![Spanish (24.0%), Italian (9.0%), German (6.6%), Chinese (6.0%) and Ukrai-
nian (3.6%), along with other languages (e.g. Arabic, Cree, Punjabi, etc.).
Instruments
The questionnaire consisted of 55 items to assess the self-relevant con-
structs proposed by the three frameworks (SEM, SDT and L2MSS). Items
were rated on a five-point scale. Twenty-eight items from Noels et al.
(2000) assessed SDT orientations: intrinsic motivation (four items: e.g.
‘For the pleasure I experience as I get to know [TL] better’; a = .91);
integrated regulation (four items: e.g. ‘Because it is a part of my identity’;
a = .91); identified regulation (five items: e.g. ‘Because it helps me to
achieve goals that are important to me’; a = .87); introjected regulation
(seven items: e.g. ‘Because I would feel guilty if I didn’t know a second
language’; a = .87); external regulation (four items: e.g. ‘In order to have
a better salary later on’; a = .70) and amotivation (four items: e.g. ‘Hon-
estly, I don’t know; I truly have the impression of wasting my time in
studying [TL]’; a = .86). A total of 23 items from Dörnyei (2010) repre-
sented: the ideal L2 self (12 items: e.g. ‘I often imagine myself in the
future speaking [TL] very well’; a = .95) and the ought-to L2 self (11
items: ‘If I fail to learn a foreign language like [TL] I’ll be letting other
people down’; a = .87). A total of four items from Gardner (1985)
assessed integrative motivation (e.g. ‘Because it will allow me to meet
and converse with more and varied people’; a = .85).
Additional instruments assessed engagement, affect and proficiency
indices that are hypothesised to be predicted by the self-relevant variables.
Nine items assessed schoolwork engagement (e.g. ‘I am enthusiastic about
my [TL] studies’; a = .95; Salmela-Aro & Upadaya, 2012) and 10 items
assessed anxiety (e.g. ‘I get nervous when I am speaking in my [the TL]
class’; a = .86; Clément & Baker, 2001). Five items assessed the students’
intention to continue learning the language (Noels et al., 1999; e.g.
‘I want to keep on learning [the TL] as long as possible’; a = .94)
and four items from Clément and Baker (2001) assessed the students’
self-evaluation of their reading, writing, speaking and understanding of
the TL on a scale ranging from 1 to 7, where a high mean score indicated
a high self-evaluation of TL competence (a = .83).
Data collection and analysis
Students who were enrolled in diverse language courses at a Canadian
university completed an online questionnaire that was part of a larger
study on LLM (Chaffee et al., in preparation). The questionnaire wording
was adapted to each student’s TL and completed at individual computer
terminals during group testing sessions. Prior to completing the survey,
At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 27](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/25907202-250518134146-b85d6bd9/85/Theimpact-Of-Selfconcept-On-Language-Learning-Kata-Csizr-Editor-Michael-Magid-Editor-45-320.jpg)
![[HL]) and (c) whether the TL is English or not. The most common con-
tact situation was the EFL/ESL (English as a second language) context:
51.3% of the studies were solely based on this situation, and another
12.8% examined the EFL/ESL context and another language. One third of
the studies did not include English; 16.7% examined one foreign language,
14.1% examined a second language, and only 3.8% examined multiple lan-
guages within one study. HL learning was examined in only 2.5% of the
papers. This analysis suggests that greater diversity in the languages rep-
resented is needed. As well, more attention could be directed towards HL
learning. Although it is important to develop proficiency in the language
of the receiving society, maintenance of the HL is also an important issue
for immigrants and their offspring.
As noted above, the country in which the data collection takes place
has been suggested to make salient different issues in language learning
depending on the opportunities available for interaction with the TL
group. The country in which the research takes place is also an important
consideration because countries potentially differ in their cultural systems
in ways that are reflected in motivational processes (see Heine, 2010;
Sorrentino & Yamaguchi, 2008). As the Appendix shows, about 70% of
the empirical studies using the SEM were carried out in North American
or European countries, such as the United States, Canada, Hungary and
Spain. In contrast, researchers using SDT or the L2MSS frameworks
recruited participants less often in so-called Western societies, but more in
East Asian contexts, such as China, Japan and Korea (38.2% and 61.8%,
respectively). Given that current research in (cross-) cultural psychology
has demonstrated important variations in how people construe their
selves, how accepting they are of power hierarchies and how they view
their relationships with others, it would seem critical to better under-
stand how these cultural dynamics relate to motivational dynamics
involved in LL (see Noels et al., this volume).
Future directions for the self and LLM
In this chapter, we examined the differences and similarities among
three theoretical frameworks (SDT, SEM and L2MSS), and highlighted
various methodological and contextual trends in the empirical research
emanating from these theories. Below, we summarise important issues
that we feel merit greater attention in future studies.
First, the researcher’s choice of theoretical constructs should be
informed by the types of outcome variables that the researcher wishes
to understand. Although these theories have conceptual overlap, our
review and empirical study findings suggest that if the phenomena we
wish to investigate are learning-related (such as motivational intensity,
self-evaluation or academic engagement), SDT and L2MSS would be good
At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 33](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/25907202-250518134146-b85d6bd9/85/Theimpact-Of-Selfconcept-On-Language-Learning-Kata-Csizr-Editor-Michael-Magid-Editor-51-320.jpg)
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- 5. The Impact of Self-Concept on Language Learning
- 6. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Series Editor: Professor David Singleton, University of Pannonia, Hungary and Fellow Emeritus, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland This series brings together titles dealing with a variety of aspects of language acquisition and processing in situations where a language or languages other than the native language is involved. Second language is thus interpreted in its broadest possible sense. The volumes included in the series all offer in their different ways, on the one hand, exposition and discussion of empirical findings and, on the other, some degree of theoretical reflection. In this latter connection, no particular theoretical stance is privileged in the series; nor is any relevant perspective— sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, etc.— deemed out of place. The intended readership of the series includes final-year undergraduates working on second language acquisition projects, postgraduate students involved in second language acquisition research, and researchers and teachers in general whose interests include a second language acquisition component. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.
- 7. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: 79 The Impact of Self-Concept on Language Learning Edited by Kata Csizér and Michael Magid MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol . Buffalo . Toronto
- 8. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. The Impact of Self-Concept on Language Learning/Edited by Kata Csizér and Michael Magid. Second Language Acquisition: 79 Includes bibliographical references. 1. Language and languages–Study and teaching. 2. Language and languages–Self- instruction. 3. Independent study. I. Csizér, Kata, 1971-editor. II. Magid, Michael, 1974- editor. P53.445.I67 2014 418.0071–dc23 2014014811 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-237-6 (hbk) ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-236-9 (pbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada. Website: www.multilingual-matters.com Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat Facebook:https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com Copyright Ó 2014 Kata Csizér, Michael Magid and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Exeter Premedia Services, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Short Run Press Ltd.
- 9. Contents Contributors ix 1 The Self-Concept and Language Learning: An Introduction 1 Kata Csizér and Michael Magid Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept 2 Future Self-Guides and Vision 7 Zoltán Dörnyei 3 At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory and the L2 Motivational Self System Models 19 Maya Sugita McEown, Kimberly A. Noels and Kathryn Everhart Chaffee 4 Re-imagining the Self as a Network of Relationships 51 Sarah Mercer Part 2: Self-Concept and Language Learning 5 The Ideal L2 Self, Self-Regulatory Strategies and Autonomous Learning: A Comparison of Different Groups of English Language Learners 73 Kata Csizér and Judit Kormos 6 EFL Students’ L2 Motivational Self System and Self-Regulation: Focusing on Elementary and Junior High School Students in Korea 87 Tae-Young Kim and Yoon-Kyoung Kim 7 The L2 Self-Concept in Second Language Learning Motivation: A Longitudinal Study of Korean University Students 108 David Lyons v
- 10. 8 Culture, Autonomy and the Self in Language Learning 131 Kimberly A. Noels, Kathryn Everhart Chaffee, Megan Michalyk and Maya Sugita McEown 9 Investigating Adult Migrant ESL Learners’ Language Learning Motivational Profile in Australia: Towards a Bicultural Identity 155 Elke Stracke, Jeremy Jones and Nicolette Bramley 10 Investing in Experiential Capital: Self-Efficacy, Imagination and Development of Ideal L2 Selves 171 Kay Irie and Damon R. Brewster 11 Self-Constructs in Language Learning: What is their Role in Self-Regulation? 189 Janina Iwaniec 12 Emerging Self-Identities of Second Language Learners: Emotions and the Experiential Profile of Identity Construction 206 Masuko Miyahara 13 Fear of the True Self: Social Anxiety and the Silent Behaviour of Japanese Learners of English 232 Jim King 14 Chinese University Students’ Willingness to Communicate in the L2 Classroom: The Complex and Dynamic Interplay of Self-Concept, Future Self-Guides and the Sociocultural Context 250 Zhen Yue 15 The Interaction of the L2 Motivational Self System with Socialisation and Identification Patterns and L2 Accent Attainment 268 Nihat Polat Part 3: Self-Concept and Language Teaching 16 The Effect of Motivational Strategies on Self-Related Aspects of Student Motivation and Second Language Learning 289 Gabriella Mezei vi Contents
- 11. 17 ELT Motivation from a Complex Dynamic Systems Theory Perspective: A Longitudinal Case Study of L2 Teacher Motivation in Beijing 310 Yuzo Kimura Part 4: Intervention Studies 18 A Motivational Programme for Learners of English: An Application of the L2 Motivational Self System 333 Michael Magid 19 Effects of an Imagery Training Strategy on Chinese University Students’ Possible Second Language Selves and Learning Experiences 357 Letty Chan 20 Applications and Implications of the L2 Motivational Self System in a Catalan EFL Context 377 Jessica Mackay Part 5: Future Research Directions 21 The Self-Concept and Language Learning: Future Research Directions 403 Michael Magid and Kata Csizér Contents vii
- 13. Contributors Nicolette Bramley is currently enrolled in a Master of Teaching at the University of New England, majoring in Language Teaching and ESL. At the time of writing, she was a lecturer in Japanese at the University of Canberra. Her research interests include the ESL migrant experience, Japanese language education, and language and gender studies. She has published work on Japanese language education, and language and gender in the political media interview. Damon Brewster is the director of the English Language Programme at J.F. Oberlin University. His research interests include motivation in learning, particularly concepts of self in L2 learners and self-efficacy, as well as practical applications of web-based tools to encourage learner autonomy in ELT. Letty Chan is an assistant professor at the Department of English Language and Literature, Hong Kong Shue Yan University. She has recently obtained a PhD in Applied Linguistics at the University of Nottingham (UK) and was supervised by Professor Zoltán Dörnyei. Her current research interests include the L2 Motivational Self System, vision and mental imagery, and the Dynamic Systems Theory. Kathryn Everhart Chaffee is a graduate student studying at the University of Alberta under Dr Kim Noels' supervision. She completed her BA in psychology in 2007 at the University of Delaware. Her research interests include cross-cultural differences in control strategies and learning motivation. Kata Csizér holds a PhD in Language Pedagogy and works as a lecturer in the Department of English Applied Linguistics, Eötvös University, Budapest, where she teaches various L2 motivation courses. Her main field of research interest focuses on the socio-psychological aspects of L2 learning and teaching as well as second and foreign language motivation. She has published over 50 academic papers on various aspects of L2 motivation and has co-authored three books, including Motivational ix
- 14. Dynamics, Language Attitudes and Language Globalisation: A Hungarian perspective (2006, Multilingual Matters, with Zoltán Dörnyei and Nóra Németh). Zoltán Dörnyei is a professor of Psycholinguistics at the School of English, University of Nottingham. He has published widely on various aspects of second language acquisition and language learning motivation, and he is the author of several books, including The Psychology of Second Language Acquisition (2009, Oxford University Press), Teaching and Researching Motivation (2nd edn, 2011, Longman, with Ema Ushioda), Motivating Learning (2013, Pearson, with Jill Hadfield) and Motivating Learners, Motivating Teachers: Building Vision in the Language Classroom (2014, Cambridge University Press, with Magdalena Kubanyiova). Kay Irie is a professor at Gakushuin University, Tokyo where she is developing a CLIL-based English programme. She also teaches in the Graduate College of Education at Temple University Japan. Her current research interests include learner autonomy and motivation in language education. She is a co-editor of Realizing Autonomy: Practice and Reflection in Language Education Contexts (2012, Palgrave Macmillan). Janina Iwaniec is a PhD student in the Department of Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University. Her research interests lie in the area of individual learner differences as well as the impact of gender and the rural/urban divide on the motivation to learn English. She has a diverse experience of teaching academic English and has been involved in teaching undergraduate and postgraduate courses at Lancaster University. Jeremy F. Jones is a senior lecturer in TESOL and Foreign Language Teaching at the University of Canberra. He has taught EFL/ESL and language teacher education in the Middle East, Japan, Cambodia, China and Vietnam as well as in Australia. He has researched and published in the areas of language teaching methodology, assessment, discourse analysis and intercultural communication. Jim King is a lecturer in Education at the University of Leicester, UK. He holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics from the University of Nottingham and is a post-doctoral fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). His book Silence in the Second Language Classroom has been published by Palgrave Macmillan (2013). Tae-Young Kim (PhD OISE/University of Toronto) is an associate professor in the Department of English Education at Chung-Ang University, where he teaches both undergraduate and graduate courses in x Contributors
- 15. applied linguistics, and coordinates the Graduate School of Education (English major). His research interests include ESL/EFL learning/teaching motivation, demotivation, sociocultural theory and qualitative methodology. He has published over 50 papers on various topics in L2 motivation. His recent studies have been published in The Canadian Modern Language Review, System, The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher and Asia Pacific Education Review. Yoon-Kyoung Kim is a PhD candidate at Chung-Ang University, South Korea. She completed her master’s thesis on Korean EFL secondary school students’ English learning motivation focusing on the perspective of the L2 Motivational Self System. Her current research interests involve changes in L2 learning motivation, L2 learning demotivation, teacher motivation and demotivation, sociocultural theory and activity theory. Yuzo Kimura is a professor of English in the Department of English, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toyama, Japan. He teaches English to medical, nursing and pharmaceutical students and has been conducting research on L2 teaching and learning motivation in three countries in the Far East; Japan, China and South Korea. His research interests lie in L2 teaching/learning motivation, teacher development and classroom research. His recent longitudinal research concerns a dual comparative study of L2 teaching/learning motivation; first, among these three countries, and second, from the perspectives of the Sociocultural Theory and the Complex Dynamic Systems Theory. Judit Kormos is a reader in Second Language Acquisition at Lancaster University in the United Kingdom. Her research interests include the role of motivation and cognitive variables in language learning, the psycholinguistic aspects of speech production and special needs in foreign language education. She is the author of several books and over forty research articles in the field of second language acquisition. David Lyons is an assistant lecturer in the Department of English Language and Literature at Keimyung University, South Korea, where he teaches undergraduate and graduate classes and is involved in secondary teacher training. He is also a PhD candidate in the School of English, Drama and Canadian & American Studies at the University of Birmingham. His main research interests lie in the areas of L2 motivation, learner beliefs and task-based learning. Jessica Mackay is a teacher and teacher trainer at the School of Modern Languages of the University of Barcelona, where she is also a PhD candidate under the supervision of Dr Elsa Tragant. Her research interests Contributors xi
