha Tah -55 m Nanga Parbat 8,126 m Mount Shkhara 5,200 m Vpadina Kaundy, -132 m Vpadina Akchanaya -81 m Lake Tiberias, -200 m Denakil Plain -125 m Qattara Depression -133 m Hvannadalshnúkur 2,119 m Batu, 4,400 m Mount Cameroon 4,070 m Jebel Toubkal 4,167 m Mount Koussi 3,445 m Zard Kuh 4,548 m Damavand 5,610 m Zarghun 3,578 m Doda Betta 2,636 m Muztag 6,987 m Pik Pobedy 7,439 m Mount Belukha 4,506 m Minya Konka 7,556 m Kinabalu 4,101 m Chuo Yang Sin 2,420 m Gunung Kerinci 3,805 m Agrihan 965 m Mount Zeil 1,531 m Mount Ossa 1,617 m Mount Ruapehu 2,797 m Mount Fuji 3,776 m ETHIOPIAN MASSIF DARFUR MOUNT MCDONNELL TIBESTI AHAGGAR MASSIF ENNEDI HAMERSLEY RANGE FOUTA DJALLON W e s t S i b e r i a n P l a i n China Plain Ganges Plain Manchurian Plain Indus Plain C e n t r a l S i b e r i a n P l a t e a u Tibetan Plateau Angola Plateau Central Russian Uplands Deccan Plateau South China Plateau Khorat plain Anatolian Plain Volga Uplands Jos Plateau Kimberley Plateau Djado Plateau C o n g o B a s i n Okavango Basin Qaidam Basin Sichuan Basin A T L A S A L T A I A SIR K O L Y M A M O U N T A I N S C A U C A S U S HIJAZ H I M A L A Y A S MAOKE MOUNTAI NS SCANDINAVIAN MOUNTAINS K U N L U N S H A NZAGROS M OUNTAINS BARISANRANGE AUSTRALIAN CO R DILLERA T I A N S H A N URALMOUNT A I N S CHERSKY RANGE DRAKE NSBERG YABL ONOVY RANGE ARAKANYOM A WESTERNGHATS MITUMBAMOUNTAINS TAURUS MOUNTAINS STANOVOY RANGE VERKHOYANSK MOUNTAINS KARAKORAM PAMIRS HADRAMOUT ANNAMITIC CORDILLERA SULAIMANRANGE ALTUN SHAN HINDU KUSH ADAMAWA MASSIF FLINDERS RANGES LADAKH Nullarbor Plain Caspian Depression Galdhøppigen 2,469 m ELB RU S NEW ZEALAND ALPS WestGreatRiftVal ley EastGreatRiftValley Bulu Rantekombola 3,478 m U H # # # # ######## # # # # # # U#U#U#U # KARAKORAM # KARAKORAM #A#A #N#N # U#U #U#U###U#U #U#U # # # #A#A # #S#S #R#R # H # H Mont Blanc 4,807 m Gerlachovska 2,655 m Mount Moldoveanu 2,543 m Musala Peak 2,925 m Mount Olympus 2,917 m Etna 3,323 m Monte Cinto 2,706 m Corno Grande 2,912 m Grossglockner 3,798 m Moncayo 2,313 m Aneto Peak 3,404 m Mulhacén, 3,482 m Almanzor Peak, 2,592 m A L P S PINDUSBA L K A N CAR PATHIANS JU R A SIERRA NEVAD A PYRENEES D INARIC ALPS SUDET ES SIERRA MORENA PENNINES VOSGES SIERRA DE GREDOS CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS CAMBRIAN MOUNTAINS G e r m a n o - P o l i s h P l a i n Hungarian Basin CENTRAL MASSIF GREDOS ## # #PYRENEES#PYRENEES #GREDOS #GREDOS Ben Nevis 1,344 m Mount Cervin 4,478 m A P E N N I N E S # ## # # ## ####### Makalu, 8,463 m Lhotse, 8,516 m Manaslu, 8,156 m Cho Oyu, 8,201 m Annapurna, 8,091 m Dhaulagiri, 8,167 m Mount Everest, 8,850 m Kanchenjunga, 8,586 m CONTINENTAL RELIEF FEATURES : 19 EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Australian Cordillera, Australia The old mountains of the Australian Cordillera, rounded and gently sloping, are home to the highest peak on the continent, Mount Kosciusko, at an altitude of 2,228 m. Great Rift Valley, East Africa The Great Rift Valley is an immense graben. It stretches about 5,500 km through East Africa and is divided into western and eastern sections, in the African Great Lakes region.
  • 22. The uplift of a landform is the result of a complex process: a single mountain range may be composed of fragments of oceanic crust, volcanic rock, and metamorphic rock (transformed by high pressure and temperatures).These different types of rock are generally arranged in strata that have been folded, upturned, or even dislocated along faults. With the discovery of the existence of lithospheric plates came great progress in the comprehension of orogenesis (the process of mountain formation). In fact, the movement of oceanic and continental plates is responsible for the formation of most mountains. Subduction mountains, such as the Andes, are created when an oceanic and a continental plate come together, while collision mountains, such as the Himalayas, are the result of an impact between two continental plates. The formation of mountains fault oceanic plate continental plate subduction mountains coastal mountains volcano magma When an oceanic plate collides with a continent, it slides under the continental plate . Oceanic sediments scraped away by this contact accumulate in what is called an accretionary wedge  . As the oceanic plate sinks, the volume of the accretionary wedge increases, to the point that it sometimes rises above sea level and forms coastal mountains  . Subjected to considerable forces, the continental plate folds and deforms, giving rise to a subduction mountain range  . When the oceanic plate reaches the mantle, the rocks that form it melt and are transformed into magma  . These molten rocks sometimes rise to the surface again, where they are expelled by volcanoes  . The shape of a mountain depends, in large part, on its age. Formed by recent tectonic shocks, the youngest mountain ranges on the planet (Alps, Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, Caucasus) are very jagged, with steep slopes and pointed summits. Most of them have not finished rising, since the slow movements of lithospheric plates continue to reshape the landforms.The Alps, for example, result from an enormous uplift that took place about 50 million years ago, when the Eurasian Plate collided with the African Plate.The oldest mountains (Urals, Appalachians, Australian Cordillera, Drakensberg) look less rugged: they have been smoothed out by erosion, which scrapes material from the slopes and deposits it in the hollows.The Appalachians, created more than 300 million years ago, are among the oldest mountains in the world. YOUNG MOUNTAINS AND OLD MOUNTAINS ≥ 145 million years < 145 million years continental RELIEF FEATURES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET BETWEEN OCEAN AND continent 20 : accretionary wedge
  • 23. continental RELIEF FEATURES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Caucasus Mountains, Russia The Caucasus Mountains extend to the southern border of European Russia, between the Black Sea, to the west, and the Caspian Sea, to the east. They are the highest in Europe, with Mount Elbrus culminating at 5,643 m. : 21 the highest summits in the world summit ALTITUDE mountain range first ASCENT North America Mount McKinley 6,194 m Rockies 1913 Mount Logan 5,956 m Rockies 1925 Orizaba 5,700 m Sierra Madre 1848 South America Aconcagua 6,962 m Andes Cordillera 1897 Ojos del Salado 6,893 m Andes Cordillera 1937 Europe Mount Elbrus 5,643 m Caucasus 1874 Mont Blanc 4,807 m Alps 1786 Africa Kilimanjaro 5,892 m isolated volcano 1889 Mount Kenya 5,199 m isolated volcano 1899 Asia Mount Everest 8,850 m Himalayas 1953 K2 8,614 m Karakoram 1954 Kangchenjunga 8,586 m Himalayas 1955 Makalu 8,463 m Himalayas 1955 Cho Oyu 8,201 m Himalayas 1954 Dhaulagiri 8,167 m Himalayas 1960 Manaslu 8,156 m Himalayas 1956 Nanga Parbat 8,126 m Punjab 1953 Annapurna 8,091 m Himalayas 1950 Antarctica Mount Vinson 4,892 m Ellsworth 1966
  • 24. continental RELIEF FEATURES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Erosion, a process of abrasion, transformation, and degradation, is a cycle that begins with the gradual ablation of surface material and continues with the transportation of loose particles to where they accumulate in the form of sediment. Water and wind are the main agents of erosion: through chemical or mechanical procedures, they profoundly alter the landscape.The erosion cycle occurs at different paces, but all are very slow on the human scale: a fissure in a block of granite usually widens by only a few millimeters over a thousand years. Mountainous massifs, semiarid regions, and areas where the surface of the land has been modified by human activity (clear-cutting, construction of roads and cities, etc.) erode most rapidly.The slowest erosion is associated with lowlands where the materials are very hard, such as the Canadian Shield. The erosion cycle As erosion continues, the relief features flatten out: the summits become rounded and the slopes become gentler.The watercourses transport less debris and flow more slowly. Erosion may then begin again: watercourses once again carve out deep valleys. Fluvial landscapes are transformed by erosion caused by watercourses. When the landscape is very uneven, with high peaks and steep slopes, erosion is very rapid. Watercourses carve out deep V-shaped valleys and sweep away much rocky debris. After several million years of erosion, the landscape becomes a peneplain: there are few relief features and they barely rise above the base level.The erosion process slows. Geological phenomena may cause a sudden elevation of the terrain. In this case, the peneplain is raised high above the base level. THE EVOLUTION OF A LANDSCAPE base level = sea level elevation of the terrain Goblin Valley, United States > These rocky mushroom-shaped columns 2 to 3 m high, also called hoodoos, rise by the hundreds in Goblin Valley. They were shaped by erosion, mainly by the wind. 22 :
  • 26. N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N M i d - Atlantic R i d g e Chile - P e ruTrench P a c i f i c - A n t a r c t i c R ise EastPacificRidge Chile Rid ge Cent ral American Ridge ReykjanesRidge Aleutian Trench EastPacific Ridge Puerto RicoTre nch Gor d a Ridge Nares Deep South Sandwich Trench, -8,163 m -243 m -5,653 m -5,813 m -5,474 m -6,013 m -4,131 m -6,479 m -6,792 m -6,618 m -6,015 m -7,694 m -6,403 m -5,753 m -5,581 m -7,848 m -6,647 m -8,073 m -6,128 m -6,995 m S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Cayman Trench -8,605 m LANDFORMS ON THE OCEAN FLOOR EARTH:AROCKYPLANET 24 : Landforms on the ocean floor are as diverse as continental landforms. Under the surface of the ocean, mountains, plains, plateaus, volcanoes, trenches, and canyons form stunning landscapes and many of these formations are much larger than are those on land. For instance, vast abyssal plains are crossed by immense mountain ranges, called oceanic ridges, that stretch almost 70,000 kilometers in length.These underwater mountain ranges are between 1,000 and 3,000 meters high, and running their entire length is a rift, a central subsidence plain that forms as the oceanic plates separate. Where lithospheric plates meet, gigantic oceanic depressions, trenches, reach depths comparable to the altitude of the highest continental peaks.The deepest point is 11,034 meters, in the Mariana Trench in the North Pacific Ocean. The oceanic crust While the rocks that make up the continents may be 3.8 billion years old, the rocks that make up the ocean floor are never older than 200 million years old. New oceanic crust is constantly being formed by volcanic activity that takes place in the oceanic ridges. With a thickness of about 10 km, the oceanic crust is also much thinner than the continental crust, which is from 20 to 70 km thick. Pillow lava Magma situated under the oceanic ridge forms pillow lava when it comes into contact with relatively cold seawater.
  • 27. Cape Agulhas I N D I A N O C E A N S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N BengalRidge S o u t h w e s t I n d i a n R i d g e Ku rilTrench TongaTrench JapanTrench KermadecTrench Java Trench RyukyuRidge VityaTrench Mid-AtlanticRidge E u r a s i a n B a s i n Whar ton Basin Cape Verde Basin Mariana Tr ench Yap Trench Philippine Trench -6,912 m -694 m -100 m -2,276 m -5,737 m -4,119 m-5,626 m -5,707 m -5,862 m -5,016 m -6,035 m -1,714 m -4,091 m -6,269 m -6,683 m -2,837 m -9,000 m -6,973 m -7,773 m -7,743 m -9,779 m -7,519 m -6,533 m -6,579 m -7,724 m-9,533 m -8,767 m -9,780 m -7,205 m -7,586 m -6,714 m -10,719 m -10,164 m -11,034 m -6,180 m -7,374 m -7,457 m -6,614 m -7,125 m -7,334 m -5,254 m -7,743 m Aleutian Trench -3,931 m A R C T I C O C E A N Molloy Hole -5,669 m -4,570 m -5,317 m -3,741 m -2,954 m -2,962 m -3,151 m -8,930 m NewHebrid es Trench LANDFORMS ON THE OCEAN FLOOR EARTH:AROCKYPLANET The continental shelf is the part of the continent that extends from 1 to 1,000 km in a gentle slope under the ocean. THE OCEAN FLOOR : 25 Most of the ocean floor is occupied by vast abyssal plains that begin at the foot of the continental slope and are at a depth of between 3,000 and 6,000 m. An oceanic trench is a deep valley that cuts into the abyssal plain. It may reach depths greater than 10,000 m. At the end of the continental shelf, the continental slope is an abrupt drop-off in altitude to more than 3,000 m in depth. An island arc is a string of volcanic islands formed following the subduction of an oceanic lithospheric plate under another oceanic plate . An oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain range situated on either side of a long, deep fissure in the ocean floor. UNDERWATER LANDFORMS Depth of seas and oceans 6,000–11,034 m 5,000–5,999 m 4,000–4,999 m 3,000–3,999 m 2,000–2,999 m 1,000–1,999 m 500–999 m 0–499 m Source: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD Deepest zones Depth Source: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD
  • 28. R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK I N D I A SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SCG SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO SVK ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA-BISSAU SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA LUX BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA SINGAPORE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT Kelut, 1966 and 1990 Marapi, 1979 Rinjani, 1994 Galunggung, 1982 Semeru, 1981 Merapi, 1994 Nyiragongo, 1977 and 2002 Lake Nyos (volcanic), 1986 Lake Monoun (volcanic), 1984 Dieng Volcanic Complex, 1979 ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN QATAR GAZASTRIP VOLCANOES Volcanoes may erupt at various locations all over the world, especially at the borders between lithospheric plates. Violent and spectacular, volcanic eruptions occur when molten rock, called magma, rises from Earth’s mantle. As it rises, the magma releases gases, and the pressure increases to the point that Earth’s crust gives way—and there is a volcanic eruption. About 50 eruptions take place on continents every year; the number of underwater eruptions has not been counted. It is possible to observe volcanic eruptions from close up, since volcanoes do not form haphazardly on Earth’s surface. Rather, they are situated in zones where Earth’s crust is fractured or above hot spots, where magma has pierced the crust. VOLCANISM Volcanic eruptions Eruptions after 1965 causing more than 10 deaths (named on the map) Eruptions that took place between the beginning of the Common Era and today Eruptions that took place between 8000 BCE and the beginning of the Common Era Sources: Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program; Em-dat Number of victims per country (dead, injured, and displaced) ≥ 1,000,000 100,000–999,999 10,000–99,999 1,000–9,999 < 1,000 no victims Source: Em-dat Edges of lithospheric plates The Pacific Ring of Fire Sources: USGS; ESRI How volcanoes work Hot, light magma from Earth’s mantle rises toward the surface from the magma chamber in which it had accumulated. Over time, the buildup of material pushes the magma into the pipe and brings it to the surface, where it overflows the crater in the form of lava.The eruption plume is composed of cinders , lava , and rock debris, which are ejected above the crater.The magma that does not reach the surface sometimes penetrates a layer of rock of a different type and solidifies ; this phenomenon is called intrusion. Lava, which may reach a temperature of 1,000°C, flows down the slopes of the volcano at an average speed of 300 m/h. Heated by the nearby magma, underground water is expelled in the form of steam spouts called geysers. Fumaroles are plumes of burning gas. Magma is composed of molten rocks and gas. It is subjected to extremely high pressure, and it is very hot. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Unzen Volcano, Japan Despite an order to evacuate the valley, there were 43 deaths when Unzen Volcano erupted in 1991. 26 :
  • 29. C A N A D A B R A Z I L A U S T R A L I A U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA N E S I A CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME PAPUA NEW GUINEA NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA HONDURAS PANAMA SOUTH KOREA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE NORTH KOREA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR FIJI JAMAICA BAHAMAS TIMOR LESTE SAMOA TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) PALAU GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO (US) A L E U T I A N A R C H I P E L A G O (US) FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA Arenal, 1968 Awu, 1966 Taal, 1965 Unzen, 1991 Galeras, 1993 El Chichón, 1982 Saint Helens, 1980 Popocatépetl, 1997 Mayon, 1993 Pinatubo, 1991 Soufrière, 1997 Nevado del Ruiz, 1985 KIRIBATI JAPAN PHILIPPINES SOLOMON IS. VANUATU TONGA GUATEMALA ECUADOR VOLCANOES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET HOT SPOTSHOT SPOTS Hot spots occur in the middle of oceanic or continental plates and notHot spots occur in the middle of oceanic or continental plates and not at the edges between plates. Pockets of magma rise from Earth’s lowerat the edges between plates. Pockets of magma rise from Earth’s lower mantle toward the surface and pierce the lithospheric plate. While themantle toward the surface and pierce the lithospheric plate. While the lithospheric plate continues to move, the hot spot, still active, remainslithospheric plate continues to move, the hot spot, still active, remains in one place and continues to pierce Earth’s crust, creating a string ofin one place and continues to pierce Earth’s crust, creating a string of volcanic islands.The Hawaiian Archipelago is one example.volcanic islands.The Hawaiian Archipelago is one example. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS There are two main types of volcanic eruptions: effusive and explosive. Effusive eruptions involve flows of very fluid lava and free gas emissions from volcanoes that usually have gentle slopes. Explosive eruptions are more formidable and usually involve volcanoes with steep slopes. Very thick, viscous lava blocks the escape of gases in the magma chamber, so that the pressure increases inside the volcano to the point that it causes explosions accompanied by expulsions of rock, lava, and cinders over hundreds of kilometers. THE MOST LETHAL VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS SINCE 1980 DATE LOCATION VOLCANO TYPE OF ERUPTION NUMBER OF DEATHS 1985 Colombia Nevado del Ruiz explosive 21,800 1986 Cameroon Lake Nyos (volcanic) emission of carbon dioxide 1,746 1991 Philippines Pinatubo explosive 640 2002 Dem. Rep. of the Congo Nyiragongo effusive 200 1981 Java (Indonesia) Semeru explosive 192 1982 Mexico El Chichón explosive 100 1980 United States Saint Helens explosive 90 1993 Philippines Mayon explosive 79 1994 Java (Indonesia) Merapi explosive 58 1991 Japan Unzen explosive 43 1984 Cameroon Lake Monoun (volcanic) emission of carbon dioxide 37 1990 Java (Indonesia) Kelut explosive 33 1997 Montserrat Soufrière explosive 32 THE PACIFIC RING OF FIRETHE PACIFIC RING OF FIRE Usually, volcanoes emerge along the edges of lithospheric plates,Usually, volcanoes emerge along the edges of lithospheric plates, forming an island chain. One of the best known is the Pacific Ring offorming an island chain. One of the best known is the Pacific Ring of Fire, which contains many of the world’s volcanoes.The Ring of FireFire, which contains many of the world’s volcanoes.The Ring of Fire includes the volcanic archipelagos of the Aleutian Islands, Japan, andincludes the volcanic archipelagos of the Aleutian Islands, Japan, and the Philippines.the Philippines. : 27
  • 30. Chillán, 1939 San Juan, 1944 Chimbote, 1970 Managua, 1972 Valparaiso, 1906 Guatemala City, 1976 C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA BARBADOS FRENCHGUIANA (FR) VCT KNA PANAMA ECUADOR EARTHQUAKES Earthquakes, also known as seisms, are produced when there is a sudden tremor on the surface of Earth due to a discharge of energy issuing from the depths of the planet.The movement of lithospheric plates and the enormous tensions that accumulate at their meeting points are directly responsible for seismic activity. Earthquakes therefore take place mainly along faults in Earth’s crust, at the edges of the plates. There are almost 1 million tremors around the planet each year, but only just over 5% of them are felt. When they occur in urban areas, earthquakes cause disasters, sometimes killing thousands of people. Almost 830,000 people died during the most lethal earthquake in history, which shook northern China in 1556. The Richter scale Invented by the American geophysicist Charles Francis Richter, the Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake—that is, the amount of energy that it releases. Each whole number on the scale corresponds to an intensity 32 times higher than the preceding number. Thus, a magnitude 6 earthquake is 32 times more powerful than a magnitude 5 earthquake. Earthquakes of a magnitude above 4 are felt by most people; those with a magnitude above 5 cause damage. Earthquakes of a magnitude above 8 cause total destruction of inhabited zones.They are rare, occurring fewer than four times a year. EARTH:AROCKYPLANET THE MECHANISM OF EARTHQUAKES 1. As lithospheric plates move, they compress and expand the rock, subjecting it to considerable tension and friction. At this stage, nothing moves. The edges of the plates remain immobile against each other while the tension increases. 3. Usually, the earthquake is strongest and the damage is greatest at the epicenter. After the earthquake, the affected region undergoes a morphological alteration, since the two plates, still side by side, are slightly displaced. 2. When the tension becomes too great, an immense quantity of energy is suddenly released in the form of seismic waves that propagate to the surface, producing a series of tremors of Earth’s crust. The epicenter is the region on the surface directly above the focus, the initial point of rupture deep within Earth. seismic waves faultplate movements plates EARTHQUAKES Magnitude of earthquakes occurring since 1900 Earthquakes that caused more than 10,000 deaths are named. 9–9.5 8–8.9 7–7.9 6–6.9 5–5.9 4–4.9 Source: Em-dat Edges of lithospheric plates Sources: USGS; ESRI 28 : Mantesh
  • 31. Agadir, 1960 Anshan, 1975 Messina, 1908 Tonghai, 1970 Gujarat, 2001 Sumatra, 2004 Tangshan, 1976 Muzaffarabad, 2005 Kanto Plain, 1923 Kangra District, 1905 Qinghai Province, 1927 Sichuan Province, 1974 Sichuan Province, 2008 Guangdong Province, 1918 Avezzano, 1915 Gansu Province, 1932 R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE NIGERIA SWEDEN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA BOTSWANA OMAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI LITHUANIA CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE PHILIPPINES HRV UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO SVK NORTH KOREA SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU KIRIBATI M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES GAMBIA MKD BAHRAIN LIE SMR VAT MNE Sichuan Province, 1933 JAPAN IRAN EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA IRAQ PAKISTAN AFGHANISTAN TURKMENISTAN UZBEKISTAN SYRIA AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN GEORGIA JORDAN ARMENIA ISRAEL KUWAIT LEBANON CYPRUS WESTBANKGAZASTRIP Bam, 2003 Tabas, 1978 Izmit, 1999 Quetta, 1935 Qazvin, 1962 Erzincan, 1939 Ashgabat, 1948 Tien Shan, 1907 Gilan Province, 1990 Spitak, 1988 Khorosan Province, 1968 EARTHQUAKES EARTH:AROCKYPLANET Earthquake in Kobe, Japan An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.9 on the Richter scale caused more than 5,000 deaths in the Kobe region of Japan in January 1995. : 29 Number of earthquake victims by country since 1900 (dead, injured, and displaced) ≥ 10,000,000 1, 000,000–9,999,999 100,000–999,999 10,000–99,999 1,000–9,999 < 1,000 Borders of country groups (ex-USSR and ex-Yugoslavia) Source: Em-dat THE MOST LETHAL EARTHQUAKES SINCE 1900 DATE REGION AFFECTED MAGNITUDE NUMBER OF DEAD December 26, 2004 Sumatra (Indonesia) 9.0 283,106 (earthquake and tsunami) July 27, 1976 Tangshan (China) 7.5 at least 255,000 May 22, 1927 Qinghai (China) 8.3 200,000 December 16, 1920 Gansu (China) 7.8 200,000 September 1, 1923 Kanto (Japan) 7.9 143,000 October 5, 1948 Ashgabat (Turkmenistan) 7.3 110,000 December 28, 1908 Messina (Italy) 7.2 85,000 (earthquake and tsunami) October 8, 2005 Northern Pakistan 7.6 80,360 May 12, 2008 Sichuan (China) 7.9 at least 80,000 December 25, 1932 Gansu (China) 7.6 70,000 May 31, 1970 Peru 7.9 66,000 June 20, 1990 Western Iran 7.7 45,000 May 30, 1935 Quetta (Pakistan) 7.5 45,000 : 29
  • 33. E a r t h : A B l u e P l a n e t Almost three-quarters of Earth’s surface is covered with water. The abundance of liquid water, which distinguishes Earth from all other planets in the Solar System, has earned it the nickname “blue planet.” The four oceans and dozens of seas that form the world ocean contain salt water, while the planet’s glaciers and ice caps contain freshwater. Freshwater constantly circulates through the huge reservoirs that are the oceans and seas, inland waters, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. However, access to it is very uneven from one region to another. TOP: Falkland Islands, in the South Atlantic Ocean LEFT: Iceberg, off Antarctica
  • 34. Azores Tahiti Bermuda Cook Is. Cocos Is. Devon Is. Banks Is. Greenland Jarvis Is. Tubuai Is. Kodiak Island Chiloé Is. Guadaloupe Nunivak Is. Gambier Is. Pitcairn Is. Falkland Is. Newfoundland Roca Alijos Victoria Is. Melville Is. Caroline Is. Galapagos Is. Tierra del Fuego Trindade Is. Tabuaeran Is. Easter Is. Marquesas Is. Ellesmere Is. Baffin Is. Alexander Is. Palmyra Atoll Wellington Is. Kiritimati Is. Hawawaw ii ar c r c r hchc. Clipperton Is. Vancouver Is. Society Is. Revillagigedo Is. Tuamotu Arch. Juan Fernandez Is. French Polynesia Prince Patrick Is. Prince of Wales Is. Prince of Wales Is. Prince of Fernando de Noronha Is. Queen Charlotte Is. South Georgia Is. South Sandwich Is. Martin Vaz Is. Sala y Gomez Is. Anticosti Is. St. Pierre and Miquelon Grand Bahama Is. Abaco Is. SARGASSO SEAAndros Bay Is. Cayman Is. Cuba EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE SCOTIA SEA WEDDELL SEA BEAUFORT SEA BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA Hudson Bay Baffin Bay DavisStrait Gulf of Mexico Amundsen Gulflfl Drake Passage Gulf of Alaska Panama Canal Cape Horn Strait of Magellan S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N ANTARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE Bering Strait Bering Strait Bering Aleutian IsIsI . CARIBBEAN SEA Aruba Tobago Antigua Barbuda Trinidad St. Vincent Puerto Rico Martinique Grande-Terre Margarita Is. Great Inagua Is. Turks and Caicos Is. Anguilla Montserrat Saint Croix Is. Marie-Galante British Virgin Is. Hispaniola THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET Only 30% of Earth’s surface is exposed land.The rest is covered by a huge body of salt water with a volume of more than 1 billion cubic kilometers: the world ocean. Twice a day, the oceans of the globe rise and fall by several meters.Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon, and to a certain extent of the Sun, on our planet.The seas and oceans also move in waves—undulations of the surface of the water generated by the wind. Ocean currents, on the other hand, are movements of huge masses of ocean water along very precise routes. Vast stretches of salt water The world ocean is divided by the continents into four main regions (Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic) and many smaller basins, the seas, most of which are shallow and set back from the oceans. While marginal seas, such as the South China Sea, open out to an ocean, enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, are attached to an ocean by a narrow passage. Some salt lakes that have no contact with the ocean are also called seas; an example is the Caspian Sea. THE MAIN SEAS SEA AREA MAIN COASTAL COUNTRIES Arabian Sea 3,600,000 km2 Yemen, Oman, Iran, Pakistan, Somalia South China Sea 3,500,000 km2 China, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam Weddell Sea 2,800,000 km2 Antarctica Caribbean Sea 2,600,000 km2 Venezuela, Colombia, Central American countries, Antilles Mediterranean Sea 2,510,000 km2 France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Spain Bay of Bengal 2,170,000 km2 Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar Gulf of Mexico 1,540,000 km2 Mexico, Cuba, United States Barents Sea 1,405,000 km2 Norway, Russia Sea of Japan 970,000 km2 Japan, South Korea, North Korea, Russia East China Sea 770,000 km2 China, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan North Sea 570,000 km2 Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, United Kingdom Red Sea 450,000 km2 Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Erytrea, Sudan, Egypt Beaufort Sea 450,000 km2 Canada, United States Black Sea 420,000 km2 Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Turkey, Bulgaria, Rumania Persian Gulf 233,000 km2 Iraq, Iran, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait 32 :
  • 35. Guam Java Bioko Taiwan Madeira Kyushu Honshu Borneo Reunion Mayotte Tokelau Sumatra Socotra Shikoku Malaita Chuuk Is. Cocos Is. Baker Is. Zanzibar Tasmania Sulawesi Mindanao Hokkaido Faroe Is. Bouvet Is. Viti Levu Sakhalin Kamchatka Marcus Is. Crozet Is. Norfolk Is. Wake Is. Vanua Levu Wrangel Is. Stewart Is. RyRyR uyuy kuku ykyk u y u y IsIsI. Phoenix Is. Nicobar Is. Loyalty Is. GililiblblertrtrIsIsI . Chatham Is. Andaman Is. Agalega Is. Lakshadweep Senyavin Is. Mentawai Is. Farquhar Is. Choiseul Canary Is. Campbell Is. Auckland Is. Christmas Is. Jan Mayen Rodrigues Is. Macquarie Is. Kermadec Is. Kerguelen Is. Ascension Is. Antipodes Is. Midway Is. Severnaya Zemlya Ogasawara Gunto Novavav yaya ayay ZeZeZ mlylyl ayay New Guinea Great Britain Saint Croix Is. Bougainville Is. New Ireland Australia Madagascar St. Lawrence Is. St. Helen’s Is. Komandor Is. Admiralty Is. Khuriya Muriya Is. Khuriya Muriya Is. Khuriya Cargados Carajos Sh. Cargados Carajos Sh. Cargados Heard and McDonald Is. New Siberia Is. Caroline Is. arch. Howland Is. Gardner Is. Guadalcanal American Samoa New Britain New Caledonia Santa Isabel Is. Luzon North Is. SouthIs. Iceland Ireland Shetland Is. Corse Sardaigne Sicily Crete Sri Lanka Johnston Atoll FLORES SEA SEA OF OKHOTSK BERING SEA LAPTEV SEA NORWEGIAN SEA BARENTS SEA CELEBES SEA TASMANIAN SEA M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A GREENLAND SEA PHILIPPINE SEA EAST CHINA SEA EAST SIBERIAN SEA BISMARCK SEA North Cape G ulflfl of Oman Gulf of Aden Suez Canal PersianG u l f l f l GulfofBothnia Bay of Bengal Bay of Bengal Bay of MozambiqueChannel Gulf of Carpentaria Cape Agulhas Cape Agulhas Cape Great Australian Bight A DRIATATA IC SEA AEGEAN SEA I N D I A N O C E A N S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N YELLOW SEA REDSEA BLACK SEA ARABIAN SEA JAVA SEA NORTH SEA KARA SEA WHITE SEA TIMOR SEA BANDA SEA SEA OF JAPAN BABAB LTLTL ICICI SE A E A E ARAFURA SEA CHUKCHI SEA Futuna Is. Wallis Is. Denmark Strait A R C T I C O C E A N SOUTH CHINA SEA Prince Edward Is. CASPIAN SEA Svalbard Komandor Is. THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET SEAS AND OCEANS Ocean currents Warm Cold Landmasses Continents Islands Sources: ESRI; NIMA Edges of the archipelagos in the Pacific Ocean THE OCEANS OCEAN AREA VOLUME LENGTH OF COAST DEEPEST POINT Pacific 165,000,000 km2 707,000,000 km3 135,663 km 11,034 m (Mariana Trench) Atlantic 82,400,000 km2 323,600,000 km3 111,866 km 8,605 m (Puerto Rico Trench) Indian 73,400,000 km2 292,000,000 km3 66,526 km 7,125 m (Java Trench) Arctic 14,000,000 km2 16,700,000 km3 45,389 km 5,669 m (Molloy Hole) Bay of Fundy, Canada This bay, about 290 km long, is famous for its very high tides, which may rise by 16 m in just a few hours. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the bay is shallow and funnel-shaped, narrowing as it goes inland. : 33
  • 36. EARTH:ABLUEPLANET THE WORLD OCEAN THE SALINITY OF SEAWATER The salinity of seawater is the amount of salt dissolved in the water. On average, seawater contains 35 g of salt per liter.The more enclosed the sea, the higher its salinity. For example, salinity is lower than average in the North Pacific Ocean (32 g/l)  , but higher than average in the Red Sea (40 g/l)  .The Dead Sea is the saltiest body of water in the world, with a salinity of 330 g/l, and the Baltic Sea is one of the least salty, with a salinity of only 8 g/l. The balance between water evaporation from the oceans and precipitation is responsible for differences in salinity. Under subtropical anticyclones such as those in the Azores , evaporation is very high, and so the seawater is saltier. On the other hand, the equatorial region is subjected to strong and frequent rainfall, which results in a lower salinity level in seawater around the equator . WAVE HEIGHTS Earth observation satellites are used to measure wave heights. Wave-height data are used to study relationships between sea and air and their meteorological and climatic consequences. Wave height is also very useful information for marine transport and offshore drilling. In fact, each wave is a shape produced by undulations created by the wind in the high seas. Near the coasts, the wave’s amplitude is determined by the relief features on the ocean floor.The undulation that moves the wave is stopped when it hits the shore. the surface temperature of SEAwater Water and the atmosphere are constantly exchanging energy in the form of heat.The surface temperature of the seas and oceans thus plays a fundamental role in the regulation of atmospheric processes. Measurement of seawater temperature enables us to follow the evolution of climatic phenomena, such as El Niño, and ocean currents, such as the Gulf Stream, and to predict the formation of cyclones. Seawater temperature also provides information on the development of phytoplankton and shoals of fish. The distribution of surface temperatures is linked to hours of sunlight, which, in turn, depends on the latitude.The temperature of the oceans ranges from 28°C, near the equator, to –2°C, in the high latitudes (north and south), closely following the distribution of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the water. Waves unfurling on the beach, Australia > A wave about to break on the shore momentarily forms a tube (cylinder of air) at its peak. 25–29.9°C 20–24.9°C 15–19.9°C 10–14.9°C 5–9.9°C 0.1–4.9°C –1.9–0°C Source: NOAA Very high High Average Low Very low Source : NOAA 10–12 m 8–9.9 m 6–7.9 m 4–5.9 m 2–3.9 m 1–1.9 m < 1 m Source: NOAA WAVE HEIGHTS SALINITY OF SEAWATER SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF SEAWATER 34 :
  • 38. THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET Lanzarote, Canary Islands (Spain) Parts of the volcanic island of Lanzarote, situated in the ocean off southern Morocco, have coastal escarpments that form cliffs, such as the ones around the Papagayo beach. A barrier reef (or barrier island) is a sandbar parallel to the shore at a distance of between a few and several dozen kilometers. A lagoon forms behind the reef. An atoll is a coral reef that forms around a volcanic island. It is ring-shaped and surrounds a lagoon. Geologic events have sometimes modified the coastline by producing faults. This is the case for very high shore cliffs formed by tectonic faults. A ria is a fluvial valley that is submerged following a rise in sea level or a subsidence of land. Deltas form at the mouths of rivers.They result from the accumulation and deposit of sediments carried by watercourses. Fjords (fjord means “long arm of the sea” in Norwegian) are valleys that were carved out long ago by glaciers, then invaded by water. A littoral is a coastal zone between the low-tide line and the high-tide line.This landscape is constantly changing due to the continuous action of the sea, rivers, and wind, and it may take a variety of forms depending on the geological nature of the coast. Littorals 36 :
  • 39. THE LARGEST ISLANDS IN THE WORLD ISLAND AREA OCEAN HIGHEST POINT ALTITUDE (m) Australia 7,740,000 km2 Indian and Pacific Mount Kosciusko 2,228 Greenland 2,166,086 km2 Arctic Gunnbjorn 3,733 New Guinea 792,500 km2 Pacific Puncak Jaya 4,884 Borneo 725,500 km2 Pacific Mount Kinabalu 4,095 Madagascar 587,040 km2 Indian Mount Maromokotro 2,876 Baffin Island 507,500 km2 Arctic Mount Odin 2,147 Sumatra 427,300 km2 Indian Mount Kerinci 3,805 Honshu 227,400 km2 Pacific Mount Fuji 3,776 Great Britain 218,100 km2 Atlantic Ben Nevis 1,344 Victoria 217,300 km2 Arctic unnamed summit 655 THE WORLD OCEAN EARTH:ABLUEPLANET : 37
  • 40. Yukon Xingu O hio Par ana Miss ouri Pu rus Mississippi Peace Riv . A m a z o n Ark ans as Ucayali Japura Araguaia Macke nzie Color ado Sn ake Rio Negro Made ira Saskatchewan SãoFran c i sco C olumbia Magdalena Orino coNel son Tapajos Juruena RioGrande St. Lawrence Tocantins Paragua y Pu tum ayo Te lesPires Mar añón RioBranc o Thelon Bra zos Urugua y Fraser Parn a íba Yaqui Colorado Balsas Alaba ma Hudson Usumacinta Sacram e nto Susquehanna Rio Grande de Santiago Lake Superior Lake Huron Great Bear Lake Lake Michigan Great Slave Lake Lake Erie Lake Winnipeg Lake Ontario Lake Athabasca Reindeer lake Nettilling Lake Cedar Lake Lake Manitoba Lake Titicaca Lake Winnipegosis Lake Nicaragua Great Salt Lake Glass Della Yosemite Angel Falls Niagara Madre deDios Chubut FRESHWATER EARTH:ABLUEPLANET 38 : Barely 2.8% of all water on Earth is freshwater. Most of it is found in glaciers and pack ice (77%) and in groundwater (22%).The rest, only 1%, forms the watercourses that irrigate valleys and plains. As it flows down from mountaintops to the ocean, freshwater feeds glaciers, lakes, and rivers.The water evaporates and forms clouds, precipitation from which feeds watercourses. For millions of years, this vast water cycle has created landscapes by carving out valleys, eroding mountains, and changing shorelines. It plays an essential role in the redistribution of water around the planet. Watersheds A watershed is a region where all water—precipitation, runoff, and groundwater—flows toward a common body of water. A single watershed may contain a number of smaller watersheds. THE LARGEST RIVERS RIVER CONTINENT LENGTH AREA OF WATERSHED Nile Africa 6,670 km 2,870,000 km2 Amazon South America 6,570 km 6,915,000 km2 Yangzi Jiang Asia 6,300 km 1,855,000 km2 Mississippi–Missouri North America 5,970 km 2,980,000 km2 Jenissei–Angara Asia 5,870 km 2,580,000 km2 Ob–Irtych Asia 5,410 km 2,990,000 km2 Paranà–Rio de la Plata South America 4,880 km 3,100,000 km2 Congo Africa 4,630 km 3,680,000 km2 Amur Asia 4,440 km 1,855,000 km2 Lena Asia 4,268 km 2,490,000 km2 Mackenzie North America 4,241 km 1,790,000 km2 Niger Africa 4,184 km 2,090,000 km2 Mekong Asia 4,023 km 810,000 km2 Volga Europe 3,687 km 1,380,000 km2 Murray–Darling Oceania 3,370 km 1,057,000 km2 Hydrography Waterfalls River Lake Edge of watersheds Source: Pfafstetter Classification, USGS Freshwater available in the main watersheds (billions of m3 per year) ≥ 250 100–249 40–99 20–39 10–19 < 10 No data available Regions with no major watershed Source: World Resources Institute RIVERS, LAKES, AND WATERFALLS
  • 41. Ob Lena Irtych Nile J enissei Vo lga Mekong Vilyuy Ural Niger Indus Amur Danube Kolyma Do n Salween T igris Huang He Yangzi J iang Tobol Aldan Con g o Angara Gan ges Syr Darya Ubangi D arling Zam bezi Orange Am u Darya Irrawaddy Pecho ra Rh ine Murray XiJiang Kama B enue Lualaba BlueNile Brahmaputra Murat Chire WhiteNile Suir Eup h r ate s Firat Lukuga Neva Shatt al Arab Po In digir ka Hong El be Tage TarimKura Loire Ode r Fly Godav ari Tapti Vist ula KrishnaSé n é gal Sein e K wanza Sh ebele Kunene Okavan go Rufij i L i mpopo Ogooué Glomma Dalalven Kemi joki Oued Dr aa Kapuas Rhon e Mania Sepik M ahanad i Weser Yalu Jiang Kizilirmak Mahakam Northern Dvina Guadalquivir Burdekin Araks Duero Narmada Jubba Laagen Garonne Mangoky Chao Phraya CaspianSea Lake Baikal Lake Victoria Lake Ladoga Aral Sea Lake Malawi Lake Onega Lake Balkhash Lake Tanganyika Lake Vanern Issyk Kul Lake Urmia Koko Nor Lake Turkana Lake Albert Lake Tana Lake Chad Lake Volta Tugela Mtarazi Wallaman Krimmler Gavarnie Sutherland Ebro DnieperDnie ster Niagara Falls, on the Canada–United States border Although they are not very high, the Niagara Falls are spectacular, as they are wide and have a high discharge rate. Every minute, 155 million liters of water, or the equivalent of 50 Olympic-size swimming pools, flow over the falls from a height of about 50 m! Yellow River, China The Yellow River (Huang He in Chinese) owes its name to the large quantities of alluvia that it carries. THE LARGEST LAKES LAKE AREA DEPTH ORIGIN Caspian Sea 386,400 km2 1,025 m tectonic Lake Superior 82,100 km2 405 m glacial Lake Victoria 69,500 km2 82 m tectonic Lake Huron 59’800 km2 228 m glacial Lake Michigan 57,750 km2 281 m glacial Lake Tanganyika 32,900 km2 1,436 m tectonic Lake Baikal 31,700 km2 1,620 m tectonic Great Bear Lake 31,600 km2 82 m glacial Lake Malawi 29,500 km2 706 m tectonic Great Slave Lake 28,900 km2 614 m glacial THE HIGHEST WATERFALLS WATERFALL COUNTRY HEIGHT Angel Falls Venezuela 979 m Mtarazi Zimbabwe 762 m Yosemite United States 739 m Tugela South Africa 614 m Sutherland New Zealand 580 m Della Canada 440 m Gavarnie France 422 m Glass Brazil 404 m Krimmler Austria 381 m Wallaman Australia 347 m FRESHWATER EARTH:ABLUEPLANET : 39
  • 42. Springs, rivers, and lakes form a network with a hierarchy: each flows into a large watercourse, and all watercourses finally flow into the sea. A river such as the Amazon, for example, is fed by 15,000 tributaries. Rainwater seeps into the ground and rises to the surface in the form of a spring , then flows down hills and mountains. Sometimes fed by meltwater from glaciers , the stream becomes a torrent ; then, fed by more springs, it becomes a young river that continues to flow down the mountain, following sleep slopes and forming waterfalls .The river carves out deep gorges , and then broadens. Fed by tributaries , it becomes a large river . As it grows wider, the river forms meanders . Many rivers form deltas at their mouths, and finally flow into the sea . Evaporation of water from the oceans forms clouds, and the water cycle starts over. Watercourses waterfall A watercourse that flows into another is called a tributary. At the beginning of its course, the river rushes down mountain slopes, carving out a bed by creating deep gorges. Yellowstone National Park, United States The Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River help to carve out the riverbed. At the foot of the mountain, the river broadens and its flow rate slows. The riverbed and banks continue to erode, carving out a valley. When it reaches the plain, the river arrives at its base level and forms meanders, where it deposits sediments. Taieri River, New Zealand (South Island) The meanders of the Taieri River emphasize the bottom of the Starth Taieri glacial valley. freshwater earth:aBLUEplanet water cycle A river that feeds a lake is called a tributary. A river that leaves a lake is called a distributary. 40 : oxbow lake
  • 43. Nile Delta, Egypt At its mouth, the Nile forms a vast delta, clearly visible on a satellite image. When a river does not encounter a stronger current as it is flowing into the sea, it deposits its sediments at the mouth. The alluvia—sediment deposits—spread out in a fan shape divided into channels of various widths and shapes. This is called a delta. When a river encounters a tide that is more powerful than its current, the sediments that it is carrying disperse. The river’s mouth opens out like a funnel, and this is called an estuary. Rio de la Plata estuary, on the border between Argentina and Uruguay The Rio de la Plata marks the mouth of the Parana and Uruguay rivers. Surface water usually flows toward the sea, but sometimes it is held back by a depression or dam and forms a lake. Although most lakes are filled with freshwater, others have high salinity due to a high evaporation rate and accumulation of dissolved mineral salts. Lakes FRESHWATER EARTH:ABLUEPLANET Water in glacial lakes has accumulated in depressions carved out by glaciers and in valleys where moraines (glacial deposits), some of which are 200 m high, have created dams. Most lakes in the northern hemisphere are of this type. Tectonic lakes occupy natural basins that result from movements of Earth’s crusts along folds and faults. Many are situated below sea level, and some form closed systems with no distributaries. The craters of some volcanoes fill with water. These volcanic lakes may also form in valleys where lava flows hold back water. Oxbow lakes sometimes form in the areas around rivers.They are formed in meanders, or oxbows, abandoned by the watercourse. Unless they are regularly fed by new water, they rapidly dry up. An oasis is formed in a desert when the wind erodes the ground and exposes the water table. Oases also appear where a fault line causes water to flow toward a particular point. Reservoirs, artificial lakes whose waters are usually held in by dams, supply water for human consumption, irrigation, or production of hydroelectric power. : 41
  • 45. E a r t h : A P l a n e t i n B a l a n c e Earthisenvelopedinathinlayerofaircalledtheatmosphere.Depending on the characteristics of air masses around the globe, different regions have more or less cold, humid, and windy climates. Most weather phenomena take place in the 15 kilometers of the atmosphere closest to the ground.This layer of the atmosphere is also home to many living species. Together, air, water, and a layer of earth form the biosphere, the habitable part of the planet. Living beings and their environments form ecosystems. The constant interactions between the components of an ecosystem maintain its equilibrium. For the last hundred years, the intensification of human activities has caused air, water, and soil pollution and threatens to upset the equilibrium of our planet. TOP: Elk, in Yellowstone National Park, United States LEFT: Emperor penguins, on South Georgia Island, in the South Atlantic Ocean
  • 46. EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER T HERMAL EQUATOR NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA ANTARCTICPOLA R CIRCLE Temperatures, precipitation, humidity, and winds vary enormously from one region of the world to another. So, Earth has a number of very different climates, each one with specific atmospheric and meteorological conditions.The distribution of climatic zones on the surface of the planet depends primarily on latitude, because sunshine conditions (length of the day, alternation of seasons, angle of solar rays) play the most important role in determining climate. Other factors are also involved, such as the lay and orientation of the land, dominant winds, altitude, landforms, and ocean currents. Antarctica A number of low temperature records have been set in Antarctica. Death Valley, United States 56.6°C, July 10, 1913 Henderson Lake, Canada 6,502 mm Arctic Bay, Canada 12 mm Northice, Greenland –66.1°C, January 9, 1954 Lloro, Colombia 8,992 mm Arica, Chile 0.4 mm Villa Maria, Argentina 49.1°C, January 2, 1920 Valle de los Patos Superior, Argentina –39°C, July 17, 1972 Vanda Station 15°C, January 5, 1974 Amundsen-Scott Station 20.3 mm Vostok –89.4°C July 21, 1983 44 : CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE Mount Waialeale, Hawaii 11,684 mm Climates of the world One-quarter of the planet’s landmass has a dry (arid or semiarid) climate, characterized by drought throughout the year. Regions in the intertropical zone, between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, have a tropical climate with high temperatures due to regular and continual sunshine conditions.The wet tropical climate has abundant and constant humidity, which encourages growth of the tropical rainforest, while the wet tropical climate with dry winter has a wet season with monsoon rains and a dry winter season.Temperate regions have a mild climate and four well-defined seasons.Temperate climates are very diverse, however, as they are influenced by geographic factors such as altitude, relief features, and proximity to the ocean. Mountainous regions and high plateau zones have a cold climate with low temperatures. Finally, at the poles, the temperature rarely rises above 0°C and the ground remains frozen for most of the year.
