Theory of Architecture
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The document discusses the history and development of architectural theory from antiquity to modern times. It begins with Vitruvius, the earliest surviving works on architectural theory from ancient Rome. It then discusses influential theorists from different time periods like Alberti, Palladio, and modern theorists like Le Corbusier. The document also categorizes different types of architectural theories like thematic theories focused on a single goal and theories of synthesis aimed at fulfilling multiple goals. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of architectural theory through history.
!["Because I saw that you [Caesar] have built and are now building extensively, I have drawn-up definite
rules to enable you to have personal knowledge of the quality both of existing buildings and of those which
are yet to be constructed." (Vitruve, Book I, )
"Architects everywhere have recognized the need of
... a tool which may be put in the hands of creators
of form, with the simple aim ... of making the bad
difficult and the good easy" (Le Corbusier, The Modulor, Foreword of 2nd ed. 1951).
Essays and notes for lectures and articles by architects and architectural historians
may provide relevant information on architectural theory. Architectural theory
encompasses all the principles and concepts underlying the practice of architecture,
from the fundamental theories of classical proportions to theories about the social
or cultural role of architecture. It is therefore a wide-ranging subject upon which
many architects and architectural historians produce essays, articles and reports.
Some architects come to prominence as theorists as well as practitioners. One such
is C.R. Cockerell (1788-1863), whose buildings are now widely admired but whose
commitment to the principles of Greek Classical architecture in the Victorian Gothic
era won him many commissions
4](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thofarch26thsemb-160503082612/85/Theory-of-Architecture-4-320.jpg)
![Personal Styles; ‘form language" of new
buildings, ( 18th to 20th cent)
Since the times of Renaissance, all the renowned architects and theorists in Europe had taken it for
granted that the "form language" of new buildings, i.e., the systems of columns and decorations had to
be copied from antiquity, where they had already been brought to perfection. The only thing designers of
new buildings then had to do was to combine and modify these elements in order to fit them to the
practical requirements and resources of each commissioner. Some sporadic protests had been heard. But
they did not affect the mainstream of design.
The first theorist who set out to create a totally new system of architectural forms independent of
antiquity was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc(1863). In his book he states that "what we call taste is but an
involuntary process of reasoning whose steps elude our observation". "Authority has no value if its
grounds are not explained" . Given the fact that the foundations of modern architecture cannot possibly
be the same as those prevalent in Greece 2000 years ago, Viollet-le-Duc saw as his mission to develop a
new architecture which would be based, in the same way as Descartes' philosophy, only on facts and
reasonable conclusions reached on the basis of them.
"A door ought to be made for the purpose of going into a building or going out of it; the width of such
door ought therefore be accommodated to the ... number of persons who have occasion to go in or out;
but however dense a crowd may be, the persons are always under seven feet in height; ... To make a door
five yards wide and ten high is therefore absurd."
"A column is a support, not a decoration, like a frieze or an arabesque; if then you have no occasion for
columns, I cannot understand why you furnish your facades with them."
"A cornice is intended to keep the water from the face of the wall: if therefore you put a projecting
cornice in an interior, I cannot but say that it is unmeaning."Viollet-le-Duc tried to put his theories to
practice in his own design as well. In it, he was carried on to bring the theoretical logic of the
constructions so far that few people would consider the product beautiful. The decoration has thus a
rational foundation, as Viollet's theory dictates.
Although Viollet-le-Duc could not create a timeless architectural style himself, he showed others the
philosophical foundation and method that they could use to develop even radically new form languages.
Owen Jones was another important writer that inspired young architects to create new formal styles. He
studied the methods of exploiting an eternal source of architectural forms: nature and especially the
forms of plants. The result of his studies became the first design instruction on the use of ornaments
originating in nature: Grammar of Ornament (1856). One of its 37 rules (no 13) states that "flowers or
other natural objects should not be used as ornaments", instead acceptable are "conventional
representations founded upon them sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image to the mind,
without destroying the unity of the object they are employed to decorate." And rule 35 says that
"imitations, such as the graining of woods, and of the curious coloured marbles [are] allowable only
when the employment of the thing imitated would not have been inconsistent."
