THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT.ppt
- 1. PSY 432 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT H. Zwidi
- 2. Human Development Human development begins with conception and ends when one dies. Until recently, child development began at the time of child’s birth. Today, it is recognised that many things of great significance to the postnatal development occur before birth.
- 3. Human Development Child Development, physical, intellectual, social, and emotional changes that occur from birth to adolescence. Although people change throughout their lives, developmental changes are especially dramatic in childhood. During this period, a dependent, vulnerable newborn grows into a capable young person who has mastered language, is self-aware, can think and reason with sophistication, has a distinctive personality, and socializes effortlessly with others. Many abilities and characteristics developed in childhood last a lifetime
- 4. Human Development cont’d There are a number of factors influence child development e.g. heredity, biological factors, family, peers, school environment, community... Important to study development because; i. Contributes in a very practical way to human development ii. Enables society to support healthy growth iii. Sound mental and social growth stems from proper development
- 5. Human Development cont’d Scholars have long debated the relative importance of nature (hereditary influences) and nurture (environmental influences) in child development. Today developmental scientists recognize that both influences are essential and are mutually influential. The conclusion that strongly inherited characteristics are changeable has important practical implications..
- 6. Human Development cont’d Continuity or stages: Many aspects of childhood development are more gradual and continuous, such as the development of physical skills, social abilities, and emotional understanding. Stability and change: many developmental scientists believe that later experiences can modify or even reverse early influences; studies show that even when early experiences are traumatic or abusive, considerable recovery can occur From this vantage point, early experiences influence, but rarely determine, later characteristics.
- 7. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT A theory is a body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques that applies to a subject, especially when seen as distinct from actual practice It is an organized set of principles that is designed to explain and predict something. It is a set of facts, propositions, or principles analyzed in their relation to one another and used, especially in science, to explain phenomena.
- 8. Gesell’s maturation theory • The Maturational Theory of child development was developed by a psychologist and paediatrician named Arnold Gesell • Gesell’s theory was shaped by the assumptions that development is based in biology, children alternate between good and bad years in development, and that body types share a connection with personality development.
- 9. Gessel’s maturation theory cont’d Maturational Theory focuses on physical and mental development, and Gesell saw these developmental patterns being determined by a child’s heredity. Gesell observed and recorded the changes he observed in the growth and development of children from infancy through adulthood. The Maturational Theory takes the stance that environment has no effect on a child’s development.
- 10. Gesell’s maturation theory cont’d In fact, if a child suffers from any developmental problem, it is believed that the problem lies within the individual child and not as the result of the child’s environment and circumstances. Within the Maturational Theory of child development, children are expected to exhibit certain behaviors according to a maturational timetable. This can be very helpful for parents and educators to see a list of normative behavior for children at a specific age.
- 11. Freud’s psychology theory of development Sigmund Freud is probably the most well-known psychologist in history, and his Psychoanalytic Theory of child development was based on the idea that a child’s behavior is greatly determined by unconscious desires in the child. Freud understood the human mind to be divided into three controlling concepts. He believed that all children are born with certain innate selfish desires that drive their behavior.
- 12. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d He called the part of the mind where these self impulses originate the “id.” The “id” also functioned as the first stage of development in Freud’s model. Freud believed that children would begin to learn that not every desire they have will be met, and this would teach them to develop an appreciation for the way things are and an acceptance that things won’t always go their way. He called this stage the “Ego”
- 13. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d In Freud’s theory, the Super-ego would team up with the Ego to regulate the selfish impulses of the Id. Freud’s theory also concerned a child’s personality development would be determined by the way the child’s parents dealt with the child’s inherent sexual and aggressive desires. As a result of the Psychoanalytic Theory of child development, any problems in behavior in a child are often attributed to unconscious processes or desires within the child.
- 14. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d A negative implication of the Psychoanalytic Theory was the tendency to base negative developmental patterns within a child on the child’s parents, specifically the mother of the child. Clearly, if you rely on a model of child development that believes development is highly influenced by a child’s nurture or the environment that surrounds them, it’s clear that a parent’s actions do have a serious influence on the child’s development, but placing all of the blame on parent interaction isn’t telling the whole story.
- 15. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d • Psychoanalytic theories thus share an emphasis on personality development and early childhood experiences. • In the psychoanalytic view, early experiences shape one’s personality for an entire lifetime, and psychological problems in adulthood may have their origins in difficult or traumatic childhood experiences.
- 16. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d In addition, psychoanalytic theories emphasize the role of unconscious, instinctual drives in personality development. Some of these drives are sexual or aggressive in quality, and their unacceptability to the conscious mind causes them to be repressed in the unconscious mind. Here, they continue to exert a powerful influence on an individual’s behaviour, often without his or her awareness.