  • 47. TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE ANTARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE ASIA AFRICA EUROPE OCEANIA INFLUENCE OF RELIEF FEATURES ON CLIMATE Some arid regions are dry because of the configuration of landforms that surround them. For instance, when a mountain range borders a shoreline, it holds back much of the humidity contained in the marine air masses.The regions in the lee of this mountain barrier then receive very little precipitation.This is the case for the Patagonia, Great Basin, and Gobi deserts. humid air mass dry air mountain range desert zone Seville, Spain 50°C, August 4, 1881 Ust’Shchugor, Russia –55°C, over 15 years Crkvice, Bosnia 4,648 mm Astrakan, Russia 162.6 mm Tirat Tsvi, Israel 53.9°C, June 22, 1942 Debunja, Cameroon 10,287 mm Aswan, Egypt 1 mm Ifrane, Morocco –23.9°C February 11, 1935 El Azizia, Libya 57.8°C September 13, 1922 Oymyakon, Russia –67.8°C, February 6, 1933 Verkhoyansk, Russia –67.8°C, February 7, 1892 Aden, Yemen 45.7 mm Cloncurry, Australia 53.3°C, January 16, 1889 Charlotte Pass, Australia –23°C, June 29, 1994 Mulka, Australia 102.9 mm Mawsynram, India 11,871 mm Cold Ice cap Tundra Mountain Cold temperate Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Warm temperate Coastal (no dry season, cool summer) Mediterranean (dry summer) Subtropical humid Dry Arid Semiarid CLIMATE TYPES Maximum temperature (°C) per continent Minimum temperature (°C) per continent Annual maximum precipitation (mm) per continent Annual minimum precipitation (mm) per continent Regional border Sources: NOAA; Argentina National Weather Service Temperature and precipitation recordsTropical Wet Wet with dry winter CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 45
  • 48. Contrary to popular belief, the cycle of the seasons—that is, the periodic changes in climate as the months go by—is due not to the distance of Earth from the Sun but to its inclination: our planet’s axis of rotation is tilted by about 23.5˚ in relation to the ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane).This inclination is directly responsible for the variation in sunlight conditions, and therefore for the succession of seasons throughout the year. This also explains why the seasons in the two hemispheres are opposite: summer in the South always takes place during winter in the North. Temperate regions have four alternating seasons: after spring comes summer, then autumn, and finally winter. Elsewhere in the world, the march of the seasons is less distinct. Subtropical regions have only two seasons: a dry season and a wet season. As the seasons pass, the air temperature and atmospheric pressure vary. Atmospheric pressure is the force that air exerts upon a given surface. It may differ by altitude and temperature. There are therefore zones of high and low pressure. In general, a high-pressure zone, or anticyclone, is responsible for good weather and a low-pressure zone, or depression, is responsible for bad weather. The Cycle of the Seasons The summer solstice is the longest day of the year (June 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere). The Sun rises high in the sky and warms the atmosphere. Earth is at its aphelion, or maximum distance from the Sun (152.1 million km), on July 3. The heat that reigns in the North on this date is due to Earth’s inclination. The spring equinox takes place on March 20 or 21 in the Northern Hemisphere. The Sun rises exactly in the East and sets exactly in the West, and day and night are the same length. The shortest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere is December 21 or 22. This is the winter solstice. The sun stays low in the sky and does not warm the atmosphere much. On September 22 or 23, day and night are the same length. This is the fall equinox in the Northern Hemisphere. As it does at the spring equinox, the Sun rises exactly in the East and sets exactly in the West. On January 3, Earth is at its perihelion, its closest position to the Sun (147.3 million km). INFLUENCE OF LATITUDE ON LENGTH OF DAY summer solstice SPRING EQUINOX WINTER SOLSTICE AUTUMN EQUINOX poles (90˚) 24 hr 12 hr 0 hr 12 hr Helsinki (60˚) 19 hr 12 hr 6 hr 12 hr Montreal (45˚) 16 hr 12 hr 8 hr 12 hr Cairo (30˚) 14 hr 12 hr 10 hr 12 hr equator (0˚) 12 hr 12 hr 12 hr 12 hr N S E W N S E W N S E W N S E W Schoolchildren in snowsuits, Canada Canada has four distinct seasons. Winters are particularly cold and snowy. African savanna, Kenya Kenya has two dry seasons, from December to March and July to October; these alternate with two rainy seasons: one from April to June, and one in November, which sometimes extends to mid-December. CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 46 :
  • 49. AIR TEMPERATURE IN JULY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 ≥ 25°C 15 to 24.9°C 5 to 14.9°C –9.9 to 4.9°C –29.9 to –10°C Sources: NOAA; NCEP; CPC AIR TEMPERATURE IN JANUARY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 ≥ 25°C 15 to 24.9°C 5 to 14.9°C –9.9 to 4.9°C –29.9 to –10°C ≤ –30°C Sources: NOAA; NCEP; CPC SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN AIR TEMPERATURE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN JULY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN JANUARY Average calculated from 1960 to 2005 On June 21, it is summer in Algiers, in the Northern Hemisphere. On June 21, it is winter in Capetown, in the Southern Hemisphere. The temperature on the surface of Earth depends directly on the angle at which the Sun’s rays penetrate the atmosphere. When this angle of incidence is small—when the rays graze the planet’s surface—the Sun’s energy is dispersed. On the contrary, heat is at its maximum when the Sun’s rays reach the ground at a 90° angle. Because of Earth’s inclination, sunlight reaches the Northern Hemisphere at a maximum angle during the Northern summer. At the same time, the Sun’s rays graze the Southern Hemisphere and it is winter in the South. CLIMATES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 47 ≥ 1032 hPa 1026–1031.9 hPa 1020–1025.9 hPa 1014–1019.9 hPa 1008–1013.9 hPa 1002–1007.9 hPa 996–1001.9 hPa < 996 hPa Sources: NOAA; CDAS; NCEP-NCAR The Angle of Solar Rays ≥ 1032 hPa 1026 - 1031.9 hPa 1020 - 1025.9 hPa 1014 - 1019.9 hPa 1008 - 1013.9 hPa 1002 - 1007.9 hPa 996 - 1001.9 hPa < 996 hPa Sources : NOAA, CDAS, NCEP-NCAR
  • 50. South Magnetic Pole Larsen Ice Shelf Filchner Ice Shelf Amery Ice ShelfRonne Ice Shelf Ross Ice Shelf Lambert Glacier AN TARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE South Geographic Pole ANTARCTIC TROPICOFCAPR ICORN BRAZIL ARGENTINA AUSTRALIANEW- ZEALAND In the coldest oceans on the planet, especially at the poles, the seawater is covered by a floating layer of ice, a stretch of frozen seawater formed when the water temperature falls below –1.9°C. These masses of ice, called pack ice, may be 3 to 4 m thick. In winter, Arctic pack ice invades fjords, bays, estuaries, and straits. Hudson Bay is totally icebound during the winter. Antarctica ,covered by an ice cap,is also surrounded by pack ice. This layer of ice forms a vast sheet measuring 20 million km2 at its maximum winter extent, but it shrinks a great deal in the summer. Pack ice is different from the ice shelves (the Ross Ice Shelf, the Larsen Ice Shelf, etc.) that form the edge of some parts of Antarctica.These are actually floating glaciers, several hundred meters thick, contiguous to the continental ice cap. Pack ice Perito Moreno Glacier, Argentina Some 30 km long and covering some 250 km2 , Perito Moreno is an immense continental glacier. COLD ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 48 : COLD ENVIRONMENTS Snow, glacier, or continental ice cap Ice shelf Average extension of the pack ice in July (summer at the North Pole, winter at the South Pole) Average extension of the pack ice in January (winter at the North Pole, summer at the South Pole) Source: NSIDC At the highest latitudes, close to the poles, the climate is dominated by polar air masses, which do not heat up much even during the long period of summer sunshine. In the center of Antarctica and Greenland, where the temperature never rises above 0°C, the ground remains permanently frozen and covered with a thick ice cap, the continental ice sheet. The northern edges of Eurasia and North America have a more temperate climate: summer temperatures rise above the freezing point, which enables a thin top layer of ground to thaw and tundra vegetation to grow. The main cold regions The coldest regions of the planet are the poles and mountain summits.The poles are permanently frozen, but how far the pack ice stretches toward the middle latitudes varies with the seasons.The highest mountain peaks are also covered with glaciers.
  • 51. TROPIC OF CANCER 48TH PARALLEL North Magnetic Pole North Geographic Pole ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE RUSSIA ALASKA (US) CANADA NORWAY SWEDEN FINLAND ICELAND GROENLAND (DK) EXTENSION OF THE ICE CAP DURING THE ICE AGE For 2 million years, cold periods, called glacial periods (or ice ages), have alternated with warmer, interglacial, periods due to variations in Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Currently, we are in an interglacial period.The last ice age was 18,000 years ago. A huge ice cap covered the continents of the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, on the other hand, the ice cap was the same size as today’s, since no continent is close enough to Antarctica to support the ice cap during glacial periods. MAXIMUM EXTENSION OF GLACIERS DURING THE LAST ICE AGE (–18,000 YEARS) glaciers Source: Frenzel et al Icebergs In cold regions, glaciers reach the sea before they melt. Waves and tides then break up glacier tongues into gigantic blocks of floating freshwater ice blocks called icebergs, only the tip of which rises above the surface of the water. Pushed by the wind and ocean currents, icebergs travel thousands of kilometers, sometimes drifting as far as the tropics, before melting due to the combined effects of waves, salt, and solar rays. Iceberg, north of the 48th parallel Icebergs usually drift along the coast. Most of those that come from the Arctic melt before crossing the 48th parallel. COLD ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 49
  • 52. TROPIC OF CANCER ANTARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE EQUATOR Mojave Desert rocky desert Atacama Desert sand and salt desert Sonoran Desert rocky desert Patagonia steppe Chihuahuan Desert steppe Great Basin steppe Colorado Plateau steppe One-quarter of the planet’s landmass (about 35 million square kilometers) has an arid or semiarid climate. All of these regions have very low precipitation. Vegetation grows slowly, leaving the ground almost bare. In most cases, this aridity is related to the presence of permanent high-pressure zones that impede the development of clouds.This is the case for “high-pressure” deserts such as the Sahara Desert, the Arabian Desert, the Kalahari Desert, and the Great Sandy Desert. These deserts are situated at latitudes adjacent to the tropics, where the climate features very dry air and high atmospheric pressure. Geographic factors may also be the cause of aridity. “Rain shadow” deserts are situated at the foot of mountains that block humid air from the ocean; examples are the Patagonia Desert, the Atacama Desert and the Gobi Desert. Desertification Under the combined effects of climatic variations and human activity, more and more previously arable regions are being transformed into deserts. For instance, 4,000 years ago, the Sahara was a fertile region.Today, it is a desert. Desertification involves the degradation of arable land. Each year, 5 to 6 million hectares are affected by desertification on every continent. ARIDITY Arid regions are characterized by water resources that are insufficient in comparison to the needs of the vegetation, because there is not enough precipitation or because the water is frozen and thus not usable by plants. Arid regions can be classified according to the volume of precipitation that they receive per year. A very arid zone receives very little precipitation, between 10 and 15 mm per year.This is an absolute desert, and an example is the Namib. Arid zones, such as the Arabian Desert, receive no more than 200 mm of precipitation per year. In semiarid zones, precipitation is below 500 mm in the winter and below 800 mm in the summer. Such zones—for example, the Sahel—are in a state of advanced desertification. ARID ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 50 :
  • 53. TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE Thar Desert sandy desert Gobi Desert rocky desert and steppe Namib Desert sandy desert S a h e lherbaceous and bushy savanna Gibson Desert herbaceous savanna Arabian Desert rock and sand desert S a h a r a D e s e r t rock and sand desert Simpson Desert sandy desertKalahari Desert sandy desert Karakum Desert gray-sand desert Kyzylkum Desert sandy desert Takla Makan Desert sandy desert Great Sandy Desert sandy desert DESERTIFICATION Desertic zone Zone at very high risk of desertification Zone at high risk of desertification Zone at moderate risk of desertification Zone at little or no risk of desertification Snow, glacier, or continental ice cap Source: USDA Desertification of the Sahel, in Burkina Faso The Sahel region, which extends from Senegal to Sudan at the southern edge of the Sahara, is greatly affected by desertification. Its soil has become sterile due to climatic variations and human activity, particularly the intensive farming practiced over the last half-century. THE MAIN DESERTS DESERT AREA (km2 ) CONTINENT ARIDITY MIN. TEMP. (°C) MAX. TEMP. (°C) DESERT AREA (km2 ) CONTINENT ARIDITY MIN. TEMP. (°C) MAX. TEMP. (°C) Sahara 8,000,000 Africa arid to very arid 10–20 > 30 Kalahari 335,500 Africa arid 0–10 20–30 Sahel 3,053,200 Africa semiarid 20–30 > 30 Colorado Plateau 326,400 N. America semiarid < 0 20–30 Arabian 1,851,300 Asia arid 10–20 > 30 Great Sandy Desert 317,800 Oceania arid 10–20 > 30 Gobi 1,300,000 Asia arid < 0 20–30 Kyzylkum 297,800 Asia arid < 0 20–30 Takla Makan 741,900 Asia very arid < 0 20–30 Thar 238,700 Asia arid 0–10 20–30 Simpson 584,500 Oceania arid 10–20 > 30 Sonoran 223,000 N. America arid 10–20 > 30 Chihuahuan 509,500 N. America arid 0–10 20–30 Gibson 155,900 Oceania arid 10–20 20–30 Patagonia 487,200 S. America arid 0–10 10–20 Mojave 130,600 N. America arid 10–20 > 30 Karakum 349,600 Asia arid < 0 > 30 Atacama 105,200 S. America very arid 10–20 20–30 Great Basin 335,900 N. America arid < 0 10–20 Namib 80,900 Africa very arid 10–20 10–20 Sources: WWF; University of Arizona ARID ENVIRONMENTS EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 51
  • 54. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER In spite of industrial and technological progress in recent decades, human beings are still at the mercy of major weather disasters. Tornadoes, cyclones, snowstorms, and hailstorms cause serious destruction and thousands of deaths every year all over the world. Lightning is responsible for electrical blackouts and huge forest fires. And rainstorms may cause floods and landslides. The most affected regions Cyclones cause the most damage in coastal regions of the intertropical zone.Tornadoes are most frequent in the eastern United States, while thunderstorms usually hit warm, humid regions near the equator.The more densely populated the region, such as Southeast Asia, the more victims claimed by climatic catastrophes. THE MOST LETHAL TORNADOES SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR Bangladesh 800 1989 India 250 1998 United States 600 1984 United States 203 1963 Comores 500 1951 Bangladesh 200 1972 India 500 1978 Senegal 165 1999 ex-USSR 400 1984 Bangladesh 121 1991 United States 322 1974 India 120 1981 United States 257 1965 United States 104 1985 Source: Em-dat THE MOST LETHAL THUNDERSTORMS SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR United Kingdom 4,000 1952 India 500 1990 Haiti 1,122 1994 India 470 1981 Bangladesh 1,000 1978 India 450 1975 Bangladesh 700 1973 China 448 1992 Bangladesh 600 1977 Japan 419 1954 Bangladesh 525 1995 India 350 1952 Bangladesh 525 1996 Germany 347 1962 Source: Em-dat DISTRIBUTION OF CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES Cyclones (density of cyclones) Very high High Average Main paths of cyclones Cyclones that have caused more than 2,000 deaths since 1900 Sources: Em-dat; UNEP Tornadoes Lethal tornadoes since 1980 Source: Em-dat Thunderstorms (lightning density) ≥ 10 lightning bolts/yr/km2 Source: NASA Population density (inhabitants/km2 ) ≥ 10,000 1,000–9,999 500–999 ≤ 500 Source: SEDAC, University of Columbia CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 52 :
  • 55. BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE KIRIBATI TROPIC OF CAPRICORN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE I N D I A B U R M A BANGLADESH THE MOST LETHAL CYCLONES SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR Bangladesh 300,000 1970 India 40,000 1942 Bangladesh 138,866 1991 Bangladesh 36,000 1965 Myanmar > 130000 2008 Honduras 14,600 1998 China 100,000 1922 India 14,204 1971 Bangladesh 61,000 1942 Bangladesh 12,047 1965 India 60,000 1935 Bangladesh 11,500 1963 China 50,000 1912 China 11,000 1937 Source: Em-dat THE MOST LETHAL FLOODS SINCE 1900 COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR COUNTRY NO. DEAD YEAR China 3,700,000 1931 China 30,000 1954 China 2,000,000 1959 Venezuela 30,000 1999 China 500,000 1939 Bangladesh 28,700 1974 China 142,000 1935 China 18,000 1933 China 100,000 1911 Bangladesh 10,000 1960 China 57,000 1949 China 6,200 1980 Guatemala 40,000 1949 India 4,892 1968 Source: Em-dat CLIMATIC CATASTROPHES EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 53
  • 56. Andrew, Allen, Mitch, Katrina—these innocuous names are attached to one of the most devastating weather phenomena: cyclones. At their strongest, these gigantic tropical storms may be accompanied by winds of more than 250 km/h. And yet cyclones need only a few factors in place to trigger them: a large mass of warm water, an initial depression, and moderate winds blowing in a constant direction. Like immense steam machines, cyclones transform the humid heat of the atmosphere and oceans into a circular motion. Cyclones are formed only in the intertropical zone, between 5° and 20° latitude on either side of the equator, and have different names depending on the region. In the Pacific Northwest, they are called typhoons; in the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, hurricanes; and in the Indian Ocean and Southwest Pacific, cyclones. Cyclones Dominant winds (such as the trade winds) push cyclones at an average speed of 25 km/h. The eye of the cyclone is a very- low-pressure zone, about 30 km in diameter, of relative calm. The radius of a cyclone may be up to 500 km. A cyclone may be from 10 to 15 km thick. inside a cyclone Wind speed may increase to more than 250 km/h near the eye wall (a thick layer of cloud at the periphery of the eye). A cyclone is composed of storm bands formed by the elevation of warm, humid air above the ocean. storm surge During a storm surge, ocean water is pulled by the strong sucking effect of the hurricane.This causes the formation of a small “mountain of water” under the hurricane. When the cyclone reaches land, this mass of water unfurls on the coast and floods vast stretches. Hurricane Dennis, United States Much of the damage caused by Hurricane Dennis, which hit Florida on July 10, 2005, was caused by a storm surge several meters high. climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance 54 :
  • 57. the Saffir-Simpson scale Since the 1970s, cyclones have been classified according to various characteristics, including wind speed and height of the storm surge. The Saffir-Simpson scale, with five cyclone categories, enables scientists to assess the dangers of a storm and predict the scope of the damage. category 3 Wind speed: 177–208 km/h Surge height: 2.7–3.8 m Foliage torn off trees, large trees uprooted; mobile homes destroyed; some roofs, windows, and doors of houses damaged. category 4 Wind speed: 209–248 km/h Surge height: 3.9–5.5 m Traffic lights knocked over; roofs, windows, and doors of houses seriously damaged. category 5 Wind speed: over 248 km/h Surge height: over 5.5 m Some buildings destroyed; many roofs of houses collapsed. VICTIMS of CYCLONES Number of dead per country since 1900 ≥ 50,000 5,000–49,999 500–4,999 50–499 < 50 No data Source: Em-dat Cyclones play an essential role in the planet’s energy balance, but they are also responsible for the deaths of an average of 20,000 people every year.The destructive effects of a cyclone are felt when it reaches the coast. Violent winds rip up trees and destroy structures.Torrential rains make rivers overflow and cause landslides. Finally, storm surges lead to floods, often with tragic results: more than 300,000 drowned during a cyclone in 1970, when the sea rose 12 m. Category 1 Wind speed: 118–152 km/h Surge height: 1.2–1.7 m Trees and shrubs damaged; mobile homes, docks, and moorings of small boats damaged. category 2 Wind speed: 153–176 km/h Surge height: 1.8–2.6 m Small trees uprooted; mobile homes seriously damaged; some roofs damaged. cyclones: lethal natural disasters climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance : 55
  • 58. Like cyclones, tornadoes result from the spinning of ascending winds around a low-pressure zone. However, unlike cyclones, tornadoes are of short duration (a number of minutes) and generate extremely violent winds (spikes of 512 km/h were observed by radar at Oklahoma City, in the United States, in 1999).The diameter of a tornado generally varies between 100 and 600 m. It may reach a height of several kilometers. Although tornadoes are usually very localized and of short duration, their violence makes them particularly dangerous and destructive. North America, where an average of 750 occur each year, is the most affected continent, but tornadoes also touch down regularly in Europe, Asia, and Australia. Tornadoes victims of tornadoes Number of dead per country since 1950 ≥ 1,000 100–999 10–99 < 10 No data Source: Em-dat The suddenness and brevity of tornadoes makes scientific observation of them difficult. In addition, traditional anemometers are not strong enough to resist the winds that accompany the strongest tornadoes. Therefore, a retrospective analysis of the damage must usually be used to assess the violence of the phenomenon.The Fujita scale (named after the Japanese meteorologist T.Theodore Fujita) establishes a six- category classification of tornadoes that links the type and scale of the damage caused to wind speed.The three least violent categories account for 88% of all tornadoes observed. F5 tornadoes, much rarer, are the most lethal. the Fujita scale category F0 With winds not over 199 km/h, an F0 tornado causes only minor damage: broken tree branches, twisted TV antennas. CATEGORY F1 An F1 tornado, with winds of 120 to 180 km/h, may blow down small trees, overturn trailers, and rip shingles off houses. category F2 The winds in an F2 tornado reach 180 to 250 km/h and are capable of destroying wooden structures, moving small vehicles, and knocking down mature trees. CATEGORY F3 With winds of 250 to 330 km/h, an F3 tornado may overturn large vehicles. Walls collapse and objects weighing a number of kilograms are lifted into the air and become projectiles. category F4 An F4 tornado (winds of 330 to 420 km/h) destroys solid houses, lifts vehicles, and throws into the air objects weighing about 100 kilograms. category F5 An F5 tornado is the most violent. Its winds are over 420 km/h and destroy all sorts of vehicles and structures as they pass. climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance 56 :
  • 59. Although most floods are linked to a river or lake overflowing its banks after heavy rain, some floods have sea-related causes.This is the case, for example, for storm surges during a cyclone, and for the formation of gigantic waves (tsunamis) following an earthquake. Floods cause not only major material damage but also much loss of life. Floods victims of floods Number of dead per country since 1950 ≥ 50,000 5,000–49,999 500–4,999 50–499 < 50 No data Source: Em-dat Flood in New Orleans, United States The passage of Hurricane Katrina, in August 2005, caused the dams protecting the American city of New Orleans to fail. Within a few hours, entire neighborhoods were submerged underwater and several hundred thousand people had to be evacuated. It was one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States. climatic catastrophes earth:aplanetinbalance : 57
  • 60. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA Living organisms occupy a layer of earth, water, and air that is very thin in comparison to the volume of the planet.This habitable part of Earth, called the biosphere, is composed of many ecosystems. Each ecosystem is an ecological unit in which animals, plants, and bacteria (the biocenosis) live in a close relationship with their physical environment (the biotope). An ecosystem may be as small as a stone wall or as vast as an ocean. Biotope and biocenosis are tightly interwoven: the different aspects of the biotope (geology, climate, geography, chemistry, etc.) determine the composition and diversity of the biocenosis, which, in turn, influences the environment and may even change it radically. Biomes A biome is a homogeneous community of organisms that live in similar geographic and climatic conditions. Most often, a biome refers to a terrestrial community. There are 9 different terrestrial biomes spread throughout the biosphere.They are named according to their dominant vegetation, which is dependent on the climatic conditions. Aquatic communities may also be classified as biomes: marine biomes include coral reefs, estuaries, and the ocean floor, while freshwater biomes include lakes, ponds, and watercourses. 58 : Boreal forest, Canada The boreal forest is a vast stretch of forest composed mainly of conifers, but it may also contain some deciduous trees. Temperate prairie, Argentina The temperate prairie is a herbaceous zone with very few trees. Graminaceous plants predominate, and the winters are relatively dry and cold. Tropical rainforest, Amazonia (Brazil) The tropical rainforest is a dense forest with very high biodiversity. It is fed by abundant and regular precipitation. Temperate forest, France The temperate forest is composed mainly of deciduous trees, among them oak, ash, and beech. THE BIOSPHERE EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE
  • 61. BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE R U S S I A Tundra, Siberia (Russia) The tundra is a plant formation found in cold, arid regions, composed of mosses, lichens, grasses, bushes, and dwarf trees. Desert, South Africa The desert is an arid region where precipitation is under 200 mm per year and with little vegetation. Ice, Antarctica The polar regions are covered with ice all year long. How far the ice extends varies, however, according to whether it is summer or winter. BIOMES Terrestrial biomes Tundra Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert Rock and ice Source: FAO Example of a marine biome Coral reef Source: WRI Savanna, Kenya The savanna, found in warm regions with a rainy season, is a grassy area in which tall graminaceous plants and shrubs predominate. Maquis, Greece The maquis has a vegetation cover, today degraded, composed of evergreen shrubs that are adapted to drought. THE BIOSPHERE EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 59
  • 62. About one-third of the planet’s landmass is covered with forests. Forests are complex ecosystems characterized by generally dense plant cover composed mainly of trees. The composition of forests varies from region to region as a function of the climate, the nature of the soil, the altitude, and the latitude.The last parameter greatly influences the diversity of animal and plant species (biodiversity) in the forest. In the North, the boreal forest, populated with conifer species such as spruce, larch, and fir, is very homogeneous. Farther south, mixed forests are composed of conifers and deciduous trees, such as birch and willow.They form a transition zone between the boreal forest and the deciduous forests in more temperate zones, where, under the branches of large trees such as oaks and beeches, the undergrowth is generally dense. The subtropical regions are too dry for forests to grow.The intertropical zones, on the other hand, have the lushest forests on the planet.The tropical rainforest, or equatorial forest, contains incredible biodiversity. Although it covers only 7% of Earth’s landmass, it houses half of all living species on the planet and 20 times more species of trees than do temperate forests.The equatorial forest of Borneo, in the Pacific Ocean, holds the record for biodiversity with no fewer than 10,000 species of plants. Forests The tropical rainforest has an average of more than 40 different species of trees per hectare. the tropical rainforest In equatorial regions, day and night are of equal length throughout the year. This regular luminosity encourages the growth of plants. The canopy is the top story of the forest, situated at a height of between 30 and 45 m. It is home to the majority of plant and animal species. In the tropical rainforest, the soil does not have time to become enriched and thick because decomposed plant matter is very quickly reused by other plants. Soil: a living environment Far from being inert, soil is crawling with life; it is estimated that one cubic meter of soil is home to about a billion living organisms.The important biological, chemical, and physical processes that take place there have led scientists who study soil (pedologists) to consider it to be a true ecosystem. the biosphere earth:aplanetinbalance 60 :
  • 63. Mixed forest, Canada In autumn, deciduous trees are distinguished from conifers, as their leaves change color before falling. The evolution of the area of forest Per country, between 1990 and 2005 area of forest per country The countries that have the smallest area of forest are those in desert regions, where the climate and nature of the soil are not propitious to the growth of plants.The map opposite shows in red the countries in which forest cover shrank between 1990 and 2005, and in green the countries in which forest cover grew between 1990 and 2005. No data Source: FAO Negative balance Positive balance ≥ 100 Mha 10–99.9 Mha 1–9.9 Mha < 1 Mha : 61the biosphere earth:aplanetinbalance
  • 64. 62 : For almost two centuries, intensification of human activities has seriously accelerated the pace of extinction of plant and animal species on the surface of the planet.Today, for every new species that appears, 1,000 others become extinct. Protected areas are zones in which measures of various degrees of strictness are taken to preserve biodiversity. Since the creation in 1872 of the first national park (Yellowstone Park, in the United States), the number of protected areas has increased exponentially, and today there are over 100,000. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the diversity of living species in a given environment. It is usually measured by ecoregion. An ecoregion is a region of Earth that has a unique ecosystem.The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) defines 867 ecoregions, some of which are divided up. Area of protected areas Compared to total area, by region Boreal felt lichen, in Canada Affected by air pollution, boreal felt lichen has completely disappeared from Scandinavia. This lichen survives only in eastern Canada. 10.9% 10.9% 8.6% 21.1% 8.4% 10.2% 8.3% 7.7% ≥ 1,000 500–999 250–499 50–249 < 50 No data Source: IUCN Number of threatened species per countryAbout 15,500 species are threatened with extinction due to pollution, deforestation, intensive farming, urban sprawl, and mining. The regions of the intertropical zone are those where biodiversity is most threatened. the conservation of species earth:aplanetinbalance In protected areas, human activities such as cutting down trees, exploiting rivers, and even walking are regulated in order to preserve ecosystems. Some protected areas are gigantic: the biggest, Greenland National Park, has an area of 972,000 km2 . In 2003, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) counted more than 100,000 protected areas, covering more than 18 million km2 . No data Source: IUCN THREAT AND PROTECTION
  • 65. some threatened species animal species plant species Northern right whale Mediterranean monk seal Ring-tailed lemur Babirussa Giant sequoia Leathery turtle Common chimpanzee Aye-aye Malleefowl Pincushion cactus California condor Lion Indri Giant clam Venus flytrap Marine iguana African elephant Snow leopard Blue bird-of-paradise Boreal felt lichen Wandering albatross Proteus Yak Brown kiwi Baobab Three-wattled bellbird Black rhinoceros Orangutan Cucumber tree Poison frog African wild dog Giant panda Pitcher plant Hyacinth macaw Gorilla Siberian tiger Ginkgo biloba Source: IUCN biodiversity Ecoregion border Sources: Olson et al.; WWF Number of plant species per ecoregion ≥ 5,000 3,000–4,999 2,000–2,999 1,000–1,999 < 1,000 Sources: Nees-Institut für Biodiversität der Pflanzen; ESRI Species threatened with extinction Critically endangered Endangered Vulnerable Source: IUCN Cucumber tree, Socotra The cucumber tree, which is found now only on the Yemeni island of Socotra, is cut down during droughts to provide fodder for cattle. Ginkgo biloba, China The ginkgo biloba is the only survivor of a family of plants that appeared more than 150 million years ago. Cultivated for centuries, it now exists in its natural state only in China. the conservation of species earth:aplanetinbalance : 63
  • 66. CHILE PARAGUAY B R A Z I L A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS C A N A D A U N I T E D S TAT E S FRANCE SPAIN ITALY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA UNITED KINGDOM GREECE UKRAINE HUNGARY IRELAND AUSTRIA LITHUANIA BULGARIA CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND SLOVAKIA PORTUGAL BELARUS NETHERLANDS SERBIA BELGIUM ALBANIA RUSSIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA DENMARK LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY The atmosphere, composed of 99% nitrogen and oxygen, has had a remarkably stable composition for millions of years. Gaseous and particulate pollutants make up only a tiny part of the atmosphere, and most of them have a natural origin (volcanoes, decomposition). However, the development of industrial activities over the last two centuries has considerably increased their concentration. Due to the presence of polluting gases, some rain may be 1,000 times more acid than normal. Atmospheric pollution causes particular damage to the health of populations residing in industrial regions, but the effects of this pollution are also felt elsewhere. The wind disperses pollutants to all continents, sometimes very far from the source of the pollution.There are even pollutant particles, such as lead, in the fur of polar bears. The greenhouse effect Some gases in the atmosphere are able to absorb infrared rays emitted by Earth.This natural phenomenon, called the greenhouse effect, helps to maintain our planet at a temperature conducive to life. Without it, the average temperature on the surface of Earth, which is now 15°C, would be only –18°C. However, because some human activities release quantities of “greenhouse gases” (methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, CFCs, etc.) into the atmosphere, they contribute to further increases in the planet’s temperature. The quantities of greenhouse gases have been increasing in the lower atmosphere for a century and a half. According to numerous studies, this increase is directly responsible for the current global warming. THE MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES GAS NATURAL SOURCE ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE carbon dioxide (CO2 ) volcanic eruption - forest fires - transportation - use of fossil fuels (industry, heating) methane (CH4 ) decomposition of matter by microorganisms - agriculture (animals’ digestion, flooded rice paddies) - extraction of natural gas nitrogen oxide (N2 O) decomposition of matter by microorganisms - use of fossil fuels - agriculture (nitrogenous fertilizers) - transportation chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) chloromethane produced by plants in coastal marshes in the tropics - aerosol sprays - refrigerators - foam insulation Responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer, CFCs have been banned in countries that have signed the Montreal Protocol (1987). They are still present in the atmosphere, since their life span is between 60 and 110 years. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 64 :
  • 67. GABON ICELAND GUINEA I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN NORWAY SWEDEN M A L A Y S I A pessimistic hypothesis optimistic hypothesis TEMPERATURE INCREASES While the average annual temperature on Earth’s surface grew by 0.6°C over the last century, studies indicate that it may climb another 1°C to 4.5°C over the next 100 years if greenhouse-gas emissions continue to increase at the current pace. 1900 2000 2100 TEMPERATURE CHANGES 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 THE KYOTO PROTOCOL This international treaty, written in 1997, provides for the reduction in greenhouse-gas emissions by an average of 5.2% from 1990 levels by 2012. Most countries have signed the treaty, but it has come into effect only in countries that have ratified it. Forest fires, United States They contribute to the greenhouse effect by releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. In addition, climatic warming, a consequence of the greenhouse effect, leads to more forest fires. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION Emissions of carbon dioxide Very high Low Source: NSIDC Forest fires Zones affected in 2000 Source: UNEP Kyoto Protocol Not all overseas territories have necessarily ratified the agreement. In effect Signed No position Source: CCNUCC ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 65 Year T (°C)
  • 68. St. Petersburg, Russia > The chimneys in this industrial complex release black smoke into the St. Petersburg sky. The high population density in cities is related to concentration in pollution sources, notably motor vehicles and industry. As a consequence, urban air is more polluted. Air pollution has a major impact on the health of urban populations. Respiratory problems (coughing, bronchitis, lung cancer, etc.) are more common in cities. Mortality attributable to urban air pollution is particularly high in Southeast Asia.This public-health problem will be amplified in coming years, as forecasts call for most population growth to be absorbed by cities. Urban pollution and health mortality caused by air pollution Number of dead per country urban pollution Particulate-pollution level in the most polluted cities with a population of more than 3 million inhab., in micrograms per m3  of air city country particulate- polLution level city country particulate- pollution level Karachi Pakistan 220 Calcutta India 153 Baghdad Iraq 189 Tianjin China 149 Delhi India 187 Chongqing China 147 Cairo Egypt 178 Shenyang China 120 Lahore Pakistan 178 Surabaja Indonesia 120 Dhaka Bangladesh 174 Riyadh Saudi Arabia 118 Xi’an China 167 Jinan China 112 Alexandria Egypt 163 Nanjiang China 110 Source: World Bank atmospheric particulate pollution Atmospheric pollutants are not exclusively gases. Nongaseous pollution includes particulates of different sizes. Soot and dust are coarse particles. Lead, copper, zinc, and cadmium are small metal particles. Finally, nitrates and sulfates are very fine salt particles. Atmospheric particulate pollution is harmful to the health. Particles may come from combustion plants and industrial processes such as mineral extraction, but also from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions or simply erosion of landforms. ≥ 100,000 10,000–99,999 1,000–9,999 100–999 < 100 No data Source: WHO earth:aplanetinbalance atmospheric pollution66 :
  • 70. HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA Metula (1974, 50,000 t) Odyssey (1988, 132,000 t) Exxon Valdez (1989, 37,000 t) Argo Merchant (1976, 28,000 t) Hawaiian Patriot (1977, 95,000 t) Atlantic Empress (1979, 287,000 t) RA-2, 1983 Three-Mile Island, 1979 KIRIBATI Industries, farming operations, mines, street cleaning, and even housecleaning—many human activities release dirty water into nature. Since water constantly circulates, it transports and redistributes around the planet the pollutants, including pesticides, bacteria, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.The soil is polluted by millions of tons of industrial waste, household trash, fertilizers, and pesticides released into the environment every year. Pollution of inland waters and oceans In spite of the London Convention, which, since 1972, has banned dumping of household waste into the sea, huge amounts of solid waste (plastic packaging, cans, fishing nets) continue to float on the surface of the oceans. In addition, many cities all over the world do not always treat their wastewater before releasing it into rivers, seas, and oceans. Every year, 6 million tons of petroleum products are also released into the oceans due to oil spills and leaks from oil refineries and offshore drilling rigs. Finally, during nuclear tests and incidents at nuclear plants (power plants, for example), radioactive elements may be dispersed into watercourses, water tables, seas, and oceans, as well as the soil and the atmosphere. The Argo Merchant, off the coast of the United States The shipwreck of the oil tanker, in 1976, caused heavy pollution off the Massachusetts coast. POLLUTION OF INLAND WATERS Emission of organic pollutants into rivers, lakes, and water tables ≥ 300,000 kg/day 100,000–299,999 kg/day 25,000–99,999 kg/day 10,000–24,999 kg/day < 10,000 kg/day No data Source: World Bank Emission of radioactive pollutants following tests or nuclear events (name of reactor concerned and date of event) Major accident Serious accident Accident leading to a risk outside the site Accident not leading to a major risk outside the site Serious incident Sites of nuclear tests Sources: SMDC; IAEA POLLUTION OF OCEANS Oil spills Oil tanker (year, quantity of oil spilled) ≥ 200,000 t 100,000–199,000 t < 100,000 t Source: ITOPF WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE 68 :
  • 71. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP Nova (1985, 70,000 t) Braer (1993, 85,000 t) Khark 5 (1989, 80,000 t) Sea Star (1972, 115,000 t) Katina P. (1992, 72,000 t) ABT Summer (1991, 260,000 t) Independenta (1979, 95,000 t) Tasman Spirit (2003, 30 000 t) Castillo de Bellver (1983, 252,000 t) Kyshtym, 1957 Tchernobyl, 1986 M O N G O L I A FRANCE SPAIN ITALY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA UNITED KINGDOM GREECE UKRAINE HUNGARY IRELAND AUSTRIA LITHUANIA BULGARIA CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND SLOVAKIA PORTUGAL BELARUS NETHERLANDS SERBIA BELGIUM ALBANIA RUSSIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA DENMARK LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO VATICAN CITY MONTENEGRO Prestige (2002, 63,000 t) Sea Empress (1996, 72,000 t) Aegean Sea (1992, 74,000 t) Jakob Maersk (1975, 88,000 t) Irenes Serenade (1980, 100 000 t) Torrey Canyon (1967, 119,000 t) Haven (1991, 144,000 t) Amoco Cadiz (1978, 223,000 t) Erika (1999, 20,000 t) Urquiola (1976, 100,000 t) Tanio (1980, 13,500 t) Vandellos, 1989 Windscale, 1957 and 1973 St. Laurent, 1980 Industrial pollution, United States Industries release more than 700 different substances into the soil, among them mercury, lead, and trichloroethylene. Rainwater is naturally acid, since the air contains carbon dioxide, which is transformed into carbonic acid in contact with water. However, some polluting gases, notably sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), help to increase this acidity.There are certainly natural sources of these gases, such as volcanic eruptions and certain microbial and chemical processes in the soil, but there are many anthropogenic sources, including use of fossil fuels (thermal power plants, refineries, foundries) and transportation. Rain observed in 1974 in Pitlochry, Scotland, was as acid as lemon juice, or about 1,000 times more acid than normal rainwater.This phenomenon has disastrous effects on the environment, especially forests and lakes. SOIL POLLUTION The origins of soil pollution are domestic, agricultural, and industrial. Household waste is made mainly of biodegradable materials, but it also contains plastics, detergents, solvents, and heavy metals. Spreading of fertilizers increases the quantity of nitrates and phosphates in the soil, disturbing natural nitrogen and phosphorus cycles. However, most nonbiodegradable pollutants come from industry. USE OF FERTILIZERS PER COUNTRY ACID RAIN WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION EARTH:APLANETINBALANCE : 69 ≥ 1,500,000 t/yr 250,000–1,499,999 t/yr 50,000–249,999 t/yr 10,000–49,999 t/yr < 10,000 t/yr No data Source: FAO
  • 73. E a r t h : A n I n h a b i t e d P l a n e t The appearance of human beings on Earth changed the face of the world. Very quickly, the first peoples drew borders to define their territories, and the continents were gradually divided into nations, where today a wide variety of peoples—with different languages, religions, and lifestyles—live. Conflicts arising from these territorial divisions are still boiling over in a number of regions,but there are also peaceful interactions such as cultural exchanges,development projects, economic transactions, and sports tournaments. TOP: The holy city of Varanasi, on the shores of the Ganges, India LEFT: The Idumata Market, in Lagos, Nigeria
  • 74. Ottawa Havana Nassau Panama La Paz Lima Quito Belmopan Asunción Santiago Brasília Georgetown Montevideo Tegucigalpa Mexico Washington, D.C. Roseau Bogotá Caracas Managua Castries Kingston San Jose Kingstown Guatemala Paramaribo Bridgetown Basseterre Saint John's San Salvador Buenos Aires Port of Spain Santo Domingo Saint George's Port-au-Prince CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT ANDTHE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Belmopan LomeAccra Dakar Praia Niamey Bamako Bissau Banjul Conakry Monrovia Freetown Cotonou Ouagadougou Yamoussoukro MALI NIGER MAURITANIA TOGOSIERRA LEONE GHANA GUINEA BURKINA FASO SENEGAL CÔTE D'IVOIRE BENIN LIBERIA GUINEA- BISSAU GAMBIA CAPEVERDE THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET A nation encompasses a people—that is, a group of individuals who share more or less the same culture and traditions and who generally live in the same country. A country is a geographic territory with clearly established borders, belonging to a nation or a group of nations. A country has its own government laws, armed forces, money, capital, and flag. It offers its nationals political rights such as citizenship. Countries are not necessarily homogeneous. Some, such as China, group together a number of nations. Others, such as Switzerland, recognize a number of official languages. Out of the some 240 territories claiming the status of country, 193 are recognized as sovereign; with the exception of the Vatican City, these are all members of the United Nations (UN). Official flag of the UN The emblem of the United Nations, adopted in 1946, portrays a planisphere centered on the North Pole and surrounded by two olive branches, the symbol of peace. The United Nations Created in 1945 to maintain world peace, the UN also has mandates concerning the environment, public health, and humanitarian aid. Issues involving international peace are submitted to the Security Council, formed of 15 members, five of which are permanent: China, the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and Russia. Headquarters of the UN, United States The headquarters of the United Nations, located in New York, were opened in 1951. COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD BRAZIL: country FRENCH GUYANA (FR): territory (sovereign country) Capital Date of entry to the UN 1995–2006 1985–1994 1975–1984 1965–1974 1955–1964 1946–1954 1945 Non-member Source: UN 72 :
  • 75. Maseru Harare Moroni Manila Muscat Maputo Lusaka Astana Moscow Luanda Riyadh Tehran Ankara MaleBangui Malabo Honiara Jakarta Bairiki Palikir Bangkok Naypyidaw Suva Kiev Oslo Apia Yaren Hanoi Kabul Koror Seoul Sana'a Cairo Abuja Rabat Tunis Bishkek Nairobi Beijing Tallinn Yerevan Tripoli Algiers Canberra Victoria Pretoria Gaborone Tashkent Lilongwe Ashgabat Helsinki Windhoek Djibouti Khartoum Ndjamena Valletta Port Vila Vientiane Islamabad New Delhi Singapore Abu Dhabi Mogadishu Stockholm Reykjavik Wellington Pyongyang Nouakchott Ulaanbaatar Brazzaville Addis Ababa Nuku' alofa Port Moresby Antananarivo Kuala Lumpur Dodoma Dalap-Uliga-Dorrit Bandar Seri Begawan Dili Baku Doha Tokyo Dhaka Vaiaku Mbabane Kigali Kuwait Asmara Thimphu Colombo Kampala Baghdad Yaoundé Dushanbe Kinshasa Tbilisi Sao Tome Kathmandu Bujumbura Phnom Penh Al Manamah Libreville BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQU E UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA Kampala KENYA Kampala MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND GEORGIA BANGLADESH PHILIPPINES SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT DJIBOUTI QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS.SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES BAHRAIN KIRIBATI Port Louis MAURITIUS SOUTH AFRICA Maputo Thimphu Riga Rome Minsk Sofia Vaduz Bern Paris Berlin Vienna Prague Tirana Monaco Madrid Dublin Vilnius Athens The Hague London Chisinau Bucharest Belgrade Sarajevo Lisbon Budapest Warsaw Brussels Copenhagen Luxembourg San Marino Andorra La Valla Zagreb Skopje Ljubljana Bratislava Podgorica FRANCE SPAIN POLAND ITALY GERMANY UNITED KINGDOM ROMANIA UKRAINE GREECE SERBIA HUNGARY IRELAND LITHUANIA BULGARIA AUSTRIA LATVIA CZECH REP. MOLDOVA SWITZERLAND PORTUGAL BELARUS CROATIA SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS BELGIUM ALBANIA DENMARK RUSSIA BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA Ljubljana SLOVENIA Ljubljana MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MONACO VATICAN CITY LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO EGYPT SYRIA JORDAN ISRAEL LEBANON CYPRUS WESTBANK GAZA STRIP Amman Damascus Nicosia Tel Aviv Beirut THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET THE LARGEST COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY AREA 1 Russia 17,075,400 km2 2 Canada 9,970,610 km2 3 United States 9,629,091 km2 4 China 9,596,961 km2 5 Brazil 8,514,047 km2 6 Australia 7,741,220 km2 7 India 3,287,263 km2 8 Argentina 2,780,400 km2 9 Kazakhstan 2,724,900 km2 10 Sudan 2,505,813 km2 11 Algeria 2,381,741 km2 12 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,344,858 km2 13 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 km2 14 Mexico 1,958,201 km2 Source: UN THE SMALLEST COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY AREA 193 Vatican City 0.4 km2 192 Monaco 1 km2 191 Nauru 21 km2 190 Tuvalu 26 km2 189 San Marino 61 km2 188 Liechtenstein 160 km2 187 Marshall Islands 181 km2 186 Saint Kitts and Nevis 261 km2 185 Maldives 298 km2 184 Malta 316 km2 183 Grenada 344 km2 182 Saint Vincent and The Grenadines 388 km2 181 Antigua and Barbuda 442 km2 180 Seychelles 455 km2 Source: UN : 73
  • 76. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS PERU ECUADOR THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Political systems A state’s political system is the way in which power is organized and exercised in that state. About one-third of the states in the world have a democratic system, in which the people theoretically hold the power. Another third aspire to a democratic system (emerging democracies).The other countries are under authoritarian systems, in which power is held by an individual (absolute ruler) or a small group of individuals (single party, state religion, army) who impose their authority by force and strictly regulate the lives of their fellow citizens without consulting them. Depending on whether the system is democratic or authoritarian, the powers of the head of state, monarch, or president of a republic are more or less extensive. A PARLIAMENT The press may follow and record debates. There is seating reserved for the public. The Speaker of the House coordinates and moderates debates. Members sometimes address the chamber from a podium rather than from their seat. Hansard reporters transcribe the assembly’s discussions. The elected opposition representatives sit facing the representatives of the party in power. Members of the government participate in debates and answer questions from elected representatives. Elected representatives affiliated with the same party as the government usually form the majority in the assembly. DEMOCRACY In a democracy, each citizen may make his or her voice heard through elections. Representatives elected by the people form the parliament, which debates and votes on laws.The parliament is formed of one or two chambers (upper and lower chambers).The upper chamber, often called a senate, usually has less power than the lower chamber, often called the National Assembly or House of Commons. Democracy is the political system that is most respectful of individual freedoms; in principle, citizens are equal before the law and enjoy freedom of opinion, expression, and worship, the press is independent, and a number of political parties coexist. In practice, all democracies are imperfect to some degree (discrimination against minorities, government corruption, etc.). TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Parliament Parliament and head of state (joint power) President (limited power) President (extensive power) Communist party Absolute monarch Army Transitional government Sources: J. Derbyshire, Encyclopedia of World Political Systems; CIA World Factbook; Ministère français des Affaires étrangères 74 :
  • 77. BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP FRANCE SPAIN POLAND ITALY GERMANY UNITED KINGDOM ROMANIA UKRAINE GREECE SERBIA HUNGARY IRELAND LITHUANIA BULGARIA AUSTRIA LATVIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND PORTUGAL BELARUS CROATIA SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS BELGIUM ALBANIA DENMARK RUSSIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA MONACO VATICAN CITY LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO THE POLITICAL WORLD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET SEPARATION OF POWERS Separation of powers is one principle of democracy. Its aim is to avoid having a small group of people seizing control of an entire country.There are usually three types of power within a democratic nation. Legislative power is in the hands of the people’s representatives (parliament), who formulate and pass laws.These laws are applied by judges and magistrates, who thus hold judicial power. Executive power, which consists in administering the state, is in the hands of the government.The government’s policy is submitted to the control of parliament: if the assembly disagrees with the policy, it may oppose or even defeat the government.The press, which monitors all three branches of power, is sometimes considered to be a fourth power. Supreme Court in Washington, United States The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States. It guarantees equal justice for all American citizens in compliance with the law. Judicial power, independent of executive power, also guarantees that the government’s actions comply with the law. : 75
  • 78. Westminster Palace in London, United Kingdom Westminster Palace is the seat of the British Parliament, where the House of Lords (upper chamber) and the House of Commons (lower chamber) sit. Westminster Palace is known for its majestic clock tower, which houses the bell nicknamed Big Ben.