19](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thofarch26thsemb-160503082612/85/Theory-of-Architecture-19-320.jpg)
![Ecological Architecture
Making a shelter from bad weather was certainly one of the earliest goals of building,
and it has also later affected the building forms.
23
Climatic
incentive:
Ensuing architectural form:
Excessive cold Airtight, isolating outer skin.
In the centre a source of
warmth
Excessive heat Large roof to give shadow;
large openings in the walls to
allow ventilation
Too hot in daytime
and too cold during
the night
Thick heavy walls
In the Western countries room air conditioning is now so common
that we have almost forgotten the above foundations of architecture,
see e.g. Mechanisation Takes Command, by Sigfried Giedion (1950).
Nevertheless, lately the ecological imperative has again come to
surface, the natural resources of earth dwindling and the people in
developing countries starting to contend their share. It goes without
saying that the theory of ecological architecture can be based on the
findings of industrial ecology which lately has made great progress
The physical appearance of ecological architecture is often
dominated by large sloping panels which gather solar energy. These
are placed on the roofs and along the southern walls. As a contrast,
the cool side of the building is characterized by the absence of large
openings, and the windows on this side can be covered for the night.,
extract from the book Energiakäsikirja [Energy Handbook] (1983).
Another approach in ecological design deals with building materials
and aims at minimizing the use of not replenishable raw materials.
This means preferring such building materials as wood, stone, earth
and recycled material like used boxes and barrels, and naturally it
necessitates a peculiar style of architectural design as well](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thofarch26thsemb-160503082612/85/Theory-of-Architecture-23-320.jpg)
Theory of Architecture
- 1. 09 ARC 6.8 6 T H S E M , B . A R C H . V T U S Y L L A B U S Theory of Architecture In present day, the design theory of architecture includes all that is presented in the handbooks of architects: legislation, norms and standards of building. All of them are intended to aid the work of the architect and improve its product -- the quality of buildings technology and production in general: proven theory helps designers to do their work better and more effectively. It occasionally even helps to do things that were believed to be impossible earlier on. As an old saying goes, there is nothing more practical than a good theory. The aesthetization of utilitarian ideas is the primacy of architecture as a vessel of life, accommodating the needs of human beings DAYANAD SAGAR ACADAMYOF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT Bangalore 560082 By Ar. K.S.Mukunda Prof Emirates. DSATM Bangalore 1 “Geometrical fundamentalism” aims to impose simple geometrical solids such as cubes, pyramids, and rectangular slabs on the built environment. This defines a characteristic of twentieth- century architecture . A philosophy about geometrical shapes thus has an enormous socio-economic impact, by generating forces against globalization. The modernist movement promised a radical new utopian society based on a fundamentalist belief in pure abstractions. “ In art/architecture , like in any other work professional skills are needed and that is the same as knowing what you should do, While theory of design is intended to help design, it does not necessarily precede design. On the contrary, the first building where a new architectural style is exposed, is usually created intuitively, without the help of any theory, just by the skill of a brilliant architect. The design theory comes a little later, and even less brilliant architects can then base their work on it. Thematic or "analytic" theories are treatises which aim at the fulfilment of one principal goal of architecture Theories of architectural synthesis are examples of theories which aim at fulfilling simultaneously several goals, usually all the goals that are known. Some of the theories are now certainly outdated and have little interest to a modern builder, but some contain still valid information about important goals of building, notably on the questions of functionality, construction, economy and ecology. theories can be seen as building-specific branches of the general goal-specific theories which pertain to all types of products and are listed in Paradigms Of Design Theory.