- 17. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d • Most psychoanalytic theories portray development as a series of stages through which all children proceed. • According to Freud, child development consists of five psychosexual stages in which a particular body region is the focus of sensual satisfactions; the focus of pleasure shifts as children progress through the stages.
- 18. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d During the oral stage, from birth to age 1, the mouth, tongue, and gums are the focus of sensual pleasure, and the baby develops an emotional attachment to the person providing these satisfactions (primarily through feeding). During the anal stage, from ages 1 to 3, children focus on pleasures associated with control and self-control, primarily with respect to defecation and toilet training. In the phallic stage, from ages 3 to 6, children derive pleasure from genital stimulation.
- 19. Freud’s psychology theory of development cont’d They are also interested in the physical differences between the sexes and identify with their same-sex parent. The latency phase, from ages 7 to 11, is when sensual motives subside and psychological energy is channelled into conventional activities, such as schoolwork. Finally, during the genital stage, from adolescence through adulthood, individuals develop mature sexual interests.
- 20. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development The Psychosocial Theory of child development is based on the work of psychologist Erik Erikson. Erikson’s work focused on the development of personality in children, and he believed that a child’s personality development occurred in stages. He also held that a child’s personality was greatly impacted by the social interactions and experiences they go through during their lifetime.
- 21. Erikson’s theory cont’d Children develop a sense of identity based upon the social interactions they experience. Each social interaction has the potential of impacting or reinforcing a person’s identity. Below is a brief summary of the 8 stages of Erikson’s theory:
- 22. Erikson’s theory cont’d i. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-18 months) – During this stage, a child develops trust when their needs are met in a consistent manner. ii. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 years) – Children learn to develop control over their own physical skills, feeling a sense of autonomy. iii. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years) – Children begin to exert control over their environment and begin taking initiative.
- 23. Erikson’s theory cont’d iv. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years) – A child’s interaction with their peers as well as encouragement from authority figures helps them to develop self confidence. v. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) – Adolescents begin asserting their independence and begin forming personal identity.
- 24. Erikson’s theory cont’d vi. Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 years) – People in this stage develop loving intimate relationships with other people, and experience this as a deep need. vii. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years) – Adults in this stage feel the need to develop something that will outlast them. For many, this means parenthood. viii.Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65-death) – People in this stage need to be able to reflect on the life they’ve lived and be satisfied on what they accomplished.
- 25. Erikson’s theory cont’d • The Psychosocial Theory helps to understand the unique contribution that social interaction has on a person’s development over the course of their lifespan. • The theory also covers more than just child development, but development over the course of a person’s entire life.
- 26. Kohlberg’s moral development • Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. • Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the University of Chicago in 1958, and expanded and developed this theory throughout his life.
- 27. Kohlberg’s Theory The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behaviour, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.
- 28. Kohlberg’s Theory cont’d Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime, a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels: pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.
- 29. Kohlberg’s moral development stages Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) (Paying for a benefit) Level 2 (Conventional) 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) (The good boy/girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) Level 3 (Post-Conventional) 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)
- 30. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d • Level I: Preconventional/Premoral • Moral values reside in external, quasi-physical events, or in bad acts. • The child is responsive to rules and evaluative labels, but views them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions, or in terms of the physical power of those who impose the rules.
- 31. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation Egocentric deference to superior power or prestige, or a trouble-avoiding set. Objective responsibility. Stage 2: Naively egoistic orientation Right action is that which is instrumental in satisfying the self's needs and occasionally others'. Relativism of values to each actor's needs and perspectives. Naive egalitarianism, orientation to exchange and reciprocity.
- 32. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d Level II: Conventional/Role Conformity Moral values reside in performing the right role, in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others as a value in its own right. Stage 3: Good-boy/good-girl orientation Orientation to approval, to pleasing and helping others. Conformity to stereotypical images of majority or natural role behavior. Action is evaluated in terms of intentions.
- 33. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d • Stage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining orientation • Orientation to "doing duty" and to showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order or its own sake. • Regard for earned expectations of others. • Differentiates actions out of a sense of obligation to rules from actions for generally "nice" or natural motives.
- 34. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d • Level III: Post-conventional/Self-Accepted Moral Principles • Morality is defined in terms of conformity to shared standards, rights, or duties apart from supporting authority. • The standards conformed to are internal, and action-decisions are based on an inner process of thought and judgement concerning right and wrong.
- 35. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d Stage 5: Contractual/legalistic orientation Norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis. When conflict arises between individual needs and law or contract, though sympathetic to the former, the individual believes the latter must prevail because of its greater functional rationality for society, the majority will and welfare.
- 36. Kohlberg’s moral development stages cont’d Stage 6: The morality of individual principles of conscience Orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward the conscience as a directing agent, mutual trust and respect, and principles of moral choice involving logical universalities and consistency. Action is controlled by internalized ideals that exert a pressure to act accordingly regardless of the reactions of others in the immediate environment. If one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result.