  • 79. the political world earth:aninhabitedplanet Although women form about half of the world’s population, their place in politics remains secondary in most countries in the world. Women occupy an average of 16% of parliamentary seats (40% in Nordic countries, less than 7% in Arab countries). Only a dozen countries are currently led by a woman, including Chile, Finland, and Germany. About 7% of ministerial positions, most of them in the social affairs field, are filled by women. A number of countries are trying to improve women’s representation in political bodies through quotas. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, out of the 39 countries that held parliamentary elections in 2005, 15 had implemented measures in favour of women (voluntary or statutory quotas requiring that political parties present more female candidates or reserving parliamentary seats for women).These countries have twice as many elected women as do countries where no measure has been undertaken (26.9% vs. 13.6%). However, several countries still do not recognize the right of women to run for office in an election; some, such as Saudi Arabia, do not even allow women to vote. Kuwait allowed women to vote and run for office only in 2005. Women in politics Presidential election in Chile, March 2006 Elected president of the Republic of Chile, Michelle Bachelet is one of the few female heads of state. ≥ 40% 30%–39.9% 20%–29.9% 10%–19.9% 0.1%–9.9% 0% No data Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union women in parliament Proportion of women in the lower chamber of parliament : 77
  • 80. N O R T H A M E R I C A S O U T H A M E R I C A C E N T R A L A M E R I C A T H E C A R I B B E A N Seattle New York Medellín Salvador Santiago Brasília Rio de Janeiro Fortaleza São Paulo Washington, D.C. Los Angeles Pôrto Alegre Buenos Aires San Francisco Lima Miami Boston Bogotá Dallas Recife Atlanta Chicago Detroit Toronto Phoenix Houston Belo Horizonte Mexico City Montréal Monterrey Guadalajara Philadelphia CANADA BRAZIL UNITED STATES ARGENTINA MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND (DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS 474,000 258,000 SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES 1,399,000 WORLD POPULATION In the summer of 2005, the world’s population passed the 6.5 billion mark.The population is very unequally distributed on the planet, since developing countries contain a total of 80% of the world’s inhabitants, as well as the highest birth rates. Demographers predict that the population of the 50 least-developed countries may more than double by 2050, while that in developed countries should remain at 1.2 billion.The world’s population would then reach 9.1 billion. Demographers are also predicting an overall aging of the population. The proportion of people aged over 60 years, which went from 8% to 10% over the last 50 years, may double by 2050. Continents with more or less people Although it covers a huge area, Oceania, which includes Australia, New Zealand, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, contains only 33 million people, most of them in urban areas (72%). In contrast, Asia is by far the most populous continent, with 3.9 billion inhabitants, most of whom still live in the countryside (62%).Today, four people out of 10 live in China or India. 78 : THE MOST POPULATED URBAN AREAS RANK CITY COUNTRY POPULATION Tokyo Japan 35.2 M inhab. Mexico Mexico 19.4 M inhab. New York United States 18.7 M inhab. São Paulo Brazil 18.3 M inhab. Bombay India 18.2 M inhab. Delhi India 15.0 M inhab. Shanghai China 14.5 M inhab. Calcutta India 14.3 M inhab. Jakarta Indonesia 13.2 M inhab. Buenos Aires Argentina 12.5 M inhab. Dhaka Bangladesh 12.4 M inhab. Los Angeles United States 12.3 M inhab. Karachi Pakistan 11.6 M inhab. Rio de Janeiro Brazil 11.5 M inhab. Osaka-Kobe Japan 11.3 M inhab. Source: UN EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION Population density ≥ 400 inhab./km2 300–399 inhab./km2 150–299 inhab./km2 75–149 inhab./km2 25–74 inhab./km2 < 25 inhab./km2 Source: UN Main urban areas ≥ 10 M inhab. 5–9.9 M inhab. 3–4.9 M inhab. 1–2.9 M inhab. Source: UN Net migration per region (migrants/yr) 8 mm = 200,000 Net loss (more emigrants than immigrants) Net gain (more immigrants than emigrants) Null migration (equivalent emigration and immigration) Source: UN Regional border Source: UN
  • 81. E A S T E R N E U R O P E E A S T A S I A N O R T H A F R I C A C E N T R A L A F R I C A W E S T E R N A S I A A U S T R A L I A A N D N E W Z E A L A N D C E N T R A L A N D S O U T H A S I A E A S T A F R I C A W E S T A F R I C A S O U T H E R N A F R I C A N O R T H E R N E U R O P E S O U T H E A S T A S I A W E S T E R N E U R O P E S O U T H E R N E U R O P E M E L A N E S I A POLYNESIA M I C R O N E S I A Kano Tel Aviv Hyderabad Kanpur Guiyang Dongguan Shenzhen Surabaja Kinshasa Khartoum Istanbul Cairo Melbourne Hong Kong Bangalore Guangzhou Chongqing Singapore Chittagong Alexandria Casablanca Johannesburg Pune Hanoi Xian Dhaka Riyadh Algiers Lagos Sydney Bombay Madras Moscow Cape Town Baghdad Ankara Jakarta Bandung ManilaBangkok Yangon Chengdu Abidjan Calcutta Saint Petersburg Surat Delhi Kabul Lahore Karachi Tehran Ahmadabad Ho Chi Minh City RUSSIA CHINA AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN SUDAN ALGERIA MONGOLIA NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU KIRIBATI MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN 320,000 246,000669,000 475,000 221,000 320,000 KIRIBATI NEW ZEALAND Rome Milano Paris Berlin Madrid Athens London Barcelona SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS MONTENEGRO BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO VATICAN CITY SAN MARINO SERBIA Osaka-Kobe Tokyo Seoul Pusan Beijing Wuhan Nagoya Tianjin Shenyang Shanghai Changchun Pyongyang Harbin Dalian Zibo Nanjing JAPAN CHINA NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA : 79WORLD POPULATION : 79 EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET ≥ 75% 50–74.9% 25–49.9% < 25% Source: UN PART OF THE POPULATION THAT LIVES IN THE CITIES URBANIZATION OF THE POPULATION Almost half of the world’s population lives in cities. Although some countries, such as Laos, are still very rural, others, such as Israel, are almost completely urbanized. Urbanization of the population, a recent phenomenon, is intensifying. According to UN estimates, in 30 years, cities will be home to more than 60% of the world’s population.The cities in developing countries should grow the most rapidly, such as Dhaka, Bangladesh; Lagos, Nigeria; and Delhi, India. In developed countries, where urban dwellers already represent three-quarters of the population, the urban population will grow more slowly. Today’s megalopolises, such as Tokyo and Mexico, which together contain almost 4% of the world’s population, will remain the most populous, but will expand less quickly.
  • 82. 80 : WORLD POPULATION Population growth The rate of population growth is the rate at which a country’s total population has increased or decreased during a given year. This rate takes account of births, deaths, and migration. In Germany, for example, population growth between 2000 and 2005 was slightly positive, thanks to the arrival of immigrants and in spite of a low birth rate. However, population growth will be negative in 2005–2010, since decreasing immigration will no longer be able to compensate for the drop in births and increased mortality due to the aging of the population. After reaching a peak in the late 1960s (2.04%), growth of the world’s population will stand at 1.17% per year for 2005–2010. Annual rate of population growth 2005–2010 ≥ 3% 2–2.9% 1–1.9% 0–0.9% Demographic decline No data Source: UN Earth:Aninhabitedplanet 80 : Around 1340, the plague decimated almost one-third of Europe’s population. 1987 1975 1998 1800 1925 2100 World population grew fastest in the 1960s, thanks to progress in economics and in health, such as the discovery of antibiotics. Year -100,000 -1000 -7000 -6000 -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 0 1000 2000 3000 Worldpopulation(billionsofinhabitants) 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 changes in world population Modern human beings, who appeared about 200,000 years ago in Africa, gradually colonized the planet.The first estimates of world population go back to year zero, when Earth had about 300 million inhabitants. A thousand years later, there were only 320 million. Birth and death rates were high but so balanced that the world’s population remained stable for hundreds of years. During the Renaissance in Europe, living conditions improved. A demographic transition began: mortality dropped, but the birth rate remained high.The overall population began to grow, reaching 1 billion in 1800, 2 billion in 1925, and 3 billion in 1960.The demographic transition in industrialized countries was then complete: the birth rate and death rate evened out at a low level. In developing countries, this transition is currently underway: over the last 50 years, the death rate has fallen, and in certain countries, such as China, the birth rate is now on the same path. A century from now, a new population balance should be established in the world, with low birth and death rates, returning stability to the world’s population.
  • 83. : 81WORLD POPULATION THE median age of the population The median age is the age that divides a population into two halves: one-half of the population is older; the other half, younger.The higher the median age, the older the population. For 30 years, the median age worldwide has risen constantly, going from 22.2 years in 1970 to 28.0 years in 2005. However, population aging does not affect all regions of the world in the same way. Between 1950 and 2005, the proportion of people aged over 60 years went from 11.7% to 20.1% in developed regions, but only from 6.4% to 8.1% in developing countries. In Africa, it even dropped slightly, reaching 5.2% in 2005. world population in 2050 Population estimates take account of many demographic variables, among them population growth, population age, and fertility rate (number of children per woman). It is estimated that the world’s population will reach 9.1 billion in 2050. Europe’s demographic load should fall, while Africa’s should rise.The share of the other continents should remain stable. By mid-century, Asia will be home to almost three-quarters of the world’s population. ≥ 35 yr 25–34.9 yr 20–24.9 yr < 20 yr Source: UN ≥ 1 B inhab. 300–999 M inhab. 100–299 M inhab. 40–99 M inhab. < 40 M inhab. Source: UN Earth:Aninhabitedplanet Street in Old Delhi, India India’s rate of population growth (1.46% per year between 2005 and 2010) is slightly above the world average. The country’s demographic load should remain stable in coming years. : 81
  • 84. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA LANGUAGES EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Language, exclusive to human beings, is the faculty to express thought through speech, in a linguistic system that has been transmitted. It is one of the main characteristics of a people’s culture. Almost 7,000 different languages are spoken in the world.The division of its population according to language spoken reflects a country’s cultural diversity. About half of all countries have one or several languages designated as official in the constitution or a statute. An official language is often, but not always, spoken by a large proportion of the population. Language families A language family is a group of languages that are derived from a single language of origin.There are more than 10 major language families.The Indo-European family includes more than 400 languages with a common Indo-European origin that may go back to 2000 .The languages in this family are the most widely spoken in the world, with almost 3 billion speakers from Europe to Asia.The Indo-European family includes languages spoken in India, the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish), Greek, the Germanic languages (German, English, Flemish, Norwegian, etc.), the Celtic languages, and the languages of Latin origin (French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.). Smaller families, like the Papuan languages (in Papua New Guinea), include almost 3,400 languages, spoken by less than 4% of the world population. Amerindian languages belong to indigenous languages, as well as Australian (mainly Aborigene), Eskimo-Aleut and Tasmanian languages. THE MAIN LANGUAGE FAMILIES FAMILY NUMBER OF LANGUAGES MAIN LANGUAGES Nigero-Congolese 1,514 Wolof, Dogon, Swahili, Zulu Austronesian 1,268 Javanese, Malay Amerindian about 900 Inuktituk, Cree, Nahuatl, Yucateco Indo-European 449 Hindi, English, Spanish, Bengali, Russian, Portuguese, French Sino-Tibetan 403 Chinese (13 different languages), Tibetan Afro-Asiatic 375 Somali, Arabic, Hebrew, Kabyle Dravidian 73 Telugu, Tamil Altaic 66 Turkish, Manchurian Uralian 39 Finnish, Hungarian Japanese 12 Japanese and 11 languages that are becoming extinct Sources: Ethnologue, SIL International; J. Leclerc, TLFQ, Univ. Laval DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN LANGUAGE FAMILIES Indo-European Amerindian and other indigenous languages Afro-Asiatic Nigero-Congolese Nilo-Saharan Khoisian Austronesian Uralian Altaic Sino-Tibetan Austro-Asiatic Japanese Papuan languages Other, including Dravidian Sources: J. Leclerc, TLFQ, Univ. Laval; Ethnologue, SIL International; Meyers Großer Weltatlas 82 :
  • 85. BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET LANGUAGES Languages and writing The most widespread language in the world is Mandarin (Chinese), with more than 870 million speakers. Many other languages are used by only several hundred people. Half of all current languages may rapidly disappear, as they are abandoned for international languages. A language is usually associated with a writing system, a group of symbols allowing the language to be transcribed onto a medium. Many writing systems are alphabetic (Latin, Arab, Cyrillic, etc.), with the alphabetic characters used to construct the sounds of the language. But there are also syllabic writing systems, in which the symbols represent syllables (Japanese) and logographic writing systems, in which each symbol corresponds to a word or group of words (Chinese). Sign in a Shanghai street, China Chinese writing uses characters called sinographs. Not all of them are ideographs that represent a single word or idea. Most of these characters are ideophonographs that associate a phonetic indication and a semantic indication. THE MOST WIDELY SPOKEN LANGUAGES LANGUAGE SPEAKERS MAIN COUNTRIES Mandarin (Chinese) 874 M China Hindi 366 M India English 341 M United Kingdom, countries of North America and Oceania Spanish 322 M Spain, countries of South and Central America Bengali 207 M Bangladesh Arab 206 M countries of the Middle East and North Africa Source: Ethnologue, SIL International : 83
  • 86. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA RELIGIONS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET A religion is a group of doctrines and rituals designed to connect the human soul to the realm of the divine and the sacred. For centuries, religions have overlapped and competed with each other.Their origins are sparked by a person or an event, and some are much older than others. Religions play a cultural and social role, the importance of which varies depending on the people, the period, and the country. The main religions of the world Christianity is the most widespread religion today, with almost 2 billion believers worldwide. Its influence is great in European and North American countries, but the greatest number of practitioners is now found in South America and southern Africa. Islam currently has more than 1 billion followers, mainly in Asia and North Africa. Most adherents to Buddhism and Hinduism are in Asia, while most Jews live in the United States and Israel. In some societies, especially in Africa and Oceania, people practice “traditional” forms of religion, in which the beliefs are often transmitted orally. THE MOST WIDELY PRACTICED RELIGIONS RELIGION CHARACTERISTICS FOLLOWERS Christianity Religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and drawing on the New Testament. 1,928 M Catholicism Christian religion that admits the authority of the Pope in Rome. 968 M Protestantism Group of religions (Anglicanism, Calvinism, Lutheranism, etc.) formed of Christian churches resulting from the Reform launched in the 16th century by Luther, who was protesting against the mores and practices of the Catholic church. 394 M Orthodoxy The group of Eastern Christian churches that separated from Rome in 1054. 218 M Islam Religion practiced by Muslims based on the belief in a single god, Allah. The Koran, a collection of the revelations made by Allah to the prophet Muhammad, is the holy book of Muslims. 1,100 M Sunnism Branch of Islam based on the texts of the Sunna, which contains accounts of Muhammad’ s words, behaviors, and judgments. 913 M Shiism When Muhammad died, those who recognized his son-in-law Ali as his successor founded Shiite Islam, Shiism, considered the historical branch of Islam. 176 M Judaism Religion according to which God elected the Jewish people and made an alliance with them. 14 M Hinduism Polytheist religion of India descended from ancient tribal religions. 781 M Buddhism Eastern religion founded by an Indian wise man, Buddha. 324 M Other Asian religions Confucianism is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of Confucius, a philosopher rather than a religious leader. Founded, like Confucianism, in the 6th century BCE, Taoism is a Far Eastern religion based on the philosophy of Lao-tzu and folk beliefs. Shintoism is a polytheist Japanese religion whose divinities are personifications of natural forces (stars, animals, plants, etc.). 246 M Source: adherents.com, from Britannica Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, Israel Three religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—have made Jerusalem a holy city. The Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa mosque embody Muslim Jerusalem. 84 :
  • 87. Medina Mount Fuji Mecca Najaf Kerbala BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE PHILIPPINES HRV UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD BAHRAIN LIE SMR VAT MNE Lumbinî Dharamsala Varanasi Bodh-Gaya C H I N A I N D I A NEPAL Hebron Nazareth Jerusalem SYRIA EGYPT JORDAN ISRAEL WESTBANK GAZASTRIP Bethlehem RELIGIONS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Pilgrims at Mecca, Saudi Arabia According to the precepts of Islam, every Muslim who has the means must make the pilgrimage to Mecca once in his or her life. The Ganges in Varanasi, India The Ganges is a holy river for the Hindus, who go there to perform their ablutions. DOMINANT RELIGIONS Catholicism Protestantism Orthodoxy Sunnism Shiism Judaism Hinduism Buddhism Confucianism, Taoism Shintoism Traditional religions No data Major Jewish communities Sources: UNESCO; Atlas of the World, National Geographic Holy sites Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Judaism Temple Mount Esplanade in Jerusalem, Israel Jewish Jerusalem is represented by the Temple Mount Esplanade, also known as the Western Wall or the Wailing Wall. It is the only vestige of the temple of Herod, king of the Jews, destroyed in 70 CE, of which only the west wall has survived. Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, Israel Standing outside the old city of Jerusalem, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a venerated sanctuary for Christians. It is said to have been built on the site of Christ’s crucifixion, His tomb, and His resurrection. : 85
  • 88. US Open Québec Boston New York Cap Horn Rio de Janeiro Noronha arch. Baltimore Pointe-à-Pitre North and Central America and Caribbean (CONCACAF) 43.1 million players South America (CONMEBOL) 27.8 million players VendéeGlobe VolvoOceanRace Route du Rhum English Transat Transat Québec–Saint-Malo 1930 1970 and 1986 HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE C A N A D A MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAMESURINAME NICARAGUA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT ANDTHE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS 1994 UNITED STATES SPORTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET There is an extremely wide variety of sports. Whether individual or team, based on physical strength or tactical intelligence, they have in common a striving to outdo oneself, a respect for rules that enable performances to be compared, and the notion of pleasure. Since the explosion of coverage in the media, the social and economic impact of sports has increased considerably.Today, sports is a mass cultural phenomenon, conveying the social values of recognition and success.The Olympic movement has been a major contributor to this trend. A worldwide phenomenon Several hundred sports are played around the world. Some, such as Sumo wrestling in Japan, are practiced in only one or a few countries, but most disciplines involve athletes all over the globe. Every year, international-level competitions take place around the world. SOCCER Soccer, called football outside of North America, is the most popular sport on the planet. Almost one person in 25, or 260 million altogether, plays soccer. Most professional players play in Europe and South America, but the United States may soon catch up, as almost 18 million American children play soccer. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), founded in 1904, now has 207 member national associations. An Olympic sport since 1908, soccer owes its universal appeal to its simple rules and the lack of specialized equipment required, but also to the amazing popularity of the World Cup. No other international event draws as much attention, mainly due to television broadcast of the games: 1.7 billion viewers watched the France–Brazil final in 1998. THE WORLD CUP OF SOCCER YEAR ORGANIZING COUNTRY CHAMPION/FINALIST YEAR ORGANIZING COUNTRY CHAMPION/FINALIST 1930 Uruguay Uruguay/Argentina 1974 FRG FRG/Netherlands 1934 Italy Italy/Czechoslovakia 1978 Argentina Argentina/ Netherlands 1938 France Italy/Hungary 1982 Spain Italy/FRG 1950 Brazil Uruguay/Brazil 1986 Mexico Argentina/FRG 1954 Switzerland FRG/Hungary 1990 Italy FRG/Argentina 1958 Sweden Brazil/Sweden 1994 United States Brazil/Italy 1962 Chile Brazil/ Czechoslovakia 1998 France France/Brazil 1966 England England/FRG 2002 South Korea and Japan Brazil/Germany 1970 Mexico Brazil/Italy 2006 Germany Italy/France 86 :
  • 89. Australian Open Cape Town Éclipse Is. Wellington Melbourne Africa (CAF) 46.3 million players Asia (AFC) 85.2 million players Oceania (OFC) 0.5 million players Europe (UEFA) 61.6 million players TransatJacquesVabre(2007) VendéeGlobe Volvo Ocean Race GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA ISRAEL BURUNDI R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA TOGO RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN PALESTINE ydney-Hobart Goteborg NORWAY 2002 JAPAN 1958 RUSSIA MONTENEGRO UKRAINE FRANCE SPAIN ITALY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA BELARUS UNITED KINGDOM GREECE HUNGARY BULGARIA IRELAND LITHUANIA AUSTRIA PORTUGAL CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND SLOVAKIA NETHERLANDS BELGIUM SLOVENIA MACEDONIA SERBIA ALBANIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO Vigo Plymouth Portsmouth Saint-Malo Lizard Point Les Sables d’Olonne Le Havre RotterdamWimbledon Roland- Garros London Paris 1982 1966 1974 and 2006 1938 and 1998 1934 and 1990 1954 EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET SPORTS Young African soccer players, Mozambique A fun game that requires very little equipment, soccer is very popular in Africa. SELECTED MAJOR SPORTS EVENTS Soccer World Cup of Soccer Boundaries of confederations Number of players per confederation Women Men Source: FIFA Tennis Grand Slam tournaments Source: ITF Sailboat races Start, leg, and finish Race routes Source: Official Web site of each race : 87
  • 90. sports earth:aninhabitedplanet The Olympic Games originated in antiquity.The first games took place in 776 bce in Olympia, Greece.These ancient games had only a few sports disciplines, among which where foot races in the stadium, and they took place every four years. This tradition lasted more than 1,000 years. It was revived by Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin: in 1896, the first Olympic Games of the modern era brought 241 athletes and nine sports together in Athens, Greece.Today, more than 10,000 athletes compete at the Olympic Games.The program for the Summer Games includes 28 sports, while the Winter Games, created in 1924, has seven sports. Since 1994, the Summer and Winter Olympic Games have not occurred at the same time every four years, but have alternated every two years. For instance, the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing, China, will be followed by the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver, Canada. From Nadia Comaneci to Carl Lewis, numerous athletes have achieved greatness at the Games, following the Olympic motto “Faster, Higher, Stronger.” The Olympic Games olympic medals at the summer games Total medals won per country since 1896 olympic medals at the winter games Total medals won per country since 1924 ≥ 1,000 100–999 10–99 1–9 0 Source: IOC ≥ 150 50–149 10–49 1–9 0 Source: IOC olympic medals through history Over the history of the Olympic Games, some countries have disappeared and others have appeared.The table below lists the number of Olympic medals won at Summer and Winter Games by some former countries.The colors in the table correspond to outlined zones on the maps below. former country (Year of participation) summer games medals winter games medals Yugoslavia (between 1924 and 2000) 90 4 Czechoslovakia (between 1920 and 1992) 143 25 German Democratic Republic (GDR) (between 1968 and 1990) 409 110 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) (between 1968 and 1990) 204 41 USSR (between 1952 and 1994) 1,122 217 88 :
  • 91. Rome (1960) Seoul (1988) Beijing (2008) Tokyo (1964) Sydney (2000) Moscow (1980) Mexico (1968) Sapporo (1972) Athens (1896 and 2004) Atlanta (1996) Helsinki (1952) St. Louis (1904) Melbourne (1956) Barcelona (1992)Los Angeles (1932 and 1984) Los Angeles (1932 and 1984) Los Angeles Squaw Valley (1960) Salt Lake City (2002) Oslo (1952) Nagano (1998) Montréal (1976) Stockholm (1912) Lake Placid (1932 and 1980) Lillehammer (1994) Calgary (1988) Sarajevo (1984) Sochi (2014) Vancouver (2010) Calgary (1988)Calgary (1988) Sarajevo (1984)Sarajevo (1984) Rome (1960)Rome (1960) Nagano (1998)Nagano (1998) Paris (1900 and 1924) Turin (2006) Munich (1972) Grenoble (1968) Chamonix (1924) Innsbruck (1964 and 1976) Berlin (1936) Antwerpen (1920) Amsterdam (1928) Albertville (1992) Saint-Moritz (1928 and 1948) Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956) Garmisch-Partenkirchen (1936) London (1948 and 2012) SPORTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET OLYMPIC GAMES HOST CITIES First Olympic stadium, Athens, Greece The first Games of the modern era were held there in 1896. : 89 Olympic cities Summer Games Winter Games Source: IOC National Olympic committees (year of recognition) 1990–2004 1975–1989 1960–1974 1945–1959 1920–1944 1900–1919 1898–1899 Not recognized No data Source: IOC
  • 92. NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AM., CENTRAL AM., AND CARIBBEAN SURINAME NICARAGUA CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET To meet their needs and satisfy their desires, human beings use goods, such as housing or books, and services, such as a bank account or a visit to a doctor. An economy comprises the activities of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, as well as the resulting distribution of wealth. Usually, goods and services are exchanged for money by different actors in the economy (individuals, companies, the state). In recent decades, the economy has become globalized and international trade has intensified. Some of the goods and services that are produced by multinational corporations (with facilities in a number of countries) are consumed thousands of kilometers from where they originated. Economic sectors Traditionally, three economic sectors are distinguished.The primary sector involves direct exploitation of natural resources (fishing, agriculture, livestock production, mining, etc.).The industries that transform resources form the secondary sector, which includes a very diverse range of activities, from the agri- food industry to shipbuilding to the pharmaceutical industry to energy production. The tertiary sector encompasses all service activities (banking services, retail, health- care services, telecommunications, transportation, etc.). Money, Europe Euro coins and bills have been the currency in a number of countries in the European Union since 2002. THE LARGEST MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS RANK* COMPANY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR EMPLOYEES TOTAL NUMBER ABROAD 1 General Electric United States Electric and electronic equipment 307,000 46.3% 2 Vodafone Group United Kingdom Telecommunications 57,378 80.1% 3 Ford Motor United States Automobile 225,626 45.5% 4 General Motors United States Automobile 324,000 35.4% 5 British Petroleum United Kingdom Oil 102,900 83.1% 6 Exxon Mobil United States Oil 105,200 50.3% 7 Royal Dutch Shell The Netherlands Oil 114,000 84.2% 8 Toyota Japan Automobile 265,753 35.6% 9 Total France Oil 111,401 55.9% 10 France Télécom France Telecommunications 206,524 39.5% *Ranked by foreign assets Source: UNCTAD/Erasmus University database 90 :
  • 93. COMMUNITY OF INDEPENDENT STATES AFRICA ASIA EUROPE MIDDLE EAST MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET MONEY Money, also called currency, is the legal means of paying a debt. Physically, it consists of coins and bills that are exchanged when a payment is made. Currency is also a unit of account: the prices of goods and services are calculated in this monetary unit. Most sovereign countries have their own currency. Money from one country can be exchanged for money from another country at an exchange rate that is fixed or that varies according to supply and demand on the exchange market. However, certain currencies, such as the Cuban peso, are not convertible. Share of GDP generated by each economic sector, by region agriculture industry services Regional borders Source: WTO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Industrial GDP per inhabitant (million $) ≥ 10,000 5,000–9,999 1,000–4,999 500–999 100–499 < 100 No data Source: World Bank ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRIES A number of economic units are used to compare countries’ economies. One of these units, the gross domestic product (GDP), measures the total value of goods and services created during one year within the country only.The industrial GDP per inhabitant is used to put into perspective the data regarding industrial activities only, as these are most comparable between rich and poor countries. : 91
  • 94. NORTH AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND CARIBBEAN 2.3 20.2 1.8 4.7 14.6 SURINAME NICARAGUA CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET International trade International trade consists of all of the exchanges of goods and services between one country and another.The goods that enter a country constitute its imports, while its exports are the goods that leave it.The nature of the goods exchanged depends on the industrial strengths of the respective country; Brazil, for example, has a wealth of bauxite ore and exports massive amounts of this mineral, while Canada imports large amounts of bauxite to feed its powerful aluminum industry. A country’s import- export flows comprise its balance of trade.The balance of trade is positive when a country exports more than it imports (trade surplus) and negative in the opposite case (trade deficit). The World Trade Organization (WTO) governs trade practices among its member countries (151 in 2007, including most of the trade powers in the world). When there are disagreements between partner countries, the WTO must make a ruling. In its first eight years of existence, from 1995 to 2002, the WTO was called upon to decide on about 300 disputes. North America (14.5%) Eastern Europe and Russia (3.3%) Western Europe (43%) Asia (27.4%) Middle East (5.3%) Africa (2.9%) In 2003, exports from South and Central America represented 3.5% of total exports worldwide. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPORTS WORLDWIDE Western Europe and Asia are the most active regions in terms of international trade.Together, they are responsible for more than two- thirds of exports (70.4%) and almost two-thirds of imports (40.1% and 22.8%, respectively; 62.9% total). INTERNATIONAL TRADE BY REGION Intercontinental trade (trade between one continent and another as a proportion of total trade) ≥ 10% 2%–9.9% < 2% Source: WTO Regional borders Balance of trade (trade surplus and trade deficit) ≥ $50 B $1 B to $49.9 B –$0.9 B to $0.9 B –$49.9 B to –$1 B < –$50 B No data Source: WTO TRADE ON THE GLOBAL SCALE 92 : Source: WTO
  • 95. COMMUNITY OF INDEPENDENT STATES AFRICA ASIA EUROPE MIDDLE EAST 0.6 2.3 0.3 0.2 2.9 0.1 2.4 6.6 0.4 19.1 4.8 1.8 8.5 5.5 0.5 0.3 MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP C H I N A SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY ECONOMICS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET THE TRADE POWERS Annual volume of trade (billion $) COUNTRY EXPORTS IMPORTS Germany 970 774 United States 904 1,732 China 762 660 Japan 595 515 France 460 498 The Netherlands 402 359 United Kingdom 383 510 Italy 367 380 Canada 359 320 Belgium 334 319 Source: WTO WORLDWIDE EXPORTS OF GOODS (billion $) GOODS ANNUAL VOLUME Agricultural products 852 Fuels and products from extractive industries 1,748 Manufactured products, including: 7,312 iron and steel 318 chemical products 1,104 telecommunications and office equipment 1,275 products of the automobile industry 914 textiles and clothing 479 Source: WTO : 93
  • 96. economics earth:aninhabitedplanet Individuals participate in the economy by consuming goods and services, but also by working. Employment is defined as remunerated work. It enables individuals to meet their own needs and sometimes those of their families. Assessing the employment situation involves measuring the unemployment rate—that is, the proportion of people who do not have a job but are available to work. According to estimates by the International Labour Organization (ILO), there were about 190 million unemployed people in the world (6.3% of the labor force in 2005). However, having a job does not protect against poverty: in 2005, out of the 2.8 billion employed workers, 1.4 billion earned less than $2 per day. All over the world, young people and women are the most vulnerable to unemployment and job insecurity. Employment unemployment In 2005, unemployment rates varied from 3.8% in East Asia to 13.2% in the Middle East and North Africa. About half of those who are unemployed are young people aged 15 to 24 years. female labor In spite of the progress made with regard to employment equity, there is still a gap between men and women. Women comprise about 40% of workers worldwide. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the proportion of employed women tends to drop. In the Middle East and North Africa, it is growing, but from a very low starting level. Proportion of the labor force that is unemployed ≥ 30% 20%–29.9% 10%–19.9% 5%–9.9% < 5% No data Source: CIA World Factbook ≥ 45% 35%–44.9% 25%–34.9% < 25% No data Source: World Bank women at work Proportion of women in the total labor force 94 :
  • 97. distribution of labor in selected countries country total labor force unemployment rate AGRICULTURE industry SERVICES United States 146,319,600 4.7% 2.4% 22.4% 75.2% Indonesia 99,749,750 6.1% 45.3% 17.3% 37.3% Poland 19,879,810 16.1% 19.1% 30.5% 50.4% Source: World Bank economics earth:aninhabitedplanet Young woman in a wooden-furniture plant, Canada In 2004, the female labor force represented 46% of the total labor force in Canada. Only 11% of the female labor force, however, worked in the secondary sector, which employs 32% of the male labor force. On the other hand, the tertiary sector employs 87% of the female labor force and 64% of the male labor force. : 95
  • 98. SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS M E X I C O 96 : ENERGY The world economy is based on an essential resource: energy.Today, the most widely used energy source is oil. The most optimistic experts estimate that underground reserves will be exhausted by 2030 at the latest. Anticipating the oil shortage, the United States, some European countries—such as France—and Japan began to turn to nuclear energy in the 1960s, while countries such as Canada and Brazil adopted hydroelectricity. Other renewable energy sources are now being developed. The main energy sources Oil, the main source of energy, is used as a fuel for most vehicles and for lighting, heating, and electricity production. Like natural gas and coal, it is a fossil fuel. It is the product of the transformation of organic matter buried in the ground for millions of years. Nuclear energy also produces electricity, but it generates radioactive waste that is highly toxic to human beings and their environment. Renewable energy sources do not have this drawback.The most highly developed renewable resource is hydroelectricity: energy from a watercourse is transformed into electrical energy. Other renewable energy sources are being developed: wind energy (from the force of the wind), solar energy (from the Sun’s rays), and geothermal energy (from the heat of Earth’s mantle). EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Oil production (thousands of barrels per day) ≥ 3,000 1,000–2,999 < 1,000 Source: BP Hydroelectric production 20 main producing countries (billions of kWh) ≥ 150 75–149 < 75 1 kWh (kilowatt-hour) = 1,000 Wh Source: Energy Information Administration Nuclear power plants Source: International Nuclear Safety Center Wind energy 20 main producing countries (MW installed) ≥ 5,000 1,000–4,999 < 1,000 1 MW (megawatt) = 1 million watts Source: World Wind Energy Association Energy consumption (kWh/person/year) ≥ 10,000 5,000–9,999 2,000–4,999 500–1,999 < 500 No data Source: International Energy Agency WORLD ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
  • 99. BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP : 97 THE OIL CRISIS Between 1960 and 1970, world oil consumption more than doubled, making oil a major economic stake.This put the producing countries of the Persian Gulf—notably Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia—in a position of strength. In 1973, they gained a larger share of oil revenues and control over the stages of production on their territories, which enabled them to keep prices artificially high. Oil prices shot up and the oil crisis began. Consuming countries made an effort to reduce consumption and develop alternate energy sources (nuclear energy, hydroelectricity, etc.). Gradually, the balance of power was reversed, and in the 1980s the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) countries agreed to reestablish normal prices. Currently, however, oil prices are still unstable due to international conflicts, the growing energy needs of countries such as China, and the exhaustion of world oil reserves. Diversification of energy sources is more important than ever today. ENERGY EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET CHANGES IN THE PRICE OF A BARREL OF CRUDE OIL AND IN OIL CONSUMPTION In the 1980s, the price of oil dropped to its level before the crisis. Priceperbarrel(US$) Consumption(millionsofbarrelsperday) Year 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 MAIN ENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-CONSUMING COUNTRIES THE MAIN OIL PRODUCERS THE MAIN CONSUMERS OF NUCLEAR ENERGY Saudi Arabia 10.9 million barrels per day United States 829 billion kWh per year Russia 9.8 million barrels per day France 451 billion kWh per year United States 6.9 million barrels per day Japan 303 billion kWh per year THE MAIN OIL CONSUMERS THE MAIN CONSUMERS OF HYDROELECTRICITY United States 20.6 million barrels per day China 417 billion kWh per year China 7.4 million barrels per day Canada 350 billion kWh per year Japan 5.2 million barrels per day Brazil 350 billion kWh per year Source: British Petroleum Source: British Petroleum 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
  • 100. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S T A T E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA GUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS HONDURAS BELIZE 98 : AGRICULTURE EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Agriculture is the basis of our food supply.The term covers all exploitation of the land for crop and livestock production.The agriculture sector employs more than 40% of the labor force worldwide. Most farmers live in developing countries. However, today developing countries import more agricultural products than they export, the reverse of the situation up to the early 1990s. Serious food shortages are ravaging about 30 of these countries. Farmers in developing countries practice small-scale agriculture, while many farmers in wealthy countries own vast, highly productive operations. Agricultural production The main agricultural plant products are sugar cane, cereals (wheat, rice, corn, etc.), roots and tubers (potatoes, sugar beets, manioc, etc.), soybeans, citrus fruits, and forage plants. When the plants are irrigated by rainwater only, it is called rain-fed agriculture. Rice cultivation, for instance, may be rain-fed, in which case it is a low-yield crop. It may also be irrigated and give better yields. AGRICULTURE AROUND THE WORLD Farmland Rain-fed farmland and pasture Irrigated farmland and pasture Fragmented farmland Source: USGS (from data from a NOAA satellite) Agricultural production (12 top producing countries for each product) Source: FAO Food aid received ≥ 250,000 t 100,000–249,999 t 50,000–99,999 t 10,000–49,999 t < 10,000 t None Source: FAO rice wheat corn soybeans potatoes beef poultry sea fish sugarcane coffee
  • 101. BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY : 99AGRICULTURE EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET FARMLAND Farmland comprises zones used, either permanently or temporarily, for plant crops or livestock production. India and a number of countries in eastern Europe stand out with more than 45% of their territory devoted to agriculture. PERCENTAGE OF LAND USED FOR AGRICULTURE ≥ 45% 25%–44% 10%–24% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: FAO Rice paddy, Indonesia Indonesia is one of the major rice-producing countries. Most rice cultivation is irrigated, but some is rain-fed.