- 2. 2 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE II VTU. SYLLABUS
- 3. Theory is an interpretation of Design ideas. It gives a tangiable understanding of an otherwise ambigious architectural thought process for Designing new things in Architecture THEORY PRACTICE of what is new to be adopted Time period Theorists Antiquity Vitruvious Middle age Abbot suger Renaissance Alberty , Andre Palladio Nineteenth Cent John Ruskin, Violet le duc, 20th cent Adolf loos, Erro Sarinen , Eric Mendalson, Richard Neutra Post modern Robert ventury , Charls Jencks Deconstruction Frank gehry, Jacques Derida 3 Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, or most importantly writing about architecture. Architectural theory is taught in most architecture schools and is practiced by the world's leading architects. Some forms that architecture theory takes are the lecture or dialogue, the treatise or book, and the paper project or competition entry. Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools. It has existed in some form since antiquity, and as publishing became more common, architectural theory gained an increased richness. Books, magazines, and journals published an unprecedented amount of works by architects and critics in the Twentieth century. As a result, styles and movements formed and dissolved much more quickly than the relatively enduring modes in earlier history. It is to be expected that the use of the internet will further the discourse on architecture in the Twenty first century.
- 4. "Because I saw that you [Caesar] have built and are now building extensively, I have drawn-up definite rules to enable you to have personal knowledge of the quality both of existing buildings and of those which are yet to be constructed." (Vitruve, Book I, ) "Architects everywhere have recognized the need of ... a tool which may be put in the hands of creators of form, with the simple aim ... of making the bad difficult and the good easy" (Le Corbusier, The Modulor, Foreword of 2nd ed. 1951). Essays and notes for lectures and articles by architects and architectural historians may provide relevant information on architectural theory. Architectural theory encompasses all the principles and concepts underlying the practice of architecture, from the fundamental theories of classical proportions to theories about the social or cultural role of architecture. It is therefore a wide-ranging subject upon which many architects and architectural historians produce essays, articles and reports. Some architects come to prominence as theorists as well as practitioners. One such is C.R. Cockerell (1788-1863), whose buildings are now widely admired but whose commitment to the principles of Greek Classical architecture in the Victorian Gothic era won him many commissions 4
- 5. The Antiquity era 1. Sumerian 2.Assyrian 3.Egyptian 4. Greek 5.Roman 6. Byzentine Beginning of Architectural evolution ORIGINALITY & INVENTION Architectural theory----1st cent B>C VITRUVIOUS Not all industrial products are modern inventions. There are several types of artifacts that have been produced during generations. Accordingly, these artifacts have also been the object of many studies and theories. The most notable example of these is the building. The art and science of architecture has been studied almost continuously during two millennia, and a great number of these treatises have been preserved until our day. Informative studies aim at reporting the present (or past) state of the object which in architectural studies can be either one building or any defined class or series of buildings, as well as people related to these buildings. Explanatory studies try to find out why each building has taken the shape that they have. The reasons can be taken either from the past (causal explanation), from the concurrent context, or alternatively from the future (i.e. from the intentions of the builders). Normative studies attempt to point out in which respects the object of study could be improved, and the method of doing it. When the outcome of normative studies is generalizable to later similar objects, we can call it theory of design Recent studies about architecture and buildings can usually be classified into one or the other of the above three genres of research (if not being combinations of them). However, when looking at earlier writings it turns out that practically all papers published before 18 century belong exclusively to the third group, i.e. to design theory 5
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- 8. Vitruve's 10 Books of Architecture The theory of antiquity & renaisance begins with VITRUVIOUS written in his 10 books on Architecture composd by him in Roman Architecture. It has become an Architecture trestise to servive from antiquity. Hence Vitruvious is considered as the primary authority in Architectural thinking for almost 1800 years now. His 10 books of Architecture are the oldest surviving works & cover a wide variety of subjects relating to Architecture such as, Engineering, Sanitation Practical hydralics, Acoustics etc,. Its in vitruvious study we see the Classical Orders of Architecture like DORIC, IONIC, TUSCAN & CORINTHIAN Vitruve's book consists almost only of normative theory of design. His rules are usually based on practical points or reasoning; sometimes he also motivates them by saying that this has always been done, i.e., with historical tradition. Vitruve discusses not only one theme but several practical goals of building, each one of these in a separate chapter of the book. The treatise can be seen as a collection of parallel thematic theories of design. Vitruve gives no method for combining these into a synthesis, he only presents a classification (I:3:2) of all the requirements set for buildings: durability (firmitas) practicality or "convenience" (utilitas) pleasantness (venustas). 8