- 16. include L2 motivation in EFL contexts, classroom dynamics and materials development. Michael Magid is an English language pedagogy specialist at the English Language Institute of Singapore. As an English language pedagogy specialist, Michael draws on his experience of teaching English at all levels in Canada, England, China and Japan as well as his background in applied linguistics. He graduated from the University of Nottingham and holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics which was written under the supervision of Zoltán Dörnyei. As a part of his PhD, Michael designed a programme to motivate learners of English and build their self-confidence. His publications are in the areas of L2 motivation, sociolinguistics and materials development. Maya Sugita McEown is a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Alberta. She completed her PhD at the Graduate School of Foreign Language Education and Research, Kansai University. She has established expertise in teachers’ motivational strategies through her doctoral studies, in which she carried out observational and self-report studies, some of which included a longitudinal design. Through her training in the disciplines of applied linguistics, she is currently working on a comparative study of teachers’ motivational instruction in the language classrooms between Japanese and Canadian contexts based on the Self- Determination Theory. Sarah Mercer teaches at the University of Graz, Austria, where she has been working since 1996. She completed her PhD at the University of Lancaster and her habilitation at the University of Graz. Her research interests include all aspects of the psychology surrounding the foreign language learning experience, focusing in particular on the self. She is the author of Towards an Understanding of Language Learner Self-concept published by Springer and is a co-editor of Psychology for Language Learning published by Palgrave and Multiple Perspectives on the Self published by Multilingual Matters. Gabriella Mezei is a teacher at the National University of Public Service, Faculty of Public Administration, Centre for Foreign Languages. She holds a PhD in Language Pedagogy obtained at Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, and an MA in Applied Linguistics. Her research interests include language teaching and learning, motivational strategies, autonomy and self-regulation. She is a member of the MTA TK Lendület Research Centre for Educational and Network Studies (RECENS). The research team focuses on mechanisms of negative relationships and networks in xii Contributors
- 17. different social contexts, including the achievement, integration and negative relationships of elementary and secondary school students. Megan Michalyk completed her BA (Honors) degree in Psychology at the University of Alberta in 2007. As an undergraduate student, she explored research interests in the area of cross-cultural differences in second language learning motivation. She went on to complete her Master of Science degree in Clinical Psychology from the University of Western Ontario in 2009 before leaving psychology to enter the health care field where she is now a registered nurse practising in critical care. Masuko Miyahara is a lecturer at International Christian University, Tokyo. She holds an MA in TESOL and a PhD in Second Language Learning from the Institute of Education, University of London. Her research interests focus on identity studies and autonomy in language education. She is also interested in research methodology and methods in language learning research, particularly in the area of narratives. Kimberly A. Noels is a professor in the Social and Cultural Psychology area of the Department of Psychology and an adjunct associate professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Alberta. Her research focuses on the role of the socio-ecological context in language learning and the implications of language learning for ethnic identity, psychological well-being and intergroup relations. This research has been recognised through awards from the Modern Language Association, the International Association of Language and Social Psychology and the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues. Nihat Polat (PhD, The University of Texas at Austin) is an associate professor of Applied Linguistics and L2 teacher education and the director of the Master’s and Teacher Certification Programme in ESL at Duquesne University. His research interests include identity, socialisation, motivation, beliefs, self-concept, cyber ecologies and gender in L2 acquisition as well as the nature of change in teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices. He has published in numerous journals, including The Modern Language Journal, Language Learning & Technology, Linguistics and Education. He is also a consulting editor for the Journal of Educational Research. Elke Stracke is an associate professor and Associate Dean International in the Faculty of Arts and Design at the University of Canberra, Australia. Prior to joining the University of Canberra, she held university teaching and research positions in New Zealand (University of Otago), Australia (Australian National University) and Germany (University of Contributors xiii
- 18. Münster). As an educator and researcher she is interested in language learning and teaching, and feedback practices and peer learning in postgraduate supervision practice. Zhen Yue is a PhD student in the School of Education, University of Birmingham, where she obtained her MA in TEFL. Her main research output has been her master’s thesis entitled Exploring English Language Learning Motivation of Chinese Overseas University Students in the UK (University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, 2010). Her research interests include second language learning motivation and willingness to communicate, particularly the dynamic and complex interactions in terms of the language learner’s agency and learning practice. xiv Contributors
- 19. 1 The Self-Concept and Language Learning: An Introduction Kata Csizér and Michael Magid Introduction A learner’s sense of self plays a key role in academic achievement (Pajares & Schunk, 2005) and plays a more significant role in language learning since ‘language, after all, belongs to a person’s whole social being; it is a part of one’s identity, and is used to convey this identity to other people’ (Williams & Burden, 1997: 115). Recently in second language (L2) acquisition, scholars have focused on the importance of self-concept as a result of Zoltán Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self Sys- tem (e.g. Dörnyei, 2005; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011), which is based on Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy theory, in which an L2 learner com- pares their current self-concept to their self-guides, which are their ideal self and their ought self. Self-concept may be ‘conceptualised in global terms or in respect to specific domains and includes both cogni- tive and affective dimensions’ (Mercer, 2011: 65). The paradigmatic shift of L2 motivation research brought about by not only the interest of and research into self-related concepts in sec- ond language learning but as well as the apparent need of reconceptu- alising L2 motivation concepts and processes in light of the emergence of Global English resulted in a wealth of publications in recent years. One of the most comprehensive summaries of the developments of the new century was presented in Dörnyei and Ushioda’s 2009 volume, also published by Multilingual Matters. Dörnyei and Ushioda (2009) called for papers discussing various aspects of L2 motivation as related to students’ selves and identities, and as a result of their edited volume they concluded that ‘motivation conceived as part of the learner’s iden- tity/self is a workable concept from several perspectives’ (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009: 350). Research into identity and self-related issues in 1
- 20. very recent years not only proved the above quote to be true but also created a research niche for a new wave of studies that aimed at find- ing out how self-related issues actually impact L2 learning in general and L2 motivation processes in particular. Our present volume contri- butes to this line of research by including theoretical works about the L2 Motivational Self System and self-guides and empirical investiga- tions targeting both learners and teachers of English. A particularly important line in empirical research is that of the intervention studies, as these investigations measure the effects of strategy training on stu- dents’ L2 motivation. Strategy training concerning students’ selves can take many shapes: various motivational programmes, imagery training and self intervention programmes can prove to be successful in moti- vating L2 learning both in the short and long run in various learning contexts around the world. A Brief Overview of this Book This edited volume highlights the effects of self-concept on L2 learn- ing and teaching by considering a wide range of theories related to self- concept as well as their practical applications. As far as the structure of the book is concerned, four main parts are presented: (1) chapters featur- ing various theories related to the self-concept; (2) empirical studies related to the selves of the learners; (3) teachers’ perspectives on students’ self-concept and (4) L2 motivational intervention studies associated with the development of the self-concept of language learners. Part 1 begins with Zoltán Dörnyei’s chapter highlighting the impor- tance of and relationship between future self-guides and vision. He argues that vision and mental imagery should be considered as an essential part of motivation and language learning. The second chapter in this part written by Maya Sugita McEown, Kimberly A. Noels and Kathryn Everhart Chaffee details conceptual differences and similarities among the Socio-educational Model, Self-Determination Theory and the L2 Motivational Self System. The authors not only discuss theoretical considerations but empirical data are also presented to underline their arguments. Part 1 is concluded by Sarah Mercer’s chapter, which inves- tigates how self and one’s network of relationships are linked. She has designed a conceptual model of the self, which contains personal and social aspects as well as takes time and context into consideration. Part 2 of the book includes studies that set out to research how self-related concepts might contribute to the process of language learn- ing. In terms of thematic categorisation, several chapters have dealt with how selves, L2 motivation, self-regulation and autonomy are related. Kata Csizér and Judit Kormos (Chapter 5) investigate possible 2 The Impact of Self-Concept on Language Learning
- 21. relationships between motivational selves, self-regulation and autonomy. Tae-Young Kim and Yoon-Kyoung Kim (Chapter 6) research differences between elementary and junior high school students concerning their L2 Motivational Self System and self-regulatory processes. Kimberly A. Noels, Kathryn Everhart Chaffee, Megan Michalyk and Maya Sugita McEown (Chapter 8) add culture to the picture and consider how con- textual aspects might factor into autonomy. The role of self-regulation is the topic of Janina Iwaniec’s work (Chapter 11), which deals with a number of self-constructs and their relevance in regulating the learning process. Another interesting trend in this part of the book relates to students’ identities. David Lyons (Chapter 7) puts forward a longitudi- nal study to map how self-concepts influence motivation. Elke Stracke, Jeremy Jones and Nicolette Bramley (Chapter 9) map bicultural identi- ties in an Australian context. Kay Irie and Damon Brewster (Chapter 10) introduce the notion of experiential capital and its role in language learning. Masuko Miyahara (Chapter 12) writes about emerging self- identities and emotions as well as identity construction. Jim King (Chapter 13) discusses social anxiety and silent behaviour in a Japanese context. Zhen Yue’s investigation (Chapter 14) provides complex and dynamic information on Chinese university students’ willingness to communicate. Last but not least, Nihat Polat (Chapter 15) investigates how the L2 Motivational Self System relates to socialisation, identifica- tion and L2 accent attainment. Part 3 contains studies from the teachers’ perspectives. Gabriella Mezei (Chapter 16) presents a study on how teachers’ motivational strat- egies impact students’ selves and motivation. Yuzo Kimura's (Chapter 17) longitudinal case study puts teachers at the centre of interest and looks at how dynamically changing their motivation is. Part 4 consists of three intervention studies that examine how self- related training enhances students’ motivation. Michael Magid (Chapter 18) describes his motivational programme and presents his results con- cerning the effects of the programme through which students’ Ideal L2 selves are strengthened. Letty Chan (Chapter 19) reveals results of her imagery training programme on students’ possible L2 selves. Jessica Mackay (Chapter 20) discusses the practical implications of her Ideal L2 self intervention programme in a Spanish context. Part 5 presents future research directions on the impact of self-concept on language learning. These directions originate from the authors of the chapters outlined above and are both theoretical and practical in nature. Based on the above brief summary, we are proud to present a book on L2 motivation, which not only includes studies from all over the world (Central Europe, Canada, Asia and Australia) but also contains many dif- ferent research methods. In fact, we feel that one of the main strengths of the book lies in the high quality of varied research methods employed Self-Concept and Language Learning 3
- 22. in the studies with both qualitative and quantitative data as well as longitudinal and cross-sectional investigations. Acknowledgements First and foremost, we would like to thank Zoltán Dörnyei for encouraging us to embark on this rewarding enterprise. Secondly, we feel deeply indebted to our contributors. Needless to say, we could not have done this without them! We would also like to thank those researchers whose work we could not include in the volume for answering our call for chapters and putting forth such excellent proposals. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Multilingual Matters for agreeing to pub- lish this volume. We thank the staff and editors for their highly professio- nal work and support. We would also like to thank the reviewers for their valuable feedback. References Dörnyei, Z. (2005) The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dörnyei, Z. and Ushioda, E. (2011) Teaching and Researching Motivation (2nd edn). Harlow: Longman. Dörnyei, Z. and Ushioda, E. (eds) (2009) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Higgins, E.T. (1987) Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review 94 (3), 319–340. Mercer, S. (2011) The self as a complex dynamic system. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 1 (1), 57–82. Pajares, F. and Schunk, D.H. (2005) Self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs. In H.W. Marsh, R.G. Craven and D.M. McInerney (eds) International Advances in Self Research (vol. 2) (pp. 95–121). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Williams, M. and Burden, R.L. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4 The Impact of Self-Concept on Language Learning
- 23. Part 1 Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 25. 2 Future Self-Guides and Vision Zoltán Dörnyei Introduction Recent theorising on second language (L2) motivation has introduced two new terms, ‘future self-guides’ and ‘vision’. They refer to interrelated concepts that have partly emerged from a continuous line of research on L2 motivation that goes back to Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert’s pioneering study in 1959, but which also added new twists to the tradi- tional conceptualisations: future self-guides drew attention to the impor- tance of one’s self-concept in understanding motivational dispositions, while vision highlighted the potential significance of mental imagery – and especially future self-images – in energising goal-specific behaviour. This chapter describes the two concepts and discusses how they are related to each other. Future Self-Guides A person’s self-concept has traditionally been seen as the summary of the individual’s self-knowledge related to how the person views him/her- self (Dörnyei, 2009). One specific aspect of this complex notion has been identified as particularly relevant to motivation researchers: the future dimension of the self-concept, that is, not so much how people view themselves in the present as how they imagine themselves in the future. In a seminal paper, Markus and Nurius (1986) labelled the mental repre- sentations associated with this future dimension as ‘possible selves’ and distinguished three main types depending on the overall quality of the imagined future selves: they can represent individuals’ ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become and what they are afraid of becoming. Projected future self-states have a strong motivational impact (cf. Markus & Nurius, 1987), and this motivational function was made explicit by Higgins’s (1987, 1998) self-discrepancy theory. Higgins focused 7