  • 102. 100 : agriculture earth:aninhabitedplanet the main cereal-producing countries Cereals are plants usually cultivated on a large scale.The main producing countries are also among the largest (China, United States, India, Russia). Consumption of cereals has been dropping for more than a century in wealthy countries, while in developing countries cereals are still the main source of dietary energy.The most-consumed cereals in the world are wheat and rice. The main countries producing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Genetically modified plants are agricultural plants whose characteristics have been modified, for instance, to increase yield or resistance to insects.They are cultivated commercially in some 20 countries.The most widely grown genetically modified plants are soybeans and corn. the main meat-producing countries The main meat-producing countries are China, the United States, and Brazil.They are also the main consumers of meat. A wide variety of animals are raised for their meat, but only three kinds of meat are produced in large quantities: pork, beef, and chicken. Livestock also produce milk and eggs. cereal production area used for gmo cultivation meat PRODUCTION ≥ 75 M t 50–74 M t 4–49 M t 1–3 M t < 1 M t No data Source: FAO ≥ 18 M ha 5–17.9 M ha 1–4.9 M ha 0.05–0.9 M ha < 0.05 M ha No data Source: ISAAA ≥ 1,500,000 M t 500,000–1,499,999 M t 200,000–499,999 M t 100,000–199,999 M t < 100,000 M t No data Source: FAO
  • 103. Corn field in Illinois, United States In Illinois, a state situated in the northern United States, corn is cultivated intensively; this form of agriculture consumes more resources (water, fertilizer) with the goal of increasing the yield of the land farmed. In contrast, subsistence farming produces food mainly for local populations.
  • 104. SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK RUSSIA SWEDEN LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO RomeVATICAN CITY Frankfurt Barcelona Milano Paris Algiers Berlin Madrid Athens London Hamburg Amsterdam Rome Rotterdam C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA (FR) BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Lima Miami Boston Mexico Dallas Recife Atlanta Chicago Detroit Toronto Phoenix Houston Montréal New York Medellín Salvador Santiago Brasília Monterrey Fortaleza São Paulo Washington, D.C. Guadalajara Pôrto Alegre Buenos Aires San Francisco Belo Horizonte Bogotá Los Angeles Philadelphia Rio de Janeiro Las Vegas Denver Minneapolis Orlando Seattle 102 : TRANSPORTATION EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Most human activities require the transportation of people or goods.There are different modes of transportation depending on whether they move on land (ground transportation, including roads and railroads), on water (inland waterways and maritime transport), or in the atmosphere (air transport). The geography of transportation Transportation infrastructure is distributed around the planet as a function of geographic constraints and the needs and means of populations. MAIN AIRPORTS (millions of passengers) Atlanta 85.91 Chicago 76.51 London (Heathrow) 67.91 Tokyo (Tokyo Int.) 63.28 Los Angeles 61.49 Paris 53.80 Frankfurt 52.22 Dallas 51.18 Amsterdam 44.16 Las Vegas 43.99 Source: Airports Council International MAIN SUBWAYS (millions of passengers) Moscow 3,200 Tokyo 2,700 Mexico 1,400 Seoul 1,300 New York 1,200 Paris 1,100 Osaka-Kobe 1,000 Hong Kong 780 London 770 São Paulo 700 Sources: Transport Geography on the Web, Hofstra University MAIN PORTS (millions of TEUs) TEU: equivalent to loading a container 20 feet (6.1 m) long Hong Kong 21.93 Singapore 20.60 Shanghai 14.57 Shenzhen 13.65 Pusan 11.43 Kaohsiung 9.71 Rotterdam 8.30 Los Angeles 7.32 Hamburg 7.03 Dubai 6.43 Source: Containerisation International Yearbook Main transportation infrastructure Roads Source: ESRI Railroad lines Source: ESRI High-speed-train lines Sources: CER, raileurope.com; SNCF Shipping lanes Source: OECD Cities served by the 30 largest airports by number of passengers Source: Airports Council International Main port cities ≥ 10 M inhab. 5–9.9 M inhab. 3–4.9 M inhab. 1–2.9 M inhab. < 1 M inhab. Source: Containerisation International Yearbook Main urban areas ≥ 10 M inhab. 5–9.9 M inhab. 3–4.9 M inhab. 1–2.9 M inhab. Source: UN International borders MAJOR TRANSPORTATION NETWORKS
  • 105. Zibo Osaka-Kobe Tokyo Pusan Beijing Nagoya Harbin Tianjin Shenyang Shanghai Changchun Seoul Dalian Pyongyang Wuhan Nanjing C H I N A J A P A N SOUTH KOREA NORTH KOREA R U S S I A C H I N A A U S T R A L I A INDIA K A Z A K H S TA N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OFTHE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA (MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN Pune Surat Hanoi Delhi Xi'an Lagos Sydney Bombay Madras Kabul Lahore Moscow Cape Town Baghdad Ankara Jakarta Bandung ManilaBangkok Yangon Karachi Chengdu Tehran Abidjan Calcutta Kinshasa Khartoum Cairo Melbourne Hong Kong Bangalore Hyderabad Ahmadabad Guangzhou Chongqing Singapore Alexandria Casablanca Ho Chi Minh City Johannesburg Saint Petersburg DhakaRiyadh Istanbul Chittagong Dubai Shenzhen Kano Tel Aviv Kanpur DongguanGuiyang Surabaja Kaoshsiung : 103TRANSPORTATION EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Container ship, port of Rotterdam With traffic of more than 8 million TEUs, the port of Rotterdam is the seventh-largest port in the world. Maritime transportation Ships are the form of transportation most used for long distances (international trade) and for transportation of heavy goods, in bulk and in containers. It is estimated that 71% of world freight (96% by weight) transits through shipping lanes, oceanic routes several kilometers wide that link the main ports of the globe. Some major rivers, such as the Amazon and the St. Lawrence, provide ships with routes to the interior of continents. Since the advent of air transport, maritime transport of passengers has been limited to sea cruises in passenger ships and short crossings on ferries.
  • 106. 104 : earth:aninhabitedplanet transportation Road traffic on the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, United States In 2003, the United States had 3.6 times as many cars per 100 inhabitants as did Mexico. On the other hand, road traffic was less dense in the U.S., with 13 vehicles per vehicular route, compared to 59 in Mexico. Road network Total length of roads Vehicles Number of vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants Maglev, China The Maglev, for Magnetic Levitation, is a train that uses magnetic forces to move and is therefore not in contact with the rails when it runs. It has reached a speed of over 500 km/h. rail network Total length of train tracks Road transportation Ground transportation is by far the most widely used form. In developing countries, non-motorized means of ground transportation—walking, bicycles, and horse and cart—are still very widespread. In developed countries, on the other hand, ground transportation has taken over from all other forms of transportation, due to its rapidity and flexibility. In the wealthiest countries, there are 45 cars per 100 inhabitants and the road networks have more than 10 million kilometers of roads. Road traffic is regulated more or less strictly from country to country. In most countries, drivers must have a driving permit that is adapted to their vehicle, and they must obey speed limits. Heavily used in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, rail transportation then declined as road transportation became more popular.The development of high-speed trains in the 1980s, with a maximum speed of 513 km/h, revived interest in railroads. Most of these trains are in operation in Europe and Japan. In spite of its lack of flexibility, rail transportation has several advantages over road transportation. Because most trains run on electricity, they are less polluting than trucks and automobiles. In addition, rail transportation is a form of public transit: trains, subways, and tramways transport hundreds of people at a time without clogging the road network. Rail transportation ≥ 1,500,000 km 500,000–1,499,999 km 150,000–499,999 km 50,000–149,999 km < 50,000 km No data Source: World Bank ≥ 500 150–499 100–149 50–99 < 50 No data Source: World Bank ≥ 50,000 km 30,000–49,999 km 10,000–29,999 km 2,000–9,999 km < 2,000 km No data Source: World Bank
  • 107. : 105transportation earth:aninhabitedplanet The history of air transportation dates back to the early 20th century: in 1903, Orville Wright’s airplane flew for 12 seconds over a distance of 36 m. More than a century later, the performance of airplanes is of a completely different order.The largest airliners can carry more than 800 passengers from one continent to another. In November 2005, a Boeing 777 airplane established the record for the longest commercial flight by flying the 21,600 km between Hong Kong and London without touching down. Democratized in the 1960s, air travel has become the favorite means of transportation over long distances. Today, the limitations of air transportation are linked less to the capacity of airplanes than to problems with managing air traffic. In 2003, more than 1.6 billion people flew on airplanes, and there were over 21 million commercial flights. Air transportation number of passengers transported per year air travel country number of takeoffs per year number of passengers per year country number of takeoffs per year number of passengers per year United States 7,789,100 589 M France 695,900 47 M Canada 1,036,100 36 M Japan 638,500 104 M China 946,400 86 M Australia 529,600 41 M United Kingdom 891,200 76 M Spain 518,800 42 M Germany 844,800 72 M Brazil 486,800 32 M Source: World Bank Beluga cargo plane, United States The Beluga is often used to transport different parts of a plane (wings, fuselage, etc.) that must be assembled at a site different from where they are made. The Beluga is loaded by the front through a door 17 m high. The cockpit is at the bottom of the plane to make room for this immense opening. ≥ 50,000,000 5,000,000–49,999,999 500,000–4,999,999 50,000–499,999 < 50,000 No data Source: World Bank
  • 108. NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE CANADA BRAZIL UNITED STATES ARGENTINA MEXICO PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA CHILE PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA BARBADOS SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Omaha (3) Dallas (20) Phoenix (3) Wichita (3) Caracas (2) Atlanta (4) Seattle (7) Houston (6) Columbia (3) Hamilton (1) Edmonton (1) Honolulu (1) Santiago (2) Las Vegas (4) Monterrey (1) Vancouver (1) Sao Paulo (6) Saint John (1) George Town (1) Mexico City (9) Antofagasta (1) Buenos Aires (1) Salt Lake City (3) Rio de Janeiro (2) Bogota (2) Nassau (1) Denver (5) San Jose (17) San Diego (5) Bentonville (4) San Antonio (4) Los Angeles (36) Minneapolis (6) San Francisco (23) Fort Lauderdale (5) Philadelphia (3) Washington D.C. (6) Racine (4) Ottawa (1) Québec (2) Boston (9) Chicago (18) Detroit (6) Toronto (6) Montréal (4) New York (45) Cleveland (3) Charleston (3) Kalamazoo (3) EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 106 : INEQUALITIES Despite economists’ forecasts that globalization of the economy will benefit the poorest the most, inequalities in the world are getting worse in terms of health, nutrition, education, housing, and other areas. Gross national product (GNP) per capita, a country’s main socioeconomic development indicator, ranges from about 100 in the poorest countries to almost 60,000 in the wealthiest. These disparities are aggravated by the fact that in the 1970s, the Third World became heavily indebted in order to finance its development.The borrowed funds, often poorly managed or misappropriated, have not had the anticipated effect. Today, unable to pay back its debt, the Third World is demanding that the debt be written off. At the same time, the wealthiest countries donate to the most disadvantaged countries in the form of official development assistance. Measuring wealth The GNP is an indicator that measures the total value of the goods and services produced in a country during one year, as well as its net revenues from foreign countries.Total GNP is used to measure a country’s wealth. Divided by the number of inhabitants, it gives an indication of the standard of living of a country’s population. Number of billionaires (per metropolitan region) Source: Forbes 10 5 1 45 DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH GNP per capita ≥ $25,000 $10,000–$24,999 $3,000–$9,999 $1,000–$2,999 $500–$999 < $500 Sources: World Bank; UN The expression “Third World”was coined during the Cold War to designate countries that belonged to neither the capitalist nor the communist sphere of influence. Since the 1970s,“Third World”has referred to the poorest countries on the planet. Many of these countries’populations live in extreme misery. About 1.3 billion people, representing 20% of the world’s population, survive on less than 1 per day—that is, under the poverty line defined by the United Nations. POVERTY LINE Share of the population living on less than $1 per day ≥ 50% 20%–49% 10%–19% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: UN THE COUNTRIES OF THE THIRD WORLD 106 :
  • 109. NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH JORDAN PHILIPPINES SYRIA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN LESOTHO ARMENIA RUSSIA CHINA AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN SUDAN ALGERIA MONGOLIA NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMALIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPE VERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE SEYCHELLES MICRONESIA NAURU TUVALU MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP Sibu (1) Oslo (4) Kudus (1) Perth (1) Kyoto (3) Delhi (3) Seoul (3) Dubai (2) Mecca (1) Surgut (1) Sydney (3) Almaty (3) Taipei (7) Moscow (24) Riyadh (2) Bangkok (3) Beijing (1) T'ainan (1) Shanghai (1) Donets'k (2) Istanbul (7) Cairo (1) Melbourne (2) Hong Kong (18) Bangalore (1) Stockholm (5) Kuwait (2) Stellenbosch (1) Magnitogorsk (1) Manila (3) Kuala Lumpur (4) Johannesburg (1) Bombay (5) Tefen (1) Tokyo (13) Jeddah (4) Surabaja (1) Tel Aviv (5) Singapore (5) Osaka (2) Dnipropetrovs'k (1) Stuttgart (4) Heidelberg (3) Rome (2) Milano (3) Paris (12) Berlin (3) Vienna (3) Madrid (3) Dublin (2) Warsaw (1) London (19) Hamburg (9) La Coruna (3) Zurich (4) Luzern (3) Geneva (3) Bad Homburg (3) SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO DENMARK SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offer aid to developing countries by agreeing to reduce their debt or by providing them with new funding. INEQUALITIES MAIN DONOR COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP United States $27,622 M 0.2 Japan $13,147 M 0.3 United Kingdom $10,767 M 0.5 Germany $10,082 M 0.4 France $10,026 M 0.5 Netherlands $5,115 M 0.8 Italy $5,091 M 0.3 Canada $3,756 M 0.4 Sweden $3,362 M 0.9 Spain $3,018 M 0.3 Source: OECD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 107 MAIN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP Afghanistan $2,192 M 31.3 Sudan $1,472 M 6.4 Ethiopia $1,202 M 10.8 Dem. Rep. of the Congo $1,034 M 14.8 Tanzania $871 M 6.8 Zambia $836 M 14.4 Mozambique $771 M 12.5 Uganda $704 M 8.8 Bangladesh $563 M 0.8 Madagascar $500 M 8.7 Source: OECD
  • 110. Development indicators Development indicators are numerical indicators used to estimate the development of nations.They measure different parameters that affect the quality of life of human beings. GNP measures a country’s wealth or poverty, while life expectancy and infant mortality rate reflect its state of health. Other indicators assess satisfaction of basic human needs, such as access to drinking water, sufficient food, and housing. Still others measure level of education, the guarantee of a population’s future. To integrate these different parameters into a single indicator, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) calculates the human development index.This index, which takes account of longevity, education, literacy, and standard of living (purchasing power) assesses development on a scale from 0 to 1. In 2004, the index ranged from 0.311 for Niger to 0.965 for Norway. human development index High Average Low No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES RANKING of countries according to the human development index The highest-ranked countries the lowest-ranked countries rank country index rank country index Norway 0.965 Mozambique 0.390 Iceland 0.960 Burundi 0.384 Australia 0.957 Ethiopia 0.371 Ireland 0.956 Chad 0.368 Sweden 0.951 Central African Republic 0.353 Canada 0.950 Guinea-Bissau 0.349 Japan 0.949 Burkina Faso 0.342 United States 0.948 Mali 0.338 Switzerland 0.947 Sierra Leone 0.335 Netherlands 0.947 Niger 0.311 World average: 0.741 Source: UNDP EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 108 :
  • 111. Access to water is one of the main development indicators. It corresponds to the proportion of the population that has access to at least 20 liters of water per day per person from an improved source (pipeline, protected well, rainwater collection, etc.) less than one kilometer from their residence. In many regions of the world, populations lack water, leading to serious sanitary problems. The East Asia/Pacific region has the largest number of inhabitants without access to improved water sources. Inhabitants of urban areas have a better chance of benefiting from an improved source. Mongolia, for example, has very wide disparities between drinking-water access in urban zones (87%) and rural zones (30%). access to drinking water Water point, Tanzania Access to a source of drinking water is one of the main development indicators. share of the population with access to drinking water 90%–100% 70%–89% 50%–69% 30%–49% 0%–29% No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES earth:aninhabitedplanet : 109
  • 112. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA NORTH AMERICA LATIN AMERICA CARIBBEAN 110 : FRESHWATER RESOURCES EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Less than 3% of all water on the planet is freshwater. It is a resource that is unequally distributed, as most of it is frozen at the poles and the rest is found in water tables, which refill very slowly. Nevertheless, world freshwater reserves would satisfy the needs of humanity if they were better distributed and used. While subtropical regions (North Africa, South Africa, the Middle East, etc.) suffer from a serious lack of water, the temperate and intertropical regions (Canada, Russia, Brazil, etc.) have an abundance of freshwater. In the future, due to population growth, these inequalities are likely to rise. The risk of water shortages may cause conflicts to break out between countries that share watersheds. Water consumption Water consumption has greatly increased in recent decades. Although the overall increase is attributable to population growth, the rise in consumption per capita results from the easy access to water and economic development in some countries. Water consumption for domestic use rises along with the standard of living of populations. Running water, sewer systems, and household appliances such as dishwashers and washing machines have propelled consumption up to 60 billion m3 per year in the United States. WATER CONSUMED FOR DOMESTIC USE (m3 /year/inhab.) DOMESTIC USE ≥ 250 200–249.9 100–199.9 50–99.9 25–49.9 < 25 No data Source: FAO On the global scale, the agricultural sector is the greatest consumer of water. About 70% of water consumed in the world is used for farmland irrigation.The countries that irrigate the most are situated in Asia (China, India, Pakistan). Due to insufficient precipitation, the most arid countries have little capacity for irrigation. WATER CONSUMED FOR AGRICULTURAL USE (Gm3 /yr) AGRICULTURAL USE ≥ 200 100–199.9 50–99.9 20–49.9 3–19.9 < 3 No data (1 Gm3 = 1 billion cubic meters) Source: FAO
  • 113. BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE ASIA EUROPE AFRICA OCEANIA : 111FRESHWATER RESOURCES EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Lake Nasser, Egypt Formed at the border between Egypt and Sudan following construction of the Aswan dam on the Nile, Lake Nasser is a freshwater reservoir containing almost 162 billion m3 of freshwater. By reducing the amount of alluvia in the Nile’s river bed downstream of the dam, this structure is likely responsible for erosion of the Nile Delta. FRESHWATER RESERVES Freshwater available ≥ 50,000 m3 /year/inhab. 10,000–49,999 m3 /year/inhab. 5,000–9,999 m3 /year/inhab. 1,000–4,999 m3 /year/inhab. 100–999 m3 /year/inhab. ≤ 100 m3 /year/inhab. No data Source: FAO Use of freshwater by sector Source: FAO Regional borders In the most highly industrialized countries, about the same amount of water is consumed for industry as for agriculture. The industries that consume the most water are transformation industries, such as chemistry and metallurgy. In addition, industrial waste is a major contributor to water pollution.Thus, not only does the quantity of available water diminish, but its quality does, too. WATER CONSUMED FOR INDUSTRIAL USE (Gm3 /yr) INDUSTRIAL USE ≥ 50 20–49,9 10–19,9 5–9,9 2–4,9 < 2 No data (1 Gm3 = 1 billion cubic meters) Source: FAO agriculture domestic industrial
  • 114. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURAS GUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA 112 : HEALTH EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET The health of populations varies from country to country depending on their respective wealth levels, and even on wealth differences within individual countries.The mortality of children under 5 years of age, which is a good reflection of a population’s health, rises as the gross national product (GNP) drops. In many countries in Africa, this figure is above 15%. Children with malnutrition are predisposed to falling ill during epidemics. In wealthy countries, on the other hand, adult obesity is lowering life expectancy, since it is likely to lead to heart disease. Health- care personnel are also unequally distributed around the planet: the countries faced with the direst health crises must make do with the fewest health-care professionals. Epidemics and life expectancy In developing countries, infectious and parasitic diseases cause most deaths, all age groups combined. Helped along by malnutrition, a shortage of drinking water, lack of vaccinations, and illiteracy, epidemics propagate rapidly. Inequalities of life expectancy at birth, which had narrowed during the 1980s, have increased considerably since.The main cause of this growing disparity is the AIDS epidemic that has struck Africa. More than 7% of the population on the continent is infected. In southern Africa, about one- quarter of the population is affected (and up to 38.8% in Swaziland). DISEASE AND DEVELOPMENT LEVEL Heart disease and cancer are the scourges of the wealthiest countries, while communicable diseases affect developing countries. As the risk factors for communicable diseases (malnutrition, lack of water, etc.) diminish, the risk factors for chronic conditions (obesity, smoking, etc.) are amplified. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the annual number of deaths due to smoking in the world should grow from 4.9 million in 2000 to more than 10 million in 2020.The increase will be steepest in developing countries. THE MAIN MEDICAL CAUSES OF DEATH IN THE WORLD Going to the vaccination center, Zambia Vaccination campaigns conducted by nongovernmental organizations, such as the Red Cross, were responsible in large part for 84% of Zambian children over 1 year old being vaccinated against measles in 2004. communicable diseases and nutrition problems 30% heart disease 30% cancer 13% chronic respiratory diseases 7% traumas 9% other chronic diseases 9% Source: WHO diabetes 2%
  • 115. BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE GEORGIA KIRIBATI : 113HEALTH EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET HEALTH-CARE EXPENDITURES ($/year/inhab.) INVESTING IN HEALTH The share of the national budget devoted to health varies from less than 5% in the poorest countries to more than 20% in the wealthiest ones.Thus, national revenue has a major impact on the state of health and the life expectancy of a country’s population. However, it does not explain on its own the inequalities from one country to another. Malaysia, for example, has an infant-mortality rate equal to that of the United States (0.7%), while its GNP is one-quarter the size. Governments that invest in water quality, hygiene education, and installation of an extended health-care system (sufficient number of physicians, vaccinations, etc.) improve their health situation. With a GNP per capita identical to that of India, Vietnam has a life expectancy that is longer by eight years (68 years) and an infant-mortality rate almost four times lower (2.3%), notably because 99% of children under 1 year old are vaccinated, as compared to 70% in India. Population infected with malaria > 1% Source: WHO Population (15–49 years) infected with HIV/AIDS > 1% Source: UNAIDS Doctors Without Borders Countries where the organization is active Source: Doctors Without Borders Life expectancy at birth (average age that people born in 2003 can expect to live) ≥ 80 years 70–79.9 years 60–69.9 years 50–59.9 years 40–49.9 years < 40 years Source: UN ≥ 3,000 2,000–2,999 1,000–1,999 500–999 100–499 < 100 No data Source: WHO THE HEALTH SITUATION
  • 116. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA 114 : ILLITERACY EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET More than 750 million people around the world are illiterate, and about 64% of them are women.The illiteracy rate varies hugely from country to country and between genders: in many countries, more women than men are illiterate. The less access a population has to basic education, the higher the illiteracy rate and the more widespread the bad living conditions. In order to make up for the lack of basic education, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is helping to set up nonconventional schooling structures in many developing countries that offer training to everyone in a community—children, teenagers, and adults—and are run by members of the community. The illiteracy rate counts people over 15 years of age who are unable to read and write a short sentence about their everyday life. It is high in all developing countries where basic education is not systematic. In developed countries, few of which publish data on this subject, illiteracy is less visible, but it exists nevertheless, especially among those excluded from mainstream society. Bolivia Brazil Vietnam Haiti Iraq India Bhutan Chad Afghanistan Mali Men Women Sources: UN; CIA World Factbook THE ILLITERACY RATE 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
  • 117. BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GREECE JORDAN PHILIPPINES HRV SYRIA UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALB LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA ISRAEL SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA MKD WESTBANK BAHRAIN GAZASTRIP LIE SMR VAT MNE : 115ILLITERACY EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET Child writing, United Kingdom Learning to read and write begins when a child is about 6 years old. To fight illiteracy, obligatory school attendance for young children must be a priority. Nonconventional schooling, Uganda The young students in this school are learning English. Nonconventional schooling includes basic education programs in reading, writing, and arithmetic, for children and adults. ILLITERACY IN THE WORLD Illiteracy rate per country ≥ 75% 50%–74.9% 25%–49.9% 10%–24.9% < 10% No data Sources: UNESCO; État du monde
  • 118. CHILE PARAGUAY C A N A D A B R A Z I L U N I T E D S TAT E S A R G E N T I N A M E X I C O PERU BOLIVIA COLOMBIA GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY VENEZUELA CUBA SURINAME NICARAGUA HONDURASGUATEMALA PANAMA HAITI COSTA RICA BELIZE DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO DOMINICA SAINT LUCIA GREENLAND(DK) GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA FRENCHGUIANA(FR) BARBADOS VCT KNA 116 : CONFLICTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET The number of conflicts has dropped significantly since the end of the Cold War, but there are still numerous zones where confrontations occur.The nature of conflicts has changed: although there are still several wars between states and a number of border disputes, most conflicts are civil wars.The parties confront each other within a single country for ideological, ethnic, religious, or economic reasons. In some civil wars, a group claims independence for its territory (armed independence movements). Although officially confined to a single country, civil wars often involve a number of states, which support one or another of the belligerents financially or militarily. Number of armed conflicts per country (1989–2006) 8–9 6–7 4–5 2–3 1 0 Source: Uppsala Conflict Database Armed conflicts in the last 15 years International conflict Border dispute Armed independence movement Civil war Sources: Le Monde diplomatique; BBC News ARMED INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS For independence of Palestine occupied by Israel (since 1964) Basque separatist group (ETA) against the Spanish government for independence of the Basque Country (since 1959) Islamist groups for independence of the Mindanao region in the southern Philippines (since 1969) For independence of Casamance in southern Senegal (1982–2004) Corsican separatist group against the French government for independence of the island (since 1976) For independence of East Timor, obtained in 2002 (1975–2002) Polisario Front against the Moroccan government for independence of the Western Sahara (since 1991) Tamul Tiger separatist group in northern and eastern Sri Lanka (since 1976) Separatist group on Bougainville, an island in Papua New Guinea (1989–1997) Separatist Kurdish group in Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria (1994–1998) Maoist groups for the creation of an independent communist state, in Nepal (since 1996) Separatist group in Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia (since 1992) Irish Republican Army (IRA) against the British government for independence of Northern Ireland (1919–2005) For independence of Tibet occupied by China (since 1959) Chechen separatist group in Russia (since 1994) INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS Israel against Lebanon to stop activities by terrorists established in Lebanon (1978–2006) Israel against Syria for possession of the Golan Heights (since 1981) Eritrea against Ethiopia for control of the city of Badme (1998–2000) Invasion of Iraq by the United States to end the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein (2003) Invasion of Afghanistan by the United States to combat terrorism (2001) BORDER DISPUTES Peru and Ecuador for control of the Condor cordillera (1981–1998) Cameroon and Nigeria for control of the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula (1994–1996) India and Pakistan for control of the Kashmir region (since 1948) Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Brunei, the Philippines, and Malaysia, for control of the Spratly Islands (since 1988) THE MAIN ARMED CONFLICTS
  • 119. EGYPT SYRIA JORDAN ISRAEL LEBANON CYPRUS WESTBANK GAZA STRIP BURMA FRANCE SOMALIA POLAND YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND GERMANY I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE ROMANIA GABON ICELAND GUINEA NORWAY I R A N DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MOZAMBIQUE SOUTH AFRICA ITALY UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCAR MOROCCO VIETNAM GHANA R U S S I A C H I N A DENMARK A U S T R A L I A I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N SUDAN ALGERIA M O N G O L I A NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT T U R K E Y SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA KENYA SPAIN MAURITANIA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL BELARUS UGANDA SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP.CÔTE D'IVOIRE IRELAND LATVIA HUNGARY BGR MALAWI AZERBAIJAN LITHUANIA TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA AUSTRIA NEW ZEALAND TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH PORTUGAL GRÈCE PHILIPPINES HRV UNITED KINGDOM SRB SRI LANKA BEL CZECH REP. SOUTH KOREA LAOS SIERRA LEONE NLD BHUTAN ALBANIA LESOTHO ARMENIA SVK NORTH KOREA SWITZERLAND BURUNDI SVN BIH RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDOVA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR FIJI SWAZILAND EQUATORIAL GUINEA VANUATU TIMOR LESTE LUX SOLOMON IS. SAMOA BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SINGAPORE CAPEVERDE WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE AND SEYCHELLES M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S . MCO MALDIVES GAMBIA MKD BAHRAIN LIE SMR VATICAN MNE : 117CONFLICTS EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET CIVIL WARS In Guatemala, guerrillas against the military government for a change of regime (1960–1996) Ethnic conflict for control of the Congo (1997–2003) In Somalia, clan conflict for control of the country (1991–2004) In Colombia, communist group (FARC) against the government for control of the country (since 1966) Popular liberation movement of Angola against the Unita rebel group for control of the country (1975–2002) Confrontation between Shiite and Sunni Muslims in Iraq (since 2005) In Sierra Leone, armed group against the government for control of diamond production (1991–2002) In Chad, ethnic and religious conflict for control of the country (1998–2003) In Afghanistan, mujahadin against the Taliban for control of the country (1992–2001) In Côte d’Ivoire, ethnic and religious conflict for control of the country (1999–2005) In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, rebel group against the government for control of the country (1997–2002) In Tajikistan, Islamists and democrats against the pro- Russian army for control of the country (1992–1997) In Algeria, Islamists against the government for control of the country (1991–2005) In Sudan, animists and Christians against the Islamist government and ethnic conflict in Darfur (1983–2005) Ethnic conflict between Tutsis and Hutus for control of Rwanda (1994–2001)
  • 120. 118 : conflicts earth:aninhabitedplanet Media propaganda is used in many conflicts to manipulate opinion and the adversary. Freedom of the press is a bulwark against this propaganda. Each year, the French association Reporters Without Borders, through its network of correspondents, lists attacks against journalists (assassinations, imprisonments, assaults, threats, etc.) and the media (censorship, seizures, searches, pressure, etc.). On the basis of this information, it assigns each country a ranking that reflects its freedom of the press.The lower the ranking, the greater the freedom of the press. In 2007, 169 countries were ranked.Their rankings ranged from 0.75 in Iceland to 114.75 in Eritrea. Freedom of the press Military expenditures are the total amounts allocated to armed forces, governmental defense agencies, and military activities in space but exclude, among other things, the cost of destroying weapons. Although they often represent only a low proportion of government expenditures, they form a major geopolitical indicator for analyzing conflicts in the world. In 2006, world military expenditures stood at 184 per person on average, or 2.5% of the world gross domestic product (GDP). Military expenditures amount of military expenditures (compared to GDP, per country) Very good Good Fair Difficult Serious Very serious No data Source: Reporters Without Borders ≥ 10% 3%–9% 1%–2% < 1% No data Source: CIA World Factbook
  • 121. Antitank mines Antitank mines are part of the war arsenal long used in many conflicts, alongside powerful antipersonnel mines, which cause many civilian deaths.
  • 123. T h e C o n t i n e n t s The seven continents take up almost one-third of the planet’s surface. Their main characteristics, such as shape, area, relief features, and climate, vary widely. The continents have changed greatly over geological time,as they have been shaped by plate tectonics,volcanism, and sedimentation for millions of years.From the Canadian Far North to the plains of Patagonia, from the Sahara Desert to the steppes of Siberia, our planet offers a huge diversity of landscapes, inhabited by a great variety of peoples. TOP: Badlands National Park, United States LEFT: Kimmeridge Bay, Great Britain
  • 124. -4,177 m -243 m Devon Is. Banks Is. Guadaloupe Roca Alijos Victoria Is. Melville Is. EllesmereIs. Baffin Is. VancouverIs. Revillagigedo Is. Prince Patrick Is. Prince of Wales Is. Queen Charlotte Is. Florida BajaCalifornia St. Lawrence Is. Nunivak Is. Isthmus of Tehuantepec A l e u t i a n I s . Kodiak Is. North Magnetic Pole (2006) Beaufort Sea Hudson Bay Baffin Bay Davis Strait Amundsen Gulf N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Gulf of Alaska Ungava Bay James Bay GulfofCalifornia Bering Strait Bering Sea MOJAVE DESERT SO N ORANDESERT CHIHUAHUAN DESERT ASIA Mount Odin, 2,147 m Mount Borah, 3,859 m Mount Logan, 5,956 m Death Valley, -86 m Orizaba, 5,700 m Mount McKinley, 6,194 m Mount Waddington, 4,019 m Mount Mitchell, 2,037 m Mont d’Iberville, 1,652 m Mount Washington, 1,917 m Tombstone Mountain, 2,196 m Mount Roosevelt, 2,814 m Grand Canyon Mount Barbeau, 2,616 m Mount Robson, 3,959 m Keele Peak, 2,972 m Pikes Peak, 4,301 m Ottawa Mexico Washington, D.C. Edmonton Riverside Ciudad Juárez Torreón Tijuana León Monterrey Gulf of Mexico -4,131 m Yucatán San Diego Vancouver Baltimore Milwaukee Cleveland Providence Philadelphia Indianapolis San Francisco Virginia Beach Minneapolis Miami Tampa Boston Toluca Puebla Austin Dallas Denver Orlando Phoenix Memphis Seattle Calgary Houston Atlanta Chicago Detroit Toronto Montréal New York St. Louis San Jose Portland Columbus Las Vegas Sacramento Cincinnati Pittsburgh Guadalajara San Antonio Kansas City Los Angeles New Orleans R O C K I E S COASTMOUNTAINS A P P A LACHIA N S M A C K E N ZIE MOUNTAINS S IERRA MADREORIEN TA L SIERRAMADRE OCCIDENTAL S I E R R A M A D R E D E L S U R SIERRANEVADA BROOK S RANGE CASCADERANGE LAURENTIANS A L A S K A R A N G E A t l a n t i c C o a s ta l Plain G r e a t P l a i n s Great Basin C a n a d i a n S h i e l d Ozark Plateau Colorado Plateau Lake Huron Lake Superior LakeMichigan Lake Erie Lake Winnipeg Great Bear Lake Lake Ontario Great Slave Lake Lake Athabasca Reindeer lake Cedar Lake Lake Nipigon Nettilling Lake Lake Manitoba Great Salt Lake Lake Winnipegosis Brazos Thelon Hudson Bal sas Fraser Yaqui Rio Grande de Santiago Tombigbee Alaba ma Usuma cint a Sacram ento Susquehanna Ohi o Yukon Missouri Mississippi Arkansas Ri oGran d e Colorado Snak e M ackenzie Saskatc hewan N elson Peace Riv. SlaveRiv. St.La w re n ce Great Bear River GREENLAND(DK) C A N A D A MEXICO NICARAGUA ALASKA(US) Col umbia U N I T E D S T A T E S INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE 122 THECONTINENTS Great Salt Lake, Utah, United States The Great Salt Lake resulted from the gradual evaporation of a much larger prehistoric lake, Lake Bonneville. 0 500 1,000 km PHYSICAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 -500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Altitude(m)Depth(m)
  • 125. Newfoundland Anticosti Is. Cape Breton Is. Prince Edward Is. Nova Scotia N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N Denmark Strait Labrador Sea EUROPEMount Gunnbjorn, 3,694 m ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON(FR) BERMUDA(GB) TROPIC OF CANCER ARCTIC POLAR C I RCLE NORTH AMERICA THECONTINENTS North America is a large continent extending from the Tropic of Cancer to the North Pole region.Surrounded on three sides by the Pacific,Atlantic, and Arctic oceans,it represents 16% of the planet’s landmass.The oldest part of the continent,the Canadian Shield ,borders Hudson Bay . All around it,the North American platform is home to major watersheds (the St.Lawrence and the Great Lakes ,the Mississippi ,the Rio Grande ,and the Mackenzie ).While the ancient,eroded Appalachian Mountains form the main relief feature of the eastern part of the continent, the west is marked by high mountain ranges (Rockies , Sierra Madre , etc.) following the Pacific coast all the way from Alaska to Mexico. Relatively sparsely populated except along the coasts, North America has a wide variety of landscapes, from the Chihuahuan desert to the Arctic tundra, including temperate forests and prairies. North America is bordered on the south by Central America, a mountainous isthmus that links it to South America. New York, United States New York’s port is one of the 15 largest in the world. The Appalachians in Tennessee, United States The eroded Appalachian Mountains form the main relief feature of eastern North America. The Mississippi, United States The combined course of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers is 5,970 km. : 123
  • 126. Mexico City, Mexico The most populous city in North America, with 19.4 million inhabitants in 2005, Mexico’s capital is also one of the most polluted cities in the world. THECONTINENTS NORTH AMERICA POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN NORTH AMERICA THE CLIMATES OF NORTH AMERICA THE BIOMES OF NORTH AMERICA Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated Source: FAO Polar at the ice cap Polar tundra Mountain Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Semiarid Arid Humid with dry winter Humid ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 124 : Rock and ice Tundra Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert
  • 127. -8,605 m-4,131 m -5,581 m -7,848 m Andros Abaco Is. Grand Bahama Is. Great Inagua Is. Florida Yucatán Isthmus of Tehuantepec Isthmus of Panama Caribbean Sea Sargasso Sea Gulf of Mexico Gulf of Honduras SOUTH AMERICA Lago Enriquillo, -46 m Volcán Tajumulco, 4,220 m Roseau Panama Nassau Managua Castries Kingston Belmopan San José Kingstown Guatemala Havana Basseterre Tegucigalpa Saint John's San Salvador Saint George's Port of Spain Santo Domingo Port-au-Prince Bridgetown San Juan Panama Canal Lake Nicaragua San Juan PUERTO RICO (US) GUADELOUPE(FR) MARTINIQUE(FR) ARUBA (NL) NETHERLANDS ANTILLES(NL) CAYMAN IS.(GB) VIRGIN IS.(US) ANGUILLA(GB) MONTSERRAT (GB) TURKS AND CAICOS IS.(GB) BRITISH VIRGIN IS.(GB) NICARAGUA HONDURAS CUBA PANAMA GUATEMALA COSTA RICA HAITI BELIZE EL SALVADOR DOMINICAN REP. JAMAICA BAHAMAS TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO DOMINICA BARBADOS SAINT LUCIA GRENADA ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS TROPIC OF CANCER -6,647 m N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N North America and South America are linked by a narrow strip of mountainous land that stretches almost 2,000 km in length between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean.This region, known as Central America, is defined by two isthmuses: the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 200 km wide, to the north , and the Isthmus of Panama, 80 km wide, to the south . Central America was shaped by tectonic activity, and its highest point is Tajumulco (4,220 m), one of the many volcanoes in the region, situated in Guatemala.The numerous valleys and basins create a very compartmentalized landscape that is reflected in the political fragmentation in the region.The Antilles archipelago, an island arc between Florida and Venezuela, includes two separate groups.The Greater Antilles, to the north, contain the largest and most populous islands of the archipelago: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (which consists of Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and Puerto Rico.To the southeast, the Lesser Antilles are composed of a long string of volcanic islands encircling the Caribbean Sea. Constantly swept by trade winds, the Antilles archipelago has a hot, humid climate, punctuated by frequent hurricanes. Central America and the Antilles THECONTINENTS THE PANAMA CANAL The Panama Canal, 80 km long, crosses the Isthmus of Panama to connect the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean. Opened in 1914, the canal was first administered by the United States. It was returned to Panama in 1999 and has since been a major source of revenue for the country. In 2004, 14,035 ships, or almost 40 per day, have passed through the canal, paying more than 750 million in tolls. NORTH AMERICA 0 500 1,000 km : 125 Lock in the Panama Canal, Panama To fit into the canal’s locks, ships must be no more than 32.3 m wide and 294.1 m long. PHYSICAL MAP OF CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE ANTILLES Administrative capital Cities with a population of over 1 M inhab.