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- 10. Vitruvious , in the introduction of book VII; most of them described a temple. Two of the writings were about proportions, and as many as nine writers spoke about the "laws of symmetry", which in modern terminology mostly mean the systems of module measuring. Vitruve's book consists almost only of normative theory of design. His rules are usually based on practical points or reasoning; 10
- 11. Vitruve discusses not only one theme but several practical goals of building, he only presents a classification (I:3:2) of all the requirements set for buildings: durability (firmitas) practicality or "convenience" (utilitas) pleasantness (venustas). LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI (1404-72) belonged to universal geniuses of Renaissance 11 Word “Eurythmy” refers to"harmonious movement "Eurythmy is beauty and fitness in the adjustments of the members The important role of Eurythmy in Vitruvius's architectural theory is, well established. “Architecture depends on Order, Arrangement, Eurythmy, Symmetry, Propriety(decorum), and Economy “
- 12. To give structure and decoration to facades, Alberti developed a clever system of classical pilasters and architraves which could be superimposed on any earlier smooth surface. Alberti used the name "ornamentum" ('equipment', 'decoration') for these architectural elements. 12
- 13. Giacomo (Jacopo) Barozzi da Vignola is another distinguished author. In his book Regola delle cinque ordini (1562) he wanted to present the "concise, fast and easily applicable rules of the five column systems. " Vignola based his design instructions on four things, which were: the idea of Pythagoras that the proportions of small integers meant harmony the proportions and other instructions provided by Vitruve the example set by earlier buildings and general good taste, whatever that meant when interpreted by each writer 13
- 14. 14 Palladian motif A door or window opening in three parts, divided by posts, with a lintel flat over each side but arched over the center. the motif was first described in the work L'architettura (1537), by the Italian architect Sebastiano Serlio, it is also known as the Serlian motif, or Serliana, and the window derived from it may be called a Serlian window. It is also sometimes called a Venetian window True Palladianism" in Villa Godi by Palladio from the Quattro Libri dell'Architettura. The extending wings are agricultural buildings and are not part of the villa. In the 18th century they became an important part of Palladianism— A villa with a superimposed Palladian portico
- 15. The Middle Ages The Middle Ages; Most documents remaining from the Middle Ages have to do with the monastery institution. The convents erected a great number of buildings. there was little interest in mundane values like the qualities of architecture, Fortunately, the libraries of the monasteries preserved at least some fragments of the architectural theory of antiquity for a long time, While much of the surviving medieval architecture is either religious or military, examples of civic and even domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe. Examples include manor houses, town halls, almshouses and bridges The classical system of the "orders" (on the right) became the most visible contents of architectural theory, although it also emphasized the composition of building masses and rooms and the concepts of proportion and harmony. The classical style is aptly called 'mannerism' in some countries. craftsmen in the building trade started forming guilds (German: Bauhütte). These guilds probably gathered a great deal of traditional information related to construction, but it seems to have remained a professional secret of the guilds and the masters, In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, architects designed not only the layout and decoration but also the construction and stability of the buildings Central figures in developing the mathematical construction theory were Robert Hooke (1635-1703), Jakob Bernoulli (1654-1705) and Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). All of them published several books. From Euler onwards, the theory of elasticity of structures developed side by side with mathematical theory. The great architecture of medieval Europe was predominantly sacred. Nonetheless, serveral styles of buildings devloped like Romanesque & gothic etc,.the Byzantines developed a unique architectural decorative style. Which was very grand. The best architectural development for most people was the invention of the chimney in the Early Middle Ages, which made people's houses less smoky 15