- 26. only on two types of possible selves, the ideal self, referring to the charac- teristics that someone would ideally like to possess, subsuming hopes, aspirations and wishes, and the ought self, referring to the attributes that one believes one ought to possess, subsuming someone’s sense of personal or social duties, obligations or responsibilities. Higgins then argued that people have a feeling of unease when there is a discrepancy between their actual real-life self and their aspired future self. This psychological ten- sion, in turn, spurs the desire for action towards reducing the gap, and it thus becomes a potent source of motivation. In this sense, possible selves act as ‘future self-guides’, reflecting a dynamic, forward-pointing concep- tion that can explain how someone is moved from the present towards the future. The L2 Motivational Self System I have described elsewhere how L2 motivation research reached a stage when past traditions could be meaningfully fused with lessons learnt about future self-guides in social psychology (e.g. Dörnyei, 2009, 2010; see also Csizér & Dörnyei, 2005), resulting in a tripartite construct, the L2 Motivational Self System. This is partly an application of possible selves theory to second language acquisition contexts, proposing the L2 equivalents of the ideal and ought selves: • Ideal L2 self: if the person we would like to become speaks an L2 (e.g. the person we would like to become is associated with travelling or doing business internationally), the ideal L2 self is a powerful motiva- tor to learn the L2 because we would like to reduce the gap between our actual and ideal selves. • Ought-to L2 self, which concerns L2-related attributes that one believes one ought to possess to avoid possible negative outcomes and which therefore may bear little resemblance to the person’s own desires or wishes. However, besides these two sources of L2 motivation – that is, the learner’s internal desire to become an effective L2 user and social pres- sures coming from the learner’s environment to master the L2 – the L2 Motivational Self System also includes a third main component to reflect the main findings of motivation research in the 1990s, which highlighted the motivational significance of the immediate learning situation in which the mastery of the L2 occurred: • L2 learning experience, which concerns situation-specific motives related to the immediate learning environment and experience (e.g. the 8 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 27. positive impact of success, the rapport between teachers and students or the enjoyable quality of a language course). Thus, the new approach concerned two future self-guides associated with imagined experience and a third constituent rooted in actual experi- ence. Over the past five years, several studies have validated this broad tri- partite construct (cf. e.g. the papers in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009, as well as Busse, 2013; Csizér & Lukács, 2010; Henry, 2009, 2010, 2011; Hiver, 2013; Islam et al., 2013; Kormos et al., 2011; Lamb, 2012; Magid, 2009; Papi, 2010; Papi & Teimouri, 2012), confirming the overall explanatory power of the model, with the ideal L2 self, in particular, playing a substantive role as a future self-guide in determining motivated behaviour. Conditions for the Motivating Capacity of Future Self-Guides A key aspect of the L2 Motivational Self System is the recognition that although future self-guides have the capacity to motivate action, this does not always happen automatically: in many cases, the desire to learn the L2 that has been generated by constructive future self-images fails to be realised in actual action. Therefore, Dörnyei (2005) has proposed a number of key conditions that need to be in place for future self-guides to be able to exert their motivational impact. Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) offer the following list of the main prerequisites: • The learner has a desired future self-image. People differ in how easily they can generate a successful possible self, and therefore, not every- one is expected to possess a developed ideal or ought-to self-guide. • The future self is sufficiently different from the current self. If there is no observable gap between current and future selves, no increased effort is felt necessary and no motivation emerges. • The future self-image is elaborate and vivid. People vary in the vivid- ness of their mental imagery, and a possible self with insufficient spe- cificity and detail may not be able to evoke the necessary motivational response. • The future self-image is perceived as plausible. Possible selves are effec- tive only insofar as the individual does indeed perceive them as possi- ble, that is, realistic within the person’s individual circumstances. Thus, a sense of controllability (i.e. the belief that one’s action is con- ceivable and can make a difference) is an essential prerequisite. • The future self-image is not perceived as comfortably certain to reach, that is, within one’s grasp. The learner must not believe that the Future Self-Guides and Vision 9
- 28. possible self will happen automatically, without a marked increase in expended effort. • The future self-image is in harmony – or at least does not clash – with other parts of the individual’s self-concept (e.g. a conflict between the ideal and the ought-to selves), particularly with expecta- tions of the learner’s family, peers or other elements of the social environment. • The future self-image is accompanied by relevant and effective proce- dural strategies that act as a roadmap towards the goal. Once our vision generates energy, we need productive tasks into which to channel this energy or it will ebb away. • The future self-image is regularly activated in the learner’s working self-concept. Possible selves can be squeezed out of someone’s working self-concept by other contenders for attention and will therefore become relevant for behaviour only if they are primed by frequent and varied reminders. • The desired future self-image is offset by a counteracting feared possi- ble self in the same domain. Maximal motivational effectiveness is achieved if the learner also has a vivid image about the negative conse- quences of failing to achieve the desired end state. It has become clear over the past few years that these conditions are not just additional corollaries of the new conceptualisation of L2 motiva- tion but also form an integral part of it because without them the three primary motivational dimensions lose their motivational capacity (for a discussion, see Dörnyei, 2009). Furthermore, it has also been realised that the summary of the necessary conditions carries considerable practical significance: the conditions outline in effect a principled novel approach for teachers to motivate their students by ensuring that the conditions are met, a point I will come back to in the concluding section of this chapter. Vision A key aspect of future self-guides – one that has also been emphasised with regard to the L2 Motivational Self System – is that they involve images and senses; as Markus and Nurius (1986) stated, possible selves are represented in the same imaginary and semantic way as the here-and- now self, that is, they are a reality for the individual: people can ‘see’ and ‘hear’ their possible future self (see also Ruvolo & Markus, 1992). This means that, in many ways, possible selves are similar to dreams and visions about oneself. Indeed, Markus and Nurius (1987: 59) confirm, 10 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 29. ‘Possible selves encompass within their scope visions of desired and unde- sired end states’ – thus, possible selves can be seen as the ‘vision of what might be’. The use of the term ‘vision’ has not been restricted to possible selves theory in the social sciences but has been applied widely to refer to a variety of diverse contexts and areas, including the popular media, so much so that van der Helm (2009: 96) actually talks about ‘the vision phenomenon’ to cover ‘the ensemble of claims and products which are called “visions” or could be called as such’. In his insightful analysis, he distinguishes between seven different types of vision: religious, political, humanistic, business/organisational, community, public policy and per- sonal visions. Within these contexts, he argues, the actual meaning of vision is fairly homogeneous, capturing three defining aspects: (1) the future, (2) the ideal and (3) the desire for deliberate change. In agreement with the significance attached to vision in the social sci- ences, in our book-length overview of the theory and practice of language vision, we have expressed their belief that ‘vision is one of the single most important factors within the domain of language learning: where there is a vision, there is a way’ (Dörnyei & Kubanyiova, 2014). This, however, begs the question: if vision is such an important motivator of human behaviour, how does it relate to the notion of motivation in gen- eral? In fact, we could ask, should a vision-based approach replace pre- vious motivational frameworks? The answer is no. We must realise that the plurality of motivational constructs in the psychological literature has to do with the multi-faceted nature of human behaviour and with the various levels of abstraction that we can approach human behaviour from. Motivation by definition subsumes every factor that impacts on human behaviour, and the range of potential motives that can initiate or modify our actions is vast: people might decide to do something for rea- sons as diverse as physical needs, financial benefits, moral or faith convic- tions, cognitive curiosity or because they like someone who already does it – the list is virtually endless. Various motivation theories in the past have highlighted different clusters of the vast array of potential motives in order to explain certain specific behavioural domains under focus, such as voting, mating, learning or working behaviours. In my summary of motivational techniques – Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom (Dörnyei, 2001) – I surveyed a wide selection of diverse motives that are relevant to sustained learning behaviours in foreign language classes, and a focus on vision does not replace or invalidate the principles and proce- dures presented there. The attraction of using ‘vision’ in our thinking of motivation is that it represents one of the highest-order motivational forces, one that is par- ticularly fitting to explain the long-term, and often lifelong, process of mastering a second language. While the day-to-day realities of one’s L2 learning experience are the function of multiple factors related to diverse Future Self-Guides and Vision 11
- 30. aspects of the learning environment or the learner’s personal life, the con- cept of vision offers a useful, broad lens to focus on the bigger picture, the overall persistence that is necessary to lead one to ultimate language attainment. In other words, while individuals pursue languages for a vari- ety of purposes and an equally wide array of reasons keep their motiva- tion alive, the vision of who they would like to become as second language users seems to be one of the most reliable predictors of their long-term intended effort. Vision and Goals A key question we need to address in order to understand the exact nature of vision is in what way it is dissimilar to a ‘goal’ – after all, goals also represent directional intentions to reach future states. Dörnyei and Kubanyiova (2014) argue that there is a qualitative difference between the two concepts: unlike an abstract, cognitive goal, a vision includes a strong sensory element – it involves tangible images related to achieving the goal. Thus, for example, the vision of becoming a doctor exceeds the abstract goal of earning a medical degree in that the vision involves the individual actually seeing him/herself receiving the degree certificate or practising as a qualified doctor. That is, the vision to become a doctor also involves the sensory experience of being a doctor. More generally, the main feature of a vision is that it subsumes both a desired goal and a rep- resentation of how the individual approaches or realises that goal. In this sense, a vision can be understood as a personalised goal (Markus & Ruvolo, 1989) that the learner has made his/her own by adding to it the imagined reality of the actual goal experience. Talking about the vision of an organ- isation, Levin (2000: 95) articulates this sensory element when she says that effective visions ‘should outline a rich and textual picture of what success looks like and feels like’. She goes on to say that a vision ‘should be so vivid as to enable the listener or reader to transport himself or her- self to the future, so to speak, to witness it and experience it’. Vision and Imagery According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a vision is ‘a vivid mental image, especially a fanciful one of the future’. Mental imagery, which is the technical term for the phenomenon used in psychology, is a relatively unknown concept in L2 studies, even though it has been highlighted in various areas of L2 learning in the past few decades, for example in gram- mar teaching (Gerngross et al., 2006), vocabulary learning (Cohen, 1987; Ellis & Beaton, 1993; Shen, 2010; Stevick, 1986), reading (Arnold, 1999; 12 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 31. Green & Donahue, 2009; Krasny & Sadoski, 2008), writing (Wright & Hill, 2008) and listening comprehension (Center et al., 1999). The concept refers to generating mental representations of perceptual or emotional experien- ces and situations in the mind in multiple sensory modalities (visual, audi- tory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory) – in other words, it involves generating an imagined reality that we can see, hear, feel and taste. This quasi-perceptual experience is often described in everyday parlance as ‘visu- alising’ or ‘seeing in the mind’s eye’ (a term originally coined by Shake- speare in Hamlet) or ‘hearing in the head’ or ‘imagining the feel of’. From a neurobiological perspective, all imagery falls under the broad category of ‘mental simulation’, because the mental processes involved in it emulate the neural processes that would actually operate if the person were in the simulated scenario (Moulton & Kosslyn, 2009). Interestingly, neurobiological research has confirmed that mental imagery relies to a large extent on the same neural mechanisms and pathways as actual per- ception, and studies of brain damage have also shown that such injuries often produce parallel deficits in imagery and in perception (Reisberg & Heuer, 2005). That is, to put it broadly, the brain cannot tell the differ- ence between an actual physical event and the vivid imagery of the same event (Cox, 2012). For this reason, the principled manipulation of mental imagery lends itself to versatile applications in a range of diverse areas and can be used for the purpose of preparation, repetition, elaboration, intensification or modification of behaviours. For example, virtually all world-class athletes use guided imagery as an integral part of their training programme, because it is a well-documented fact in sports psychology that imagery can be used for mentally practising specific performance skills, improving confidence, controlling anxiety, preparing for competitive situations and enhancing actual performance (cf. Morris et al., 2005). Similarly, imagery is a basic tool in psychoanalysis and other forms of psychotherapy (e.g. Katz, 2000; Singer, 2006), and successful applications of imagery techniques have also been reported in various educational con- texts (e.g. Berkovits, 2005; Clark & Paivio, 1991; Murdock, 1987). The stimulatory nature of mental imagery is at the heart of its potency. Learners with a vivid and detailed ideal self-image that has a substantial L2 component are more likely to be motivated to take action in pursuing language studies than their peers who have not articulated a desired future goal state for themselves. Until recently, there has been rather limited research in this area within the L2 literature. Some valida- tion of the imagery-motivation link has been offered by recent interven- tion studies in which various possible selves enhancement activities were employed to facilitate future identity formation and to strengthen stu- dents’ future self-images (Fukada et al., 2011; Jones, 2012; Magid & Chan, 2012; Sampson, 2012; see also Chapters 18, 19 and 20 of this volume). These have consistently reported that most participants have found Future Self-Guides and Vision 13