  • 128. north america theCONTINENTS the countries of north america flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Canada 9,900,000 32.85 El Salvador 21,041 6.85 United States 9,600,000 305.69 Bahamas 13,878 0.331 Mexico 1,900,000 106.62 Jamaica 10,991 2.71 Nicaragua 130,000 5.61 Trinidad and Tobago 5,130 1.33 Honduras 112,088 7.10 Dominica 751 0.068 Cuba 110,861 11.26 Saint Lucia 539 0.165 Guatemala 108,889 13.35 Antigua and Barbuda 442 0.083 Panama 75,517 3.34 Barbados 430 0.294 Costa Rica 51,100 4.46 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 388 0.120 Dominican Republic 48,511 9.75 Grenada 344 0.105 Haiti 27,750 9.59 Saint Kitts and Nevis 261 0.049 Belize 22,966 0.288 the territories of north america territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign country territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign country Greenland 2,175,600 0.057 Denmark Cayman Islands 264 0.046 United Kingdom Puerto Rico 8,875 3.99 United States Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 242 0.006 France Guadeloupe 1,705 0.444 France Aruba 180 0.103 The Netherlands Martinique 1,102 0.398 France British Virgin Islands 151 0.022 United Kingdom Dutch Antilles 800 0.191 The Netherlands Montserrat 102 0.006 United Kingdom Turks and Caicos Islands 430 0.024 United Kingdom Anguilla 91 0.012 United Kingdom Virgin Islands 347 0.111 United States Bermuda 53 0.064 United Kingdom 126 :
  • 129. north america theCONTINENTS Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica A range of volcanic mountains crosses this small Central American country. Mountains, Jamaica The mountains of central Jamaica have a temperate climate, while the coasts have a tropical climate. : 127
  • 130. GALAPAGOS IS. (EC) South America accounts for 12% of the planet’s landmass. Its relief features are similar to those in North America.The east side of the continent is an ancient bedrock, formed of the Guyana Plateau in the north, the Brazilian Plateau in the center and the Patagonian Plateau in the south.The plateaus are separated by depressions through which major rivers flow: the Orinoco , the Amazon , and the Parana .The major mountain ranges are found on the west coast: the Andes Cordillera stretches north to south, from Venezuela to southern Chile. From the high peaks of the Andes to the cold Patagonia region, including the equatorial plains of Amazonia, South America has a number of climatic zones. South of the Tropic of Capricorn , warm temperate climates dominate, with some arid and semiarid regions, while the north has tropical climates.The Andes Cordillera generates a wide variety of climates, depending on latitude, altitude, and orientation of the slopes. Salto Angel, Venezuela With a height of 979 m, the Salto Angel falls are the highest in the world. The Amazon, Brazil With its source in the Andes, the Amazon flows more than 6,500 km. It crosses through a dense rainforest and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Machu Picchu, Peru The ruins of the Inca city of Machu Picchu are situated at about 2,400 m altitude in the Andes Cordillera. Torres del Paine, Chile Torres del Paine National Park, with an area of 181,000 ha, stretches from the Chilean Andes to the steppes of Patagonia. SOUTH AMERICA THECONTINENTS 128 :
  • 131. EQUATOR TROPIC OF CAPRICORN FRENCH GUIANA (FR) FALKLAND IS. (GB) B R A Z I L A R G E N T I N A PERU BOLIVIA CHILE COLOMBIA VENEZUELA PARAGUAY GUYANA ECUADOR URUGUAY SURINAME SERRA D O M A R Gran Chaco B r a z i l i a n P l a t e a u Parana Plateau Altiplano A N D E S C O R D IL L E R A Patagonia G u y a n a P l a t e a u Mato Grosso A m a z o n i a L l a n o s P a m p a s NORTH AMERICA Xingu Purus A m a z o n Parana Japura Ucayali Rio Negro Arag u aia Tocantins Pa raguay Madeira SãoFrancisco Ma gda lena Tapajos Orinoco Juruena Rio Grande TelesPires Marañón Guapore RioBranco Madr e d e Di os Paranaiba A m a z o n Parana Uruguay Parn aíba Chubut Colorado Rio de la Plata Lake Titicaca Lake Maracaibo Pico Cristóbal Colón, 5,776 m Chimborazo, 6,310 m Aconcagua, 6,962 m Sajama, 6,542 m Laguna del Carbón, -105 m Huascarán, 6,768 m Ojos del Salado, 6,893 m Cali Belém Maceió Recife Manaus Maracay Goiânia Córdoba Rosario Medellín Curitiba Valencia Campinas Maracaibo São Paulo Guayaquil Santa Cruz Bucaramanga Barranquilla Pôrto Alegre Rio de Janeiro Vitória Belo Horizonte Santos Barquisimeto Natal Lima Quito Bogotá La Paz Caracas Santiago Brasília Asunción Paramaribo Georgetown Montevideo Buenos Aires ATACAMA DESERT N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Cape Horn Strait of Magellan Gulf of San Jorge Gulf of San Matias Chiloé Is. Tierra del Fuego Trindade Is. Margarita Is. Wellington Is. Juan Fernandez Is. Fernando de Noronha Is. Martin Vaz Is. Valdes Pen. Marajó Is. Yerupajá, 6,617 m Bonete, 6,759 m Pico Bolivar, 4,981 m Tupungato, 6,565 m Pico da Neblina, 2,994 m Pico da Bandeira, 2,890 m Mercedario, 6,700 m Illimani, 6,438 m Llullaillaco, 6,739 m Cachi, 6,380 m Cotopaxi, 5,897 m -6,015 m -5,753 m -6,618 m -7,694 m -6,403 m -8,073 m Salvador Fortaleza P utuma yo 0 500 1,000 km THECONTINENTS PHYSICAL MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA Altitude(m) 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Depth(m) 129
  • 132. south america theCONTINENTS POPULATION distribution in south america Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Situated in southeast Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, with a population of 11.5 million inhabitants, is the second-most populous city in South America after São Paulo. the climates of south america Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated the biomes of south america Source: FAO ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Mountain Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical humid Semiarid Arid Humid with dry winter Humid Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert 130 :
  • 133. south america theCONTINENTS With a population of 1.8 million inhabitants in its urban area, Manaus is the only large city in Amazonia. The Rio Negro, 2,000 km long, has its source in Colombia and flows into the Amazon at the Brazilian city of Manaus. Before joining with the Rio Negro, the Amazon is often called the Solimões. Bolivia Brazil The Amazon The Madeira, with its source in the Bolivian mountains, is the longest tributary of the Amazon and one of the longest rivers in the world (3,350 km). The source of the Amazon is in the Andes. It crosses Peru and Brazil and then flows into the Atlantic Ocean.This river, which has the greatest rate of flow in the world, pours almost 200,000 m3 of water into the ocean per second. Its watershed covers 7 million km2 , or more than one-third of the continent. Shared among several South American countries (including Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia), the Amazonian forest extends over 3.5 million km2 , or 30% of all rainforests in the world.This natural environment is home to a very wide variety of endemic species. It is estimated that one-quarter of all bird species in the world live in Amazonia. The Amazon DEforestation The area of the Amazonian forest is constantly shrinking. The main causes of deforestation are overcutting of the forest’s trees, fires (accidental or deliberate), and land clearing for farming or urban development. Deforestation poses a considerable threat to the biodiversity of the Amazonian forest. Some species of trees that have only one representative per hectare may quickly disappear. In addition, the destruction of forest habitats threatens the survival of many animal species. A total of more than 1,000 species are currently threatened with extinction in the forests of South America. Deforestation of the Amazonian forest, Brazil Since 1970, more than 17% of the Brazilian part of the Amazonian forest has disappeared. Peru Colombia : 131
  • 134. Spanish is the national language of nine of the 12 countries in South America, while in Brazil the national language is Portuguese. Since Brazil alone accounts for half the continent in terms of both area and population, South America has just about an equal number of speakers of Spanish and Portuguese. The explanation for this language distribution dates back to the 15th century. In 1494, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas. Following Christopher Columbus’s discovery of America (1492), this treaty was aimed at presenting disputes between Spain and Portugal in the distribution of land yet to be discovered.The Treaty of Tordesillas stipulated that an imaginary line passing 370 leagues (about 2,000 km) west of the Cape Verde archipelago divided Earth in two: the territories situated east of this meridian were declared Portuguese; those to the west, Spanish. In the ensuing decades, Spain built an empire stretching from Mexico to Argentina, while Portugal settled its colonies in Africa and on the coast of Brazil, officially discovered in 1500. Gradually, the Portuguese pushed the border of their territory westward to the current borders of Brazil.Thus, if we trace the Tordesillas meridian on a modern map of South America, at 46° 37' west longitude, we note that much of Brazil is situated in the Spanish zone. Language distribution in South America south america theCONTINENTS Brazil Peru Portugal Spain Tordesillas meridian (1494) Cape Verde Mexico Argentina Angola Mozambique Sao Tome and Principe Guinea-Bissau French is the official language of French Guyana, still a possession of France. An English colony from 1831 to 1966, Guyana is the only English-speaking country in South America. Suriname was a colony of the Netherlands from 1667 to 1975. Its official language is still Dutch. English-speaking countries Spanish-speaking countries French-speaking territory Dutch-speaking country Portuguese-speaking country Tordesillas, Spain Tordesillas, a small town in Castile, has many monuments inherited from the Middle Ages. 132 :
  • 135. SOUTH AMERICA THECONTINENTS Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela With an area of 13,512 km2 , this lake in northwest Venezuela covers one of the largest oil deposits on the continent. THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA FLAG COUNTRY AREA (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) DATE OF INDEPENDENCE Brazil 8,514,047 191.57 1822 Argentina 2,780,400 39.53 1816 Peru 1,285,216 27.91 1824 Colombia 1,138,914 46.10 1819 Bolivia 1,098,581 9.51 1825 Venezuela 912,050 27.63 1810 Chile 756,626 16.62 1818 Paraguay 406,752 6.12 1811 Ecuador 283,561 13.34 1822 Guyana 214,969 0.74 1966 Uruguay 175,016 3.34 1828 Suriname 163,820 0.457 1975 : 133
  • 136. Novaya Zemlya Cornwall Hebrides Is. Shetland Is.(GB) Jutland Kola Pen. Lofoten Is. Peloponnese Rhodes (GR) Lesbos (GR) Sjælland Öland Gotland (SE) Crete (GR) Euboea North Sea White Sea Baltic Sea Norwegian Sea M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a North Cape Gulf of Bothnia N O R T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Strait of Gibraltar Gulf of Gascogne Barents Sea Skagerrak Kattegat Gulf of Finland Bosporus Strait Thyrrenian Sea Ionian Sea Sea of Marmara Kiev Riga Rome Oslo Minsk Sofia VaduzBern Paris Moscow Tirana Skopje Madrid Dublin Berlin Zagreb Vienna Prague Monaco Vilnius Tallinn Athens London The Hague Chisinau Helsinki Bucharest Belgrade Sarajevo Lisbon Budapest Warsaw Reykjavik Ljubljana Stockholm Brussels Copenhagen Luxembourg Valletta San Marino Andorra La Valla Bratislava Podgorica Odessa Munich Naples Istanbul Hamburg Glasgow Zurich Rotterdam Amsterdam Barcelona Manchester Birmingham Lyon Bursa Izmir Milano Turin Porto Leeds Lille Nizhni Novgorod Saint Petersburg Marseille Mont Blanc, 4,807 m Etna, 3,323 m Moncayo, 2,313 m Jezerce, 2,694 m Mulhacén, 3,482 m El Teleno, 2,183 m Mount Botev, 2,376 m Kebnekaise, 2,111 m Aneto Peak, 3,404 m Monte Cinto, 2,706 m Mount Olympus, 2,917 m Mount Cervin, 4,478 m Almanzor Peak, 2,592 m Gerlachovska, 2,655 m Galdhøppigen, 2,469 m Puy de Sancy, 1,885 m Corno Grande, 2,912 m Grossglockner, 3,798 m Mount Moldoveanu, 2,543 m Hvannadalshnúkur, 2,119 m Crêt de la Neige, 1,718 m Lake Ladoga Lake Onega Lake Vanern Lake Vättern Lake Peipus Vol ga Danube Dnieper R hine Suir Neva Po Tage Loire Ebro Oder Duero V istula S eine Glomma D a lalven Kemijoki Gar onne Laagen Norther nDvin a Elb e Rhone Weser Guadalquivir NORTH AMERICA AFRICA A L P S A P E N N I N E S S C A N D I N A V I A N M O U N T A I N S B A L K A N C A R P A T H I A N S PIN D U S J U R A P Y R E N E E S D I N A R I C A L P S S I E R R A N E V A D A S U D E T E S PENNINES VOSGES CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS GRAMPIAN MOUNTAINS CAMBRIAN MOUNTAINS G e r m a n o - P o l i s h P la i n TRANSYLVANIAN ALPS C E N T R A L M A S S I F Hungarian Basin Central Russian Uplands Highlands GREENWICHMERIDIAN ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE ISLE OF MAN (GB) FAROE IS. (DK) JAN MAYEN (NO) JERSEY (GB) GUERNSEY (GB) GIBRALTAR (GB) SWEDEN FRANCE UKRAINE SPAIN ITALY FINLAND NORWAY POLAND GERMANY ROMANIA GREECE BELARUS UNITED KINGDOM SERBIA ICELAND -694 m -3,741 m -5,317 m -2,962 m -2,954 m -3,151 m -3,931 m HUNGARY PORTUGAL AUSTRIA IRELAND LITHUANIA LATVIA CZECH REP. CROATIA SWITZERLAND ESTONIA SLOVAKIA ALBANIA MOLDOVA BELGIUM MACEDONIA SLOVENIA NETHERLANDS BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA DENMARK MONTENEGRO LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA MALTA LIECHTENSTEIN SAN MARINO MONACO KALININGRADO (RU) VATICAN CITY English Channel Dniester SARDINIA (IT) CORSICA (FR) BALEARIC IS. (ES) SICILY (IT) Musala Peak, 2,925 m KOSOVO BULGARIA NN THECONTINENTS 134
  • 137. Crimea Black Sea Sea of Azov Baku Yerevan Ankara Nicosia Tbilisi Samara Kharkiv Volgograd Rostov-on-Don Ufa Adana Kazan Dnepropetrovsk -28 m Mount Shkhara, 5,200 m Mount Ararat, ,5,137 m Elbrus, 5,643 m Demirkazik, 3,756 m Caspian Sea Lake Van Don Ural Eu phr ates Pecho ra Kama Murat Firat Volga Araks Kura Kizi lirm ak ASIA ASIA C A U C A S U S U R A L M O U N T A INS T A U R U S M O U N T A I N S Caspian D e p r e s s i o n Anatolian Plain Volga Uplands R U S S I A TURKEY -2,276 m AZERBAIJAN GEORGIA ARMENIA CYPRUS AZE EUROPE THECONTINENTS The western part of the huge Eurasian continental ensemble, Europe represents only 7% of the planet’s landmass. Its territory, with very jagged coastlines, is tightly interwoven with the surrounding seas, including the Mediterranean Sea , in which there are numerous islands. Europe is divided into four major zones: the old, low mountains of the northwest , marked by glaciation; the broad northern plains ; old eroded mountains in the center (Massif Central, Urals ); and Alpine- Mediterranean Europe to the south, formed of high mountain ranges (Alps , Pyrenees and Carpathians ).The warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the ocean current that crosses the North Atlantic from west to east, considerably moderates the climate of the Atlantic coast of the continent. Farther east, where the Gulf Stream’s influence is not perceptible, continental climates dominate, with large spreads in temperature over the year. Finally, the southern part of the continent benefits from a generally warm, dry Mediterranean climate. Rome, Italy Powerful civilizations developed in Europe in antiquity, such as the one here in Rome. PHYSICAL MAP OF EUROPE Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 0 250 500 km Altitude(m) 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Depth(m) : 135
  • 138. EUROPE theCONTINENTS POPULATION distribution in EUROPE Source: SEDAC, Columbia University the CLIMATeS of EUROPE Source: Kotter et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated the BIOMES of EUROPE Source: FAO Paris, France Almost three-quarters of Europe’s population live in cities. Crete, Mediterranean Sea Crete is a Greek island that, like the rest of Greece, has a Mediterranean- type temperate climate, with hot, dry summers. Seaside, Scotland Outside of forests, Scotland has a vegetation of heaths and peat bogs, composed mainly of briars and graminaceous plants. Boreal Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Desert Polar tundra Mountain Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Semiarid ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 136 :
  • 139. EUROPE theCONTINENTS With a length of 1,200 km, the Alps are the largest mountain system in western Europe. A huge natural barrier, the Alps block humid air masses and receive great quantities of precipitation. A number of Europe’s rivers (Rhine, Rhone, Po) and their tributaries have their source in the Alpine massif. Because temperature drops as altitude rises, the slopes of an Alpine valley present a succession of climates comparable to those that one finds as one travels toward the poles. In the Alps, the valley floors have a climate similar to those of the neighboring plains. Farther up, forests replace farming, and coniferous trees become increasingly dominant, as in boreal forests. At the alpine level, the climate is comparable to that in the Arctic tundra and trees give way to pastures. Finally, the highest land, permanently covered with snow, has the same kind of climate as the ice caps. The Alps Mont Blanc Rhine Rhone Po Italy France Switzerland Austria Mont Blanc Massif, seen from the Italian side The highest point of the Alps is Mont Blanc (4,807 m), on the border between France and Italy. : 137
  • 140. Denmark Turkey France Sweden Spain Italy Finland PolandGermany Romania Bulgaria Hungary Greece United Kingdom Portugal Austria Ireland Lithuania Latvia Croatia Czech Rep. Estonia Slovakia Netherlands Belgium Macedonia Slovenia Luxembourg Malta Cyprus EUROPE THECONTINENTS The European Union is an international organization with 27 member European states. Its earliest version was formed in the 1950s, in the wake of World War II, with the objective of maintaining peace among the countries of Europe and improving the standard of living of Europeans. The member states of the Union have set up common institutions.The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making body. It defines the orientations of member states in areas as diverse as energy, agriculture, the environment, and trade. It shares legislative power with the European Parliament, elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. Finally, the European Commission holds executive power. It implements policies, manages the budget, sees to the application of laws, and proposes legislation.These institutions function in no fewer than 20 official languages, in conformity with the Union’s motto, “United in Diversity.” Twenty-four of the 27 countries of the European Union have formed a zone where people and goods move without restrictions, the Schengen area. In this zone, trade is facilitated and travelers do not have to present identification documents at borders. The European Union EXPANSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION THE CONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE The history of the European Union began in 1951, when Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands united within the European Coal and Steel Community.This successful integration led to the creation, in 1957, of the European Atomic Energy Commission (EAEC) and the European Economic Community (EEC). In 1967, these three communities merged within the EEC. In 1992, the Maastricht Treaty transformed the EEC into the European Union, with expanded mandate and responsibilities. Over the years, the six founding countries were joined by 21 other states. Bulgaria and Romania entered in January 2007.Turkey, Croatia, and Macedonia also wish to be admitted into the European Union.To do this, they must demonstrate that they have a stable democratic political system and an operational and competitive market economy. Since 2002, a new currency, the euro, replaced the national currencies of 15 countries of the European Union (Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Germany, Finland, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain). The European flag On a sky-blue background, the stars symbolizing the peoples of Europe form a circle signifying a union. The unchanging number of stars is 12, symbol of perfection and plenty. Date of admission into the European Union 1957 1973 1981 1986 1995 2004 2007 Candidate countries 138 :
  • 141. EUROPE theCONTINENTS The countries whose names are underlined are members of the European Union. * : Figures presented here factor in the European part and the Asian part of Russia. * * : Without Greenland *** : Vatican City is not a UN member but maintains a permanent observer mission at the organization’s headquarters. the countries of europe flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Russia 17,075,400* 142.49* Lithuania 65,300 3.39 Turkey 783,562 74.82 Latvia 64,600 2.28 Ukraine 603,700 46.21 Croatia 56,538 4.54 France 551,500 61.59 Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,197 3.93 Spain 505,992 44.07 Slovakia 49,033 5.39 Sweden 449,964 9.12 Estonia 45,100 1.34 Norway 385,155 4.70 Denmark 43,094** 5.44 Germany 357,022 82.54 Netherlands 41,528 16.40 Finland 338,145 5.28 Switzerland 41,284 7.48 Poland 323,250 38.08 Moldavia 33,851 3.81 Italy 301,318 58.80 Belgium 30,528 10.45 United Kingdom 242,900 60.75 Albania 28,748 3.19 Romania 238,391 21.43 Macedonia 25,713 2.04 Belarus 207,600 9.69 Slovenia 20,256 1.99 Greece 131,957 11.15 Montenegro 13,812 0.605 Bulgaria 110,912 7.63 Cyprus 9,251 0.854 Iceland 103,000 0.30 Luxembourg 2,586 0.467 Hungary 93,032 10.03 Andorra 468 0.073 Portugal 91,982 10.61 Malta 316 0.406 Serbia 88,361 9.89 Liechtenstein 160 0.035 Austria 83,858 8.35 San Marino 61 0.030 Czech Republic 78,866 10.19 Monaco 1 0.033 Ireland 70,273 4.29 Vatican City*** 0.4 0.001 Georgia 69,700 4.40 : 139
  • 142. THAR DESERT ARABIAN DESERT KARAKUM DESERT TAKLA MAKAN DESERT KYZYLKUM DESERT ARCTIC POLAR CIRCLE AFRICA EUROPE W e s t S i b e r i a n P l a i n Indus Plain Deccan Plateau A SIR H I M A K U N L U N ZAGROSMOUNTAINS HIJAZ T I A N S H A N E L B R U S WESTERNGHATS U R A L M O U N T A I N S H A D R A M O U T PAMIRS KARAKORAM SUL AIMANRANGE HINDU KUSH LADAKH Caspian Depress ion Godavari Tapti Krishna Narmada M ahanadi Ob Irtych Indus Ganges Tigris Ural Tobol S yrDarya Euphrates AmuDarya Caspian Sea Aral Sea Lake Balkhash Issyk Kul Lake Urmia Vpadina Akchanaya, -81 m -28 m Nanga Parbat, 8,126 m Annapurna, 8,091 m Dhaulagiri, 8,167 m K2, 8,614 m Vpadina Kaundy, -132 mLake Tiberias, -200 m Dead Sea, -408 m Palk Strait Strait of Hormuz I N D I A N O C E A N RedSea Arabian Sea Mediterranean Sea Gulf ofOman Gulf of Aden PersianGulf Male Doha Riyadh Sana'a Amman Damascus Kabul Astana Al Manamah Kuwait Bishkek Muscat Colombo Tehran TashkentAshgabat Tel Aviv Beirut Dushanbe Islamab ad New Delhi Abu Dhabi Mashhad Jeddah Faridabad Pune Aleppo Surat Delhi Bombay Madras Nagpur Kanpur Jaipur Lahore LucknowKarachi Bangalore Hyderabad Ahmadabad Meerut Qom Faisalabad Dubai Agra Karaj Omsk Mecca Cochin Almaty Bhopal Indore Tabriz Shiraz Madurai Esfahan Varanasi Peshawar Amritsar Srinagar Nashik Multan Rajkot Hyderabad Mosul Rawalpindi Chelyabinsk Visakhapatnam Jabalpur Ludhiana Vadodara Allahabad Ghaziabad Vijayawada Coimbatore Gujranwala Ekaterinburg Solapur Aurangabad Durg- Bhilainagar -4,119 m -5,626 m -5,707 m -5,631 m Socotra Lakshadweep Khuriya Muriya Is. WEST BANKGAZA STRIP BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY(GB) I N D I A K A Z A K H S T A N I R A N SAUDI ARABIA PAKISTAN IRAQ YEMEN OMAN AFGHANISTAN TURKMENISTAN SYRIA UZBEKISTAN NEPAL KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN SRI LANKA JORDAN UNITED ARAB EMIRATES ISRAEL KUWAIT QATAR LEBANON BAHRAIN MALDIVES Zargun, 3,578 m Zard Kuh, 4,548 m Damavand, 5,610 m Doda Betta, 2,636 m Pik Pobedy, 7,439 m Baghdad A ASIA THECONTINENTS Asia alone represents one-third of the planet’s landmass, and 60% of the world’s population lives there, half of them in China and India. Separated from Africa by the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez , Asia encompasses the Indonesian , Philippine , and Japanese archipelagos, situated to the south and east of the mainland. Asia and Europe belong to the same continental mass, Eurasia.Their common border has been fixed arbitrarily along the Ural Mountains . Asia has a wide variety of relief features, from the plains and plateaus of Siberia, India, and Arabia to the imposing mountain ranges that cross the continent from west to east (Hindu Kush , Himalayas ). Asia also presents a broad range of climates. Southeast Asia, irrigated by abundant monsoon rains, has a tropical climate. In Arabia and the interior of the continent, where mountains keep humidity from penetrating, there are immense arid and semiarid areas. In northern Asia, the Siberian anticyclone creates very contrasting climatic conditions, with severe winters and very hot summers. 0 1,000 2,000 km PHYSICAL MAP OF ASIA Administrative capital City with more than 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Altitude(m)Depth(m) 140 :
  • 143. GOBI DESERT EQUATOR TROPICOFCANCER OCEANIA Manchurian Plain Qaidam Basin T i b e t a n P l a t e a u South China Plateau Khorat Plain C e n t r a l S i b e r i a n P l a t e a u Sichuan Basin L A Y A S A L T A I B A R I S A N R A N G E S H A N KOLYMA MOUNTAINS ARAKANYOM A C H E R S K Y R A N G E YABLONOVY R ANGE ANNAMITIC CORDIL LE R A STANOVOY RANGE VERKHOYANSK MOUNTAINS ALTUN SHAN Hong Tarim Indigirka K apuas Mahak a m YaluJiang Chao Phraya L ena Mekong Jenissei Salween Yan gziJiang Hu angHe Am ur Vilyuy Kolyma Aldan Angara Irrawaddy Xi JiangBrahmaputra Ob Lake Baikal Koko Nor Mount Everest, 8,850 m Puncak Jaya, 4,884 m Cho Oyu, 8,201 m Kanchenjunga, 8,586 m Turpan Pendi, -154 m Manaslu, 8,156 m Makalu, 8,463 m Bay of Bengal Golf of Tonkin Gulf of Thailand Strait of Malacca Molucca Sea Sunda Strait N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Yellow Sea Sulu Sea Java Sea Kara Sea Timor Sea Banda Sea Sea of Japan Arafura Sea Flores Sea Sea of Okhotsk Laptev Sea Celebes Sea Bismarck Sea Philippine Sea East China Sea South China Sea Dili Tokyo Seoul Beijing Dhaka Hanoi Manila Bangkok Jakarta Naypyidaw Thimphu Kathmandu Pyongyang Singapore Vientiane Phnom Penh Ulaanbaatar Kuala Lumpur Bandar Seri Begawan Tianjin Nan jing Qingdao Guiyang Bandung Chengdu Makassar Calcutta Shenyang Shanghai Surabaja Zibo Osaka-Kobe Medan Taeg u Pusan Jinan Wuhan Linyi Xi'an Harbin Taipei Dalian Handan Fukuoka Yangon Hong Kong Changchun Zhengzhou Guangzhou Chongqing Taian Fuyu Liupanshui Chittagong Ho Chi Minh City Benxi Huhot Goyang Nagoya Inch'on Taiyuan Wuxi Heze Ulsan Suwon Jinxi Yulin Nampho Daqing Yantai Hu zhou Huaian Jining Kyoto Patna Davao Jilin Hef ei Ningbo Khulna Taejon Datong Yiyang Zigong Leshan Anshan Fuzhou Baotou Fushun Sapporo Kwangju Nanning Kunming LuoyangLanzhou Tangshan Changsha Nanchang Hangz hou Shenzhen Wenzhou Weifang Chifeng Shantou Xiantao Taichung Palembang Kaoshsiung Novosibirsk Shijiazhuang Tianmen Changde Asansol Dhanbad Dongguan Nanchong Tianshui Mianyang Jamshedpur Suzhou Suining Neijiang Zaozhuang Zhanjiang Urumqi Luzhou Xiamen Sendai Zhuzhou Xinyang Nanyang Liuzhou Baoding Xianyang Xiangfa n Shangqiu Quanzhou Qiqihaer Haiphong Chang zhou Hiroshima Mudanjiang Zhangjiakou -100 m -5,862 m -5,016 m -6,035 m -1,714 m -7,519 m -6,533 m -7,457 m -9,533 m -7,205 m -7,586 m -7,125 m -10,164 m Java Luzon Kyushu Honshu Borneo Sumatra Shikoku Sulawesi Mindanao Hokkaido Sak halin(RU) Kamchatka Marcus Is. (JP) R yu kyu Is.(JP) Nicobar Is. (IN) Andaman Is. (IN) Mentawai Is. Severnaya Zemlya Komandor Is.(RU) New Siberia Is. Hainan KurilIs.(RU) Malacca Peninsula Flores Sumba Ceram S p r a t ly Is. Bangka Halmahera TAIWAN (CN) WAKE IS.(US) R U S S I A C H I N A MONGOLIA I N D O N E S I A BURMA THAILAND LAOS VIETNAM CAMBODIA JAPAN M A L A Y S I A PHILIPPINES BANGLADESH NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA BHUTAN TIMOR LESTE BRUNEI SINGAPORE TLS Muztag, 6,987 m Kinabalu, 4,095 m Phu Bia, 2,830 m Saramati, 3,826 m Monte Fuji, 3,776 m Gyala Peri, 7,294 m Maotou Shan, 3,306 m Minya Konka, 7,556 m Monte Belukha, 4,506 m Chuo Yang Sin, 2,420 m Gunung Kerinci, 3,805 m Bulu Rantekombola, 3,478 m Liua n Xuzh ou Huain anSuzh ou M A O K E M O U N T A I N S THECONTINENTS Siberia, Russia Siberia has an area of more than 12 million km2 , from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Shanghai, China Chinese metropolises increasingly resemble Western cities. 141
  • 144. theCONTINENTS asia POPULATION distribution in asia Tokyo, Japan Tokyo is by far the most populous city in the world, with more than 35 million inhabitants. the climates of asia the biomes of asia Yak caravan, Tibet The vast Tibetan Plateau in western China is a high plateau with a dry, cold climate. The Chocolate Hills on the island of Bohol, Philippines On Bohol, one of the 7,107 islands of the Philippine archipelago, many of the hills that rise above the rainforest turn brown in the summer. Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Polar tundra Mountain Continental with short, cold summer Continental with cool summer Continental with hot summer Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Arid Semiarid Humid with dry winter Humid Source: FAO Tundra Boreal forest Temperate forest Temperate prairie Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert 142 :
  • 145. theCONTINENTS asia With an average altitude of 4,000 m, the Tibetan Plateau is where the largest rivers of southern Asia (Indus, Brahmaputra, etc.) have their sources. Indus Ganges Kangchenjunga, 8,586 m Annapurna, 8,091 m Mount Everest, 8,850 m Brahmaputra K2, 8,614 m Himalayas HinduKus h Karakoram The Himalayas The Himalayas have 10 peaks rising above 8,000 m (including Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, and Annapurna), making them the highest mountain range in the world. With a length of 2,500 km and a width of 200 to 400 km, it stretches in an arc from the high Tibetan plateau to the north to the Ganges plain to the south. To the west, the high-altitude Indus Valley separates the Himalayas from the Hindu Kush and the Karakoram range, where the peak of K2 rises. Mount Everest seen from the north, Tibet The “roof of the world,” reaching an altitude of 8,850 m, is situated in the heart of the Himalayas. : 143
  • 146. theCONTINENTS asia The Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos, which comprise more than 20,000 islands, form the zone most affected by volcanism on the planet.The explosion of the volcanic island of Krakatau, in 1883, was of unparalleled violence. The Japanese archipelago includes four main islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku) and more than 3,000 small islands, stretched over a distance of 3,000 km from north to south. Bordered to the east by the deep Japan Trench (10,374 m), the archipelago is the result of the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine and Eurasian plates, and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Volcanic activity is manifested by frequent earthquakes, such as those that destroyed Tokyo (1923) and Kobe (1995). The Asian archipelagos the archipelagos of southeast asia The island of Borneo is shared among three countries: Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean Krakatau The island of New Guinea is divided between Indonesia (Asia) and Papua New Guinea (Oceania). Malaysia The capital of the Philippines, Manila, is situated on the island of Luzon. Java Sumatra Mindanao Molucca Islands Sulawesi, formerly called Celebes, is part of Indonesia. East Timor Philippines Indonesia the japanese archipelago Honshu Hokkaido Kyushu Shikoku Korean Peninsula China The island of Sakhalin belongs to Russia. Tokyo Kobe Russia Bromo Volcano, Indonesia Situated in the eastern part of the island of Java, Mount Bromo is not very active, but it continuously emits a plume of white smoke. Its eruptions, though infrequent, pose a risk to the many tourists who venture to the summit. Brunei 144 : Japan Trench
  • 147. theCONTINENTS asia the countries of asia flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) China 9,596,961 1,328.25 Syria 185,180 19.86 India 3,287,263 1,167.77 Cambodia 181,035 14.45 Kazakhstan 2,724,900 15.43 Nepal 147,181 28.17 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 24.68 Bangladesh 143,998 158.44 Indonesia 1,904,569 231.34 Tajikistan 143,100 6.75 Iran 1,648,195 71.31 North Korea 120,538 23.78 Mongolia 1,566,500 2.63 South Korea 99,538 48.19 Pakistan 796,095 163.95 Jordan 89,342 5.89 Burma 676,578 48.79 Azerbaijan 86,600 8.4 Afghanistan 652,090 27.03 United Arab Emirates 83,600 4.34 Yemen 527,968 22.37 Sri Lanka 65,610 19.30 Thailand 513,115 63.84 Bhutan 47,000 0.655 Turkmenistan 488,100 4.96 Armenia 29,800 3.01 Uzbekistan 447,400 27.36 Israel 22,145 6.92 Iraq 438,317 29.04 Kuwait 17,818 2.83 Japan 377,873 127.85 Timor Leste 14,874 1.14 Vietnam 331,689 87.29 Qatar 11,000 0.83 Malaysia 329,847 26.53 Lebanon 10,400 4.10 Oman 309,500 2.61 Brunei 5,765 0.389 Philippines 300,000 87.81 Bahrein 694 0.751 Laos 236,800 5.86 Singapore 683 4.43 Kyrghyzstan 199,900 5.32 Maldives 298 0.305 : 145
  • 148. S A H E L S A H A R A D E S E R T KALAHARI DESERT TÉNÉRÉ NUBIAN DESERT SINAI Kano Lagos Durban Cape Town Ibadan Abidjan Ekurhulen i Alexandria Casablanca Johannesburg Lubumbashi Douala Kaduna Kolwezi Vereeniging Benghazi Kumasi Benin City Mbuji-Mayi Sebkha Tah, -55 m Mount Stanley, 5,109 m Chott Melrhir, -40 m Sabkhat Ghuzayyil, -47 m Qattara Depression, -133 m Mount Koussi, 3,445 m Mount Cameroon, 4,070 m Adrar Bou Nasser, 3,340 m Thabana Ntlenyana, 3,482 m Jebel Toubkal, 4,167 m Nile Niger Congo Ubangi Or ang e Zambezi Benue BlueNile Lu a laba WhiteNile Chir e Lukuga Sénégal Kwa nza Ogo oué Li mpopo Okav an go Kunene Oued Draa D A R F U R FOUTA DJALLON E N N E D I A H A G G A R M A S S I F T I B E S T I C o n g o B a s i n Okavango Basin A n g o l a P l a t e a u Jos Plateau Djado Plateau A Ï R M A S S I F A T L A S D R A K E N S BERG MITUMBAMOUNTAINS ADAMAWA MASSIF S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N Red Sea M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a Cape Agulhas Suez Canal Gulf of Guinea Lake Victoria Lake Malawi Lake Tanganyika Lake Turkana Lake Albert Lake Chad Lake Volta Lake Mweru Lome Abuja Accra Rabat Tunis Dakar Algiers Harare Maputo Kigali Lusaka Maseru Luanda Dodoma Bangui Niamey Malabo Bamako Bissau Banjul Mbabane Tripoli Yaoundé Cotonou Kampala Conakry Pretoria Gaborone Kinshasa Windhoek Lilongwe Khartoum Cairo Ndjamena Sao Tome Monrovia Freetown Bujumbura Nouakchott Libreville Brazzaville Ouagadougou Yamoussoukro Praia WESTERN SAHARA (MA) SAINT HELENA(GB) LIBYA SUDAN ALGERIA CANARY IS.(ES) MADEIRA(PT) MALI NIGER CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT NIGERIA ZAMBIA NAMIBIA TANZANIA MAURITANIA SOUTH AFRICA DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO MOZAMBIQUE MOROCCO BOTSWANA CONGO CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON GUINEA GHANA BURKINA FASO UGANDA CÔTE D'IVOIRE SENEGAL CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC TUNISIA BENIN MALAWI LIBERIA SIERRA LEONE TOGO LESOTHO BURUNDI RWANDA GUINEA- BISSAU SWAZILAND GAMBIA EQUATORIAL GUINEASAO TOME AND PRINCIPE CAPE VERDE AGO CEUTA (ES) MELILLA (ES) EUROPE EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER GREENWICHMERIDIAN Bioko (GQ) Ascension Is. (GB) Principe Sao Tome -6,180 m -7,743 m EastGreatRiftValley We s t G reatRift V a l l e yN AMIBDESERT Oasis, Morocco Permanent towns have been built in some oases in the Moroccan desert. THECONTINENTS 146 PHYSICAL MAP OF AFRICA Administrative capital City with a population of over 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 –500 –2,500 –5,000 –8,000 –11,034 Altitude(m)Depth(m)
  • 149. Dar es Salaam Kulul, -75 m Lake Assal, -155 m Mount Kenya, 5,199 m Kilimanjaro, 5,892 m Denakil Plain, -125 m Batu, 4,400 m Rufiji Jubba Shebele Mania Mangoky E T H I O P I A N M A S S I F Gulf of Aden I N D I A N O C E A N MozambiqueChannel Lake Tana Moroni Asmara Nairobi Djibouti Mogadishu Addis Ababa Antananarivo Victoria MAYOTTE(FR) ETHIOPIA KENYA SOMALIA MADAGASCAR ERITREA DJIBOUTI COMOROS REUNION (FR) MAURITIUS S E Y C H E L L E S ASIA TROPIC OF CAPRICORN Zanzibar Farquhar Is. Glorioso Is. (FR) Juan De Nova Is. (FR) Rodrigues Is. Aldabra Amirante Is. Mahé Bassas da India (FR) -4,091 m -5,455 m AFRICA Bisected by the equator ,Africa has an area of 30,365,000 square kilometers,or 20% of the planet’s landmass.It is formed mainly of very old bedrock.The mountains,modest in size,are concentrated in the northern part of the continent (Atlas ),the south (Drakensberg ), and especially in the east (Ethiopian Massif ), where they have been chiseled by a series of fault troughs, the Great Rift Valley, which includes the West Great Rift Valley and the East Great Rift Valley . Although the regions situated at the northern and southern ends of the continent have warm temperate climates, most of Africa has tropical or desert climatic conditions.The intertropical zone, covered with forest and savanna, is irrigated by powerful rivers (Congo , Niger ), while the regions adjacend to the tropics, where the deserts are found (Sahara , Namib , Kalahari ), have almost none.The population is very unequally distributed in Africa.The desert regions are almost uninhabited, as opposed to high-density zones such as the northern Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco,Tunisia), the Nile River Valley, and the Great Rift Valley region. Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa The Blyde River Canyon stretches some 30 km in length and reaches a depth of 800 m in places. Feluccas on the Nile, Egypt The Nile is the longest river in the world. Its source is in Burundi, and it flows into the Mediterranean Sea 6,670 km away. Sahel region, Sudan Large numbers of nomads still live in the arid lands of the Sahel. : 147 THECONTINENTS 0 500 1,000 km
  • 150. AFRICA POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN AFRICA Cairo, Egypt With a population of over 11 million inhabitants, Cairo is the largest city in Africa. the climates of africa the BIOMEs of africa Source: FAO Source: SEDAC, Columbia University 148 : THECONTINENTS Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated Mountain Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Arid Semiarid Humid with dry winter Humid ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Boreal forest Temperate forest Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert
  • 151. AFRICA With an area of more than 8 million km2 , the Sahara is the largest desert in the world. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea and covers most of North Africa (Morocco, Algeria,Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan). Fertile 4,000 years ago, the Sahara is now one of the most arid deserts in the world: southern Libya and Egypt receive less than 10 mm of rain per year. Humans have lived in the Sahara since prehistory.Today, despite its extremely arid environment, more than 5 million people live in the Sahara.This rapidly growing population is increasingly urbanized.The main peoples of the desert, originally nomadic (the Tuaregs in Algeria, Libya, Mali, and Niger; the Sahrawis in the western Sahara and Algeria; and the Tubus in Chad, Niger, and Libya), are becoming city dwellers. Most of the cities are situated in the Maghreb Sahara (Morocco, Algeria, Libya), where some urban areas have a population of over 100,000. The Sahara Mount Koussi, situated in the Tibesti mountains, is the highest point in the Sahara (3,415 m). Lake Chad has lost 90% of its area in the last 30 years. To the south, the Sahara is bordered by the Sahel, a semiarid territory threatened by desertification. With the exception of a few mountain ranges, such as the Hoggar Mountains, the Sahara has few relief features. Atlantic Ocean Mediterranean Sea Red Sea Atlas Arid regions Semiarid regions Situated on the edge of the desert, Nouakchott (pop. 560,000) is considered the largest city in the Sahara. El Aaiun (pop. 150,000) Tamanrasset (pop. 80,000) Biskra (pop. 180,000) Béchar (pop. 135,000) El Oued (pop. 105,000) Wargla (pop. 140,000) Ghardaïa (pop. 128,000) Nouadhibou (pop. 110,000) Sabha (pop. 150,000) Mount Kenya, 5,199 m Lake Tanganyika (32,900 km2 ) Red Sea Lake Victoria (69,500 km2 ) West Great Rift Valley Ethiopian Massif Zambezi River Lake Malawi (29,500 km2 ) Mount Kilimanjaro, 5,895 m More than 4,000 km long, the Great Rift Valley tectonic fault, which includes the West and East Great Rift valleys, crosses eastern Africa from the Red Sea to the mouth of the Zambezi River. It results from the gradual separation of the Somalian lithospheric plate.This process is just beginning: in several million years, East Africa will detach itself to become an independent continent. The intense volcanic activity in the region has led to the formation of the highest mountains in Africa, such as Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya.The largest lakes in Africa (Victoria,Tanganyika, Malawi), tectonic in origin, are also situated along the Great Rift Valley. Paleontologists think that the Great Rift region was the birthplace of the first human beings, more than 2 million years ago. the great rift valley East Great Rift Valley thecontinents : 149 Algeria Morocco Libya Egypt Mauritania Western Sahara Mali Niger Chad Sudan Tunisia
  • 152. AFRICA Starting with the “great discoveries” of the 15th century, the European countries colonized all of Africa (with the exception of Ethiopia) to profit from its natural wealth. Exploitation of African natural resources and labor, often going as far as slavery, lasted until the 20th century. The countries of Africa became emancipated one after another, between 1910 and 1993, under a wide variety of circumstances. Although some obtained their sovereignty in the 1960s without resistance, others won it after an insurrection or a full war of independence. In 1963, African countries united to form a common front to deal with the problems facing the continent (political instability, human rights, public health, underdevelopment, etc.).Today, the African Union’s membership extends to almost all of the continent’s countries as members. In some cases, former colonizing countries maintain a strong economic grip on their former territories, a grip sometimes called neocolonialism. Independence of African states the decolonization of africa Spanish troops left the Western Sahara in 1975, but the region has since been occupied by Morocco. South Africa, independent since 1910, was administered by descendants of colonists until apartheid was ended, in 1991. An Italian then British colony, Eritrea was annexed to Ethiopia in 1962. It became independent in 1993 by referendum, after decades of violence. Ethiopia was never colonized, but it was occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941. Colonized by Germany in 1886, Namibia was merged with South Africa in 1915. Territories colonized by Germany, such as Cameroon, were divided between France and the United Kingdom after World War II. Liberia was created in 1822 by the United States to settle freed slaves. A British colony, Uganda came under the domination of Kenya in 1902. Algeria 1962 The last colonizing country The year of independence is indicated for each country except Ethiopia, which was never colonized. Belgium Spain France Italy Portugal United Kingdom Other Never colonized Morocco 1956 Tunisia 1956 Libya 1951 Egypt 1922 Sudan 1956 Chad 1960 Niger 1960 Mali 1960 Mauritania 1960 Senegal 1960 Somalia 1960 Kenya 1963 Tanzania 1961 Zambia 1964 Zimbabwe 1965 Botswana 1966 Angola 1975 Madagascar 1960 Rwanda 1962 Dem. Rep. Congo 1960 Burundi 1962 Djibouti 1977 1993 Mauritius 1968 1910 Lesotho 1966 Swaziland 1968 Mozambique 1975 Central African Republic 1960 Congo 1960 1960 Gabon 1960 Equatorial Guinea 1968 Benin 1960 Nigeria 1960 Burkina 1960 Togo 1960 Ghana 1957 Côte d’Ivoire 1960 Guinea 1958 Sierra Leone 1961 Guinea Bissau 1974 Gambi 1965 Cape Verde 1975 1962 Malawi 1964 1975 1847 1990 150 : theCONTINENTS Sao Tome and Principe 1975 Seychelles 1975 Comoros 1975
  • 153. AFRICA : 151 theCONTINENTS the countries of africa flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Sudan 2,505,813 38.56 Burkina Faso 274,000 14.75 Algeria 2,381,741 33.85 Gabon 267,668 1.33 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,344,858 62.59 Guinea 245,857 9.40 Libya 1,759,540 6.15 Uganda 241,038 30.85 Chad 1,284,000 10.74 Ghana 238,533 23.44 Niger 1,267,000 14.21 Senegal 196,722 12.36 Angola 1,246,700 17.00 Tunisia 163,610 10.32 Mali 1,240,192 12.32 Malawi 118,484 13.92 South Africa 1,221,037 48.47 Erytrea 117,600 4.83 Ethiopia 1,104,300 83.00 Benin 112,622 9.01 Mauritania 1,025,520 3.12 Liberia 111,369 3.76 Egypt 1,001,449 75.44 Sierra Leone 71,740 5.82 Nigeria 923,768 147.85 Togo 56,785 6.57 Tanzania 883,749 40.40 Guinea Bissau 36,125 1.69 Namibia 824,292 2.07 Lesotho 30,355 2.01 Mozambique 801,590 21.34 Equatorial Guinea 28,051 0.507 Zambia 752,618 11.92 Burundi 27,834 8.48 Somalia 637,657 8.68 Rwanda 26,338 9.75 Central African Republic 622,984 4.35 Djibouti 23,200 0.832 Madagascar 587,041 19.65 Swaziland 17,364 1.14 Botswana 581,730 1.88 Gambia 11,295 1.70 Kenya 580,367 37.51 Cape Verde 4,033 0.530 Cameroon 475,442 18.51 Comoros 2,235 0.838 Morocco 446,550 31.23 Mauritius 2,040 1.26 Zimbabwe 390,757 13.37 Sao Tome and Principe 964 0.158 Congo 342,000 3.76 Seychelles 455 0.086 Côte d’Ivoire 322,463 19.28
  • 154. Perth Sydney AucklandAdelaide Brisbane Melbourne TROPIC OF CAPRICORN A S I A M O U N T M C D O N N E L L H A M E R S L E Y R A N G E Kimberley Plateau A U S T RALIAN CO R D I L L E R A M A O K E M O U N T A I N S NEW ZEALAND AL PS FLINDERSRANGES N u l l a r b o r P l a i n Da rling Murr ay Fly Sepik Burd e kin Lake Eyre, -12 m Mount Cook, 3,764 m Mount Wilhelm, 4,509 m Mount Kosciusko, 2,228 m Suva Koror Yaren Vaiaku Bairiki Palikir Honiara Canberra Port Vila Wellington Port Moresby Dalap-Uliga-Dorrit -6,912 m -7,374 m -9,000 m -9,779 m -7,519 m -8,767 m -8,930 m -7,205 m -10,164 m Mariana Trench, -11,034 m Timor Sea Arafura Sea Tasmanian Sea Bismarck Sea Philippine Sea Gulf of Carpentaria Great Australian Bight Coral Sea Bass Strait Cook Strait Malaita Chuuk Is. Tasmania South Is. Viti Levu North Is. Vanua Levu Stewart Is. Loyalty Is. Gilbert Is. Chatham Is. Guadalcanal Senyavin Is. Choiseul Kermadec Is. (NZ) Saint Croix Is. Bougainville Is. New Ireland Admiralty Is. New Britain Santa Isabel Is. Caroline Is. arch. Melville Is. New Guinea Kangaroo Is. Ogasawara Gunto (JP) Antipodes Is. (NZ) GIBSON DESERT SIMPSON DESERT GREAT SANDY DESERT GREAT VICTORIA DESERT NEW CALEDONIA (FR) GUAM (US) NORTHERN MARIANA IS.(US) NORFOLK IS.(AU) WALLIS AND FUTUNA (FR) A U S T R A L I A PAPUA NEW GUINEA NEW ZEALAND FIJI VANUATU S O L O M O N I S L A N D S PALAU M I C R O N E S I A NAURU TUVALU M A R S H A L L I S L A N D S Agrihan, 965 m Mount Ord, 937 m Mount Zeil, 1,531 m Mount Ossa, 1,617 m Mount Balbi, 2,715 m Mount Meharry, 1,251 m Mount Ruapehu, 2,797 m St. Mary’s Peak, 1,165 m THECONTINENTS 152 Fiji The some 300 islands that make up the Fiji archipelago have a total area of 18,274 km2 .