- 16. Thematic Theories of Architecture Paradigm (=style) of architecture: Basic presentation of its theory: Doric, Ionian and Corinthian style and their varieties in ancient Greece and Rome Vitruv De Architectura libridecem. It was mainly documention of earlier architectural traditions. Romanesque and Gothic styles. Medieval anonymous tradition of trade guilds has not survived to us; minor fragments are the following: Villard de Honnecourt and Schmuttermayer. Renaissance, baroque, rococo, neo-classical style Alberti: De re Aedificatoria. Serlio, Vignola, Palladio.. Large constructions: bridges and halls. "Structuralist" styling (=which emphasizes the structure). Hooke, Bernoulli, Euler... l'Art Nouveau. Personal styles of architectural geniuses: Gaudi, Viollet-le-Duc, Le coorbusier etc,. Functionalism. The teaching of Gropius and Bauhaus. Adolf Loos. Neufert (1936): Bauentwurfslehre led to the Modernism in Architecture Postmodernism and Deconstruction Robert Venturi opposed to the simple "matchbox (Modern) architecture“ and he embraced everything from decorative art to abstract art for façade treetment. 16
- 17. Skill without knowledge is nothing. Paradigms Of Design Theory. Paradigm (=style) of architecture: Basic presentation of its theory: While theory of design is intended to help design, it does not necessarily precede design. On the contrary, the first building where a new architectural style is exposed, is usually created intuitively, without the help of any theory, just by the skill of a brilliant architect. The design theory comes a little later, and even less brilliant architects can then base their work on it. In the following are examples of traditions of theory, in other words, paradigms that architects have applied at different times. They are classified in two groups in the following: Thematic theories Theories of synthesis Thematic theories are treatises which aim at the fulfilment of one principal goal, usually at the cost of other customary goals of building. Theories which aim at fulfilling simultaneously several goals, perhaps all the goals that are known, are discussed on the page Theories of architectural synthesis. Thematic or "analytic" theories are treatises which aim at the fulfilment of one principal goal of architecture. They are often based on profound analyses of this goal, often made at the cost of other customary goals of building. This adds to the clarity of the theory, and also of the buildings that are designed on its basis. They are often admirable works of art and can be used as exemplars in the education of younger architects. On the other hand, over stressing just one goal of building has often made these edifices impractical and inadequate in other respects. Indeed, many of them are today no more used for their originally intended purposes but are instead serving as tourist attractions or museums. Theories of architectural synthesis are examples of theories which aim at fulfilling simultaneously several goals, usually all the goals that are known. These paradigms are commonly applied in conventional construction projects which then produce practical but customary looking buildings which will probably never be included in the books on architectural history. Some of the theories in the table are now certainly outdated and have little interest to a modern builder, but some contain still valid information about important goals of building, notably on the questions of functionality, construction, economy and ecology. A building was beautiful if its appearance was pleasant, it was in accordance with good taste, and its parts follow proportions (lat. proportio) and the "symmetry" of measures (the unusual definition of symmetryAlongside with listing classical "orders" of columns, the writers analysed other formal characteristics of architecture, such as the balance, scale and rhythm of building blocks, rooms and components. 17
- 18. Construction Theory The name "engineer", which comes form the Latin word ingenium = "genius" or "a product of genius", "invention", had already been used in the Middle Ages for skilful architects From times immemorial, available building materials and tools have determined or at least modified building forms, as can be seen in many surviving examples of vernacular architecture which have been created without the help of architects or theory. The era before written construction theory produced some admirable buildings. For example in Mesopotamia a stone vault with a span of over 20m has been standing well over two millennia and exists still to day. Because its shape exactly duplicates that of a catenary curve, we can assume that its design was based on the invention This means that the shape can be copied to stone masonry which is well able to resist pure compression but not stretching tension. It thus seems probable that the builders used a mechanical analogous model instead of those mathematical algorithms that we use in modern construction. Central figures in developing the mathematical construction theory were Robert Hooke (1635-1703), Jakob Bernoulli (1654-1705) and Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). All of them published several books The most consequent applications of construction theory are today large edifices like bridges and industrial halls Examples of lofty constructions which also are great architecture created by engineers are the bridges of Maillart (fig) and many exhibition or athletics halls.( Fig), a restaurant building with a span of 30m, constructed by Weidlinger and Salvadori. The situation is slightly different in the design of modern office or residential buildings. Their architecture is not as much dictated by constructional principles. The reason is that modern building materials, notably steel and reinforced concrete, are so strong that almost any architectural form is equally feasible. Anyway, many architects have wanted to create distinctively structural or "constructivist" forms Building material Ensuing architectural form: Amorphic material :softstone,snow Spherical vaulted construction: the igloo,trulli (South Italy), nuraghi (Sardinia) Sheets of skin or textile, and poles. Cone shaped tent- like constructions. Logs of wood Box shaped construction 18