- 32. visualisation tasks focusing on their future self-guides motivating, and they tended to invest more effort in language learning as a result of the programme, thereby attesting to the impact of the treatment. Imagery Capacity and Sensory Preferences Besides the intervention studies mentioned above, the connection between imagery skills and future self-guides has been examined by another line of inquiry over the past five years that investigated the moti- vational relevance of imagination and sensory preferences (e.g. visual style). First, a pilot study by Al-Shehri (2009) examined the relationship of L2 learners’ visual learning style preferences and self-reported imagina- tive capacities with their motivation to test the hypothesis that learners who exhibit a visual learning style preference are more likely to possess a stronger capacity for visual imagery and imagination, and are therefore more likely to develop a stronger ideal L2 self than their visually less capable peers. In accordance with this hypothesis, the obtained results revealed strong positive associations between students’ visual styles, imag- ination, ideal L2 selves and motivated L2 behaviour. In subsequent large-scale studies in Korea, Kim (2009) and Kim and Kim (2011) confirmed the positive association between motivation, imagery capacity and sensory styles – both visual and auditory – sug- gesting that these are key components in the formation of a vivid ideal L2 self. Most recently, in a study of Hong Kong secondary school pupils studying two target languages, English and Mandarin, Dörnyei and Chan (2013: 454) have also found future self-guides to be associ- ated with salient imagery/visualisation components, which, in their view, ‘justifies the use of the term “vision” when referring to them’. They showed that vision is multisensory in nature, involving all the senses and not just visualisation. An important characteristic of the imagery skills involved was their language-independent nature, pointing to the conclusion that L2-related mental imagery is part of the more generic mechanisms underlying human vision rather than a function of specific target languages. An additional result of the Dörnyei and Chan (2013) study was the finding that the two different target languages they studied were associ- ated with distinct ideal language selves, thus forming distinct L2-specific visions. This added to the growing consensus in the field of L2 motiva- tion research that coexisting ideal L2 self-images constitute fairly distinct L2-specific visions, which can then interfere with each other both in a positive way (e.g. transferable linguistic confidence from one language experience to the other) or in a negative, demotivating manner (e.g. com- petition for space in the working self-concept). 14 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 33. Practical Implications and Future Directions Perceiving L2 motivation in terms of future self-guides and vision has considerable practical implications, because mental imagery is an impor- tant internal resource that can be intentionally harnessed (Sheikh et al., 2002; Taylor et al., 1998). We saw earlier that the motivational capacity of future self-guides is dependent on a number of key conditions, and therefore, the essence of any motivational practice in this vein is to create or enhance these conditions. Dörnyei and Kubanyiova (2014) provide ample evidence that it is possible to devise varied classroom activities to train imagery skills, thereby helping students to generate personal visions supported by vivid and lively images and then to sustain this vision dur- ing the often challenging everyday reality of the language-learning pro- cess. As mentioned above, there have already been promising attempts to develop visionary training programmes (e.g. Fukada et al., 2011; Magid & Chan, 2012; Sampson, 2012) and teachers can also consult two available practical resource books for vision-enhancing classroom activities (Arnold et al., 2007; Hadfield & Dörnyei, 2013). Regarding the future of self-guides and vision within the under- standing of language learning motivation, I believe that there is consid- erable mileage in pursuing these lines of inquiry. Given that vision is one of the highest-order motivational constructs and that it transfers from one domain to another relatively freely (i.e. the vision to become a successful language learner is not that different in its underlying mechanisms from the vision to become, for example, an applied lin- guist), it seems a useful concept for addressing some of the ultimate Wh- questions of human behaviour. One particularly fruitful research direction is to investigate what kind of behavioural pathways are needed to be able to channel the energy generated by vision into human action. We know from sports psychology that successful ath- letes manage to match their highly developed imagery skills with corre- sponding training plans to good effect, and therefore, there is a strong likelihood that certain fitting combinations of visionary goals (i.e. future self-guides powered by mental imagery) and well-designed action sequences (i.e. learning plans) can generate powerful motivational cur- rents that can be utilised to combat apathy and demotivation in diverse educational settings. References Al-Shehri, A.S. (2009) Motivation and vision: The relation between the ideal L2 self, imagination and visual style. In Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (eds) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (pp. 164–171). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Future Self-Guides and Vision 15
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- 37. 3 At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory and the L2 Motivational Self System Models Maya Sugita McEown, Kimberly A. Noels and Kathryn Everhart Chaffee For what you see and hear depends a good deal on where you are standing. C.S. Lewis, 1955, The Magician’s Nephew Introduction Although it is a key predictor of learners’ eventual proficiency in their target language (TL), motivation has been a tricky construct to define. As many language learning motivation (LLM) researchers have argued, moti- vation is best understood as an umbrella term for a broad concept that covers a variety of cognitive, affective and behavioural processes explain- ing: (1) why people decide to do something; (2) how long they will sus- tain the activity and (3) how much effort they will expend to pursue it (Boekaerts, 1995; Dörnyei, 2001). Indeed, a recent volume has a dozen or more chapters on different psychological constructs that arguably have motivational implications (see Mercer et al., 2012). Because of the diverse aspects of motivation, teachers and researchers might face a quandary deciding which constructs are most useful for understanding learners’ motivation in their particular social and educational context. There are many ways to deal with theoretical diversity. Some choose one framework and eschew all others. Others seek to integrate the diverse approaches in a single grand theory. Still others would rather have noth- ing to do with theory, arguing that it can constrain thinking and result in dogmatic adherence to one way of thinking. We choose to adopt the per- spective-taking approach advocated by MacIntyre et al. (2010), which 19
- 38. maintains that different theories reflect different perspectives, such that any point of view will simultaneously reveal some aspects of the phe- nomena of interest and conceal others. MacIntyre et al. (2010: 1) liken this theoretical perspective-taking to viewing a garden: A famous garden at the Ryoanji Temple in Japan has 15 stones. The positioning of the stones is fascinating; from any vantage point an observer will see 14 stones, never all 15. Contemplating the meaning of the garden at Ryoanji raised for us ‘what does it mean to take “A” perspective?’ MacIntyre and his colleagues stress the value of being acquainted with diverse points of view, arguing that by considering the theories together, we can see complementary, and perhaps richer, ways of under- standing motivation and language learning (LL). With this idea in mind, we will consider the concepts of self and identity as they are framed in three widely used motivational frameworks, including the Socio-Educational Model (SEM) (Gardner, 1985, 2010), Self-Determina- tion Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and the Second Language (L2) Motivational Self System (L2MSS) (Dörnyei, 2009). In so doing, we hope to identify areas of convergence and divergence, which will provide a more nuanced understanding of the role of the self in L2 motiva- tion. We also hope to point out directions for future research, primarily by directing attention to the methodological and contextual trends in current research and suggesting how these trends can not only offer affordances but also place constraints on our thinking about motivation. To accomplish these goals, we first present an overview of the self- and identity-relevant aspects of the SEM, SDT and L2MSS and consider their similarities and dif- ferences conceptually and empirically. As part of this discussion, we report the results of an empirical study that examines the overlap of the three theo- ries. Lastly, we highlight some methodological and contextual issues with our study and with studies in this area more generally that we feel need to be addressed in future theorising and empirical research. Three Theoretical Frameworks The Socio-Educational Model (SEM) Gardner’s (1985, 2010) SEM was formulated at a time when ethnolin- guistic group relations in Canada and elsewhere were particularly politi- cally charged (see Noels & Giles, 2009, for a review). In light of this, it is not surprising that an important aspect of this model concerns learners’ attitudes towards the TL community. Gardner (2010) argued that 20 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 39. language learning involves more than just learning new words and gram- matical structures; there is an acculturative aspect such that when one learns another language, one is encouraged to learn and internalise some- thing from another cultural group, much as a child imitates its caregiver and is reinforced with the caregiver’s feedback. This aspect, termed ‘inte- grativeness’, reflects ‘a general openness to adopting characteristics of other cultural communities’ (Gardner, 2010: 85), and includes an interest in foreign languages, positive attitudes towards the TL community and an integrative orientation. An orientation represents ‘the underlying force directing the choice of a particular reason’ (Gardner, 2010: 16). The integrative orientation is characterised by an interest in and desire to communicate with the TL community, and in some definitions includes the possibility of identifying with the TL group (e.g. Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). To have an impact on volitional behaviour, any orientation must also be linked with a drive to learn and effort extended towards the goal of language learning. An integrative motivation thus includes not only an integrative orientation towards language learning but also motivational intensity, the desire to learn the TL and affective aspects, which include positive attitudes towards the specific language learning situation, language learning in gen- eral, the specific TL group and ethnic out-groups in general. Individuals with an integrative orientation want to approach and integrate with the TL group, although Gardner specifies that this does not necessarily mean that they want to assimilate into that group (albeit that may happen in extreme cases), rather, they want to engage with the TL community (Gardner, 2010: 88). Several orientations other than the integrative orientation can direct motivation; one alternative (but not necessarily oppositional) orientation is the instrumental orientation. This orientation involves a desire to learn the TL for practical, utilitarian reasons such as ‘because it will make me more educated’ and ‘it will be useful in getting a good job’ (Gardner et al., 1997: 361). Although Gardner and his colleagues did not extensively exam- ine the instrumental orientation, it is useful to contrast it with the notion of integrativeness in order to highlight the latter’s emphasis on intergroup relations and social identity concerns. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Drawing from principles in humanistic psychology, SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985) maintains that people have an innate tendency to explore and master novel aspects of their environment and assimilate these new experiences into their existing self-structures. This process is not random; rather persons are assumed to regulate their behaviour in line with their sense of self. That is, with each new experience, a person considers other At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 21
- 40. possible actions in light of her/his current interests, and then acts in a way that reflects the best correspondence with these interests. A person’s actions are considered authentic when they are endorsed by the person and are congruent with other value commitments that a person holds. Extending these principles to the study of motivation, it is assumed that if people feel that an activity is consistent with their sense of self, they will be more motivated to engage in that activity. With regard to language learning, the more people feel that learning and using a language are congruent with the other values that they have, the more motivated they will be to engage in learning and using the language. This experience is termed integrated regulation. Of course, we are not all motivated to learn languages because doing so is integral to our sense of self. We may see the value of learning and using a language even if we don’t see the language as self-defining. For instance, the language may help us to achieve goals that we feel are important to us (e.g. an English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher learns the native language of her students to better communicate with them; a fiancé learns his sweetheart’s language to better understand her and her familial background). Such an orientation, where the person has person- ally identified the value of the activity, is termed identified regulation. Alternatively, we might be motivated less because of our own sense of what is important and valuable, but more because we have a general- ised sense of what ought to be important. Perhaps this sentiment arises because of the values of those around us. For example, parents might emphasise that knowing another language is an important educational goal, and students might internalise this belief to some degree. Even if they can’t see the value or relevance of learning the language for them- selves, personally, they might feel that learning a language is something that every good child and/or good student should do. This feeling that one should or ought to learn a language is termed introjected regulation. In still other cases, we may engage in an activity not because we feel it is self-relevant or have some sense that it might be good to do, but rather because there is some obvious reward or punishment for doing so. For instance, learning a language might be a means to getting a required course credit, or failure to do so might result in the denial of a job promo- tion. Such reasons have very little to do with a learner’s sense of self, but rather are driven by people or circumstances external to the learner. Hence, such an experience of motivation is termed external regulation. These experiences of motivation, then, vary in the extent to which the regulation of action is self-determined. SDT proposes another form of motivation which relates back to the idea that we have ‘an inherent ten- dency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise our capacities, to explore, and to learn’ (Ryan & Deci, 2000: 70) about our physical and social worlds. Engaging in such an activity brings about a 22 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 41. feeling of enjoyment, absorption and fulfilment, termed flow by Csik- szentmihalyi (1990). Thus, the process of learning a language could be experienced as being a pleasurable process in and of itself; a person might not necessarily feel that the activity is tied to their sense of self, but sim- ply enjoy engaging in the activity for its own sake. This experience of intrinsic motivation then is distinct from the other forms of regulation that are subsumed under the term extrinsic motivation. It should be noted that these are not categories into which people neatly fall. Rather, drawing on the discourse of dynamic systems theory, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation might be described as two motivational systems (Noels, 2005), one reflecting the extent to which the activity is regulated by internal or external sources and the second reflecting an innate proclivity to explore novelty and seek out new challenges. Because of diverse interactions in their social world, people could hold multiple orientations, and the prominence of one or another might shift from sit- uation to situation and from time to time. Moreover, there is really no objective way to say that one motivational orientation is superior to another. If students value and identify with the language and feel intrinsi- cally motivated, they are more likely to engage creatively with the lan- guage. Language instructors might find that such an orientation facilitates the teaching and learning process. However, there might be cir- cumstances where such an orientation is fraught, as might be the case when learning the language of a colonial oppressor, which might result in linguistic and cultural assimilation or marginalisation. L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS) model Dörnyei’s (2009) L2MSS framework draws from work by social psy- chologists, who study the self as an aspect of social cognition and the thinking of applied linguists interested in dynamic systems theory. The L2MSS has been strongly influenced by the possible selves theory of Markus and Nurius (1986) and Higgins’s (1987) self-discrepancy theory. The possible selves theory concerns how people conceptualise their poten- tial and think about their future (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves act as future self-guides, representing a dynamic, forward-focusing con- ception that can explain how people are moved from the present to the future. Likewise, self-discrepancy theory postulates that people are moti- vated to reach a condition where their self-concept matches their person- ally relevant self-guides (Higgins, 1987). Synthesising the self-images introduced in the theory of possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) and the self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), Dörnyei developed three components for the L2MSS. The central concept is the ideal L2 self, which refers to the attributes that one would ideally like to possess in connection with L2 learning. A complementary At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 23