  • 155. EQUATOR TROPIC OF CANCER INTERNATIONALDATELINE Apia Nuku' alofa -8,071 m Tonga Trench, -10,719 m S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N N O R T H P A C I F I C O C E A N Tahiti Tubuai Is. Phoenix Is. Gardner Is. Gambier Is. Caroline Is. Tabuaeran Is. Palmyra Atoll Kiritimati Is. Palmerston Atoll Society Is. Tuamotu Arch. Hawaii Maui Oahu Kauai Mururoa F R E N C H P O L Y N E S I A ( F R ) NIUE (NZ) AMERICAN SAMOA (US) COOK IS. (NZ) JARVIS IS. (US) TOKELAU (NZ) HOWLAND IS.(US) BAKER IS.(US) JOHNSTON ATOLL (US) HAWAII ARCH. (US) PITCAIRN IS. (GB) SAMOA K I R I B A T I TONGA Mauna Kea, 4,205 m Mount Orohena, 2,241 m OCEANIA Oceania represents 6% of the planet’s landmass and has 33 million inhabitants. Unlike other continents, Oceania consists not of a landmass surrounded by seas, but of a large number of islands sprinkled in the Pacific Ocean. With an area of 7,740,000 square kilometers, Australia is the true continent of Oceania. Among the continent’s thousands of other islands, fewer than 10 have an area over 10,000 square kilometers. Although they have some climatic and geographic features in common, the islands of Oceania do not form a homogeneous grouping. Bisected by the Tropic of Capricorn , Australia has a number of climatic zones.The north part of the island, with its monsoon rains, has a tropical climate, while the south and east coasts have a warm temperate climate. In the center, desert conditions dominate.The archipelagos, except for New Zealand, have high temperatures and abundant precipitation all year round.They are frequently swept by cyclones during the austral winter. Mount Cook, New Zealand New Zealand’s South Island has 18 peaks with an altitude of more than 3,000 m. The tallest one, Mount Cook, has an altitude of 3,764 m. THECONTINENTS : 153 0 500 1,000 km PHYSICAL MAP OF OCEANIA Administrative capital City with more than 1 M inhab. Sources: NIMA; NASA Altitude(m) 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 -500 -2,500 -5,000 -8,000 -11,034 Depth(m)
  • 156. oceania theCONTINENTS POPULATION distribution in oceania Sydney, Australia Australia’s largest city, Sydney, has a population of over 4.2 million inhabitants. Lake Wanaka, New Zealand The islands of New Zealand have a coastal climate, moderated by the Pacific Ocean. Great Barrier Reef, Australia The Great Barrier Reef, a coral reef stretching along the northeast coast of Australia, is an extraordinary marine biome. It is about 2,500 km long and is home to almost 1,500 species of fish, 4,000 species of mollusks, and 400 species of coral. the climates of oceania The BIOMES of oceania Source: SEDAC, Columbia University Source: Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated Source: FAO ≥ 1,000 inhab./km2 250–999 inhab./km2 25–249 inhab./km2 5–24 inhab./km2 0–4 inhab./km2 Boreal forest Temperate forest Maquis Tropical rainforest Savanna Desert Mountain Coastal Mediterranean Humid subtropical Semiarid Arid Humid with dry winter Humid 154 :
  • 157. theCONTINENTS Situated in the center of a lithospheric plate, Australia has remained isolated from the other continents for more than 100 million years.This isolation explains the large number of plant and animal species endemic to Australia—that is, found nowhere else in the world. The kangaroo, Australia’s emblematic animal, belongs to the group of mammals called marsupials, whose females raise their young in a stomach pouch. Almost all marsupials come from Australia,Tasmania, and New Guinea.The koala and the wallaby are also marsupials. Among the other animals native to Australia are the duckbill platypus, an archaic mammal species that reproduces by laying eggs. The Australian flora is composed of species adapted to the extreme climatic conditions that reign in a large part of the country. Eucalyptus is one of the species originating on the island. Australian biodiversity oceania Some australian animals The duckbill platypus is an amphibian mammal with a beak resembling a duck’s. Koalas eat eucalyptus leaves, ingesting from 500 g to 1 kg each day. There are 50 species of kangaroos, among them the grey kangaroo. Parry wallabies are very sociable and live in groups of 30 to 50 individuals. The Australian forest has 600 species of eucalyptus. The red kangaroo is the largest (up to 1.5 m in height) and most common kangaroo. : 155
  • 158. theCONTINENTS oceania The 7,500 islands in the Pacific, about 500 of which are inhabited, are divided into three regional groupings, determined essentially by geographic, ethnic, and cultural factors. Melanesia includes the largest and highest islands. Because these islands are of volcanic origin, many of them are fertile and mineral-rich. Micronesia and Polynesia, on the other hand, are tiny islands that generally rise barely above sea level. New Zealand, in Polynesia, is an exception; its two mountainous islands are separated by Cook Strait.The North Island has volcanic activity, while the South Island is crossed by the New Zealand Alps. The islands of Oceania Pacific Ocean The North Island is home to two- thirds of the 3.6 million inhabitants of New Zealand. Polynesia Micronesia Only the eastern part of the island of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea) is part of Oceania. Like many Pacific islands, those in the Vanuatu archipelago are formed of lava accumulations. With just under 1 million inhabitants, Fiji is one of the most populous states in Oceania. Cook Strait Many volcanoes are still active in the Hawaiian Archipelago. The Caroline Islands archipelago is shared between two states: Micronesia, to the east, and Palau, to the west. melanesia Australia australia Australia is a gigantic island, often considered the true continent of Oceania. It has a fairly uniform geologic profile: most of its territory is composed of a plateau 300 to 600 m in altitude.The landscapes of eastern Australia are more varied. Along the east coast is a mountain range, the Australian Cordillera. Finally, the center of the island, from the Gulf of Carpentaria, in the north, to the mouth of the Murray River, in the south, is marked by low- altitude watersheds (lakes Eyre, Darling, Murray). Five major Australian cities (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide) contain one-third of the population of Oceania, while the interior of Australia is almost uninhabited. Gulf of Carpentaria Great Barrier Reef Murray River Great Australian Bight Lake Eyre Sydney Melbourne Adelaide Brisbane Australian Cordillera Darling Tasmania belongs to Australia. Perth Auckland, New Zealand> Auckland is the most populated city and the largest port of New Zealand. It is situated on the North Island. South Island Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn equator 156 :
  • 159. theCONTINENTS oceania the countries of oceania flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) flag country area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) Australia 7,741,220 20.72 Kiribati 726 0.092 Papua New Guinea 462,840 6.32 Micronesia 702 0.111 New Zealand 270,534 4.17 Tonga 650 0.100 Solomon Islands 28,896 0.494 Palau 459 0.020 Fiji 18,274 0.838 Marshall Islands 181 0.057 Vanuatu 12,189 0.225 Tuvalu 26 0.010 Samoa 2,831 0.187 Nauru 21 0.010 the territories of oceania Territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign country territory area (km2 ) POPULATION (M inhab.) sovereign New Caledonia 18,575 0.241 France Tokelau Islands 12 0.001 New Zealand French Polynesia 4,000 0.263 France Wake Island 6.5 uninhabited United States Guam 549 0.173 United States Midway Islands 6.2 40 inhab. United States Northern Mariana Islands 464 0.080 United States Pitcairn Island 5.0 48 inhab. United Kingdom Niue 260 0.002 New Zealand Jarvis Island 4.5 uninhabited United States Cook Islands 236 0.014 New Zealand Johnston Atoll 2.8 uninhabited United States Wallis and Futuna 200 0.015 France Howland Island 1.6 uninhabited United States American Samoa 199 0.064 United States Baker Island 1.4 uninhabited United States Norfolk Island 36 0.002 Australia : 157
  • 160. T R A N S A N T A R C T I C MOUNTAIN S Dome Argus, 4,000 m Mount Erebus, 3,795 m Mount Tyree, 4,965m Vinson Massif, 4,897m Mount Kirkpatrick, 4,528m Bentley Subglacial Trench, -2,540 m Scott (NZ) Syowa (JP) Troll (NO) Halley (GB) Jubany (AR) Maitri (IN) Palmer (US) Vostok (RU) Artigas (UY) McMurdo (US) Orcadas (AR) Rothera (GB) Marambio (AR) Neumayer (NO) SANAE IV (ZA) Arctowski (PL) Dome Fuji (JP) Vernadsky (UA) Arturo Prat (CL) Belgrano II (AR) Concordia (FR/IT) Molodezhnaya (RU) Amundsen-Scott (US) Dumont d'Urville (FR) Comandante Ferraz (BR) Princesse Elisabeth (BE) Esperanza (AR) Great Wall (CN) San Martín (AR) King Sejong (KR) Bellingshausen (RU) Presidente Frei (CL) Novolazarevskaja (RU) Bernardo O'Higgins (CL) St. Kliment Ohridski (BG) Ross Sea Weddell Sea Amundsen Sea Bellingshausen Sea S O U T H A T L A N T I C O C E A N S O U T H P A C I F I C O C E A N ADÉLIE LAND ENDERBY LAND GRAHAM LAND PALMER LAND VICTORIA LAND ELLSWORTH LAND MARIE BYRD LAND MAC. ROBERTSON LAND QUEEN MAUD LAND WILKES LAND Berkner Is. Alexander Is. South Orkney Is. Peter I Is (NO) SouthShetlandIs. LARSEN ICE SHELF LAMBERT GLACIER ROSS ICE SHELF South Magnetic Pole FILCHNER ICE SHELF RONNE ICE SHELF AMERY ICE SHELF ANTARCTICPOLARCIRCLE South Geographic Pole GREENWICHMERIDIAN Beaufort Island On this small island, with an area of 22 km2 , in the Ross Sea, the fauna and flora are protected. Transantarctic Mountains The Transantarctic Mountains, which reach an altitude of more than 4,800 m, separate Western Antarctica from Eastern Antarctica. SECTION OF ANTARCTICA Western Antarctica Eastern Antarctica West East Altitude (m) Distance (km) 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 –1,000 –2,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 –1,000 –2,000 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 bedrock Bellinghausen Sea western ice cap eastern ice cap Ross Ice Shelf Transantarctic Mountains Davis Sea Sources: Frédérique RÉMY; LEGOS; IPEV PHYSICAL MAP OF ANTARCTICA Research station (operating country) Cut line across Antarctica Ice shelf Sources: NIMA; NASA Altitude(m)Depth(m) 0 500 1,000 km 158 THECONTINENTS 8,850 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 0 -500 -2,500 -5,000 -8,000 -11,034
  • 161. Davis (AU) Mirny (RU) Mawson (AU) Progress (RU) Zhong Shan (CN) Davis Sea I N D I A N O C E A N PRINCESS ELIZABETH LAND ANTARCTICA THECONTINENTS Antarctica is the only continent that is not inhabited on a permanent basis and it is also the coldest continent. Its total area of 14,200,000 square kilometers is 98% covered with an ice cap that is up to 4,000 meters thick in some places. Its high relief profile (an average of 2,300 meters altitude) contributes to the severity of the climate. Powerful winds sweep down the mountain slopes and cool the atmosphere.The temperature drops below –70°C in the center of the continent in the winter, and it does not rise above 0°C in summer, except on the coasts.The air is very dry and most of the continent receives less than 100 millimeters of precipitation per year. An uninhabited continent The inhospitable climatic conditions prevent permanent population settlement in Antarctica.The only inhabitants of the continent are several thousand researchers in scientific stations.They are there temporarily, as long as it takes to fulfill their missions. Scientific research in Antarctica has led to important discoveries, notably that of the reduction of the ozone layer. Antarctica also offers a privileged site for studying the climate and the effects of global warming. For the past 10 years, other visitors have been arriving on the southernmost continent: tourists. Almost 28,000 of them, mostly from the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia, came in 2004–2005 to wander across the ice cap or tour the continent by boat.The main tourist attractions are the fauna and the scientific stations. Some 30 companies throughout the world offer trips to Antarctica. In spite of the precautions that they take, the growth of the tourism industry may disrupt the environment and the scientific research on the continent. The icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer This American research ship, built to sail through ice, can navigate off the shores of Antarctica throughout the year. THE TERRITORIAL CLAIMS Once it was discovered, in the 19th century, Antarctica quickly became the subject of territorial claims by many countries. Neighboring countries, such as Chile and Australia, as well as very distant countries, such as France and Norway, tried to carve out a part of the continent for themselves.The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 to avoid partition of the territory, gives the continent international status. It suspends territorial claims, proscribes military activities, and provides for international cooperation with regard to scientific research. Over the years, a number of international agreements have been added to the treaty to protect fauna (seals, whales) and impose a 50-year moratorium on exploitation of mineral resources (starting in 1998). Today, however, in spite of the legal arsenal that protects Antarctica, the debate continues. A number of countries maintain their claims and some are trying to keep the door open to exploitation of natural resources. Others would like the continent to become a vast ecological reserve. New Zealand Australia France Norway United Kingdom Chile Argentina Source: Australian Antarctic Data Centre : 159
  • 162. Arabian Desert The wind sweeps through some high grasses that have taken root in a sand dune.
  • 163. A affluent Watercourse that flows into another watercourse. alluvia Rocks and other debris carried and deposited by a watercourse. altitude Vertical distance of a point in relation to a reference level, generally sea level. amphibian That which lives or moves as well on ground as in the water. anemometer Instrument that measures wind speed. anthropogenic Caused by human beings. anticyclone Zone of high atmospheric pressure. apartheid Regime in South Africa that imposed racial segregation against blacks in favor of the white minority. arable Relating to land that can be cultivated. archipelago Group of islands. artificial satellite Device placed in orbit around a celestial body. ascent Action of climbing a mountain to its peak. asteroid Small celestial body in orbit around the Sun. atmosphere Gaseous layer that surrounds certain celestial bodies, including Earth. atmospheric pressure The force that air exerts by pressing on a given area. B bay A body of water partially enclosed by land and open to the sea. A bay is generally smaller than a gulf. bedrock Ancient eroded land on which volcanic or sedimentary rock rests. biodiversity The variety of living species that populate a given environment. birth rate Number of births in a population over a given period, usually one year. C chronic disease A disease of long duration, the symptoms of which are minor at first but may evolve into serious complications. conifer Tree whose leaves, in the form of needles or scales, generally persist through the winter, and whose fruits are cones. container Metallic crate of standardized size, used for shipping merchandise. continent Large landmass surrounded by water. coral Primitive animal usually living in arborescent colonies that form reefs. cordillera Long, narrow mountain range. D deciduous tree Tree in the flowering plants group whose leaves are wide, as opposed to the narrow needles of conifers. demographer Expert in the study of populations. depression A part of a landmass that is sunk below its surroundings. Meteorology: low-pressure zone. detergent Cleaning product. development Improvement in the situation of a region or a population, usually from an economic standpoint. domestic Relating to life in the home. dominant wind Wind that blows in a constant direction in a region, such as the trade winds. E Earth’s crust Solid layer on the surface of Earth. emigration Departure of individuals from their country of origin to move to another country. endemic Relating to a species that lives only in a given region. epidemic Sudden, rapid propagation of a transmissible disease. equator Imaginary line that circles Earth midway between the poles. estuary Mouth of a river where the current meets the tides, forming an indentation in the coastline that may be more or less wide and more or less deep. extinction Complete and irreversible disappearance. F fault Fracture in Earth’s crust that causes a horizontal or vertical movement in relation to the other. fauna All of the animal species that live in a given region. fertilizer Organic or mineral product that is introduced into the soil to increase its capacity to support plant growth. flood Sudden rise in the level of a watercourse due to heavy precipitation or snow melting. flora All of the plant species that live in a given region. fossil fuel Fuel that was formed millions of years ago from the remains of plants and animals buried in rock (oil, coal, natural gas). freight Transportation of goods. freshwater Water containing very low amounts of mineral salts. G geographic Relating to geography, the science that describes and explains the existing physical and human aspects of Earth’s surface. geographic pole Each of the two points (North Pole and South Pole) of Earth’s surface through which Earth’s axis of rotation passes. geological Relating to geology, the science that studies the Earth, the materials that compose it, and the forces and processes that shape and transform it. government Political system of a nation or group of individuals who administer the nation, usually called ministers. graben Wide, elongated depression with steep sides, formed by the subsidence of a block of terrain between two faults. Glossary : 161
  • 164. Graminaceous plants Family of plants that includes the high grasses that dominate savannahs. gulf A large area of sea partially enclosed by land, more or less open to the sea. A gulf is generally larger and more enclosed than a bay. H heavy metals Metals such as lead and mercury, which have special chemical properties and many of which are toxic to humans and the environment. hemisphere One of the two halves of the globe, defined by the equator (Northern and Southern hemispheres) or by the Greenwich meridian (Western and Eastern hemispheres). humidity Water vapor contained in the air, the result of transpiration of plants and evaporation from the oceans, rivers and lakes. hydrocarbons Substances formed solely of carbon and hydrogen molecules, present in crude oil and natural gas. hydroelectricity Electricity produced from the force of water. I ice cap Mass of continental ice that permanently covers the polar regions, also called inlandsis. ice shelf Thick layer of floating ice that borders some parts of Antarctica, distinct from the pack ice and ice cap. immigration The arrival of people from another country who are moving to the new host country. intensive farming Agriculture that consumes more resources (water, fertilizer, etc.) in order to increase the yield of cultivated land. irrigation Artificial watering of farmland. isthmus Narrow band of land between two stretches of water, connecting two larger landmasses. L labor force The total mass of workers. latitude Coordinate of a point on Earth’s surface that indicates, in degrees, the angular distance of this point from the equator. lightning Brief, intense flash of light caused by an electrical discharge between two clouds or between a cloud and the ground during a storm. lithospheric plates Immense portions of the lithosphere that slide on top of the asthenosphere and whose movements shape Earth’s relief features. longitude Coordinate of a point on Earth’s surface that indicates, in degrees, the angular distance of this point from the Greenwich meridian. M magma Very viscous liquid formed of molten rocks from the depths of Earth. malnutrition Pathologic state cased by poor nutrition, usually due to an insufficient or incomplete diet. manufactured Produced industrially. mass The amount of matter contained in a body, expressed in grams. megalopolis Extremely large urban area. meridian Imaginary line from pole to pole, perpendicular to the equator. meteorite Fragment of rock originating in space, which is not completely consumed as it passes through the atmosphere and lands on Earth. metropolis The largest city in a given region. monarch Head of state who is a hereditary member of royalty. monsoon Seasonal wind that brings heavy precipitation in some tropical regions. moraine Rocks or other debris carried and deposited by a glacier. moratorium Voluntary suspension of a decision to allow time to study its consequences. mortality Number of deaths in a population over a given period, usually one year. mouth Place where a watercourse flows into the sea or into a lake. N natural satellite Celestial body in orbit around a planet or another celestial body. net migration Difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants. nomadic Relating to a migratory people that are constantly moving. nuclear Relating to atoms and their energy. O oasis Region of a desert made fertile by the presence of water. ocean current Movement of great masses of seawater along a stable path at a regular speed. orbit Trajectory described by one celestial body circling around another due to the effects of gravity. organic Relating to living beings and the materials derived from them. P pack ice Vast layer of ice floating on the sea in polar regions. parallel Imaginary circle whose plane is parallel to the equator. pasture Land where livestock may graze. peninsula Portion of land surrounded by the sea on all sides but one, where an isthmus that may be wide or narrow connects it to the mainland. pesticides Products that destroy harmful organisms. phytoplankton All of the plants that live in suspension in seawater and are moved from place to place by sea currents. planisphere Map that portrays both hemispheres of Earth. polar circle Imaginary line situated at latitude 66° 34’ north (Arctic polar circle) or south (Antarctic polar circle). It designates the edge of the polar zone in which the day lasts 24 hours at the summer solstice and the Sun does not appear at all at the winter solstice. polytheist Said of religions in which a number of gods are worshipped, as opposed to monotheist religions. 162 : Glossary
  • 165. population growth Increase in the total population of a region taking account of the number of births, deaths, and migrations. The population growth rate may be positive or negative. precipitation All of the liquid and solid forms in which water contained in the atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface (rain, snow, sleet, fog, dew, etc.). propaganda All of the actions orchestrated to manipulate public opinion. Q quota Quantitative limit to be reached or not to be passed. R radioactive Said of the property to spontaneously emit electromagnetic particles or rays that are often dangerous. referendum Consultation of all of the citizens regarding a specific question. relief features All of the differences in ground level (depressions and elevations) of the surface of a region. renewable energy Energy whose source can regenerate naturally. rural Relating to the countryside, as opposed to the city. S sanitary Relating to health. sediment Solid mineral material (rocks, sand, mud) that has been weathered away from its original surroundings by an erosion agent, carried by water, ice, or wind, and deposited in another place. Organic material may also form sediment. seismic wave Vibration generated by an earthquake that propagates in all directions and causes the surface of Earth to shake. shield Large territory composed of eroded primary rock. slope Each of the sides of a mountain. speaker An individual who speaks a given language. strait Natural, relatively narrow maritime passage between two coasts. subduction Phenomenon through which one oceanic plate slides under another lithospheric plate. T tectonic Relating to Earth’s crust, its formation, and its deformations. territory In the political sense, region under the jurisdiction of a nation that is more or less distant from it. tide Daily rise and fall in the level of the ocean, due mainly to the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon. toponym Proper name that designates a place. trade wind Constant wind blowing from east to west in the intertropical zone, notably over the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. tributary See affluent. tropics Parallels situated at 26° 23’ north latitude (Tropic of Cancer) and south latitude (Tropic of Capricorn). They correspond to the latitudes at which the Sun is at its zenith at the solstices. U universal suffrage Electoral system in which all citizens who have reached the age of majority have the right to vote. urban Relating to the city, as opposed to the countryside. urban area Large urban concentration composed of a city and its suburbs. urban dweller Individual who lives in a city. W waterfall Almost-vertical drop of a watercourse due to a sudden change in the level of its bed. watershed Area trained by a watercourse or by all of its tributaries. water table Vast stretch of underground water formed by infiltration of rainwater into the ground. It feeds springs. wave Undulation at the surface of a sea or lake caused by the wind. GlossaRY : 163
  • 166. 164 : STATISTICAL DATA SOURCES adherents.com, from Britannica Airports Council International (ACI) Atlas of the World, National Geographic Australian Government Antarctic Division BBC News British Petroleum (BP) CIA World Factbook Climate Prediction Center (CPC) Community of European Railway (CER) Containerisation International Yearbook Doctors without Borders (MSF) Earth Impact Database, University of New Brunswick Encyclopedia of World Political Systems, J. Derbyshire Energy Information Administration (EIA) ESRI État du monde Ethnologue, SIL International European Union (EU) Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Forbes International Atomic Energy Agency (AIEA) International Disaster Database, Université Catholique de Louvain, Bruxelles (Em-Dat) International Energy Agency (IEA) International Nuclear Safety Center (INSC) International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) International Tennis Federation (ITF) International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Interparliamentary Union (IPU) J. Leclerc, TLFQ, Université Laval Kottek et al., World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated Le Monde diplomatique Meyers Grosser Weltatlas Ministère français des Affaires étrangères National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) National Centers for Environmental Predictions (NCEP) National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) Nees-Institut für Biodiversität des Pflanzen Olson et al Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) raileurope.com Reporters Without Borders (RSF) Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego Service météorologique national d’Argentine Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, University of Columbia (SEDAC) Transport Geography on the Web, Hofstra University United Nations (UN) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Development Program (UNDP) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) United Nations Joint Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) United States Geological Survey (USGS) University of California at San Diego (UCSD) Uppsala Conflict Database World Bank World Health Organisation (WHO) World Resources Institute (WRI) World Trade Organization (WTO) World Urbanization Prospects, Population Division, UN World Wildlife Fund (WWF) World Wind Energy Association Country names: AGO Angola ALB Albania AND Andorra AZE Azerbaijan BEL Belgium BGR Bulgaria BIH Bosnia and Herzegovina HRV Croatia KNA Saint Kitts and Nevis LIE Liechtenstein LUX Luxembourg MCO Monaco MKD Macedonia MNE Montenegro NLD Netherlands SMR San Marino SRB Serbia SVK Slovakia SVN Slovenia TLS Timor Leste VAT Vatican City VCT Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Sovereign countries of territories: AR Argentina AU Australia BE Belgium BG Bulgaria BR Brazil CL Chile CN China DK Denmark EC Ecuador ES Spain FR France GB United Kingdom GQ Equatorial Guinea GR Greece IN India IT Italy JP Japan KR South Korea MA Morocco NL Netherlands NO Norway NZ New Zealand PL Poland PT Portugal RU Russia SE Sweden UA Ukraine US United States UY Uruguay ZA South Africa *Permission to use extracts from ISO 3166-1:2006 was provided by Standards Council of Canada, in cooperation with IHS Canada. No further reproduction is permitted without prior written approval from Standards Council of Canada. ISO code elements* used in the Atlas
  • 167. Abbreviations mount. range: mountain range res. sta.: research station terr.: nonindependent territory Countries are indicated in bold characters. A Abaco Island … 125 B1 Abidjan, city … 146 C4 Abu Dhabi, capital … 140 D6 Abuja, capital … 146 D4 Accra, capital … 146 D4 Aconcagua, summit … 21, 129 C6 Adamawa Massif … 146 E4 Adana, city … 135 G5 Addis Ababa, capital … 147 G4 Adelaide, city … 152 C7 Adélie Land … 158 D2 Aden, Gulf of … 140 C7, 147 H3 Admiralty Islands … 152 D4 Adrar Bou Nasser, summit … 146 C1 Adriatic Sea … 134 E4 Aegean Sea … 134 F5 Afghanistan … 140 E5 Agra, city … 140 F6 Agrihan, summit … 152 D2 Agulhas, Cape … 146 E8 Ahaggar Massif … 146 D2 Ahmadabad, city … 140 D6 Aïr Massif … 146 D3 Al Manamah, capital … 140 D6 Alabama, watercourse … 122 G4 Alaska, Gulf of … 122 C3 Alaska, peninsula … 122 B2 Alaska Range … 122 B2 Albania … 134 F4 Albert, Lake … 146 G4 Aldabra atoll … 147 H5 Aldan, watercourse … 141 L3 Aleppo, city … 140 B5 Aleutian Islands … 27, 122 A3 Alexander Island … 158 H2 Alexandria, city … 66, 146 F1 Algeria … 146 D2 Algiers, capital … 146 D1 Allahabad, city … 140 G6 Almanzor Peak … 134 C4 Almaty, city … 140 F4 Alps, mount. range … 21, 137, 134 E4 Altai, mount. range … 141 H4 Altiplano, plateau … 129 D4 Altun Shan, mount. range … 141 H5 Amazon, watercourse … 38, 128, 131, 129 D3 Amazonia, plain … 129 D3 American Samoa, terr. … 153 I5 Amery Ice Shelf … 158 B2 Amirante Islands … 147 I5 Amman, capital … 140 B5 Amritsar, city … 140 F5 Amsterdam, city … 134 D3 Amu Darya, watercourse … 140 E5 Amundsen Gulf … 122 D2 Amundsen-Scott, res. sta. … 158 C1 Amundsen Sea … 158 F2 Amur, watercourse … 38, 141 K3 Anatolian Plain … 135 G5 Andaman Islands … 141 H7 Andes Cordillera … 21, 128, 129 C4 Andorra … 134 D4 Andorra La Valla, capital … 134 D4 Andros, island … 125 B1 Aneto Peak … 134 D4 Angara, watercourse … 38, 141 I3 Angel Falls … 39, 128 Angola … 146 E6 Angola Plateau … 146 F6 Anguilla, terr. … 125 C1 Ankara, capital … 135 G5 Annamitic Cordillera … 141 I7 Annapurna, summit … 21, 140 G6 Anshan, city … 141 K4 Antananarivo, capital … 147 H6 Antarctica … 44, 48, 158, 159 Anticosti Island … 123 H3 Antigua and Barbuda … 125 C1 Antipodes Islands … 152 G8 Apennines, mount. range … 134 E4 Apia, capital … 153 H5 Appalachians, mount. range … 122 G4 Arabian Desert … 51, 140 C6 Arabian Sea … 140 E7 Arafura Sea … 141 L10, 152 C4 Araguaia, watercourse … 129 E3 Arakan Yoma, mount. range … 141 H6 Araks, watercourse … 135 H4 Aral Sea … 140 E4 Ararat, Mount … 135 H5 Arctic … 49 Arctowski, res. sta. … 158 H2 Argentina … 48, 129 D5 Argus, Dome … 158 B1 Arkansas, watercourse … 122 F4 Armenia … 135 H4 Artigas, res. sta. … 158 H2 Arturo Prat, res. sta. … 158 H2 Aruba, terr. … 125 C2 Asansol, city … 141 G6 Ascension Island … 146 B5 Ashgabat, capital … 140 D5 Asir, mount. range … 140 C7 Asmara, capital … 147 G3 Assal, Lake … 147 H3 Astana, capital … 140 F3 Asunción, capital … 129 E5 Atacama Desert … 51, 129 D5 Athabasca, Lake … 122 E3 Athens, capital … 134 F5 Atlanta, city … 122 G4 Atlantic Coastal Plain … 122 G4 Atlas, mount. range … 146 D1 Auckland, city … 152 G7 Aurangabad, city … 140 F7 Austin, city … 122 F4 Australia … 37, 155, 156, 152 C5 Australian Cordillera … 19, 152 D7 Austria … 134 E4 Azerbaijan … 135 H4 Azov, Sea of … 135 G4 B Baffin Bay … 122 H2 Baffin Island … 37, 122 H2 Baghdad, capital … 66, 140 C5 Bahamas … 125 B1 Bahrain … 140 D6 Baikal, Lake … 39, 141 J3 Bairiki, capital … 152 G3 Baja California, peninsula … 122 E5 Baker Island … 153 H3 Baku, capital … 135 H4 Balbi, Mount … 152 E4 Balearic Islands, terr. … 134 D5 Balkan, mount. range … 134 F4 Balkhash, Lake … 13, 140 F4 Balsas, watercourse … 122 F5 Baltic Sea … 134 E3 Baltimore, city … 122 G4 Bamako, capital … 146 C3 Banda Sea … 141 K9 Bandar Seri Begawan, capital … 141 J8 Bandeira, Pico da … 129 F5 Bandung, city … 141 I9 Bangalore, city … 140 F7 Bangka, island … 141 I9 Bangkok, capital … 141 I7 Bangladesh … 141 H6 Bangui, capital … 146 E4 Banjul, capital … 146 B3 Banks Islands … 122 D2 Baoding, city … 141 J5 Baotou, city … 141 I4 Barbados … 125 D2 Barbeau, Mount … 122 H1 Barcelona, city … 134 D4 Barents Sea … 32, 134 G2 Barisan Range … 141 I8 Barquisimeto, city … 129 D2 Barranquilla, city … 129 C1 Bass Strait … 152 D7 Bassas da India, island … 147 H7 Basseterre, capital … 125 C1 Batu, summit … 147 H4 Beaufort Sea … 32, 122 C2 Beijing, capital … 141 J4 Beirut, capital … 140 B5 Belarus … 134 F3 Belém, city … 129 F3 Belgium … 134 D3 Belgrade, capital … 134 F4 Belgrano II, res. sta. … 158 I2 Belize … 125 B1 Bellingshausen, res. sta. … 158 H2 Bellingshausen Sea … 158 G2 Belmopan, capital … 125 B1 Belo Horizonte, city … 129 F4 Belukha, Mount … 141 G4 Ben Nevis, summit … 37 Bengal, Bay of … 32, 141 G7 Benghazi, city … 146 F1 Benin … 146 D3 Benin City, city … 146 D4 Bentley Subglacial Trench … 158 G1 Benue, watercourse … 146 E4 Benxi, city … 141 K4 Bering Sea … 122 A3 Bering Strait … 122 A2 Berkner Island … 158 H2 Berlin, capital … 134 E3 Bermuda, terr. … 123 H4 Bern, capital … 134 D4 Bernardo O'Higgins, res. sta. … 158 H2 Bhopal, city … 140 F6 Bhutan … 141 H6 Bioko, island … 146 D4 Birmingham, city … 134 C3 Bishkek, capital … 140 F4 Bismarck Sea … 141 M9, 152 D4 Bissau, capital … 146 B3 Black Sea … 32, 135 G4 Blue Nile, watercourse … 146 G3 Bogotá, capital … 129 C2 Bolivar, Pico … 129 C2 Bolivia … 129 D4 Bombay, city … 140 F7 Bonete, summit … 129 D5 Borah, Mount … 122 E4 Borneo, island … 37, 60, 141 J9 Bosnia and Herzegovina … 134 E4 Bosporus Strait … 134 F4 Boston, city … 122 H4 Botev, Mount … 134 F4 Bothnia, Gulf of … 134 E2 Botswana … 146 F7 Bougainville Island … 152 E4 Brahmaputra, watercourse … 141 H6 Brasília, capital … 129 F4 Bratislava, capital … 134 E4 Brazil … 129 E4 Brazilian Plateau … 129 F4 Brazos, watercourse … 122 F4 Brazzaville, capital … 146 E5 Bridgetown, capital … 125 D2 Brisbane, city … 152 E6 British Virgin Islands, terr. … 125 C1 Brooks Range … 122 C2 Brunei … 141 J8 Brussels, capital … 134 D3 Bucaramanga, city … 129 C2 Bucharest, capital … 134 F4 Budapest, capital … 134 F4 Buenos Aires, capital … 129 E6 Bujumbura, capital … 146 F5 Bulgaria … 134 F4 Bulu Rantekombola, summit … 141 K9 Burdekin, watercourse … 152 D5 Burkina Faso … 146 C3 Burma … 141 H6 : 165 GEographical Index