- 19. Personal Styles; ‘form language" of new buildings, ( 18th to 20th cent) Since the times of Renaissance, all the renowned architects and theorists in Europe had taken it for granted that the "form language" of new buildings, i.e., the systems of columns and decorations had to be copied from antiquity, where they had already been brought to perfection. The only thing designers of new buildings then had to do was to combine and modify these elements in order to fit them to the practical requirements and resources of each commissioner. Some sporadic protests had been heard. But they did not affect the mainstream of design. The first theorist who set out to create a totally new system of architectural forms independent of antiquity was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc(1863). In his book he states that "what we call taste is but an involuntary process of reasoning whose steps elude our observation". "Authority has no value if its grounds are not explained" . Given the fact that the foundations of modern architecture cannot possibly be the same as those prevalent in Greece 2000 years ago, Viollet-le-Duc saw as his mission to develop a new architecture which would be based, in the same way as Descartes' philosophy, only on facts and reasonable conclusions reached on the basis of them. "A door ought to be made for the purpose of going into a building or going out of it; the width of such door ought therefore be accommodated to the ... number of persons who have occasion to go in or out; but however dense a crowd may be, the persons are always under seven feet in height; ... To make a door five yards wide and ten high is therefore absurd." "A column is a support, not a decoration, like a frieze or an arabesque; if then you have no occasion for columns, I cannot understand why you furnish your facades with them." "A cornice is intended to keep the water from the face of the wall: if therefore you put a projecting cornice in an interior, I cannot but say that it is unmeaning."Viollet-le-Duc tried to put his theories to practice in his own design as well. In it, he was carried on to bring the theoretical logic of the constructions so far that few people would consider the product beautiful. The decoration has thus a rational foundation, as Viollet's theory dictates. Although Viollet-le-Duc could not create a timeless architectural style himself, he showed others the philosophical foundation and method that they could use to develop even radically new form languages. Owen Jones was another important writer that inspired young architects to create new formal styles. He studied the methods of exploiting an eternal source of architectural forms: nature and especially the forms of plants. The result of his studies became the first design instruction on the use of ornaments originating in nature: Grammar of Ornament (1856). One of its 37 rules (no 13) states that "flowers or other natural objects should not be used as ornaments", instead acceptable are "conventional representations founded upon them sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image to the mind, without destroying the unity of the object they are employed to decorate." And rule 35 says that "imitations, such as the graining of woods, and of the curious coloured marbles [are] allowable only when the employment of the thing imitated would not have been inconsistent." 19
- 20. l'Art Nouveau --- Le Corbusier After the Gothic style, the first architectural style independent of the tradition of antiquity in Europe was l'Art Nouveau. Its origins included the philosophy of Viollet-le-Duc and the rules and examples of Owen Jones but no considerable theoretical research was done by the creators of this style. It may even be that, because of the world war, the hegemony of "Jugendstil" became so short that people never got as far as to do research. In art, it is often so that the works of a new style first come about without any explicit theory, guided by the intuition, and only after a few years do their principles become clear to such an extent that they may be worded The example set by l'Art Nouveau encouraged some of the most skilful architects of our century to create their private form languages. The first of these was Le Corbusier, who also presented a short written foundation to his system of proportions (based on the Golden Section) in the book Modulor (1951). Its fundamental perceptive psychology base was presented already 1923 in the book Vers une architecture: "Architecture is a brilliant, orthodox and original jigsaw puzzle of masses combined in light. Our eyes were created to see the forms in light; light and shadow reveal the forms. Cube s, cones, balls, cylinders and pyramids are primary shapes that light so excellently reveals; the picture they give to us is clear and perspicuous without indecision. That is why they are beautiful forms.