- 42. concept is the ought-to L2 self, signifying the attributes that one believes one ought to possess in connection with L2 learning. The L2 learning experience consists of ‘situated “executive” motives related to the immedi- ate learning environment and experience (e.g. the impact of the teacher, the curriculum, the peer group, the experience of success)’ (Dörnyei, 2009: 29). Dörnyei (e.g. 2009) maintains that key self-related constructions of the ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self extend the scope of Gardner’s (1985) notion of integrativeness, making it applicable in diverse language learning environments in our globalised world (Dörnyei, 2010). He claims (2005: 105) that ‘our idealised L2-speaking self can be seen as a member of an imagined L2 community whose mental construction is partly based on our real-life experiences of members of the community/communities speaking the particular L2 in question and partly on our imagination’. Empirical Comparisons of the Three Theories Convergence and divergence There are several points of convergence and divergence between the self and identity constructs in these models, some of which have been substantiated through empirical examinations. We thus turn to review empirical studies, which compared self- and identity-related constructs between the three theories (see Appendix for a summary). The purpose is to consider empirical evidence concerning the relations between the models. SEM and SDT Although some have equated the intrinsic–extrinsic and integrative– instrumental distinction, these two pairings are not synonymous. Gardner (2010) suggested that the integrative orientation is better classified as a type of extrinsic motivation because it does not pertain to engaging in the activity for enjoyment per se. We would agree to some extent with this position, but argue that the relationship between these two sets of constructs is more complex. Empirical research indicates that the integra- tive orientation is strongly associated with intrinsic motivation, but it is also highly associated with more self-determined forms of extrinsic moti- vation (Noels, 2001; Sugita McEown et al., under review). In their study of Japanese EFL high school students, Kimura et al. (2001) found that the largest factor of LLM observed was complex, consisting of intrinsic, inte- grative and instrumental subscales. 24 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 43. However, the integrative orientation is not synonymous with either type of motivation in that it is not perfectly correlated with either, and it tends to predict different kinds of outcome variables. For instance, Pae’s (2008) study demonstrated that integrative orientation was distinct from both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (identified, introjected and external regulations), although the integrative orientation was relatively closer to intrinsic than to extrinsic motivation. Noels (2001, 2005; see also Sugita McEown et al., under review) found that whereas the SDT orientations tended to be stronger predictors of learning and classroom engagement, the integrative orientation was a better predictor of com- munity and cultural engagement. Because of these findings, Noels argues that the integrative orientation references issues related to social identity and intergroup relations that might be distinct from the processes tak- ing place in the immediate learning situation. In contrast, Landry (2012) suggests that an SDT approach could also be useful for understanding intergroup relations in language learning. SEM and L2MSS The conceptual differences between SEM and L2MSS have been much discussed since Dörnyei (2005, 2009) proposed the L2MSS as an alternative framework to the SEM. According to Dörnyei (2010), the central theme of L2MSS was the elaboration of the motivational dimen- sion that has traditionally been interpreted as integrativeness/integrative motivation with the ideal L2 self. Lamb (2012) claims that the key dif- ferences between the two theories are in whether they are more affec- tively (SEM) or cognitively (L2MSS) based, and whether the motivationally important identifications are with others (SEM) or with future versions of the self (L2MSS). There are several empirical examina- tions of the relations between the self-related variables in these two frameworks. The study of Kim and Kim (2012) of Korean EFL secondary school students found that the ideal L2 self was a better predictor for explaining participants’ motivated behaviour than integrativeness, and argued that the ideal L2 self could replace integrative orientation. On the other hand, in their study of Hungarian EFL secondary school stu- dents, Kormos and Csizér (2008) found that the ideal L2 self and inte- grativeness are not interchangeable concepts and the ought-to L2 self could not be identified in their participants. They concluded that inte- grativeness was more closely related to cultural interest, while the ideal L2 self was more closely related to international posture (Yashima et al., 2002). Although both of the studies investigated a large number of EFL secondary level students using a cross-sectional questionnaire survey, their results were inconsistent. At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 25
- 44. SDT and L2MSS As Dörnyei (2009) pointed out, SDT and the L2MSS frameworks have several conceptual similarities, but there are important divergences as well. The ought-to L2 self and introjected regulation would seem to be definitionally congruent. The ideal L2 self would seem to be most similar to the notion of identified and integrated regulation, in that both reflect personally held values and goals. Indeed, in his study of Japanese EFL uni- versity students, Nishida (2012) found that the ideal L2 self was most strongly correlated with integrated regulation. These constructs differ, however, in their temporal orientation. The integrated self-regulation refers to well internalised values and goals that comprise one’s current, authentic sense of self. In contrast, the ideal L2 self refers to a vision of a future self, as one would like to be. It may be that this ideal self is inte- grated into a person’s self-concept, but it might not be. These studies generally indicate that although there is considerable overlap between these sets of self-related constructs, they are not iso- morphic. To the best of our knowledge, however, no study to date has simultaneously investigated the connections between all three theories, nor how these self-related variables are linked with other motivational variables. To this end, we conducted a study with two purposes: (1) to examine the relations among key concepts in the three theoretical frameworks (i.e. integrative orientation, intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regula- tion, amotivation, ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self) and (2) to explore differences in the predictions among three theories for various affective and behavioural implications of these self-relevant constructs (i.e. engagement in LL, LL anxiety, intention to learn the TL and self-evaluation of TL competence). An Empirical Study Participants A total of 167 university-level language learners were surveyed (gender: 67.7% female; age: M = 18.88, SD = 1.71), including 51.2% who reported that they had been studying the TL for two years or less, 15.8% who studied the TL for between two and five years, and 21.9% who studied the language for 6–19 years. Most indicated that their native language was English (85.6%) or English and another language (14.4%). About 20% reported that one or both of their parents spoke the TL and hence these students could be considered heritage language learners (HLLs). The lan- guage courses in which the students enrolled included French (29.3%), 26 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 45. Spanish (24.0%), Italian (9.0%), German (6.6%), Chinese (6.0%) and Ukrai- nian (3.6%), along with other languages (e.g. Arabic, Cree, Punjabi, etc.). Instruments The questionnaire consisted of 55 items to assess the self-relevant con- structs proposed by the three frameworks (SEM, SDT and L2MSS). Items were rated on a five-point scale. Twenty-eight items from Noels et al. (2000) assessed SDT orientations: intrinsic motivation (four items: e.g. ‘For the pleasure I experience as I get to know [TL] better’; a = .91); integrated regulation (four items: e.g. ‘Because it is a part of my identity’; a = .91); identified regulation (five items: e.g. ‘Because it helps me to achieve goals that are important to me’; a = .87); introjected regulation (seven items: e.g. ‘Because I would feel guilty if I didn’t know a second language’; a = .87); external regulation (four items: e.g. ‘In order to have a better salary later on’; a = .70) and amotivation (four items: e.g. ‘Hon- estly, I don’t know; I truly have the impression of wasting my time in studying [TL]’; a = .86). A total of 23 items from Dörnyei (2010) repre- sented: the ideal L2 self (12 items: e.g. ‘I often imagine myself in the future speaking [TL] very well’; a = .95) and the ought-to L2 self (11 items: ‘If I fail to learn a foreign language like [TL] I’ll be letting other people down’; a = .87). A total of four items from Gardner (1985) assessed integrative motivation (e.g. ‘Because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people’; a = .85). Additional instruments assessed engagement, affect and proficiency indices that are hypothesised to be predicted by the self-relevant variables. Nine items assessed schoolwork engagement (e.g. ‘I am enthusiastic about my [TL] studies’; a = .95; Salmela-Aro & Upadaya, 2012) and 10 items assessed anxiety (e.g. ‘I get nervous when I am speaking in my [the TL] class’; a = .86; Clément & Baker, 2001). Five items assessed the students’ intention to continue learning the language (Noels et al., 1999; e.g. ‘I want to keep on learning [the TL] as long as possible’; a = .94) and four items from Clément and Baker (2001) assessed the students’ self-evaluation of their reading, writing, speaking and understanding of the TL on a scale ranging from 1 to 7, where a high mean score indicated a high self-evaluation of TL competence (a = .83). Data collection and analysis Students who were enrolled in diverse language courses at a Canadian university completed an online questionnaire that was part of a larger study on LLM (Chaffee et al., in preparation). The questionnaire wording was adapted to each student’s TL and completed at individual computer terminals during group testing sessions. Prior to completing the survey, At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 27
- 46. participants completed an informed consent procedure as outlined by the Tri-Council Policy of the Government of Canada and the Canadian Psy- chological Association to ensure their voluntary, informed participation and assure them of the confidentiality of their responses. In order to examine the overlap between the key variables from the three theoretical frameworks, a principal axis factor analysis with oblimin rotation examined the relation between the self-related variables. The results (Table 3.1) yielded a two-factor solution (based on the Kaiser crite- rion) accounting for 72% of the variance in the correlation matrix. These factors exhibited a low, positive correlation of .29. The first factor was defined by positive loadings (>.35) by intrinsic, integrative orientation and the ideal L2 self, as well as by identified and integrated regulation; this factor was also defined by negative loadings associated with amotiva- tion. This factor suggested an orientation characterised by a high degree of internalised reasons for learning the language, combined with enjoy- ment in learning, which were in contrast to having no purpose or mean- ing for learning the language. The second factor was defined by the ought-to L2 self, introjected regulation and external regulation. This fac- tor seemed to reflect an orientation in which motivation was controlled by pressures that are either internal or external to the self. In sum, these Table 3.1 Results of the principal axis factor analysis of motivational variables Factors Variables 1 2 Intrinsic motivation .84 Integrative orientation .83 Ideal L2 self .80 Identified regulation .79 Integrated regulation .64 Amotivation -.57 Ought-to L2 self .88 Introjected regulation .76 External regulation .66 Eigenvalue 4.74 1.75 Percentage of variance 52.61 19.38 28 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 47. results suggest that there are at least two distinct (but not oppositional) subsystems, the first reflecting motivation defined by personal values and goals (including the integrative orientation) and the second reflecting motivation defined by external pressures and/or introjects. With regard to the prediction of the affective and behavioural variables, a series of stepwise regression analyses were conducted with the self-related indices as the predictor variables and the affective and behavioural indices as the criterion variables (Table 3.2). The best model to predict engagement contained four predictor variables, such that intrinsic motivation and the ideal L2 self positively predicted engagement, but external regulation and amotivation negatively predicted engagement (R2 = .63, F(4,155) = 65.96, p < .01). With regard to the prediction of classroom anxiety, the best model was one in which the ideal L2 self negatively predicted and introjected regu- lation positively predicted anxiety (R2 = .14, F(2,157) = 12.54, p < .01). Concerning the prediction of the intention to persist in learning the lan- guage, the best model contained four predictor variables (R2 = .73, F(4,155) Table 3.2 Summary of the results of the stepwise regression analyses with integrative orientation, SDT orientations, ideal L2 self and ought-to L2 self as the predictor variables and engagement, anxiety, continue to learn the language and self-evaluation as the criterion variables Criterion variables Predictor variables Engagement Anxiety Continue to learn the language Self-evaluation b b b b Integrative orientation Intrinsic motivation .47** .17** Integrated regulation .59** Identified regulation Introjected regulation .20** -.12* External regulation -.15** Amotivation -.17** -.29** Ideal L2 self .30** -.41** .60** Ought-to L2 self Notes: *p < .05; **p < .01. At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 29
- 48. = 105.62, p < .01); the ideal L2 self and intrinsic motivation positively pre- dicted students’ intentions, while amotivation and introjected regulation negatively predicted the students’ intentions. Finally, the best model to pre- dict students’ self-evaluation of their TL competence was one that included only integrated regulation (R2 = .34, F(1,156) = 81.83, p < .01). Discussion The results show that key concepts from two of the theoretical frameworks (SDT and L2MSS) significantly predicted engagement, anxi- ety and the intention to continue learning the language. However, a strik- ing point is that these outcome variables were best explained by a combination of the key concepts from the different theories. This might again indicate that these theories overlap with each other to some extent. However, considering that self-evaluation was significantly predicted by only one predictor variable from SDT, the key concepts from the different theoretical frameworks might predict different learning outcomes. The integrative orientation did not significantly predict any of these out- comes. One possible reason was that the criterion variables used in this study were learning-related outcomes that did not include any cultural or TL community aspects. As indicated in Noels (2001; see also Sugita McEown et al., under review), the integrative orientation tends to better predict language community engagement. Moreover, these regression anal- yses do not consider the possibility that there might be mediated rela- tions between variables; Kim (2012) found that Gardner’s L2 motivational constructs may have an indirect impact on English profi- ciency that is mediated by the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self. Based on these analyses, we could say that although some conceptual overlaps were confirmed between the three theoretical frameworks, the frameworks might differentially predict learning outcomes. Methodological and Contextual Issues The empirical work just described examined the relations among key concepts in the three theoretical frameworks and differences in their pre- dictive power. Although the findings provide some support for the inter- play between these three sets of self-related constructs, this topic needs to be further investigated using different methods and in different learn- ing contexts. In the next section, we will elaborate on such directions for future research, but first we broaden the discussion by considering meth- odological and contextual trends in research using these three theories over the last two decades. We do so because, in addition to theoretical stances, the methodological tools we use and contexts within which we 30 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 49. carry out our research have the potential to affect our understanding of motivation and the self; our tools limit the kinds of questions we answer and the contexts we work in make certain issues more or less salient. This point is illustrated by calls for more studies using research methods and analytical strategies that can capture the dynamic aspect of LLM (Dörnyei, 2009), and by claims that the integrative orientation may be less relevant in contexts where an opportunity to interact with the TL community is not available and/or a TL community is not clearly associ- ated with the language (e.g. Dörnyei, 1990; Lamb, 2004). Given that methodological practices and research contexts can impact understanding, we reviewed over 70 empirical studies conducted since 1990 that have used one or more of these three theories in order to identify important trends (see Appendix for a summary). We focused on two methodological dimensions: (1) the design and (2) the type of data collected, following Nakata’s (2006) categorisation of common LL research designs into four categories: (a) cross-sectional quan- titative studies; (b) longitudinal quantitative studies; (c) cross-sectional qualitative studies and (d) longitudinal qualitative studies. Cross-sectional studies typically sample the participants’ thoughts, behaviours or emo- tional stances at one point in time, while longitudinal studies observe the same participants for an extended period in order to detect patterns of development over time. To this scheme we added another category, repeated cross-sectional design, in which data collection occurs across time, but the samples at each timepoint comprise different participants (also termed trend analysis; see Taris, 2000). Moreover, some longitudinal studies include an intervention in their design (e.g. to examine the effects of a new teaching practice on motivational intensity compared to the cur- rent practice; see Taris, 2000). In such pre-test–post-test designs, measure- ments of the variable of interest (i.e. the dependent variable, e.g. motivational intensity) are taken before and after the intervention (i.e. the independent variable; e.g. type of teaching practice). More rigorous designs might include a control group that does not receive this kind of treatment (termed pre-test–post-test control group design). These types of studies can take place in the field or in a laboratory (termed quasi- experimental or experimental designs, respectively). The most common examples of quantitative data in LLM research are responses to closed-ended questions that are usually answered on a numerical scale, or qualitative responses that are coded into numerical categories or scales. Usually this information is collected with question- naire surveys. The most common examples of qualitative data in the field are verbal or written responses to open-ended questions, whether elicited through open-ended items in a questionnaire, verbal responses in personal or focus group interviews or researchers’ field notes from observational At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 31