  • 168. Bursa, city … 134 F4 Burundi … 146 G5 C Cachi, summit … 129 D5 Cairo, capital … 46, 66, 148, 146 G1 Calcutta, city … 66, 141 G6 Calgary, city … 122 E3 Cali, city … 129 C2 California, Gulf of … 122 E5 Cambodia … 141 I7 Cambrian Mountains … 134 C3 Cameroon … 146 E4 Cameroon, Mount … 27, 146 D4 Campinas, city … 129 F5 Canada … 33, 46, 61, 122 F3 Canadian Shield, plateau … 122 G3 Canary Islands, terr. … 36, 146 B2 Canberra, capital … 152 D7 Cantabrian Mountains … 134 C4 Cape Breton Island … 123 H3 Cape Town, city … 146 E8 Cape Verde … 146 A3 Caracas, capital … 129 D1 Carbón, Laguna del … 129 D7 Caribbean Sea … 32, 125 B1 Caroline Island … 153 J4 Caroline Islands archipelago … 152 D3 Carpathians, mount. range … 134 F4 Carpentaria, Gulf of … 152 C5 Casablanca, city … 146 C1 Cascade Range … 122 D3 Caspian Depression … 135 I4, 140 C4 Caspian Sea … 39, 135 H4, 140 C4 Castries, capital … 125 C2 Caucasus, mount. range … 21, 135 H4 Cayman Islands, terr. … 125 B1 Cedar Lake … 122 F3 Celebes Sea … 141 K8 Central African Republic … 146 F4 Central Massif … 134 D4 Central Russian Uplands … 134 G3 Central Siberian Plateau … 141 I2 Ceram, island … 141 K9 Cervin, Mount … 134 D4 Ceuta, terr. … 146 C1 Chad … 146 E3 Chad, Lake … 146 E3 Changchun, city … 141 K4 Changde, city … 141 J6 Changsha, city … 141 J6 Changzhou, city … 141 J5 Chao Phraya, watercourse … 141 I7 Chatham Islands … 152 H8 Chelyabinsk, city … 140 E3 Chengdu, city … 141 I5 Chersky Range … 141 M2 Chicago, city … 122 G4 Chifeng, city … 141 J4 Chihuahuan Desert … 51, 122 F5 Chile … 18, 77, 129 C6 Chiloé Island … 129 C7 Chimborazo, summit … 129 C3 China … 29, 141 H5 Chire, watercourse … 146 G6 Chisinau, capital … 134 F4 Chittagong, city … 141 G6 Cho Oyu, summit … 21, 141 G6 Choiseul, island … 152 E4 Chongqing, city … 66, 141 I6 Chott Melrhir, depression … 146 D1 Chubut, watercourse … 129 D7 Chuo Yang Sin, summit … 141 I7 Chuuk Islands … 152 E3 Cincinnati, city … 122 G4 Ciudad Juárez, city … 122 E4 Cleveland, city … 122 G4 Coast Mountains … 122 D3 Cochin, city … 140 F8 Coimbatore, city … 140 F7 Colombia … 27, 129 C2 Colombo, capital … 140 G8 Colorado (N. America), watercourse … 122 E4 Colorado (S. America), watercourse … 129 D6 Colorado Plateau … 51, 122 E4 Columbia, watercourse … 122 E3 Columbus, city … 122 G4 Comandante Ferraz, res. sta. … 158 H2 Comoros … 147 H6 Conakry, capital … 146 B4 Concordia, res. sta. … 158 D2 Congo … 146 E5 Congo, watercourse … 38, 146 F4 Congo Basin … 146 F4 Cook Islands, terr. … 153 I5 Cook, Mount … 152 F8 Cook Strait … 152 G8 Copenhagen, capital … 134 E3 Coral Sea … 152 E5 Córdoba, city … 129 D6 Corno Grande, summit … 134 E4 Cornwall, peninsula … 134 C3 Corsica, terr. … 134 D4 Costa Rica … 127, 125 B2 Côte d’Ivoire … 146 C4 Cotonou, capital … 146 D4 Cotopaxi, summit … 129 C3 Crêt de la Neige, summit … 134 D4 Crete, island … 136, 134 F5 Crimea, peninsula … 135 G4 Cristobal Colon, Pico … 129 C1 Croatia … 134 E4 Cuba … 125 B1 Curitiba, city … 129 F5 Cyprus … 135 G5 Czech Republic … 134 E4 D Dakar, capital … 146 B3 Dalalven, watercourse … 134 E2 Dalap-Uliga-Dorrit, capital … 152 G3 Dalian, city … 141 K5 Dallas, city … 122 F4 Damascus, capital … 140 B5 Damavand, summit … 140 D5 Danube, watercourse … 134 F4 Daqing, city … 141 K4 Dar es Salaam, city … 147 G5 Darfur, mount. range … 146 F3 Darling, watercourse … 38, 152 D7 Datong, city … 141 J5 Davao, city … 141 K8 Davis, res. sta. … 159 B2 Davis Sea … 159 C2 Davis Strait … 122 I2 Dead Sea … 140 B5 Death Valley, depression … 122 E4 Deccan Plateau … 140 F7 Delhi, city … 66, 140 F6 Della, waterfall … 39 Demirkazik, summit … 135 G5 Democratic Republic of the Congo … 27, 146 F5 Denakil Plain, depression … 147 H3 Denmark … 134 E3 Denmark Strait … 123 K2 Denver, city … 122 F4 Detroit, city … 122 G4 Devon Island … 122 G1 Dhaka, capital … 66, 141 H6 Dhanbad, city … 141 G6 Dhaulagiri, summit … 21, 140 G6 Dili, capital … 141 K9 Dinaric Alps, mount. range … 134 E4 Djado Plateau … 146 E2 Djibouti … 147 H3 Djibouti, capital … 147 H3 Dnepropetrovsk, city … 135 G4 Dnieper, watercourse … 134 G4 Dniester, watercourse … 134 F4 Doda Betta, summit … 140 F7 Dodoma, capital … 146 G5 Doha, capital … 140 D6 Dome Fuji, res. sta. … 158 B2 Dominica … 125 C1 Dominican Republic … 125 C1 Don, watercourse … 135 H4 Dongguan, city … 141 J6 Douala, city … 146 D4 Drakensberg, mount. range … 146 F8 Dubai, city … 140 D6 Dublin, capital … 134 C3 Duero, watercourse … 134 C4 Dumont d'Urville, res. sta. … 158 D2 Durban, city … 146 G7 Durg-Bhilainagar, city … 140 G6 Dushanbe, capital … 140 E5 E East China Sea … 32, 141 K5 East Great Rift Valley, basin … 146 G6 Ebro, watercourse … 134 C4 Ecuador … 129 C2 Edmonton, city … 122 E3 Egypt … 146 F2 Ekaterinburg, city … 140 E3 Ekurhuleni, city … 146 F7 El Chichón, volcano … 27 El Salvador … 125 B2 El Teleno, summit … 134 C4 Elbe, watercourse … 134 E3 Elbrus, mount. range … 140 D5 Elbrus, summit … 21, 135 H4 Ellesmere Island … 122 G1 Ellsworth Land … 158 H2 Enderby Land … 158 B2 English Channel, sea … 134 C3 Ennedi, mount. range … 146 F3 Enriquillo, Lago … 125 C1 Equatorial Guinea … 146 E4 Erebus, Mount … 158 E2 Erie, Lake … 122 G4 Eritrea … 147 G3 Esfahan, city … 140 D5 Esperanza, res. sta. … 158 H2 Estonia … 134 F3 Ethiopia … 147 H4 Ethiopian Massif … 147 H3  Etna, summit … 16, 134 E5 Euboea, island … 134 F5 Euphrates, watercourse … 135 G5, 140 C5 Everest, Mount … 21, 141 G6 Eyre, Lake … 152 C6 F Faisalabad, city … 140 F5 Falkland Islands, terr. … 129 E8 Faridabad, city … 140 F6 Faroe Islands, terr. … 134 C2 Farquhar Islands … 147 I5 Fernando de Noronha Island … 129 G3 Fiji … 152 G5 Filchner Ice Shelf … 158 I2 Finland … 134 F2 Finland, Gulf of … 134 F3 Firat, watercourse … 135 H5 Flinders Ranges … 152 C7 Flores, island … 141 K9 Flores Sea … 141 K9 Florida, peninsula … 122 G5, 125 B1 Fly, watercourse … 152 D4 Fortaleza, city … 129 G3 Fouta Djallon, mount. range … 146 B3 France … 134 D4 Fraser, watercourse … 122 D3 Freetown, capital … 146 B4 French Guiana, terr. … 129 E2 French Polynesia, terr. … 153 K5 Fuji, Mount … 37, 141 L5 Fukuoka, city … 141 L5 Fundy, Bay of … 33 Fushun, city … 141 K4 Fuyu, city … 141 K4 Fuzhou, city … 141 J6 G Gabon … 146 E5 Gaborone, capital … 146 F7 Galapagos Islands … 128 A3 Galdhøppigen, summit … 134 D2 Gambia … 146 B3 Gambier Islands … 153 L6 166 : Geographical Index
  • 169. Ganges, watercourse … 140 G6 Gardner Island … 153 H4 Garonne, watercourse … 134 D4 Gascogne, Gulf of … 134 C4 Gavarnic, waterfall … 39 Gaza Strip, terr. … 140 B5 Georgetown, capital … 129 E2 Georgia … 135 H4 Gerlachovska, summit … 134 F4 Germano-Polish Plain … 134 E3 Germany … 134 E3 Ghana … 146 C4 Ghaziabad, city … 140 F6 Gibraltar, terr. … 134 C5 Gibraltar, Strait of … 134 C5 Gibson Desert … 51, 152 B6 Gilbert Islands … 152 G3 Glasgow, city … 134 C3 Glass, waterfall … 39 Glomma, watercourse … 134 E2 Glorioso Islands … 147 H6 Gobi Desert … 45, 51, 141 I4 Godavari, watercourse … 140 F7 Goiânia, city … 129 F4 Gotland, island … 134 E3 Goyang, city … 141 K5 Graham Land … 158 H2 Grampian Mountains … 134 C3 Gran Chaco, plain … 129 D5 Grand Bahama Island … 125 B1 Grand Canyon, depression … 122 E4 Great Australian Bight … 152 C7 Great Basin … 45, 51, 122 E4 Great Bear Lake … 39, 122 D2 Great Bear River … 122 D2 Great Britain, island … 37 Great Inagua Island … 125 C1 Great Plains … 122 F3 Great Salt Lake … 122 E4 Great Sandy Desert … 51, 152 B6 Great Slave Lake … 39, 122 E2 Great Victoria Desert … 152 B6 Great Wall, res. sta. … 158 H2 Greece … 134 F5 Greenland, terr. … 37, 49, 122 I1 Grenada … 125 C2 Grossglockner, summit … 134 E4 Guadalajara, city … 122 F5 Guadalcanal, island … 152 E5 Guadaloupe, island … 122 E5 Guadalquivir, watercourse … 134 C5 Guadeloupe, terr. … 125 C1 Guam, terr. … 152 D2 Guangzhou, city … 141 J6 Guapore, watercourse … 129 D4 Guatemala … 125 A1 Guatemala, capital … 125 A2 Guayaquil, city … 129 B3 Guernsey, terr. … 134 C4 Guinea … 146 C4 Guinea, Gulf of … 146 D4 Guinea-Bissau … 146 B3 Guiyang, city … 141 I6 Gujranwala, city … 140 F5 Gunnbjorn, Mount … 37, 123 J2 Gunung Kerinci, summit … 37, 141 I9 Guyana … 129 E2 Guyana Plateau … 129 E2 Gyala Peri, summit … 141 H6 H Hadramout, mount. range … 140 C7 Hainan, island … 141 I7 Haiphong, city … 141 I6 Haiti … 125 C1 Halley, res. sta. … 158 I2 Halmahera, island … 141 K8 Hamburg, city … 134 E3 Hamersley Range … 152 A6 Handan, city … 141 J5 Hangzhou, city … 141 J6 Hanoi, capital … 141 I6 Harare, capital … 146 G6 Harbin, city … 141 K4 Havana, capital … 125 B1 Hawaii archipelago … 27, 153 J2 Hawaii Island … 153 J2 Hebrides Islands … 134 C3 Hefei, city … 141 J5 Helsinki, capital … 46, 134 F2 Heze, city … 141 J5 Highlands, plateau … 134 C3 Hijaz, mount. range … 140 B6 Himalayas, mount. range … 21, 143, 141 G6 Hindu Kush, mount. range … 140 F5 Hiroshima, city … 141 L5 Ho Chi Minh City, city … 141 I7 Hokkaido, island … 141 M4 Honduras … 125 B1 Honduras, Gulf of … 125 B1 Hong, watercourse … 141 I6 Hong Kong, city … 141 J6 Honiara, capital … 152 E4 Honshu, island … 37, 141 L5 Hormuz, Strait of … 140 D6 Horn, Cape … 129 D8 Houston, city … 122 F5 Howland Island, terr. … 153 H3 Huaian, city … 141 J5 Huainan, city … 141 J5 Huang He, watercourse … 39, 141 I5 Huascarán, summit … 21, 129 C3 Hudson, watercourse … 122 H4 Hudson Bay … 48, 122 G3 Huhot, city … 141 J4 Hungarian Basin … 134 F4 Hungary … 134 E4 Huron, Lake … 39, 122 G3 Huzhou, city … 141 J5 Hvannadalshnúkur, summit … 134 B2 Hyderabad (India), city … 140 F7 Hyderabad (Pakistan), city … 140 E6 IJ Ibadan, city … 146 D4 Iberville, Mont d’ … 122 H3 Iceland … 134 B2 Illimani, summit … 129 D4 Inch'on, city … 141 K5 India … 140 F6 Indianapolis, city … 122 G4 Indigirka, watercourse … 141 M2 Indonesia … 27, 29, 144, 141 K9 Indore, city … 140 F6 Indus, watercourse … 140 E6 Indus Plain … 140 E6 Ionian Sea … 134 E5 Iran … 29, 140 D5 Iraq … 140 C5 Ireland … 134 C3 Irrawaddy, watercourse … 141 H6 Irtych, watercourse … 38, 140 F3 Islamabad, capital … 140 F5 Israel … 140 B5 Issyk Kul, lake … 140 F4 Istanbul, city … 134 F4 Italy … 29, 134 E4 Izmir, city … 134 F5 Jabalpur, city … 140 G6 Jaipur, city … 140 F6 Jakarta, capital … 141 I9 Jamaica … 127, 125 B1 James Bay … 122 G3 Jamshedpur, city … 141 G6 Jan Mayen, terr. … 134 C1 Japan … 26, 27, 29, 144, 141 L5 Japan, Sea of … 32, 141 L5 Japura, watercourse … 129 D3 Jarvis Island, terr. … 153 I3 Java, island … 27, 141 J9 Java Sea … 141 J9 Java Trench … 33 Jebel Toubkal, summit … 146 C1 Jeddah, city … 140 B6 Jenissei, watercourse … 38, 141 G2 Jersey, terr. … 134 C4 Jerusalem, city … 84 Jezerce, summit … 134 E4 Jilin, city … 141 K4 Jinan, city … 66, 141 J5 Jining, city … 141 J5 Jinxi, city … 141 K4 Johannesburg, city … 146 F7 Johnston Atoll, terr. … 153 I2 Jordan … 140 B5 Jos Plateau … 146 D3 Juan de Nova Island … 147 H6 Juan Fernandez Islands … 129 C6 Jubany, res. sta. … 158 H2 Jubba, watercourse … 147 H4 Jura, mount. range … 134 D4 Juruena, watercourse … 129 E4 Jutland, peninsula … 134 D3 K K2, summit … 21, 140 F5 Kabul, capital … 140 E5 Kaduna, city … 146 D3 Kalahari Desert … 51, 146 F7 Kaliningrado … 134 F3 Kama, watercourse … 135 I2 Kamchatka, peninsula … 141 N3 Kampala, capital … 146 G4 Kanchenjunga, summit … 21, 141 G6 Kangaroo Island … 152 C7 Kano, city … 146 D3 Kanpur, city … 140 G6 Kansas City, city … 122 F4 Kaoshsiung, city … 141 K6 Kapuas, watercourse … 141 J8 Kara Sea … 141 G1 Karachi, city … 66, 140 E6 Karaj, city … 140 D5 Karakoram, mount. range … 21, 140 F5 Karakum Desert … 51, 140 D5 Kathmandu, capital … 141 G6 Kattegat, strait … 134 E3 Kauai Island … 153 J1 Kazakhstan … 13, 140 F4 Kazan, city … 135 H3 Kebnekaise, summit … 134 E2 Keele Peak … 122 D2 Kelut, volcano … 27 Kemijoki, watercourse … 134 F2 Kenya … 46, 147 G4 Kenya, Mount … 21, 147 G5 Kermadec Islands … 152 H7 Kharkiv, city … 135 G4 Khartoum, capital … 146 G3 Khorat Plain … 141 I7 Khulna, city … 141 G6 Khuriya Muriya Islands … 140 D7 Kiev, capital … 134 G3 Kigali, capital … 146 G5 Kilimanjaro, summit … 21, 147 G5 Kimberley Plateau … 152 B5 Kinabalu, summit … 37, 141 J8 King Sejong, res. sta. … 158 H2 Kingston, capital … 125 B1 Kingstown, capital … 125 C2 Kinshasa, capital … 146 E5 Kiribati … 153 I4 Kiritimati Island … 153 J3 Kirkpatrick, Mount … 158 E1 Kizilirmak, watercourse … 135 G4 Kodiak Island … 122 B3 Koko Nor, lake … 141 H5 Kola, peninsula … 134 G2 Kolwezi, city … 146 F6 Kolyma, watercourse … 141 N2 Kolyma Mountains … 141 N2 Komandor Islands … 141 O3 Koror, capital … 152 C3 Kosciusko, Mount … 19, 37, 152 D7 Kosovo … 134 F4 Koussi, Mount … 146 E3 Krimmler, waterfall … 39 Krishna, watercourse … 140 F7 Kuala Lumpur, capital … 141 I8 Kulul, depression … 147 H3 Kumasi, city … 146 C4 Kunene, watercourse … 146 E6 Kunlun Shan, mount. range … 140 G5 Geographical Index : 167
  • 170. Kunming, city … 141 I6 Kura, watercourse … 135 H4 Kuril Islands … 141 M4 Kuwait … 140 C6 Kuwait, capital … 140 C6 Kwangju, city … 141 K5 Kwanza, watercourse … 146 E5 Kyoto, city … 141 L5 Kyrgyzstan … 140 F4 Kyushu, island … 141 L5 Kyzylkum Desert … 51, 140 E4 L La Paz, capital … 129 D4 Laagen, watercourse … 134 E2 Labrador Sea … 123 I3 Ladakh, mount. range … 140 F5 Ladoga, Lake … 134 G2 Lagos, city … 146 D4 Lahore, city … 66, 140 F5 Lakshadweep, islands … 140 F7 Lambert Glacier … 158 B2 Lanzarote, island … 36 Lanzhou, city … 141 I5 Laos … 141 I6 Laptev Sea … 141 K1 Larsen Ice Shelf … 158 H2 Las Vegas, city … 122 E4 Latvia … 134 F3 Laurentians, mount. range … 122 H3 Lebanon … 140 B5 Leeds, city … 134 C3 Lena, watercourse … 38, 141 I3 León, city … 122 F5 Lesbos, island … 134 F5 Leshan, city … 141 I6 Lesotho … 146 F7 Liberia … 146 C4 Libreville, capital … 146 D4 Libya … 146 E2 Liechtenstein … 134 D4 Lille, city … 134 D3 Lilongwe, capital … 146 G6 Lima, capital … 129 C4 Limpopo, watercourse … 146 G7 Linyi, city … 141 J5 Lisbon, capital … 134 C5 Lithuania … 134 F3 Liuan, city … 141 J5 Liupanshui, city … 141 I6 Liuzhou, city … 141 I6 Ljubljana, capital … 134 E4 Llanos, plain … 129 D2 Llullaillaco, summit … 129 D5 Lofoten Islands … 134 E2 Logan, Mount … 21, 122 C2 Loire, watercourse … 134 D4 Lome, capital … 146 D4 London, capital … 134 C3 Los Angeles, city … 122 E4 Loyalty Islands … 152 F6 Lualaba, watercourse … 146 F5 Luanda, capital … 146 E5 Lubumbashi, city … 146 F6 Lucknow, city … 140 G6 Ludhiana, city … 140 F5 Lukuga, watercourse … 146 F5 Luoyang, city … 141 J5 Lusaka, capital … 146 F6 Luxembourg … 134 D4 Luxembourg, capital … 134 D4 Luzhou, city … 141 I6 Luzon, island … 141 K7 Lyon, city … 134 D4 M Mac. Robertson Land … 158 B2 Macedonia … 134 F4 Maceió, city … 129 G3 Mackenzie, watercourse … 38, 122 D2 Mackenzie Mountains … 122 D2 Madagascar … 37, 147 H6 Madeira, terr. … 146 B1 Madeira, watercourse … 129 D3 Madras, city … 140 G7 Madre de Dios, watercourse … 129 D4 Madrid, capital … 134 C4 Madurai, city … 140 F7 Magdalena, watercourse … 129 C2 Magellan, Strait of … 129 D8 Mahakam, watercourse … 141 J8 Mahanadi, watercourse … 140 G6 Mahé, island … 147 I5 Maitri, res. sta. … 158 A2 Makalu, summit … 21, 141 H6 Makassar, city … 141 J9 Malabo, capital … 146 D4 Malacca Peninsula … 141 I8 Malacca, Strait of … 141 I8 Malaita, island … 152 F4 Malawi … 146 G6 Malawi, Lake … 39, 146 G6 Malaysia … 141 I8 Maldives … 140 F8 Male, capital … 140 F8 Mali … 146 C3 Malta … 134 E5 Man, Isle of, terr. … 134 C3 Managua, capital … 125 B2 Manaslu, summit … 21, 141 G6 Manaus, city … 129 E3 Manchester, city … 134 C3 Manchurian Plain … 141 K4 Mangoky, watercourse … 147 H7 Mania, watercourse … 147 H6 Manila, capital … 141 K7 Manitoba, Lake … 122 F3 Maoke Mountains … 141 L9, 152 D4 Maotou Shan, summit … 141 I6 Maputo, capital … 146 G7 Maracaibo, city … 129 C1 Maracaibo, Lake … 133, 129 C2 Maracay, city … 129 D1 Marajó Island … 129 F3 Marambio, res. sta. … 158 H2 Marañón, watercourse … 129 C3 Marcus Island … 141 N6 Margarita Island … 129 D1 Mariana Trench … 24, 33, 152 D2 Marie Byrd Land … 158 G1 Marmara, Sea of … 134 F4 Maromokotro, Mount … 37 Marseille-Aix-en-Provence, city … 134 D4 Marshall Islands … 152 G3 Martin Vaz Islands … 129 H5 Martinique, terr. … 125 C2 Maseru, capital … 146 F7 Mashhad, city … 140 D5 Mato Grosso, plateau … 129 E4 Maui Island … 153 J1 Mauna Kea, summit … 153 J2 Mauritania … 146 B3 Mauritius … 147 I7 Mawson, res. sta. … 159 B2 Mayon, volcano … 27 Mayotte, terr. … 147 H6 Mbabane, capital … 146 G7 Mbuji-Mayi, city … 146 F5 McDonnell, Mount … 152 C6 McKinley, Mount … 21, 122 B2 McMurdo, res. stat. … 158 E2 Mecca, city … 85, 140 B6 Medan, city … 141 H8 Medellín, city … 129 C2 Mediterranean Sea … 32, 134 D5, 140 A5, 146 E1 Meerut, city … 140 F6 Meharry, Mount … 152 A6 Mekong, watercourse … 38, 141 I7 Melbourne, city … 152 D7 Melilla, terr. … 146 C1 Melville Island (N. America) … 122 E1 Melville Island (Oceania) … 152 C5 Memphis, city … 122 G4 Mentawai Islands … 141 H8 Merapi, volcano … 27 Mercedario, summit … 129 C6 Mexico … 27, 122 F5 Mexico, capital … 124, 122 F5 Mexico, Gulf of … 32, 122 G5, 125 B1 Miami, city … 122 G5 Mianyang, city … 141 I5 Michigan, Lake … 39, 122 G4 Micronesia … 152 D3 Milano, city … 134 D4 Milwaukee, city … 122 G4 Mindanao, island … 141 K8 Minneapolis, city … 122 F4 Minsk, capital … 134 F3 Minya Konka, summit … 141 I6 Mirny, res. sta. … 159 C2 Mississippi, watercourse … 38, 122 F4 Missouri, watercourse … 38, 122 F4 Mitchell, Mount … 122 G4 Mitumba Mountains … 146 F5 Mogadishu, capital … 147 H4 Mojave Desert … 51, 122 E4 Moldova … 134 F4 Moldoveanu, Mount … 134 F4 Molloy Hole … 33 Molodezhnaya, res. sta. … 158 B2 Molucca Sea … 141 K9 Monaco … 134 D4 Monaco, capital … 134 D4 Moncayo, summit … 134 C4 Mongolia … 141 I4 Monoun, Lake … 27 Monrovia, capital … 146 B4 Mont Blanc, summit … 21, 134 D4 Monte Cinto, summit … 134 D4 Montenegro … 134 E4 Monterrey, city … 122 F5 Montevideo, capital … 129 E6 Montréal, city … 46, 122 H3 Montserrat, terr. … 27, 125 C1 Morocco … 146 C1 Moroni, capital … 147 H6 Moscow, capital … 134 G3 Mosul, city … 140 C5 Mozambique … 146 G6 Mozambique Channel … 147 H6 Mtarazi, waterfall … 39 Mudanjiang, city … 141 K4 Mulhacén, summit … 134 C5 Multan, city … 140 F6 Munich, city … 134 E4 Murat, watercourse … 135 H5 Murray, watercourse … 38, 152 D7 Mururoa, island … 153 L6 Musala Peak … 134 F4 Muscat, capital … 140 D6 Muztag, summit … 141 G5 Mweru, Lake … 146 F5 N Nagoya, city … 141 L5 Nagpur, city … 140 F6 Nairobi, capital … 147 G5 Namib Desert … 51, 146 E7 Namibia … 13, 146 E7 Nampho, city … 141 K5 Nanchang, city … 141 J6 Nanchong, city … 141 I5 Nanga Parbat, summit … 21, 140 F5 Nanjing, city … 66, 141 J5 Nanning, city … 141 I6 Nanyang, city … 141 K5 Naples, city … 134 E4 Narmada, watercourse … 140 F6 Nashik, city … 140 F7 Nassau, capital … 125 B1 Natal, city … 129 G3 Nauru … 152 F4 Naypyidaw, capital … 141 H7 Ndjamena, capital … 146 E3 Neblina, Pico da … 129 D2 Neijiang, city … 141 I6 Nelson, watercourse … 122 F3 Nepal … 140 G6 Netherlands … 134 D3 Netherlands Antilles, terr. … 125 C2 Nettilling Lake … 122 H2 Neumayer, res. sta. … 158 I2 168 : GEographical Index
  • 171. Neva, watercourse … 134 G3 Nevado del Ruiz, volcano … 27 New Britain, island … 152 E4 New Caledonia, terr. … 152 F6 New Delhi, capital … 140 F6 New Guinea, island … 37, 152 D4 New Ireland, island … 152 E4 New Orleans, city … 57, 122 G5 New Siberia Islands … 141 M1 New York, city … 122 H4 New Zealand … 40, 154, 152 G7 New Zealand Alps, mount. range … 152 G8 Newfoundland, island … 123 I3 Niagara Falls … 39 Niamey, capital … 146 D3 Nicaragua … 125 B2 Nicaragua, Lake … 125 B2 Nicobar Islands … 141 H8 Nicosia, capital … 135 G5 Niger … 146 D3 Niger, watercourse … 38, 146 C3 Nigeria … 146 D4 Nile, watercourse … 38, 146 G2 Ningbo, city … 141 K6 Nipigon, Lake … 122 G3 Niue, terr. … 153 I5 Nizhni Novgorod, city … 134 G3 Norfolk Island, terr. … 152 F6 North Cape … 134 F1 North Island … 152 G7 North Korea … 141 K5 North Sea … 32, 134 D3 Northern Dvina, watercourse … 134 H2 Northern Mariana Islands, terr. … 152 D2 Norway … 134 D3 Norwegian Sea … 134 D2 Nouakchott, capital … 146 B3 Nova Scotia, island … 123 H4 Novaya Zemlya, island … 134 I1 Novolazarevskaja, res. sta. … 158 A2 Novosibirsk, city … 141 G3 Nubian Desert … 146 G2 Nuku' alofa, capital … 153 H6 Nullarbor Plain … 152 C7 Nunivak Island … 122 A3 Nyiragongo, volcano … 27 Nyos, Lake … 27 O Oahu Island … 153 J1 Ob, watercourse … 38, 141 G3 Oder, watercourse … 134 E3 Odessa, city … 134 G4 Odin, Mount … 37, 122 H2 Ogasawara Gunto, island … 152 D1 Ogooué, watercourse … 146 E4 Ohio, watercourse … 122 G4 Ojos del Salado, summit … 129 D5 Okavango, watercourse … 146 F6 Okavango Basin … 146 F7 Okhotsk, Sea of … 141 M3 Oklahoma City … 56 Öland, island … 134 E3 Olympus, Mount … 134 F4 Oman … 140 D7 Oman, Gulf of … 140 D6 Omsk, city … 140 F3 Onega, Lake … 134 G2 Ontario, Lake … 122 G4 Orange, watercourse … 146 F7 Orcadas, res. sta. … 158 H2 Ord, Mount … 152 B5 Orinoco, watercourse … 129 D2 Orizaba, summit … 21, 122 F5 Orlando, city … 122 G5 Orohena, Mount … 153 K5 Osaka-Kobe, city … 29, 141 L5 Oslo, capital … 134 E3 Ossa, Mount … 152 D8 Ottawa, capital … 122 G3 Ouagadougou, capital … 146 C3 Oued Draa, watercourse … 146 C2 Ozark Plateau … 122 F4 P Pakistan … 29, 140 E6 Palau … 152 C3 Palembang, city … 141 I9 Palikir, capital … 152 E3 Palk Strait … 140 F8 Palmer, res. sta. … 158 H2 Palmer Land … 158 H2 Palmerston Atoll … 153 I5 Palmyra Atoll … 153 I3 Pamirs, mount. range … 140 F5 Pampas, plain … 129 D6 Panama … 125 B2 Panama, capital … 125 B2 Panama Canal … 125 B2 Panama, Isthmus of … 125 B2 Papua New Guinea … 152 D4 Paraguay … 129 E5 Paraguay, watercourse … 129 E4 Paramaribo, capital … 129 E2 Parana, watercourse … 38, 41, 129 E5 Parana Plateau … 129 E5 Paranaiba, watercourse … 129 F4 Paris, capital … 136, 134 D4 Parnaíba, watercourse … 129 F3 Patagonia, plateau … 51, 129 D7 Patna, city … 141 G6 Peace River … 122 E3 Pechora, watercourse … 135 I2 Peipus, Lake … 134 F3 Peloponnese, peninsula … 134 F5 Pennines, mount. range … 134 C3 Persian Gulf … 32, 140 D6 Perth, city … 152 A7 Peru … 29, 128, 129 C3 Peshawar, city … 140 F5 Peter I Island … 158 G2 Philadelphia, city … 122 G4 Philippine Sea … 141 K7, 152 B1 Philippines … 27, 142, 144, 141 K7 Phnom Penh, capital … 141 I7 Phoenix, city … 122 E4 Phoenix Islands … 153 H4 Phou Bia, summit … 141 I7 Pikes Peak … 122 F4 Pinatubo, volcano … 27 Pindus, mount. range … 134 F5 Pitcairn Islands, terr. … 153 M6 Pittsburgh, city … 122 G4 Po, watercourse … 134 E4 Pobedy, Pik … 140 F4 Podgorica, capital … 134 E4 Poland … 134 E3 Port Moresby, capital … 152 D4 Port of Spain, capital … 125 C2 Port Vila, capital … 152 F5 Port-au-Prince, capital … 125 C1 Portland, city … 122 D3 Porto, city … 134 C4 Pôrto Alegre, city … 129 E5 Portugal … 134 C5 Prague, capital … 134 E3 Praia, capital … 146 A3 Presidente Frei, res. sta. … 158 H2 Pretoria, capital … 146 F7 Prince Edward Island … 123 H3 Prince of Wales Island … 122 F2 Prince Patrick Island … 122 E1 Princesse Elisabeth, res. sta. … 158 A2 Princess Elizabeth Land … 159 C2 Principe, island … 146 D4 Progress, res. sta. … 159 B2 Providence, city … 122 H4 Puebla, city … 122 F5 Puerto Rico, terr. … 125 C1 Puerto Rico Trench … 33 Puncak Jaya, summit … 37, 141 L9 Pune, city … 140 F7 Purus, watercourse … 129 D3 Pusan, city … 141 K5 Putumayo, watercourse … 129 C3 Puy de Sancy, summit … 134 D4 Pyongyang, capital … 141 K5 Pyrenees, mount. range … 134 D4 QR Qaidam Basin … 141 H5 Qatar … 140 D6 Qattara Depression … 146 F2 Qingdao, city … 141 K5 Qiqihaer, city … 141 K4 Qom, city … 140 D5 Quanzhou, city … 141 J6 Queen Charlotte Islands … 122 D3 Queen Maud Land … 158 A2 Quito, capital … 129 C3 Rabat, capital … 146 C1 Rajkot, city … 140 F6 Rawalpindi, city … 140 F5 Recife, city … 129 G3 Red Sea … 32, 140 B6, 146 G2 Reindeer lake … 122 F3 Reunion, terr. … 147 I7 Revillagigedo Islands … 122 E5 Reykjavik, capital … 134 A2 Rhine, watercourse … 134 D3 Rhodes, island … 134 F5 Rhone, watercourse … 134 D4 Riga, capital … 134 F3 Rio Branco, watercourse … 129 D2 Rio de Janeiro, city … 130, 129 F5 Rio de la Plata, watercourse … 38, 40, 129 E6 Rio Grande (N. America) watercourse … 122 E4 Rio Grande (S. America) watercourse … 129 F4 Rio Grande de Santiago, watercourse … 122 F5 Rio Negro, watercourse … 129 D2 Riverside, city … 122 E4 Riyadh, capital … 66, 140 C6 Robson, Mount … 122 E3 Roca Alijos, island … 122 E5 Rockies, mount. range … 21, 122 E3 Rodrigues Island … 147 J6 Romania … 134 F4 Rome, capital … 134 E4 Ronne Ice Shelf … 158 H2 Roosevelt, Mount … 122 D3 Rosario, city … 129 D6 Roseau, capital … 125 C1 Ross Ice Shelf … 158 E1 Ross Sea … 158 E2 Rostov-on-Don, city … 135 G4 Rothera, res. sta. … 158 H2 Rotterdam, city … 134 D3 Ruapehu, Mount … 152 G7 Rufiji, watercourse … 147 G5 Russia … 21, 135 H3, 141 H3 Rwanda … 146 G5 Ryukyu Islands … 141 K6 S Sabkhat Ghuzayyil, depression … 146 F2 Sacramento, city … 122 D4 Sacramento, watercourse … 122 D4 Sahara Desert … 51, 149, 146 E2 Sahel, desert … 51, 146 D3 Saint Croix Island … 152 F5 Saint George's, capital … 125 C2 Saint Helena, terr. … 146 C6 Saint Helens, volcano … 27 Saint John’s, capital … 125 C1 Saint Kitts and Nevis … 125 C1 Saint Kliment Ohridski, res. sta. … 158 H2 Saint Lawrence, watercourse … 122 H3 Saint Lawrence Island … 122 A2 Saint Louis, city … 122 F4 Saint Lucia … 125 C2 Saint Mary’s Peak … 152 C7 Saint Petersburg, city … 66, 134 G3 Saint Pierre and Miquelon, terr. … 123 I3 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines … 125 C2 Sajama, summit … 129 D4 Sakhalin, island … 141 M3 Salvador, city … 129 G4 Salween, watercourse … 141 H6 Samara, city … 135 I3 Samoa … 153 H5 GEographical Index : 169
  • 172. San Antonio, city … 122 F5 San Diego, city … 122 E4 San Francisco, city … 122 D4 San Jorge, Gulf of … 129 D7 San José, capital … 125 B2 San Jose, city … 122 D4 San Juan, city … 125 C1 San Juan, watercourse … 125 B2 San Marino … 134 E4 San Marino, capital … 134 E4 San Martín, res. sta. … 158 H2 San Matias, Gulf of … 129 D7 San Salvador, capital … 125 B2 Sana'a, capital … 140 C7 SANAE IV, res. sta. … 158 I2 Santa Cruz, city … 129 D4 Santa Isabel Island … 152 E4 Santiago, capital … 129 C6 Santo Domingo, capital … 125 C1 Santos, city … 129 F5 São Francisco, watercourse … 129 F4 São Paulo, city … 129 F5 Sao Tome, capital … 146 D4 Sao Tome, island … 146 D5 Sao Tome and Principe … 146 D4 Sapporo, city … 141 M4 Sarajevo, capital … 134 E4 Saramati, summit … 141 H6 Sardinia, terr. … 134 D4 Sargasso Sea … 125 C1 Saskatchewan, watercourse … 122 E3 Saudi Arabia … 140 C6 Scandinavian Mountains … 134 E2 Scott, res. sta. … 158 E2 Seattle, city … 122 D3 Sebkha Tah, depression … 146 B2 Seine, watercourse … 134 D4 Semeru, volcano … 27 Sendai, city … 141 M5 Senegal … 146 B3 Sénégal, watercourse … 146 B3 Senyavin Islands … 152 E3 Seoul, capital … 141 K5 Sepik, watercourse … 152 D4 Serbia … 134 F4 Serra do Mar, mount. range … 129 F5 Severnaya Zemlya, islands … 141 H1 Seychelles … 147 I5 Shanghai, city … 141 K5 Shangqiu, city … 141 J5 Shantou, city … 141 J6 Shebele, watercourse … 147 H4 Shenyang, city … 66, 141 K4 Shenzhen, city … 141 J6 Shetland Islands … 134 C2 Shijiazhuang, city … 141 J5 Shikoku, island … 141 L5 Shiraz, city … 140 D6 Shkhara, Mount … 135 H4 Sichuan Basin … 141 I5 Sicily, terr. … 134 E5 Sierra Leone … 146 B4 Sierra Madre del Sur, mount. range … 122 F5 Sierra Madre Occidental, mount. range … 122 E5 Sierra Madre Oriental, mount. range … 21, 122 F5 Sierra Nevada (Europe), mount. range … 134 C5 Sierra Nevada (N. America), mount. range … 122 E4 Simpson Desert … 51, 152 C6 Sinai, desert … 146 G2 Singapore … 141 I8 Singapore, capital … 141 I8 Sjælland, island … 134 E3 Skagerrak, strait … 134 D3 Skopje, capital … 134 F4 Slave River … 122 E2 Slovakia … 134 E4 Slovenia … 134 E4 Snake, watercourse … 122 E3 Society Islands … 153 J5 Socotra, island … 63, 140 D7 Sofia, capital … 134 F4 Solapur, city … 140 F7 Solomon Islands … 152 F4 Somalia … 147 H4 Sonoran Desert … 51, 122 E4 Soufrière, volcano … 27 South Africa … 146 F8 South China Plateau … 141 I6 South China Sea … 32, 141 J7 South Island … 152 F8 South Korea … 141 K5 South Orkney Islands … 158 H2 South Shetland Islands … 158 H2 Spain … 36, 134 C5 Spratly Islands … 141 J8 Sri Lanka … 140 G8 Srinagar, city … 140 F5 Stanley, Mount … 146 F4 Stanovoy Range … 141 K3 Stewart Island … 152 F8 Stockholm, capital … 134 E3 Sudan … 146 F3 Sudetes, mount. range … 134 E3 Suez Canal … 146 G1 Suining, city … 141 J5 Suir, watercourse … 134 G2 Sulaiman Range … 140 E5 Sulawesi, island … 141 K9 Sulu Sea … 141 K8 Sumatra, island … 37, 141 I9 Sumba, island … 141 J9 Sunda Strait … 141 I9 Superior, Lake … 39, 122 G3 Surabaja, city … 66, 141 J9 Surat, city … 140 F6 Suriname … 129 E2 Susquehanna, watercourse … 122 G4 Suva, capital … 152 G5 Suwon, city … 141 K5 Suzhou (Anhui), city … 141 K5 Suzhou (Jiangsu), city … 141 J5 Swaziland … 146 G7 Sweden … 134 E2 Switzerland … 134 D4 Sydney, city … 154, 152 E7 Syowa, res. sta. … 158 B2 Syr Darya, watercourse … 140 E4 Syria … 140 B5 T Tabriz, city … 140 C5 Tabuaeran Island … 153 J3 Taegu, city … 141 K5 Taejon, city … 141 K5 Tage, watercourse … 134 C5 Tahiti, island … 153 K5 Taian, city … 141 J5 Taichung, city … 141 K6 Taipei, city … 141 K6 Taiwan, terr. … 141 K6 Taiyuan, city … 141 J5 Tajikistan … 140 F5 Tajumulco, summit … 125 A1 Takla Makan Desert … 51, 140 F5 Tallinn, capital … 134 F3 Tampa, city … 122 G5 Tana, Lake … 147 G3 Tanganyika, Lake … 39, 146 G5 Tangshan, city … 141 J5 Tanzania … 146 G5 Tapajos, watercourse … 129 E3 Tapti, watercourse … 140 F6 Tarim, watercourse … 141 G4 Tashkent, capital … 140 E4 Tasmania, island … 152 D8 Tasmanian Sea … 152 E8 Taurus Mountains … 135 G5 Tbilisi, capital … 135 H4 Tegucigalpa, capital … 125 B2 Tehran, capital … 140 D5 Tehuantepec, Isthmus of … 122 F5, 125 A1 Tel Aviv, capital … 140 B5 Teles Pires, watercourse … 129 E3 Ténéré, desert … 146 E3 Thabana Ntlenyana, summit … 146 F7 Thailand … 141 I7 Thailand, Gulf of … 141 I7 Thar Desert … 51, 140 F6 The Hague, capital … 134 D3 Thelon, watercourse … 122 F2 Thimphu, capital … 141 G6 Thyrrenian Sea … 134 E5 Tian Shan, mount. range … 140 F4 Tianjin, city … 66, 141 J5 Tianmen, city … 141 J5 Tianshui, city … 141 I5 Tiberias, Lake … 140 B5 Tibesti, mount. range … 146 E2 Tibetan Plateau … 142, 141 H5 Tierra del Fuego, islands … 129 D8 Tigris, watercourse … 140 C5 Tijuana, city … 122 E4 Timor Leste … 141 K9 Timor Sea … 141 K10, 152 B5 Tirana, capital … 134 E4 Titicaca, Lake … 129 D4 Tobol, watercourse … 140 E3 Tocantins, watercourse … 129 F4 Togo … 146 D4 Tokelau, terr. … 153 H4 Tokyo, capital … 142, 141 M5 Toluca, city … 122 F5 Tombigbee, watercourse … 122 G4 Tombstone Mountain … 122 C2 Tonga … 153 H5 Tonkin, Golf of … 141 I7 Toronto, city … 122 G4 Torreón, city … 122 F5 Transantarctic Mountains … 158 E1 Transylvanian Alps, mount. range … 134 F4 Trindade Island … 129 H5 Trinidad and Tobago … 125 C2 Tripoli, city … 146 E1 Troll, res. sta. … 158 A2 Tuamotu Archipelago … 153 K5 Tubuai Island … 153 K6 Tunis, capital … 146 D1 Tunisia … 146 D1 Tupungato, summit … 129 D6 Turin, city … 134 D4 Turkana, Lake … 146 G4 Turkey … 29, 135 G5 Turkmenistan … 29, 140 E5 Turks and Caicos Islands, terr. … 125 C1 Turpan Pendi, depression … 141 G4 Tuvalu … 152 G4 Tyree, Mount … 158 G2 UVW Ubangi, watercourse … 146 F4 Ucayali, watercourse … 129 C4 Ufa, city … 135 I3 Uganda … 146 G4 Ukraine … 134 G4 Ulaanbaatar, capital … 141 I4 Ulsan, city … 141 K5 Ungava Bay … 122 H3 United Arab Emirates … 140 D6 United Kingdom … 134 C3 United States … 14, 22, 27, 35, 122 F4 Ural, watercourse … 135 I3, 140 D4 Ural Mountains … 135 I2, 140 D2 Urmia, Lake … 140 C5 Uruguay … 129 E6 Uruguay, watercourse … 41, 129 E5 Urumqi, city … 141 G4 Usumacinta, watercourse … 122 F5 Uzbekistan … 140 E4 Vadodara, city … 140 F6 Vaduz, capital … 134 D4 Vaiaku, capital … 152 G4 Valdes Peninsula … 129 D7 Valencia, city … 129 D1 Valletta, capital … 134 E5 Van, Lake … 135 H5 Vancouver, city … 122 D3 Vancouver Island … 122 D3 Vanern, Lake … 134 E3 170 :170 : Geographical Index