“ Alongside with l'Art Nouveau, Le Corbusier based his style on the study of natural forms of plants. Characteristic of Le Corbusier is that buildings are understood as giant sculptures (see e.g. the Ronchamp chapel, on the right). Corbusier published in 1926 a paper Les 5 points d'une architecture nouvelle where he declared the cardinal rules of "new architecture". They were (as explained by Kenneth Frampton, 1980, p. 157): "Pilotis" or columns elevating the building body off the ground, The free plan, achieved through the separation of the load-bearing columns from the walls subdividing the space, The free façade, the corollary of free plan in the vertical plane, The long horizontal sliding window or fenêtre en longeur, The roof garden, restoring, supposedly, the area of garden used up by the house. Le Corbusier illustrated his "5 points" by pairs of sketches (above) where the traditional model was shown on the right and the new style on the left. The theoretical proposals of Le Corbusier, and also his sculptural buildings, received at first much attention among Functionalist architects, but fresh theories were soon put forward by other authors. Some of these pronounced an exactly opposite notion: the core and crux of architecture is not the sculptural pattern, but instead the building interiors. These can be seen as "negative solids", as voids which the artist divides, combines, repeats and emphasizes in the same way as the sculptor treats his "positive" lumps of substance. The most notable treatise on this topic is Architecture as space by Bruno Zevi (1974). 20
- 21. Functionalism way to humanize architecture 21 The intended uses of new buildings have certainly influenced their architecture long before the emergence of first architects or theories. Examples of this can be seen in ancient vernacular buildings: The usability of buildings is one of the three cornerstones of Vitruve's theory, and he writes tens of pages about it. From Renaissance onwards it did not receive as much attention from researchers; At the beginning of the 20th century, some more extensive studies on it appeared, e.g. the following: Louis Sullivan (1856 - 1924): Ornament in architecture (1892) Otto Wagner (1841 - 1918): Moderne Architektur (1895) among others F.L. Wright (1869 - 1959), several short writings. Despite of the influential slogan of Sullivan, "Form follows function" no coherent theory of functionalism was created before the 1920s when it started to unfold in the Bauhaus school headed by Walter Gropius (1883- 1969). The results are well presented in the book Bauentwurfslehre (1936) by Ernst Neufert who worked as an assistant to Gropius. On the right is an illustration from it, showing functional space needs in a hospital. "Function" of the building meant to the first developers and supporters of the Functionalist theory mostly the physical requirements (primarily dimensions) that were necessary to carry out the practical corporeal activities in the building. Psychological needs of the great public were largely ignored. When it thus became necessary to refer, for example, to the concept of "beauty" it was usually defined on the basis of the functionalist doctrine, for example as being equal to good functionality or to high quality of fabrication. Gropius defined: 'Beauty' is based on the perfect mastery of all the scientific, technological and formal prerequisites of the task ... The approach of Functionalism means to design the objects organically on the basis of their own contemporary postulates, without any romantic embellishment or jesting If a layman happened to have other ideals of beauty and he or she wanted to have more decoration on a building, these wishes were often disregarded as "bad taste". A manifesto by Adolf Loos (1908), Ornament and Crime, had great influence on architects. Loos declared that people who liked ornamentation (for example, if they wore tattooing) were either immature, primitive or even antisocial. In contrast, cultivated people prefer unadorned, plain surfaces, he said. Accordingly, functionalist architects avoided decoration of buildings and favored simple geometric forms. Functionalist architects understood how essential it is to base their design on empirical research. . However, research on the psychological needs of building users was slow to speed up, which was regretted by several of the pioneers of Functionalism (like Sullivan, Gropius and Breuer) in their more mature age. For example, Alvar Aalto wrote in 1940 in the journal The Technology Review: During the past decade, Modern architecture has been functional chiefly from the technical point of view, with its emphasis mainly on the economic side of the building activity... But, since architecture covers the entire field of human life, real functional architecture must be functional mainly from the human point of view. ... Technic is only an aid ... Functionalism is correct only if enlarged to cover even the psychophysical field. That is the only way to humanize architecture.