- 50. studies. These two forms of data are not exclusive, and many researchers mix both types of data to address the issues in which they are interested. As can be seen in the Appendix, 76.9% of the reviewed studies used a cross-sectional design, and 80% of these used questionnaires to collect quantitative data. Four cross-sectional studies collected only qualitative data, but six studies collected mixed data. Among the longitudinal studies (21.8%), almost half of the studies used mixed data (41.2%), and 41.2% reported only quantitative data. Qualitative data from interviews and/or open-ended questionnaires were elicited less often. Thus, there is a pre- ponderance of cross-sectional research designs using questionnaire surveys to elicit quantitative information. If, as a field, we wish to better under- stand the dynamics of motivation and assess our causal claims, we should conduct more studies with longitudinal and experimental designs (cf. Reinhart et al., 2013). We would likely also develop a richer understanding by collecting mixed data in our studies. We examined three contextual aspects: (1) the level of education in which a student enrolled (and, relatedly, the age of the language learner); (2) the nature of the language contact situation and (3) the country in which the data collection took place. The educational level of learners has been argued to be important for understanding self-related aspects of moti- vation because it corresponds with the age of the learner. Age is an impor- tant aspect because research shows that there are developmental differences in the structure and dynamics of the self-concept across the lifespan (Har- ter, 2012), and dynamics of motivational processes could have different impacts during different periods in learners’ development (Dörnyei, 2001). We thus coded the studies across three age-related categories: (a) elementary level learners (E); (b) secondary level learners (S; age 13–17 years) and (c) post-secondary level learners (PS; over 18 years). As shown in the Appendix, post-secondary students have been the focus of 61.5% of the reviewed stud- ies, particularly in studies using SEM and SDT. In contrast, studies employ- ing the L2MSS framework have recruited more young learners than post- secondary language learners. This would suggest that we need additional research across age groups. Moreover, comparisons between theoretical frameworks may be problematic because different age groups tend to be studied by scholars with different theoretical perspectives. The context in which language contact takes place is a macrosocial factor that describes the relation between the learner’s ethnolinguistic community of origin and that of the TL community. We adapted the con- textual taxonomy developed by Clément et al. (2007) to describe three aspects of the intergroup context that have implications for motivational variables. These include: (a) the opportunity for immediate contact with members of the TL community (i.e. second language (SL) or foreign lan- guage (FL) contexts); (b) the degree of ancestral relatedness that a person has with the TL community (i.e. whether or not one is a heritage learner 32 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 51. [HL]) and (c) whether the TL is English or not. The most common con- tact situation was the EFL/ESL (English as a second language) context: 51.3% of the studies were solely based on this situation, and another 12.8% examined the EFL/ESL context and another language. One third of the studies did not include English; 16.7% examined one foreign language, 14.1% examined a second language, and only 3.8% examined multiple lan- guages within one study. HL learning was examined in only 2.5% of the papers. This analysis suggests that greater diversity in the languages rep- resented is needed. As well, more attention could be directed towards HL learning. Although it is important to develop proficiency in the language of the receiving society, maintenance of the HL is also an important issue for immigrants and their offspring. As noted above, the country in which the data collection takes place has been suggested to make salient different issues in language learning depending on the opportunities available for interaction with the TL group. The country in which the research takes place is also an important consideration because countries potentially differ in their cultural systems in ways that are reflected in motivational processes (see Heine, 2010; Sorrentino & Yamaguchi, 2008). As the Appendix shows, about 70% of the empirical studies using the SEM were carried out in North American or European countries, such as the United States, Canada, Hungary and Spain. In contrast, researchers using SDT or the L2MSS frameworks recruited participants less often in so-called Western societies, but more in East Asian contexts, such as China, Japan and Korea (38.2% and 61.8%, respectively). Given that current research in (cross-) cultural psychology has demonstrated important variations in how people construe their selves, how accepting they are of power hierarchies and how they view their relationships with others, it would seem critical to better under- stand how these cultural dynamics relate to motivational dynamics involved in LL (see Noels et al., this volume). Future directions for the self and LLM In this chapter, we examined the differences and similarities among three theoretical frameworks (SDT, SEM and L2MSS), and highlighted various methodological and contextual trends in the empirical research emanating from these theories. Below, we summarise important issues that we feel merit greater attention in future studies. First, the researcher’s choice of theoretical constructs should be informed by the types of outcome variables that the researcher wishes to understand. Although these theories have conceptual overlap, our review and empirical study findings suggest that if the phenomena we wish to investigate are learning-related (such as motivational intensity, self-evaluation or academic engagement), SDT and L2MSS would be good At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 33
- 52. theoretical choices; however, if we want to look at intercultural and com- munity-related outcomes, it might be useful to incorporate the notion of integrativeness, particularly if there is an identifiable TL group. Second, the relative absence of studies with longitudinal designs has limited our representations of motivational processes to a static snapshot, even though two of the theories (SDT and L2MSS) have explicitly pre- sented frameworks with a temporal aspect. Longitudinal designs would allow us to better model intra-individual and inter-individual changes in LLM across time. Examinations of short durations provide us with insight into the dynamic interrelations between individual differences and the contextual aspects of LLM (cf. MacIntyre et al., 2010), and investigations of longer durations provide us with a greater understanding of develop- mental trends and pathways across courses, programmes of study, grade levels and even across the lifespan. Moreover, given that many of the applied questions that LLM researchers ask do not readily lend themselves to experimental examinations in a laboratory setting, longitudinal data would better allow LLM researchers to examine causal relationships between variables of interest (cf. Vargas Lascano & Noels, 2013). There are several developmental approaches that LLM researchers could adopt, including the popular notion of dynamic systems. We maintain that LLM researchers would do well to further explore approaches articulated by developmental scientists (cf. Bornstein, 2009; Zelazo, 2013). Third, although the three theoretical frameworks appear to be well equipped to explain change over time, researchers must still be attentive to whether the different theoretical frameworks are more or less appropri- ate for different age groups. For instance, some have argued that L2MSS might be less appropriate for younger age groups because an individual’s capacity to think self-reflectively and to envision an ideal self might emerge in adolescence and young adulthood (Dörnyei, 2009). The con- struct of intrinsic motivation (having fun while learning the language), on the other hand, might be particularly relevant to younger learners. In addition to age, experience with the TL might also moderate motivational processes. For instance, integrated self-regulation might be less relevant to novice language learners who have had limited time and experience to incor- porate the TL into their self-concept. One group of (generally) more advanced language learners are HLLs; research suggests that they tend to have a stronger sense of the TL as an integrated part of their self-concept, perhaps due to their more extensive experience with the TL and its com- munity (Comanaru & Noels, 2009). More studies and reviews that compare the empirical data of different age groups by employing cross-grade surveys (cf. Gardner, 2010; Kim, 2012) or meta-analytic reviews (cf. Masgoret & Gardner, 2003), for instance, would be very useful. Fourth, the increase of studies in EFL contexts, where English repre- sents a global lingua franca rather than any particular TL community, has 34 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
- 53. highlighted many new motivational issues, perhaps the most notable of which is the idea that interactions with the TL community might not carry strong motivational force in some societal contexts. However, this increased interest in English corresponds with the relatively few studies that have been conducted in contexts where learners could readily inter- act with members of the TL community. This shift in focus raises the question of whether the key concepts in the three theories (integrative- ness, ideal L2 self and self-determination) may or may not be relevant in these contexts. Given that some theories, particularly SDT, were not origi- nally developed for the language learning context, they might need to incorporate additional aspects specific to language learning (such as an intercultural aspect) into their formulations to more comprehensively describe and explain LLM. Fifth, the shift in research focus to the EFL context corresponds with an increased amount of research available across more diverse countries. This increased diversity within societal settings is laudable. However, few studies have explicitly articulated whether and why motivational processes might differ across cultural contexts. Cultural and cross-cultural psycholo- gists, as well as cultural anthropologists and cultural sociologists, have long noted that motivational processes might operate in very different ways depending upon the cultural context. For instance, considerable research suggests that people in East Asian nations tend to hold more collectivistic values and have a sense of self that is more interconnected with other peo- ple than do people from North America and some European nations (see Hofstede, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 2010). Those with more interdepend- ent self-constructs tend to include the considerations of others in their motivated behaviour than do those who have more independent self- constructs (Morling & Kitayama, 2007). Given that the self-related con- structs of the three theories originated in Western countries, it is important to address whether and how these constructs might differently account for motivational dynamics and processes across cultures. Conclusion These issues we have discussed here make it difficult for us to con- clude which theory best describes LLM. Each theory has its own specific perspective, and these perspectives may best explain different populations, different contexts and different outcome variables. If we happen to find ourselves at the stone garden at Ryoanji Temple in Japan, we might choose a particular point of view to experience the garden, but this choice limits the range of what can be seen. If we know which stones we want to look at, we can make an informed choice about what perspective to take while remaining aware of what information we are missing. At the Interface of the Socio-Educational Model, Self-Determination Theory 35
- 54. Therefore, researchers need to identify what aspect of L2 motivation they want to look at – that is, which theory or theories work best based on their respective research contexts, targeted populations and outcome vari- ables of interest. That being said, there is clearly an overlap between the three sets of constructs. This might suggest that although each theory takes on some- what different perspectives, the perspectives they each offer come from one end of the garden alone. Although LLM researchers continue to draw different variables into the realm of investigation (e.g. Mercer et al., 2012), we might wonder how the garden would look from alternative points of view (e.g. Atkinson, 2011). In other words, there may be aspects of language learning experiences that have not been covered by any of these three theories, and some elements would benefit by being re-exam- ined from a new angle. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Shadi Mehrabi for her research assis- tance, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for their research funding and the editors for their constructive comments on earlier versions of this chapter. Notes (1) Recent empirical studies submitted to peer reviewed journals were collected through LLBA and PSYCINFO databases and also by directly contacting L2 motiva- tion researchers through e-mail. ERIC administrators took their database offline at the time when the literature review was conducted. (2) Participants over 18 were identified as post-secondary level learners regardless of their degree information. (3) It should be noted that several studies conducted before 1990 with the SEM focused on secondary level learners (see Gardner, 1985, for review). (4) We define the criteria for the SL context as follows: SL context refers to the con- text in which: (1) the TL is an official or national language and/or (2) the TL is generally spoken, such as in a bilingual context. (5) The third aspect of the framework of Clément et al. (2007) is the relative status or dominance of the TL group compared to the speaker’s heritage language group. Because there were relatively few studies of LLM in contexts where inter-ethnic contact between languages other than English was likely, we decided to instead focus on English. References Al-Shehri, A.S. (2009) Motivation and vision: The relation between the ideal L2 self, imagination and visual style. In Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (eds) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (pp. 164–171). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 36 Part 1: Theories Related to Self-Concept
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- 56. 314. Arab. "Insánu-há" = her (i.e. their) man: i.e. the babes of the eyes: the Assyrian Ishon, dim. of Ish = Man; which the Hebrews call "Bábat" or "Bit" (the daughter); the Arabs "Bubu (or Hadakat) al-Ayn"; the Persians "Mardumak-i-chashm" (mannikin of the eye); the Greeks κόρη and the Latins pupa, pupula, pupilla. I have noted this in the Lyricks of Camoens (p. 449). 315. Ma'an bin Zá'idah, a soldier and statesman of the eighth century. 316. The mildness of the Caliph Mu'áwiyah, the founder of the Ommiades, proverbial among the Arabs, much resembles the "meekness" of Moses the Lawgiver, which commentators seem to think has been foisted into Numbers xii. 3. 317. Showing that there had been no consummation of the marriage which would have demanded "Ghusl", or total ablution, at home or in the Hammam. 318. have noticed this notable desert-growth. 319. The "situation" is admirable, solution appearing so difficult and catastrophe imminent. 320. This quatrain occurs in Night ix.: I have borrowed from Torrens (p. 79) by way of variety. 321. The belief that young pigeon's blood resembles the virginal discharge is universal; but the blood most resembling man's is that of the pig which in other points is so very human. In our day Arabs and Hindus rarely submit to inspection the nuptial sheet as practised by the Israelites and Persians. The bride takes to bed a white kerchief with which she staunches the blood and next morning the stains are displayed in the Harem. In Darfour this is done by the bridegroom. "Prima Venus debet esse cruenta," say the Easterns with much truth, and they have no faith in our complaisant creed which allows the hymen-membrane to disappear by any but one accident. 322. Not meaning the two central divisions commanded by the King and his Wazir.
- 57. 323. Ironicè. 324. Arab. "Rasy" = praising in a funeral sermon. 325. Arab. "Manáyá," plur. of Maniyat = death. Mr. R. S. Poole (the Academy, April 26, 1879) reproaches Mr. Payne for confounding "Muniyat" (desire) with "Maniyat" (death); but both are written the same except when vowel-points are used. 326. Arab. "Iddat," alluding to the months of celibacy which, according to Moslem law, must be passed by a divorced woman before she can re-marry. 327. Arab. "Talák bi'l-Salásah" = a triple divorce which cannot be revoked; nor can the divorcer re-marry the same woman till after consummation with another husband. This subject will continually recur. 328. An allusion to a custom of the pagan Arabs in the days of ignorant Heathenism. The blood or brain, soul or personality of the murdered man formed a bird called Sady or Hámah (not the Humá or Humái, usually translated "phœnix") which sprang from the head, where four of the five senses have their seat, and haunted his tomb, crying continually, "Uskúni!" = Give me drink (of the slayer's blood)! and which disappeared only when the vendetta was accomplished. Mohammed forbade the belief. Amongst the Southern Slavs the cuckoo is supposed to be the sister of a murdered man ever calling for vengeance. 329. To obtain a blessing and show how he valued it. 330. Well-known tribes of proto-historic Arabs who flourished before the time of Abraham: see Koran (chapt. xxvi. et passim). They will be repeatedly mentioned in The Nights and notes. 331. Arab. "Amtár"; plur. of "Matr," a large vessel of leather or wood for water, etc.