  • 173. Vanua Levu, island … 152 G5 Vanuatu … 152 F5 Varanasi, city … 140 G6 Vatican City … 134 E4 Vättern, Lake … 134 E3 Venezuela … 129 D2 Vereeniging, city … 146 F7 Verkhoyansk Mountains … 141 K2 Vernadsky, res. sta. … 158 H2 Victoria, capital … 147 I5 Victoria Island … 37, 122 E2 Victoria, Lake … 39, 146 G5 Victoria Land … 158 D2 Vienna, capital … 134 E4 Vientiane, capital … 141 I7 Vietnam … 141 I7 Vijayawada, city … 140 G7 Vilnius, capital … 134 F3 Vilyuy, watercourse … 141 K2 Vinson Massif … 21, 158 G2 Virgin Islands, terr. … 125 C1 Virginia Beach, city … 122 G4 Visakhapatnam, city … 140 G7 Vistula, watercourse … 134 F3 Viti Levu, island … 152 G5 Vitória, city … 129 F5 Volga, watercourse … 38, 134 G3 Volga Uplands … 135 H3 Volgograd, city … 135 H4 Volta, Lake … 146 C4 Vosges, mount. range … 134 D4 Vostok, res. sta. … 158 C2 Vpadina Akchanaya, depression … 140 D4 Vpadina Kaundy, depression … 140 D4 Waddington, Mount … 122 D3 Wake Island, terr. … 141 O7 Wallaman, waterfall … 39 Wallis and Futuna, terr. … 152 G5 Warsaw, capital … 134 F3 Washington, D.C., capital … 122 G4 Washington, Mount … 122 H4 Weddell Sea … 32, 158 H2 Weifang, city … 141 J5 Wellington, capital … 152 G8 Wellington Island … 129 C7 Wenzhou, city … 141 K6 Weser, watercourse … 134 D3 West Bank, terr. … 140 B5 West Great Rift Valley, basin … 146 G5 West Siberian Plain … 140 E2 Western Ghats, mount. range … 140 F7 Western Sahara, terr. … 146 B2 White Nile, watercourse … 146 G4 White Sea … 134 G2 Wilhelm, Mount … 152 D4 Wilkes Land … 158 C2 Windhoek, capital … 146 E7 Winnipeg, Lake … 122 F3 Winnipegosis, Lake … 122 F3 Wuhan, city … 141 J5 Wuxi, city … 141 K5 XYZ Xi Jiang, watercourse … 141 J6 Xiamen, city … 141 J6 Xi'an, city … 66, 141 I5 Xiangfan, city … 141 I6 Xiantao, city … 141 J5 Xianyang, city … 141 I5 Xingu, watercourse … 129 E3 Xinyang, city … 141 J5 Xuzhou, city … 141 J5 Yablonovy Range … 141 J3 Yalu Jiang, watercourse … 141 K4 Yamoussoukro, capital … 146 C4 Yangon, city … 141 H7 Yangzi Jiang, watercourse … 38, 141 H5 Yantai, city … 141 K5 Yaoundé, capital … 146 E4 Yaqui, watercourse … 122 E5 Yaren, capital … 152 F4 Yellow River (see Huang He) … 39 Yellow Sea … 141 K5 Yellowstone River … 40 Yemen … 140 C7 Yerevan, capital … 135 H4 Yerupajá, summit … 129 C4 Yiyang, city … 141 J6 Yosemite, waterfall … 39 Yucatán, peninsula … 122 G5, 125 B1 Yukon, watercourse … 122 D2 Yulin, city … 141 J6 Zagreb, capital … 134 E4 Zagros Mountains … 140 C5 Zambezi, watercourse … 146 G6 Zambia … 146 F6 Zanzibar, island … 147 G5 Zaozhuang, city … 141 J5 Zard Kuh, summit … 140 D5 Zarghun, summit … 140 E5 Zeil, Mount … 152 C6 Zhangjiakou, city … 141 J4 Zhanjiang, city … 141 J6 Zhengzhou, city … 141 J5 Zhong Shan, res. stat. … 159 B2 Zhuzhou, city … 141 J6 Zibo, city … 141 J5 Zigong, city … 141 I6 Zimbabwe … 146 F6 Zurich, city … 134 D4 GEOGRAPHICAL Index : 171: 171
  • 174. 172 :172 : thematic Index A abyssal plain 24, 25 accretionary wedge 20 acid rain 64, 69 Africa 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151 African Union 150 age, median 81 agricultural product 98 agriculture 64, 69, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 110, 111 intensive 51, 62, 101 irrigated 98 rain-fed 98 subsistence farming 101 AIDS 112 air pollution 62, 66 air temperature 45, 46, 47 air travel 102, 105 airplane 105 airport 102 alluvia 39, 41 Alps 20, 21, 135, 137 altitude 18, 44, 46, 60, 137 Amazon 38, 40, 128, 131 Antarctic Treaty 159 Antarctica 48, 49, 158, 159 anticyclone 34, 46, 140 Antilles 125 aphelion 46 arable land 50 archipelago 27, 33, 125, 140, 142, 144, 153, 156 arid environment 50, 51 aridity 50, 149 armed forces 118 armed independence movement 116 army 116, 118 Asia 140, 141, 142, 143,144, 145 asteroid 10, 12 asthenosphere 16 atmosphere 10, 11, 34, 47, 54, 64, 66, 68 atmospheric pollution 64, 65, 66, 67 atmospheric pressure 46, 47 high-pressure 46, 50 low-pressure 46, 54, 56 atoll 36 Australia 155, 156 authoritarian system 74 B balance of trade 92 barrier reef 36 bedrock 18, 147 billionaire 106 biocenosis 58 biodegradable 69 biodiversity 58, 60, 62, 63, 131, 155 biome 58, 59, 124, 130, 136, 142, 148, 154 boreal forest 58, 59, 60, 137 maquis 59 savanna 59,147 temperate forest 58, 59, 60,123 temperate prairie 58, 123 tropical rainforest 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 tundra 45, 48, 59, 123, 137 biosphere 58, 59, 60, 61 biotope 58 birth rate 80 border dispute 116 boreal forest 58, 59, 60, 123 Buddhism 84, 85 C canopy 60 canyon 18, 24, 147 carbon dioxide 27, 64, 65, 69 Central America 123, 125 cereal 98, 100 Christianity 84, 85 cinder 26, 27 citizenship 72 city 57, 66, 68, 79, 84, 85, 124, 130, 136, 142, 148, 149, 154, 156 civil war 116, 117 cliff 36 climate 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 60, 124, 130, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 147, 148, 153, 154, 159 arid 44, 45, 50, 51, 59, 140, 149 coastal 45, 154 cold 44, 45, 142 cold temperate 45 continental with cool summer 45 continental with hot summer 45 continental with short, cold summer 45 dry 45 Mediterranean 45, 135, 136 mountain climate 45 semiarid 44, 45, 50, 51, 140 subtropical humid 45 tropical 44, 45, 127, 140, 147, 153 warm temperate 45, 147, 153 wet tropical 44, 45 wet tropical with dry winter 44, 45 climatic catastrophes 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 cold environment 48, 49 collision mountain 20 composition of Earth 16 conflict 110, 116, 117, 118, 119 conifer 58, 60, 61, 137 conservation of species 62, 63 container 103 continental crust 16, 24 continental drift 15, 16 continental ice sheet 48 continental plate 20, 27 continental shelf 25 continental slope 25 convection 16 coral reef 36, 58, 154 core 16 Coubertin, Pierre de 88 country 72, 73 crater 12, 13, 26, 41 crop 98 crust 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 41 current, ocean 32, 34, 44, 49, 135 cyclone 12, 34, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 153 D dam 41, 111 day 46 death rate 66, 80, 108, 112, 113 debt 106, 107 deciduous tree 58, 60 decolonization 150 deforestation 62, 131 delta 36, 40, 41, 111 democratic system 74, 138 demographer 78 demographic transition 80 depression 18, 24, 41, 46, 54, 128 desert 12, 41, 45, 50, 51, 59, 123, 146, 147, 149, 153 absolute 50 high-pressure 50 rain shadow 50 desertification 50, 51, 149 developing country 78, 79, 80, 81, 98, 100, 104, 107, 112, 114 Development Assistance Committee 107 development indicator 106, 108, 109 disease 112 dominant wind 44, 54 drought/dry 44, 45, 50, 59, 60, 63 dwarf planet 10 E Earth 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 composition 16 observation 12, 34 structure 14, 15, 16, 17 earthquake 14, 28, 29, 57, 144 ecliptic 46 economics 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 economic development 91 economic sector 90 ecoregion 62, 63 ecosystem 58, 60, 62 education 106, 108, 114, 115 El Niño 34 172 : Main subjects are in bold.
  • 175. : 173: 173thematic Index election 74, 77 electricity 96 emigrant 78 employment 94 energy 96, 97 fossil fuel 69, 96 geothermal 96 hydroelectric 41, 96, 97 nuclear 96, 97 renewable 96 solar 96 wind 96 epicenter 28 epidemic 112 erosion 18, 20, 22, 38, 40, 41, 66, 111 erosion cycle 22 eruption, volcanic 14, 16, 26, 27, 66, 69, 144 estuary 41, 48, 58 eucalyptus 155 euro 90, 138 Europe 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 European Union 138 evaporation 34, 38, 40, 41 executive power 75, 138 export 92, 93, 98 extinction 62, 63, 131 eye of a cyclone 54 F farmland 98, 99 farmland irrigation 110 fault 14, 20, 28, 36, 41, 149 fertility rate 81 fertilizer 68, 69, 101 fjord 36, 48 flood 52, 54, 55, 57 flow 40 focus 28 food aid 98 food supply 98 football 86, 87 forest 58, 59, 60, 61, 69, 123, 128, 131, 137, 142, 147 boreal 58, 59, 60, 137 conifer 58, 60 deciduous tree 58, 60 mixed 60 temperate 58, 59, 60, 123 tropical 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 forest fire 52, 64, 65 fossil fuel 64, 69, 96 freedom 74, 118 freedom of the press 118 freshwater 38, 39, 40, 41, 58, 110, 111 freshwater resource 110, 111 fuel 64, 69, 96 Fujita scale 56 Fujita, Theodore 56 fumarole 26 G galaxy 10 genetically modified organism (GMO) 100 geothermal energy 96 geyser 26 glacial valley 40 glacier 36, 38, 40, 41, 48, 49 global warming 64, 65, 159 GMO (genetically modified organism) 100 gorge 18, 40 government 72, 74, 75 Great Barrier Reef 154 Great Rift Valley 19, 147, 149 greenhouse effect 64 greenhouse gas 64, 65 gross domestic product (GDP) 91, 118 gross national product (GNP) 106, 108, 112, 113 Gulf Stream 34, 135 H hail 52 health 64, 66, 106, 108, 112, 113 heavy metals 68, 69 high-speed train 104 Himalayas 20, 21, 143 Hinduism 84, 85 hot spot 26, 27 House of Commons 74 human development 108 human development index 108 humidity 44, 45 hurricane 12, 54, 125 hydroelectricity 41, 96, 97 I ice 48, 49, 59, 159 ice age 49 ice cap 45, 48, 49, 159 extension during the ice age 49 ice sheet, continental 48 ice shelf 48 iceberg 49 illiteracy 112, 114, 115 illiteracy rate 114 immigrant 78, 80 import 92, 93, 98 inclination 46 independence 116, 150 independence movement 116 industry 66, 68, 69, 90, 95, 111 inequality 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112 infant mortality 108, 112, 113 international conflict 116 International Labour Organization (ILO) 94 international trade 90, 92, 103 Inter-Parliamentary Union 77 intertropical zone 44, 52, 54, 60, 62 intrusion 26 irrigation 41, 98, 110 Islam 84, 85 island 25, 27, 36, 37, 125, 135, 136, 142, 144, 153, 154, 155 island arc 25, 125 islands of Oceania 153, 156 J Judaism 84, 85 judicial power 75 Jupiter 11 K kangaroo 155 koala 155 Kyoto Protocol 65 L labor force 94 lagoon 36 lake 12, 13, 32, 38, 39, 40, 41, 57, 58, 69, 122, 133, 149, 154, 156 artificial 41 glacial 41 oxbow 41 tectonic 41, 149 volcanic 41 landforms on the ocean floor 24, 25 landslide 52, 55 language 72, 82, 83, 132, 138 language family 82 latitude 34, 44, 46, 48, 50, 54, 60 lava 16, 24, 26, 27, 41, 156 law 72, 74, 75 legislative power 75, 138 life expectancy 108, 112, 113 lightning 52 literacy 108 lithosphere 14, 16 lithospheric plate 14, 15, 20, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 144, 149, 155 littoral 36 livestock 98, 99, 100 living, standard of 106, 108, 110 London Convention 68 longevity 108 lower chamber 74, 76 lunar mission 12 M Maastricht Treaty 138 magma 16, 20, 24, 26, 27 magma chamber 26, 27 magnitude 28, 29 malnutrition 112 mantle 14, 16, 20, 26, 27 maquis 59 maritime transportation 34, 102, 103 Mars 10 marsupial 155 meander 40, 41 meat 100 median age 81 megalopolis 79 Melanesia 156 Mercury 10 metamorphic rock 20 meteorite 12, 13 Micronesia 156 migration 78, 80 emigrant 78 immigrant 78, 80 military expenditures 118
  • 176. Milky Way 10, 11 mixed forest 60 money 72, 90, 91 monsoon 44, 140, 153 Montreal Protocol 64 Moon 12, 32 moraine 41 mortality 66, 80, 108, 112, 113 mountain 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 24, 38, 40, 44, 45, 50, 123, 127, 128, 131, 135, 137, 140, 143, 147, 156, 159 coastal 20 collision 20 formation 20 old 20, 135 range 20, 24, 25, 45, 123, 127, 135, 140, 143, 156 subduction 20 young 18, 20 mouth (of river) 36, 40, 41 multinational corporation 90 N nation 72 National Assembly 74 national park 62 natural resources 90, 150, 159 Neptune 11 night 46 North America 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127 Northern Hemisphere 46, 47, 49 nuclear plant 68, 96 nutrition 100, 106 0 oasis 41, 146 ocean 12, 14, 24, 25, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 44, 54, 58, 68 ocean current 32, 34, 44, 49, 135 ocean floor 24, 25 Oceania 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157 oceanic crust 16, 20, 24 oceanic plate 20, 25, 27 oceanic ridge 24, 25 official development assistance 106, 107 official language 72, 82 offshore drilling 34, 68 oil 68, 96, 97, 133 oil crisis 97 oil spill 68 oil tanker 68 Olympic Games 88, 89 Olympic movement 86 orbit 10, 46 organic pollutant 68 Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD) 107 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 97 orogenesis 20 ozone layer 64, 159 P Pacific Ring of Fire 26, 27, 144 pack ice 38, 48 Panama Canal 125 Pangaea 15 Panthalassa 15 park, national 62 parliament 74, 75, 76, 77, 138 House of Commons 74 lower chamber 74, 76 upper chamber 74, 76 pasture 98 peneplain 22 people (nation) 72, 82 perihelion 46 pesticides 68 petroleum 68, 96, 97 phytoplankton 13, 34 pipe 26 plain 18, 24, 25, 38, 135, 140, 143 planet 10, 11, 12, 16 planet, dwarf 10 plate tectonics 14, 15 plateau 18, 24, 25, 44, 128, 140, 142, 143, 156 platypus 155 pole 44, 48, 59, 110, 123 political system 74, 138 authoritarian 74 democratic 74, 138 politics 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 pollutant, organic 68 pollution 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 124 air pollution 62, 66 atmospheric pollution 64, 65, 66, 67 pollutant particle 64, 66 polluting gas 64, 66, 69 radioactive pollutant 68 soil pollution 68, 69 urban pollution 66 water pollution 68, 69, 111 Polynesia 156 population 78, 79, 80, 81, 124, 130, 136, 140, 142, 147, 148, 154 aging 78, 80, 81 balance 80 density 52, 66, 78 distribution 78, 124, 130, 136, 142, 148, 154 growth 66, 80, 81, 110 urban 79 port 102, 123 poverty line 106 power 74, 75, 138 executive 75, 138 judicial 75 legislative 75, 138 prairie, temperate 58, 123 precipitation 34, 38, 44, 50, 58, 59, 159 press 74, 76, 118 pressure 46, 47, 50, 54, 56 high 46, 50 low 46, 54, 56 protected area 62 R radioactive waste 68, 96 rail network 104 railroad 102, 104 rain 40, 44, 52, 55, 57, 64, 69, 98, 140, 149, 153 rainforest 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 reading 114, 115 records, temperature and precipitation 45 relief 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 45, 123, 140, 159 religion 74, 84, 85 Reporters Without Borders 118 reservoir 41, 111 ria 36 Richter, Charles Francis 28 Richter scale 28, 29 rift 19, 24, 149 Rift Valley 19, 147, 149 Ring of Fire 26, 27, 144 river 38, 40, 41, 55, 57, 68, 131, 137 affluent 13 distributary 40 meander 40, 41 tributary 40, 131, 137 riverbed 40 road 102, 104 road network 104 rock 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27 metamorphic 20 volcanic 16, 20 S Saffir-Simpson scale 55 Sahara 50, 51, 147, 149 Sahel 51, 147, 149 salinity 34, 41 satellite 10, 11,12, 13, 34 artificial 12, 13, 34 natural 10, 11, 12 Saturn 11 savanna 59, 147 Schengen area 138 schooling 115 sea 32, 34, 135 season 44, 46, 48, 59 dry season 46 fall 46 rainy season (monsoon) 59, 140, 153 spring 46 spring equinox 46 summer 46, 48 summer solstice 46 wet season 46 winter 46, 48 winter solstice 46 seasons, cycle of the 46 Security Council 72 sediment 20, 22, 36, 40, 41 seism 28 seismic activity 28 seismic wave 28 senate 74 separation of powers 75 executive 75, 138 judicial 75 legislative 75, 138 174 : thematic Index
  • 177. service activity 90, 95 ship 103 shipping lane 102, 103 shore cliff 36 shoreline 38, 45 slavery 150 snow 48, 52 soccer 86, 87 soil 51, 60, 68, 69 soil pollution 68, 69 solar energy 96 Solar System 10, 11 South America 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133 Southern Hemisphere 46, 47, 49 space mission 12 species, conservation of 62, 63 species, threatened 62, 63 sport 86, 87, 88, 89 spring 40 standard of living 106, 108, 110 storm surge 54, 55, 57 stream 40 subduction 20, 25, 144 subway 102, 104 summit 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 48, 143, 144 Sun 10, 32, 46, 47, 49 angle of solar rays 47 solar ray 44, 47 sunlight 34, 46 sunshine 44, 48 supercontinent 15 T tectonic fault 149 tectonic lake 41, 149 tectonic shocks 20 tectonics, plate 14, 15 temperate forest 58, 59, 60, 123 temperate prairie 58, 123 temperature 10, 11, 16, 26, 34, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 64, 65, 159 territory 72, 116, 126, 157 Third World 106 threatened species 62, 63 thunderstorm 52 tide 32, 33, 36, 41, 49 Tordesillas meridian 132 Tordesillas, Treaty of 132 tornado 52, 56 torrent 40 trade, balance of 92 trade, international 90, 92, 103 train 104 transportation 64, 69, 102, 103, 104, 105 air 102, 105 ground 102, 104 maritime 34, 102, 103 rail 102, 104 road 102, 104 Treaty of Tordesillas 132 tree 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 131, 137 conifer 58, 60 deciduous 58, 60 trench 24, 25, 144 tropical rainforest 44, 58, 59, 60, 131, 142 tsunami 29, 57 tundra 45, 48, 59, 123, 137 typhoon 54 U unemployment 94 United Nations (UN) 72 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 108 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 114 Universe 10 Upper chamber 74, 76 Uranus 11 urban area 78, 102 urban sprawl 62 urbanization 79 V vaccination 112, 113 valley 18, 22, 25, 36, 38, 40, 41, 137, 143, 147, 149 vegetation 58, 59 vehicle 66, 96, 104 Venus 10 volcanism 26, 144 volcano 16, 20, 24, 26, 27, 41, 64, 125, 127, 144, 149, 156 volcanic eruption 14, 16, 26, 27, 64, 66, 69, 144 volcanic island 25, 27, 36, 144 volcanic rock 16, 20 W wallaby 155 war 116, 117, 150 warming, global 64, 65, 159 waste 68, 69, 96 water 12, 18, 22, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 50, 54, 57, 68, 69, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113 drinking water 108, 109, 112 freshwater 38, 39, 40, 41, 58, 110, 111 groundwater 26, 38 seawater 34, 48 wastewater 68 water cycle 38, 40 water pollution 68, 69, 111 water table 41, 68, 110 watercourse 18, 22, 36, 38, 40, 41, 68, 96 waterfall 38, 39, 40, 128 watershed 38, 110, 123, 131, 156 wave 32, 34, 49, 57 wealth 106 Wegener, Alfred 15 wind 18, 22, 32, 34, 36, 41, 44, 54, 55, 56, 64, 159 wind energy 96 women 77, 94, 95, 114 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 62 World Health Organisation (WHO) 112 world ocean 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 world population 78, 79, 80, 81, 140 World Trade Organization (WTO) 92 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 62 writing 83, 114, 115 thematic Index : 175
  • 178. Cover NASA Goddard/Space Flight Center p. VII Rocky Planet NOAA/NESDIS/NGDC Blue Planet © Patricia Bruno Planet in Balance © François Fortin Inhabited Planet © iStockphoto.com Continents © Felix Möckel/iStockphoto.com p. 8 © Mike Bentley/iStockphoto.com p. 9 © Daniel Stein/iStockphoto.com p. 11 © Noël Cramer p. 12 tl NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL, MISR Team cr Marit Jentoft-Nilsen, NASA GSFC Visualization Analysis Lab p. 13 bl Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC br Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team p. 14 NOAA/NESDIS/NGDC p. 17 © Tom Pfeiffer/VolcanoDiscovery p. 18 t Glacier National Park/NPS Photo b © José Carlos Pires Pereira/iStockphoto.com p. 19 l © David Peterson r © Barbara Harris p. 21 © Oleg Kozlov/iStockphoto.com p. 23 © Bryan Delodder/iStockphoto.com p. 24 Galapagos Rift 2005 Exploration, NOAA-OE p. 26 USGS p. 29 Dr. Roger Hutchison/NOAA p. 30 & p. 31 © Alexander Hafemann/iStockphoto. com p. 33 New Brunswick Department of Tourism and Parks p. 35 © David Freund/iStockphoto.com p. 36 & p. 37 © J.M. Mata/iStockphoto.com p. 39 l © Vlad Ghiea r © Xiaorui Wang p. 40 t © Mike Norton/iStockphoto.com b © Graham Prentice/iStockphoto.com p. 41 l Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC r Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC p. 42 © Alexander Hafemann/iStockphoto.com p. 43 © Steven Robertson/iStockphoto.com p. 46 t © Stéphanie Lanctôt b © Lauri Wiberg/iStockphoto.com p. 48 © Simon Chignard p. 49 © Corel Stock Photo Library p. 51 © S. Colvey/CRDI p. 54 Jim Brooks/U.S. Navy p. 57 Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA p. 58 tr © Michel Claquin tl © Mélanie Morin cc © E. George/CRDI b © Yuval Simonov p. 59 tl patrick.verdier.free.fr tr © Andrey Mirzoyants/iStockphoto.com cr © Stéphanie Lanctôt cc © Jean-Claude Corbeil b Michael Van Woert/NOAA/NESDIS/ORA p. 61 © François Fortin p. 62 © Einar Timdal, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo p. 63 l © Alain Christophe/www.plantemania.com r © The Arboretum of Penn State Behrend p. 65 State of Texas Forestry Service and the USFS p. 67 © Dmitry Maslov/iStockphoto.com p. 68 & p. 69 Office of Response and Restoration NOS/NOAA p. 70 © David Steets p. 71 © Jeremy Edwards/iStockphoto.com p. 72 l © UN r © iStockphoto.com p. 75 © Andrei Tchernov/iStockphoto.com p. 76 © Joe Gough/iStockphoto.com p. 77 © Claudio Robles p. 81 © Peter Garnhum p. 83 © Daniel Price p. 84 © Tommy Junger p. 85 tl © Moti Meiri/iStockphoto.com tr © Steven Allan/iStockphoto.com bl © Fraz Ahmed Ismat br © David Cussac p. 87 © Adam Valvasori/World Vision Australia p. 89 © Krishna Santhanam p. 90 © Olga Shelego/iStockphoto.com p. 95 © Christopher O Driscoll/iStockphoto.com p. 99 © François Fortin p. 101 © Tony Campbell/iStockphoto.com p. 103 © Gertjan Hooijer/iStockphoto.com p. 104 t © Michael Fletcher b © Joe Flasher p. 105 NASA p. 109 © Mark Linnard/iStockphoto.com p. 111 © Ken H. Dennis p. 112 © Marko Kokic/Canadian Red Cross p. 115 t © Steve Stone/iStockphoto.com b F. Young/USAID p. 119 © Diego Cervo/iStockphoto.com p. 120 © iStockphoto.com p. 121 © Bruce Bean/iStockphoto.com p. 122 © Keith Vaught p. 123 cc © Norbert Woehnl cr © Kenn W. Kiser b Bob Nichols/USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service p. 124 © Laird M. Le p. 125 Quartermaster Joe Schebal, NOAA p. 127 t © Arden C. Llewellyn III b © John Miller/iStockphoto.com p. 128 cl © Marc St-Germain cr © Federico Donatini bl © John Rose br © Fabiano Coura p. 130 © Alexander Vervoort p. 131 © Leonardo F. Freitas p. 132 © José-Manuel Benito Alvarez p. 133 © Miles Wallis p. 135 © John Woodworth/iStockphoto.com p. 136 t © Xavier Marchant/iStockphoto.co c © Martina Misar/iStockphoto.com b © Gary Li p. 137 © Tomasz Resiak/iStockphoto.com p. 141 t © Franco Pecchio b © Melisa Tuya p. 142 t © Daniel Price c © Chaun Soh b © Alexander Hafemann/iStockphoto.com p. 143 © Kate Guthrie p. 144 © Holger Mette/iStockphoto.com p. 146 © François Fortin p. 147 t © iStockphoto.com c © David Haberlah b © Marie-Anne Legault p. 148 © David Erroll p. 152 © Janice Dunn p. 153 © Mike Morley/iStockphoto.com p. 154 t © Lauren Gabelhouse c © Joe Gough/iStockphoto.com b © iStockphoto.com p. 157 © Janice Dunn p. 158 l National Science Foundation/Josh Landis r Michael Van Woert, NOAA/NESDIS, ORA p. 159 Michael Van Woert, NOAA/NESDIS, ORA t: top; b: bottom; c: center; r: right; l: left 176 : PHOTO CREDITS
  • 180. 7 Access to water is one of the main development indicators. It corresponds to the proportion of the population that has access to at least 20 liters of water per day per person from an improved source (pipeline, protected well, rainwater collection, etc.) less than one kilometer from their residence. In many regions of the world, populations lack water, leading to serious sanitary problems. The East Asia/Pacific region has the largest number of inhabitants without access to improved water sources. Inhabitants of urban areas have a better chance of benefiting from an improved source. Mongolia, for example, has very wide disparities between drinking-water access in urban zones (87%) and rural zones (30%). ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER Development indicators Development indicators are numerical indicators used to estimate the development of nations.They measure different parameters that affect the quality of life of human beings. GNP measures a country’s wealth or poverty, while life expectancy and infant mortality rate reflect its state of health. Other indicators assess satisfaction of basic human needs, such as access to drinking water, sufficient food, and housing. Still others measure level of education, the guarantee of a population’s future. To integrate these different parameters into a single indicator, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) calculates the human development index.This index, which takes account of longevity, education, literacy, and standard of living (purchasing power) assesses development on a scale from 0 to 1. In 2004, the index ranged from 0.311 for Niger to 0.965 for Norway. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX High Average Low No data Source: UN Water point, Tanzania Access to a source of drinking water is one of the main development indicators. SHARE OF THE POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO DRINKING WATER 90%–100% 70%–89% 50%–69% 30%–49% 0%–29% No data Source: UN INEQUALITIES INEQUALITIES RANKING OF COUNTRIES ACCORDING TO THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX THE HIGHEST-RANKED COUNTRIES THE LOWEST-RANKED COUNTRIES RANK COUNTRY INDEX RANK COUNTRY INDEX Norway 0.965 Mozambique 0.390 Iceland 0.960 Burundi 0.384 Australia 0.957 Ethiopia 0.371 Ireland 0.956 Chad 0.368 Sweden 0.951 Central African Republic 0.353 Canada 0.950 Guinea-Bissau 0.349 Japan 0.949 Burkina Faso 0.342 United States 0.948 Mali 0.338 Switzerland 0.947 Sierra Leone 0.335 Netherlands 0.947 Niger 0.311 World average: 0.741 Source: UNDP EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 109108 : An overview of the state of the world for under standing g lobal issues Enlargements provide a detailed view of specific regions in the world. Charts and graphics show statistics that are linked to the subject being presented. Secondary maps illustrate distinctive perspectives. Inside you will find: • more than 110 thematic maps, • more than 50 fact tables from world-renown organizations, • more than 130 photographs, • a glossary and detailed indexes, • rich encyclopedic content, reviewed by experts. NEW ZEALAND NICARAGUA TOGO GEORGIA BANGLADESH HONDURAS JORD AN GUATEMALA PHILIPPINES SYRIA PANAMA SRI LANKA SOUTH KOREA LAOSHAITI SIERRA LEONE BHUTAN COSTA RICA LESOTHO ARMENIA BELIZE CANADA RUSSIA CHINA BRAZIL AUSTRALIA INDIA KAZAKHSTAN UNITED STATES SUDAN ALGERIA ARGENTINA MEXICO MONGOLIA NIGER PERU CHAD ANGOLA EGYPT BOLIVIA TURKEY SAUDI ARABIA UKRAINE IRAQ NIGERIA SWEDEN PAKISTAN ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA FINLAND ZAMBIA COLOMBIA KENYA MAURITANIA BURMA SOMA LIA YEMEN LIBYA AFGHANISTAN BOTSWANA OMAN TURKMENISTAN CONGO THAILAND I N D O N E S I A CAMEROON ZIMBABWE GABON ICELAND GUINEA CHILE NORWAY IRAN DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO MALI MO ZAMB IQU E SOUTH AFRICA UZBEKISTAN MADAGASCA R PARAGUAY MOROCCO VIE TNAM GHANA JAPAN TANZANIA NEPAL GUYANA ECUADOR UGANDA URUGUAY SENEGAL KYRGYZSTAN VENEZUELA CUBA TUNISIA BENIN BURKINA FASO M A L A Y S I A CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. CÔTE D'IVOIRE LATVIA MALAWI AZERBAIJAN SURINAME TAJIKISTAN CAMBODIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA LIBERIA ERITREA ESTONIA NORTH KOREA ISRAEL BURUNDI RWANDA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES KUWAIT MOLDO VA DJIBOUTIGUINEA- BISSAU QATAR DOMINICAN REP. EL SALVADOR FIJI SWAZILAND LEBANON EQUATORIAL GUINEA JAMAICA VANUATU BAHAMAS TIMOR LESTE SOLOMON IS. SAMOA TRINIDAD ANDTOBAGO BRUNEI MAURITIUS COMOROS DOMINICA MALTA KIRIBATI TONGA SAINT LUCIA SINGAPORE CAPE VERDE GREENLAND(DK) WESTERN SAHARA(MA) PALAU SAOTOME AND PRINCIPE GRENADA SEYCHELLES FRENCHGUIANA(FR) ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA MICRONESIA NAURU TUVALU MARSHALL IS. MALDIVES CYPRUS GAMBIA BAHRAIN BARBADOS GAZA STRIP SAINTVINCENT AND THE GRENADINES SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS Sibu (1) Oslo (4) Kudus (1) Omaha (3) Perth (1) Kyoto (3) Delhi (3) Seoul (3) Dubai (2) Mecca (1) Surgut (1) Sydney (3) Almaty (3) Taipei (7) Moscow (24) Riyadh (2) Dallas (20) Phoenix (3) Wichita (3) Bangkok (3) Beijing (1) T'ainan (1) Caracas (2) Atlanta (4) Seattle (7) Houston (6) Shanghai (1) Donets'k (2) Istanbul (7) Cairo (1) Columbia (3) Hamilton (1) Edmonton (1) Honolulu (1) Santiago (2) Las Vegas (4) Melbourne (2) Hong Kong (18) Bangalore (1) Stockholm (5) Monterrey (1) Vancouver (1) Sao Paulo (6) Saint John (1) Kuwait (2) George Town (1) Mexico City (9) Antofagasta (1) Stellenbosch (1) Magnitogorsk (1) Manila (3) Kuala Lumpur (4) Buenos Aires (1) Johannesburg (1) Salt Lake City (3) Rio de Janeiro (2) Bombay (5) Bogota (2) Tefen (1) Tokyo (13) Nassau (1) Denver (5) Jeddah (4) Surabaja (1) Tel Aviv (5) San Jose (17) Singapore (5) San Diego (5) Osaka (2) Bentonville (4) San Antonio (4) Los Angeles (36) Minneapolis (6) San Francisco (23) Fort Lauderdale (5) Dnipropetrovs'k (1) Stuttgart (4) Heidelberg (3) Rome (2) Milano (3) Paris (12) Berlin (3) Vienna (3) Madrid (3) Dublin (2) Warsaw (1) London (19) Hamburg (9) La Coruna (3) Zurich (4) Luzern (3) Geneva (3) Bad Homburg (3) SPAIN FRANCE POLAND ITALY GERMANY ROMANIA UKRAINE IRELAND HUNGARY AUSTRIA BULGARIA LITHUANIA CZECH REP. SWITZERLAND UNITED KINGDOM PORTUGAL GREECE CROATIA SLOVAKIA BELARUS SERBIA BELGIUM NETHERLANDS ALBANIA SLOVENIA MACEDONIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA RUSSIA LUXEMBOURG ANDORRA LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO DENMARK SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO VATICAN CITY Philadelphia (3) Washington D.C. (6) Racine (4) Ottawa (1) Québec (2) Boston (9) Chicago (18) Detroit (6) Toronto (6) Montréal (4) New York (45) Cleveland (3) Charleston (3) Kalamazoo (3) EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET 106 : INEQUALITIES Despite economists’forecasts that globalization of the economy will benefit the poorest the most, inequalities in the world are getting worse in terms of health, nutrition, education, housing, and other areas. Gross national product (GNP) per capita, a country’s main socioeconomic development indicator, ranges from about 100 in the poorest countries to almost 60,000 in the wealthiest. These disparities are aggravated by the fact that in the 1970s, the Third World became heavily indebted in order to finance its development.The borrowed funds, often poorly managed or misappropriated, have not had the anticipated effect. Today, unable to pay back its debt, the Third World is demanding that the debt be written off. At the same time, the wealthiest countries donate to the most disadvantaged countries in the form of official development assistance. Measuring wealth The GNP is an indicator that measures the total value of the goods and services produced in a country during one year, as well as its net revenues from foreign countries.Total GNP is used to measure a country’s wealth. Divided by the number of inhabitants, it gives an indication of the standard of living of a country’s population. OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE The member countries of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offer aid to developing countries by agreeing to reduce their debt or by providing them with new funding. Number of billionaires (per metropolitan region) Source: Forbes 10 5 1 45 DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH GNP per capita ≥ $25,000 $10,000–$24,999 $3,000–$9,999 $1,000–$2,999 $500–$999 < $500 Sources: World Bank; UN The expression “Third World”was coined during the Cold War to designate countries that belonged to neither the capitalist nor the communist sphere of influence. Since the 1970s,“Third World”has referred to the poorest countries on the planet. Many of these countries’populations live in extreme misery. About 1.3 billion people, representing 20% of the world’s population, survive on less than 1 per day—that is, under the poverty line defined by the United Nations. POVERTY LINE Share of the population living on less than $1 per day ≥ 50% 20%–49% 10%–19% 5%–9% < 5% No data Source: UN THE COUNTRIES OF THE THIRD WORLD INEQUALITIES MAIN DONOR COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP United States $27,622 M 0.2 Japan $13,147 M 0.3 United Kingdom $10,767 M 0.5 Germany $10,082 M 0.4 France $10,026 M 0.5 Netherlands $5,115 M 0.8 Italy $5,091 M 0.3 Canada $3,756 M 0.4 Sweden $3,362 M 0.9 Spain $3,018 M 0.3 Source: OECD EARTH:ANINHABITEDPLANET : 107106 : MAIN RECIPIENT COUNTRIES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE RANK COUNTRY ASSISTANCE IN 2005 % OF GNP Afghanistan $2,192 M 31.3 Sudan $1,472 M 6.4 Ethiopia $1,202 M 10.8 Dem. Rep. of the Congo $1,034 M 14.8 Tanzania $871 M 6.8 Zambia $836 M 14.4 Mozambique $771 M 12.5 Uganda $704 M 8.8 Bangladesh $563 M 0.8 Madagascar $500 M 8.7 Source: OECD www.qa-international.com TheVisualWorldAtlas Clear captions make maps easy to read. Photographs from the four corners of the globe reveal the extraordinary diversity of our planet’s landscapes and inhabitants. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLASDesigned for the whole family, The Visual World Atlas covers hundreds of subjects that touch on different aspects of life on Earth with clarity and precision (geology, environment, politics, demography, economy, etc.) Presenting thousands of statistical facts on the world’s 193 countries, this thematic atlas features accessible text linked to visual content of exceptional quality. Unique to its genre, for school as well as home, The Visual World Atlas is essential reading for discovering and understanding the world in all its diversity. [ FACTS AND MAPS OF THE CURRENT WORLD ] THE VISUAL WORLD ATLAS Cover_AtlasNotreMonde.indd 1 27/01/09 09:39:57