- 58. 332. Arab. "Asáfírí," so called because they attract sparrows (asáfír) a bird very fond of the ripe oily fruit. In the Romance of "Antar" Asáfír camels are beasts that fly like birds in fleetness. The reader must not confound the olives of the text with the hard unripe berries ("little plums pickled in stale") which appear at English tables; nor wonder that bread and olives are the beef-steak and potatoes of many Mediterranean peoples. It is an excellent diet, the highly oleaginous fruit supplying the necessary carbon. 333. Arab. "Tamar al-Hindi" = the "Indian-date," whence our word "Tamarind." A sherbet of the pods, being slightly laxative, is much drunk during the great heats; and the dried fruit, made into small round cakes, is sold in the bazars. The traveller is advised not to sleep under the tamarind's shade, which is infamous for causing ague and fever. In Sind I derided the "native nonsense," passed the night under an "Indian date-tree" and awoke with a fine specimen of ague which lasted me a week. 334. Moslems are not agreed upon the length of the Day of Doom when all created things, marshalled by the angels, await final judgement; the different periods named are 40 years, 70, 300 and 50,000. Yet the trial itself will last no longer than while one may milk an ewe, or than "the space between two milkings of a she-camel." This is bringing down Heaven to Earth with a witness; but, after all, the Heaven of all faiths, including "Spiritualism," the latest development, is only an earth more or less glorified even as the Deity is humanity more or less perfected. 335. Arab. "Al-Kamaráni," lit. "the two moons." Arab rhetoric prefers it to "Shamsáni," or "two suns," because lighter (akhaff), to pronounce. So, albeit Omar was less worthy than Abu-Bakr the two are called "Al-Omaráni," in vulgar parlance, Omarayn. 336. Alluding to the angels who appeared to the Sodomites in the shape of beautiful youths (Koran xi). 337. Koran xxxiii. 38. 338. "Niktu-hu taklídan" i.e. not the real thing (with a woman). It may also mean "by his incitement of me." All this scene is written in the worst form of
- 59. Persian-Egyptian blackguardism, and forms a curious anthropological study. The "black joke" of the true and modest wife is inimitable. 339. Arab. "Jamíz" (in Egypt "Jammayz") = the fruit of the true sycomore (F. Sycomorus) a magnificent tree which produces a small tasteless fig, eaten by the poorer classes in Egypt and by monkeys. The "Tín" or real fig here is the woman's parts; the "mulberry-fig," the anus. Martial (i. 65) makes the following distinction:— Dicemus ficus, quas scimus in arbore nasci, Dicemus ficos, Cæciliane, tuos. And Modern Italian preserves a difference between fico and fica. 340. Arab. "Ghániyat Azárá" (plur. of Azrá = virgin): the former is properly a woman who despises ornaments and relies on "beauty unadorned" (i.e. in bed). 341. "Nihil usitatius apud monachos, cardinales, sacrificulos," says Johannes de la Casa Beneventius Episcopus, quoted by Burton Anat. of Mel. lib. iii. Sect. 2; and the famous epitaph on the Jesuit, Ci-gît un Jesuite: Passant, serre les fesses et passe vite! 342. Arab. "Kiblah" = the fronting-place of prayer, Meccah for Moslems, Jerusalem for Jews and early Christians. See Pilgrimage (ii. 321) for the Moslem change from Jerusalem to Meccah and ibid. ii. 213 for the way in which the direction was shown. 343. The Koran says (chapt. ii.): "Your wives are your tillage: go in therefore unto your tillage in what manner so ever ye will." Usually this is understood as meaning in any posture, standing or sitting, lying, backwards or forwards. Yet there is a popular saying about the man whom the woman rides (vulg. St. George, in France, le Postillon); "Cursed he who maketh woman Heaven and himself earth!" Some hold the Koranic passage to have been revealed in confutation of the Jews, who pretended that if a man lay with his wife backwards, he would beget a cleverer child. Others again understand it of preposterous venery, which is absurd: every ancient lawgiver framed his
- 60. code to increase the true wealth of the people—population—and severely punished all processes, like onanism, which impeded it. The Persians utilise the hatred of women for such misuse when they would force a wife to demand a divorce and thus forfeit her claim to Mahr (dowry); they convert them into catamites till, after a month or so, they lose all patience and leave the house. 344. Koran li. 9: "He will be turned aside from the Faith (or Truth) who shall be turned aside by the Divine decree;" alluding, in the text, to the preposterous venery her lover demands. 345. Arab. "Futúh" meaning openings, and also victories, benefits. The lover congratulates her on her mortifying self in order to please him. 346. "And the righteous work will be exalt": (Koran xxxv. 11) applied ironically. 347. A prolepsis of Tommy Moore:— Your mother says, my little Venus, There's something not quite right between us, And you're in fault as much as I, Now, on my soul, my little Venus, I swear 'twould not be right between us, To let your mother tell a lie. But the Arab is more moral than Mr. Little, as he proposes to repent. 348. Arab. "Khunsa" flexible or flaccid, from Khans = bending inwards, i.e. the mouth of a water-skin before drinking. Like Mukhannas, it is also used for an effeminate man, a passive sodomite and even for a eunuch. Easterns still believe in what Westerns know to be an impossibility, human beings with the parts and proportions of both sexes equally developed and capable of reproduction; and Al-Islam even provides special rules for them (Pilgrimage iii. 237). We hold them to be Buffon's fourth class of (duplicate) monsters, belonging essentially to one or the other sex, and related to its opposite only by some few characteristics. The old Greeks dreamed, after their fashion, a beautiful poetic dream of a human animal uniting the contradictory beauties of man and woman. The duality of the generative organs seems an old Egyptian tradition; at least we find it in Genesis (i. 27), where the image of the Deity is created male and female, before man was formed out of the
- 61. dust of the ground (ii. 7). The old tradition found its way to India (if the Hindus did not borrow the idea from the Greeks); and one of the forms of Mahadeva, the third person of their triad, is entitled "Ardhanárí" = the Half- woman, which has suggested to them some charming pictures. Europeans, seeing the left breast conspicuously feminine, have indulged in silly surmises about the "Amazons." 349. This is a mere phrase for our "dying of laughter": the queen was on her back. And as Easterns sit on carpets, their falling back is very different from the same movement off a chair. 350. Arab. "Ismid," the eye-powder before noticed. 351. When the Caliph (e.g. Al-Tá'i li'llah) bound a banner to a spear and handed it to an officer, he thereby appointed him Sultan or Viceregent. 352. Arab. "Sháib al-ingház" = lit. a gray beard who shakes head in disapproval. 353. Arab. "Ayát" = the Hebr. "Ototh," signs, wonders or Koranic verses. 354. The Chapter "Al-Ikhlás" i.e. clearing (oneself from any faith but that of Unity) is No. cxii. and runs thus:— Say, He is the One God! The sempiternal God, He begetteth not, nor is He begot, And unto Him the like is not. It is held to be equal in value to one-third of the Koran, and is daily used in prayer. Mr. Rodwell makes it the tenth. 355. The Lady Budur shows her noble blood by not objecting to her friend becoming her Zarrat (sister-wife). This word is popularly derived from "Zarar" = injury; and is vulgarly pronounced in Egypt "Durrah" sounding like Durrah = a parrot (see Burckhardt's mistake in Prov. 314). The native proverb says, "Ayshat al-durrah murrah," the sister-wife hath a bitter life. We have no
- 62. English equivalent; so I translate indifferently co-wife, co-consort, sister-wife or sister in wedlock. 356. Lane preserves the article "El-Amjad" and "El-As'ad;" which is as necessary as to say "the John" or "the James," because neo-Latins have "il Giovanni" or "il Giacomo." In this matter of the article, however, it is impossible to lay down a universal rule: in some cases it must be preserved and only practise in the language can teach its use. For instance, it is always present in Al- Bahrayn and al-Yaman; but not necessarily so with Irak and Najd. 357. It is hard to say why this ugly episode was introduced. It is a mere false note in a tune pretty enough. 358. The significance of this action will presently appear. 359. An "Hadís." 360. Arab. "Sabb" = using the lowest language of abuse, chiefly concerning women-relatives and their reproductive parts. 361. The reader will note in the narration concerning the two Queens the parallelism of the Arab's style which recalls that of the Hebrew poets. Strings of black silk are plaited into the long locks (an "idiot-fringe" being worn over the brow) because a woman is cursed "who joineth her own hair to the hair of another" (especially human hair). Sending the bands is a sign of affectionate submission; and, in extremest cases the hair itself is sent. 362. i.e., suffer similar pain at the spectacle, a phrase often occurring. 363. i.e., when the eye sees not, the heart grieves not. 364. i.e., unto Him we shall return, a sentence recurring in almost every longer chapter of the Koran.
- 63. 365. Arab. "Kun," the creative Word (which, by the by, proves the Koran to be an uncreated Logos); the full sentence being "Kun fa kána" = Be! and it became. The origin is evidently, "And God said, Let there be light: and there was light." (Gen. i. 3); a line grand in its simplicity and evidently borrowed from the Egyptians; even as Yahveh (Jehovah) from "Ankh" = He who lives (Brugsch Hist. ii. 34). 366. i.e. but also for the life and the so-called "soul." 367. Arab. "Layáli" = lit. nights which, I have said, is often applied to the whole twenty-four hours. Here it is used in the sense of "fortune" or "fate;" like "days" and "days and nights." 368. Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr a nephew of Ayishah, who had rebuilt the Ka'abah in A.H. 64 (A.D. 683), revolted (A.D. 680) against Yezid and was proclaimed Caliph at Meccah. He was afterwards killed (A.D. 692) by the famous or infamous Hajjáj general of Abd al-Malik bin Marwan, the fifth Ommiade, surnamed "Sweat of a stone" (skin-flint) and "Father of Flies," from his foul breath. See my Pilgrimage, etc. iii., 192-194, where are explained the allusions to the Ka'abah and the holy Black Stone. 369. These lines are part of an elegy on the downfall of one of the Moslem dynasties in Spain, composed in the twelfth century by Ibn Abdun al- Andalúsi. The allusion is to the famous conspiracy of the Khárijites (the first sectarians in Mohammedanism) to kill Ali, Mu'awiyah and Amru (so written but pronounced "Amr") al-As, in order to abate intestine feuds in Al-Islam. Ali was slain with a sword-cut by Ibn Muljam a name ever damnable amongst the Persians; Mu'awiyah escaped with a wound and Kharijah, the Chief of Police at Fustat or old Cairo was murdered by mistake for Amru. After this the sectarian wars began. 370. Arab. "Saráb" = (Koran, chapt. xxiv.) the reek of the Desert, before explained. It is called "Lama," the shine, the loom, in Al-Hariri. The world is compared with the mirage, the painted eye and the sword that breaks in the sworder's hand. 371. Arab. "Dunyá," with the common alliteration "dániyah" (= Pers. "dún"), in prose as well as poetry means the things or fortune of this life opp. to
- 64. "Akhirah" = future life. 372. Arab. "Walgh," a strong expression primarily denoting the lapping of dogs; here and elsewhere "to swill, saufen." 373. The lines are repeated from Night ccxxi. I give Lane's version (ii. 162) by way of contrast and—warning. 374. "Sáhirah" is the place where human souls will be gathered on Doom-day: some understand by it the Hell Sa'ír (No. iv.) intended for the Sabians or the Devils generally. 375. His eyes are faded like Jacob's which, after weeping for Joseph, "became white with mourning" (Koran, chapt. xxi.). It is a stock comparison. 376. The grave. 377. Arab. "Sawwán" (popularly pronounced Suwán) = "Syenite" from Syrene; generally applied to silex, granite or any hard stone. 378. A proceeding fit only for thieves and paupers: "Alpinism" was then unknown. "You come from the mountain" (al-Jabal) means, "You are a clod-hopper"; and "I will sit upon the mountain" = turn anchorite or magician. (Pilgrimage i. 106). 379. Corresponding with wayside chapels in Catholic countries. The Moslem form would be either a wall with a prayer-niche (Mihráb) fronting Meccah-wards or a small domed room. These little oratories are often found near fountains, streams or tree-clumps where travellers would be likely to alight. I have described one in Sind ("Scinde or the Unhappy Valley" i. 79); and have noted that scrawling on the walls is even more common in the East than in the West; witness the monuments of old Egypt bescribbled by the Greeks and Romans. Even the paws of the Sphinx are covered with such graffiti; and those of Ipsambul or Abu Simbal have proved treasures to epigraphists. 380. In tales this characterises a Persian; and Hero Rustam is always so pictured.
- 65. 381. The Parsis, who are the representatives of the old Guebres, turn towards the sun and the fire as their Kiblah or point of prayer; all deny that they worship it. But, as in the case of saints' images, while the educated would pray before them for edification (Latria), the ignorant would adore them (Dulia); and would make scanty difference between the "reverence of a servant" and the "reverence of a slave." The human sacrifice was quite contrary to Guebre, although not to Hindu, custom; although hate and vengeance might prompt an occasional murder. 382. These oubliettes are common in old eastern houses as in the medieval Castles of Europe, and many a stranger has met his death in them. They are often so well concealed that even the modern inmates are not aware of their existence. 383. Arab. "Bakk"; hence our "bug" whose derivation (like that of "cat" "dog" and "hog") is apparently unknown to the dictionaries, always excepting M. Littré's. 384. i.e. thy beauty is ever increasing. 385. Alluding, as usual, to the eyelashes, e.g. An eyelash arrow from an eyebrow bow. 386. Lane (ii. 168) reads:—"The niggardly female is protected by her niggardness;" a change of "Nahílah" (bee-hive) into "Bakhílah" (she skin- flint). 387. Koran iv. 38. The advantages are bodily strength, understanding and the high privilege of Holy War. Thus far, and thus far only, woman amongst Moslems is "lesser man." 388. Arab. "Amír Yákhúr," a corruption of "Akhor" = stable (Persian). 389. A servile name in Persian, meaning "the brave," and a title of honour at the Court of Delhi when following the name. Many English officers have made
- 66. themselves ridiculous (myself amongst the number) by having it engraved on their seal-rings, e.g. Brown Sáhib Bahádur. To write the word "Behadir" or "Bahádir" is to adopt the wretched Turkish corruption. 390. "Jerry Sneak" would be the English reader's comment; but in the East all charges are laid upon women. 391. Here the formula means "I am sorry for it, but I couldn't help it." 392. A noble name of the Persian Kings (meaning the planet Mars) corrupted in Europe to Varanes. 393. Arab. "Jalláb," one of the three muharramát or forbiddens; the Hárik al-hajar (burner of stone), the Káti' al-shajar (cutter of trees, without reference to Hawarden N. B.) and the Báyi' al-bashar (seller of men, vulg. Jalláb). The two former worked, like the Italian Carbonari, in desert places where they had especial opportunities for crime. (Pilgrimage iii. 140). None of these things must be practised during Pilgrimage on the holy soil of Al-Hijaz—not including Jeddah. 394. The verses contain the tenets of the Murjiy sect which attaches infinite importance to faith and little or none to works. Sale (sect. viii.) derives his "Morgians" from the "Jabrians" (Jabari), who are the direct opponents of the "Kadarians" (Kadari), denying free will and free agency to man and ascribing his actions wholly to Allah. Lane (ii. 243) gives the orthodox answer to the heretical question:— Water could wet him not if God please guard His own; ✿ Nor need man care though bound of hands in sea he's thrown: But if His Lord decree that he in sea be drowned; ✿ He'll drown albeit in the wild and wold he wone. It is the old quarrel between Predestination and Freewill which cannot be solved except by assuming a Law without a Lawgiver. 395. Our proverb says: Give a man luck and throw him into the sea.
- 67. 396. As a rule Easterns, I repeat, cover head and face when sleeping especially in the open air and moonlight. Europeans find the practice difficult, and can learn it only by long habit. 397. Pers. = a flower-garden. In Galland Bahram has two daughters, Bostama and Cavama. In the Bres. Edit. the daughter is "Bostan" and the slave-girl "Kawám." 398. Arab. "Kahíl" = eyes which look as if darkened with antimony: hence the name of the noble Arab breed of horses "Kuhaylat" (Al-Ajuz, etc.). 399. "As'ad" = more (or most) fortunate. 400. This is the vulgar belief, although Mohammed expressly disclaimed the power in the Koran (chapt. xiii. 8), "Thou art commissioned to be a preacher only and not a worker of miracles." "Signs" (Arab. Ayát) may here also mean verses of the Koran, which the Apostle of Allah held to be his standing miracles. He despised the common miracula which in the East are of everyday occurrence and are held to be easy for any holy man. Hume does not believe in miracles because he never saw one. Had he travelled in the East he would have seen (and heard of) so many that his scepticism (more likely that testimony should be false than miracles be true) would have been based on a firmer foundation. It is one of the marvels of our age that whilst two-thirds of Christendom (the Catholics and the "Orthodox" Greeks) believe in "miracles" occurring not only in ancient but even in our present days, the influential and intelligent third (Protestant) absolutely "denies the fact." 401. Arab. "Al-Shahádatáni"; testifying the Unity and the Apostleship. END OF VOL. III.
- 69. INDEX. 'Abd = servile, 44 Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Caliph), 319 Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, 318 Abú Kurrat = father of coolness (Chameleon), 165 Abu 'l-Hasan (not Husn), 162 Abu 'l-Hosayn (father of the Fortlet) = fox, 132 Abú Sirhán = father of (going out to pray by) morning, 146 'Ad (pre-historic Arab tribe), 294 Adultery (son of, to one's own child), 219 Akh al-Jahálah = brother of ignorance, 162 Al (the article with Proper Names), 309 Alak = clotted blood, 26 Ali (murder of), 319 Alif (stature like), 236 Allah (give thee profit), 17 —— (unto, we are returning), 317 Allusions (far-fetched, fanciful and obscure), 58, 169, 176, 263 Alpinism (unknown), 324 Amor discende non ascende, 240
- 70. Amsa = he passed the evening, etc., 239 Amtár, pl. of Matr, q.v., 295 Andam = Brazil-wood, dragon's blood, 263 Angels (appearing to Sodomites), 301 Ape-names (expressing auspiciousness), 159 Arab (pathos), 55 —— (the noble merciful), 88 —— (shop), 163 Arák = (tooth-stick of the) wild caper-tree; Ará-ka = I see thee, 275 Ar'ar = Juniper-tree, "heath," 254 Ardhanárí = the half-woman, 306 Army (divided into six divisions), 290 As'ad = more (or most) fortunate, 346 Asáfírí = sparrow-olives, 295 Ass (goad), 116 —— (voice "most ungrateful"), 117 —— (the wild, "handy" with his hoof), 235 Ayát = signs, Koranic verses, 307 Ayshat al-durrah murrah = the sister-wife has a bitter life, 308 Awwá (name of Satan's wife), 229 Bábúnaj = white camomile, 58 Bachelor not admitted in Arab quarters, 191 Back-parts compared to revolving heavens, 18 Badawi (cannot swim), 69
- 71. —— (baser sort), 70 —— (shifting camp in spring), ib. —— (noble), 88 Baghdad = Garden of Justice, 100 Bahadur = the brave, 334 Bahram (varanes) = planet Mars, 339 Bakhshish naturalized as Anglo-Egyptian, 45 Bakk = bug, 328 Bulúr (Billaur) = crystal, etc., 194 Banát al-Na'ash = the Great Bear, 28, 221 Bands of bandits, 101 Banner (bound to a spear, sign of investiture), 307 Bárid (cold = silly, contemptible, foolish), 7 Báshik (small sparrow-hawk), 61 Bath (first after sickness), 266 Bází (Pers. Báz) = F. peregrinator, hawk, falcon, 138 Beard (long, and short wits), 247 —— (forked, characteristic of a Persian), 325 Beast-stories (oldest matter in The Nights), 114 Beauties of nature provoke hunger in Orientals, 32 Bhang (properties of the drug), 91 Bilád al-Súdán = Land of the blacks (our Soudan), 75 Bilál (benefits), name of Mohammed's Mu'ezzin, 106 Bint 'arús = daughter of the bridegroom (Ichneumon), 147 Birds denote the neighbourhood of a village, 280
- 72. Bismillah (Bi 'Smi 'lláh = in the name of God, etc.), 182 Blaze (see Ghurrah), 118 Boasting of one's tribe (see Renowning it), 80 Bostán (female Pr. N.) = flower-garden, 345 Braying of the ass, 117 Brothers of Purity, 150 —— of ignorance = Ignoramus, 163 Brotherhood (forms of making), 151 Bruising the testicles a feminine mode of murdering men, 3 Budúr (Badoura) = full moons, 228 Bukhti (two-humped camel), 67 Caliphs Tái li'llah, 51, 307 —— Walíd (Al-), 69 —— Mu'atasim bi 'llah, 81 —— Wásik (Al-), ib. —— Abd al-Malik bin Marwan, 319 —— Ali, ib. —— Mu'áwiyah, ib. Camels (breeds of), 67, 110 —— (names), 110 —— (haltered, nose-ring used for dromedaries), 120 —— (Mehari, Mahríyah), 277 Camphor (simile for a fair face), 174 Carat = Kirát, 239
- 73. Carnelion stone bitten with pearls = lips with teeth in sign of anger, 179 Cat (puss, etc.), 149 Cervantes and Arab Romance, 66 Chaff, 23 Chameleon (father of coolness), 165 Cheese a styptic, 3 Clapping hands to call servants, 173 Clogs = Kubkáb, 92 Coition (postures of), 93 Cold-of-countenance = a fool, 7 Cold speech = a silly or abusive tirade, ib. Comrades of the Cave, 128 Constipation (La) rend rigoureux, 242 Copulation (postures of), 93 Cowardice equally divided, 173 Criss 'cross Row, 236 Dalhamah (Romance of), 112 Dara' (dira) = habergeon, coat of ring-mail, etc., 109 Daughters of Sa'adah = zebras, 65 —— of the bier = Ursa major, 28, 221 Day of Doom (mutual retaliation), 128 —— (length of), 299 "Death in a crowd as good as a feast" (Persian proverb), 141 Divorce (triple), 292
- 74. Doors (usually shut with a wooden bolt), 198 Double entendre, 234 Dreams (true at later night), 258 Drinking at dawn, 20 —— their death agony = suffering similar pain, 315 Dromedary (see Camel). —— (guided by a nose-ring), 120 Dunyá (P. N.) = world, 7, 319 Durrah (vulg. for Zarrat q.v.). Easterns sleep with covered heads, 345 Eating together makes friends, 71 Egyptian (= archi-) polissonnerie, 243 Euphemy, 68, 102, 209, 267, 338 Evacuation (and Constipation), 242 Eve (the true seducer), 166 Eye (darkening from wine or passion), 224 —— (orbits slit up and down the face of a hideous Jinn), 235 Eye (man of the = pupil), 286 —— (white = blind), 323 Fables proper (oldest part of The Nights), 114 Fairer to-day than fair of yesterday = ever increasing in beauty, 331 Falak (clearing) = breaking forth of light from darkness, 22 Falcon (see Hawk, Bází), 154
- 75. Falling on the back with laughter, 306 Farting for fear, 118 Fátin = tempter, seducer, 82 Firdausi, the Persian Homer, quoted, 83 Fire and sickness cannot cohabit (see Kayy), 59 —— worshippers slandered, 326 First at the feast and last at the fray, 81 Fist (putting into fist = putting oneself at another's mercy), 155 Flying for delight, 26 Foot, smallness of, sign of "blood", 227 Formula of praise pronounced to avert the evil eye, 224 Fortune makes kneel her camel by some other one = encamps with a favourite, 141 Foster-brother (dearer than kith and kin), 256 Fox, cunning man (see Wolf), 132 Freeing slaves for the benefit of the souls of the departed, 211 Fulán (fulano in Span. and Port.) = a certain person, 191 Futúh = openings, victories, benefit, 304 Gamin (faire le), ib. Gates (two to port towns), 281 Geography in its bearings on Morality, 241 Geomantic process, 269 Gharám (Pr. N.) = eagerness, desire, love-longing, 172 Ghazá (Artemisia-shrub), 220 Ghost (phantom = Tayf), 252
- 76. Ghurrah = blaze on a horse's forehead, 118 Ghusl al-Sihhah = washing of health, 266 Give a man luck and throw him into the sea, 341 Goad (of the donkey-boy), 116 Gossamer (names for), 217 Grave (levelling slave and sovereign), 323 Hair-strings (of black silk), 311 —— (significance of), 313 Hájib = groom, chamberlain, 233 Hajín (tall camel), 67 Hámah (soul of a murdered man in form of a bird sprung from his head), 293 Hammam-bath a luxury as well as a necessity, 19 Hands behind the back (posture of submission), 218 —— stained in stripes like ring-rows of a chain-armour, 176 Hárút and Marút (sorcerer-angels), 217 Harwalah = pas gymnastique, 121 Hashsháshín = assassins, 91 Hashish, see Bhang, ib. —— orgie in London, ib. Hawar = intensity of black and white in the eyes, 233 Háwí = juggler playing tricks with snakes, 145 Hawk, see Báshik, Bazi, 61, 138 Hayát al-Nufús = Life of Souls, 283 Házir and Bádi = townsman and nomad, 234
- 77. Head (must always be kept covered), 275 Headsman delaying execution, 42 Hemistichs divided, 166 Hermaphrodites (Khunsa), 306 Heroine of Eastern Romance eats well, 168 Hijl = partridge, 138 "Him" for "her", 78 Hinges (of ancient doors), 41 Hips, leanness of, "anti-pathetic" to Easterns, 226 Hoof (of the wild ass), 235 Horripilation = gooseflesh, 2 Horse (names of the), 72 —— stealing honourable, 73 Host (enters first as safe-guard against guet-apens), 208 Houris, 233 Hudhud = hoopoe, 128 Húr, see Houris, 233 Hurr = free, noble, independent opp. to 'Abd = servile, 44 Iblis = the Despairer, 223 Ibn Abdun al-Andalúsi (poet), 319 Ibn Muljam (murderer of the Caliph Ali), 319 Ibn Síná = Avicenna, 34 Ichneumon (mongoose), 147 Iddat = months of a woman's enforced celibacy after divorce, 292
- 78. Ikhlás (Al-) = chapter of unity, 307 Ikhwán al-Safá = Brethren of Purity, 150 Ilàh al-Arsh = the God of the Empyrean, 106 Ill is thy abiding place, 137 Insane (treatment of the), 256 Iron padlock (instead of the usual wooden bolt), 198 Irony, 291 Isengrin (wolf), 146 Ismid = stibium (eye-powder), 307 Jalláb = slave-dealer, 340 Jamal (Gamal) = camel, q.v., 110 Jamíz (Jammayz) = sycamore-fig, 302 Jannat al-Na'ím = Garden of Delight, 19 Jeweller (in Eastern tales generally a rascal), 186 Jihád = fighting for the faith, 39 Jinnis (names of), 225 Joining prayers, 174 Kahlil = whose eyes are kohl'd by nature, 346 Kahlá = nature-kohl'd, 232 Káma-Shástra (Ars Amoris Indica), 93 Kamar al-Zamán (Camaralzaman = Moon of the Age), 213 Kamaráni = the two moons for sun and moon, 300 Kámat Alfiyyah = a shape like the letter Alif, 236
- 79. Kanát = subterranean water-course, 141 Kánún (dulcimer, "zither"), 211 Kapoteshwara and Kapoteshí, 126 Kasídah = Ode, elegy, 262 Katúl (Al-) = the slayer, 72 Kausaj = man with a thin, short beard, cunning, tricksy, 246 Kaysún = yellow camomile, 58 Kayy (Al-) = cautery, the end of medicine-cure, 59 Kerchief of Dismissal, 295 Khálidán (for Khálidát) = the Canaries, 212 Khán (caravanserai) and its magazines, 14 Khanjar = dagger, hanger (poisoned), 90 Khassat-hu = she gelded him, 47 Khauf (Al-) maksúm = fear (cowardice) is equally apportioned, 173 Khayt hamayán = threads of vanity (gossamer), 217 Khaznah = treasury of money (£5,000), 278 Khizáb (dye used by women), 105 Khunsa = flexible, flaccid (hermaphrodite), 306 Kiblah = fronting-place of prayer Kissing (like a pigeon feeding its young), 275 Kinchin lay (Arab form of), 102 Kirát (weight = 2-3 grains; length = one finger-breadth), 239 Kohl (applying of = takhíl), 57 —— -eyed = Kahlá, f., 232 Koka Pandit (Hindu ars Amandi), 93
- 80. Koran quoted (x. 10-12; lvi. 24-26; lxxxviii. 17-20), 19 —— (xii. 31), 21 —— (cxiii. 1), 22 —— (ii. 186; lx. 1), 39 —— (lxxvi.), 57 —— (ii. 23), 65 —— (xxxi. 18; lxvii. 7), 117 —— (ii. 191), 123 —— (xviii.; xxii. 20; lxxxvii.), 128 —— (ii. 96, 256), 217 —— (ii.; iii.; xxxvi.; lv.; lxvii.; cxiii.; cxiv.), 222 —— (ii. 32; xviii. 48), 223 —— (xxiii. 20; xcv. 1), 276 —— (xxvi.), 294 —— (xi.), 301 —— (xxiii. 38), 302 —— (ii.; li. 9; xxxv. 11), 304 —— (cxii.), 307 —— (xxiv. 39), 319 —— (xxi.), 323 —— (iv. 38), 332 Kubkáb = bath clogs, 92 Kuhailat (breed of Arab horses), 346 Kun = be, the creative word, 317 Kurds (Xenophon's and Strabo's Carduchi), 100
- 81. Lájuward, see Lázuward, 33 Lámiyat = poem rhyming in L, 143 Layáli = nights, future, fate, 318 Layla (female Pr. N.), 135 —— (wa Majnún, love poem), 183 Lázuward = lapis lazuli, azure, 33 Letters and letter-writing, 24 Libdah (skull-cap of felt) sign of a religious mendicant, 62 Lisám = mouth-veil, 283 Liver (for heart), 240 Lizzat al-Nisá (erotic poem), 93 Love (pure, becomes prophetical), 6 —— (the ear conceiveth it before the eye), 9 —— (ten stages of), 36 —— (martyrs of), 211 —— (platonic, see vol. ii. 104), 232 —— (ousting affection), 240 Lovers in Lazá (hell) as well as Na'ím (heaven), 58 —— (parting of, a stock-topic in poetry), 58 Lukmán (two of the name), 264 Ma'an bin Zá'idah, 236 Mahríyah (Mehari) = blood-dromedary, 277 Majlis = sitting (to a woman), 92 Majnún (Al-) = the mad, 72
- 82. Málik (door-keeper of Hell), 20 Malik (king) taken as title, 51 Man (extract of despicable water), 16 —— (is fire, woman tinder), 59 —— (shown to disadvantage in beast-stories), 115 —— (his destiny written on his skull), 123 —— (pre-eminence above women), 332 Maniyat = death; muniyat = desire, 291 Marba' = summer quarters, 79 Marján = Coral-branch (slave-name), 169 Marriage (if consummated demands Ghusl), 286 Married men profit nothing, 2 Martyrs of love, 211 Márwazi = of Marw (Margiana), 222 Marz-bán = Warden of the Marches, Margrave, 256 Má sháa 'llah (as Allah willeth) = well done!, 92 Matr = large vessel of leather or wood, 295 Maurid = desert-well and road to such, 33 Mercy (quality of the noble Arab), 88 Minaret (simile for a fair young girl), 69 Miracles (disclaimed by Mohammed but generally believed in), 346 Mirage = Saráb, 319 Mohammed ("born with Kohl'd eyes"), 232 Moon masc., Sun fem., 28 Moore (Thomas, anticipated), 305
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