- 22. Systems Building from prefabricated components "match-box architecture". 22 In accord with the vigorous tradition of handicraft of Bauhaus, Functionalist architects tried to respect not only the functional requirements of the consumers but also those of the construction industry. They soon learned that the productivity of building was greatly improved when as many building components as possible were produced in permanent factories, instead of making them on the building site in awkward places and in unpredictable weather. The economy of mass production, in turn, advocates designing the products so that they do not vary too much. it should be composed from identical components as far as possible. At least the components should have uniform dimensions and if there must be variation between them it should be of a kind that creates minimal problems for the factory. The theoretical basis for architecture using prefabricated identical components was largely adopted from the science of normative economics. The new prefabrication-oriented style of architecture propagated itself not through an explicit theory or treatises, but instead through the medium of exemplars, bold novel designs by innovative architects. Among these perhaps the most influential was Mies van der Rohe, director of Bauhaus from 1930 to 33 and of the department of architecture at the Illinois Institute of Technology from 1939 to 1959. He had designed all the main buildings of the school and had ample opportunities to profess the philosophy behind their architecture. His catchphrases "Less is more" and "next to nothing" describe his attitude to surface decoration. Most of Mies' followers were gifted with less subtle taste of detail and the prefabricated style of building soon became known as "match-box architecture". The design of many a suburb was largely dictated more by the radius of the crane than by the needs of the future inhabitants. several Functionalist architects wished to have more research on the psychological needs of customers, but the work was slow to catch on
- 23. Ecological Architecture Making a shelter from bad weather was certainly one of the earliest goals of building, and it has also later affected the building forms. 23 Climatic incentive: Ensuing architectural form: Excessive cold Airtight, isolating outer skin. In the centre a source of warmth Excessive heat Large roof to give shadow; large openings in the walls to allow ventilation Too hot in daytime and too cold during the night Thick heavy walls In the Western countries room air conditioning is now so common that we have almost forgotten the above foundations of architecture, see e.g. Mechanisation Takes Command, by Sigfried Giedion (1950). Nevertheless, lately the ecological imperative has again come to surface, the natural resources of earth dwindling and the people in developing countries starting to contend their share. It goes without saying that the theory of ecological architecture can be based on the findings of industrial ecology which lately has made great progress The physical appearance of ecological architecture is often dominated by large sloping panels which gather solar energy. These are placed on the roofs and along the southern walls. As a contrast, the cool side of the building is characterized by the absence of large openings, and the windows on this side can be covered for the night., extract from the book Energiakäsikirja [Energy Handbook] (1983). Another approach in ecological design deals with building materials and aims at minimizing the use of not replenishable raw materials. This means preferring such building materials as wood, stone, earth and recycled material like used boxes and barrels, and naturally it necessitates a peculiar style of architectural design as well
- 24. Post-Modernism and Deconstruction 24 In his bookComplexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), Robert Venturi opposed to simple "matchbox architecture". He analysed numerous esteemed historical architectural masterpieces starting from the works of Michelangelo and noticed that Mies' motto was mistaken. It was the other way round: "Less is a bore", said Venturi. Architects have always pursued contradictory aims and it is this exactly tension that creates the final enjoyable, exquisite result, Venturi explained. It would be too trivial to follow simply and logically just one goal, for example the clarity of construction, as did the structural school of architecture. On the contrary, many famous architects have wanted to show their skill by hinting that all the rules are there to be broken. Historical examples are the Baroque columns in the sketches on the left and the right "I welcome the problems and exploit the uncertainties. By embracing contradiction as well as complexity, I aim for vitality as well as validity." "I like elements which are hybrid rather than "pure," compromising rather than "clean," distorted rather than "straightforward," ambiguous rather than "articulated," ... redundant rather than simple; inconsistent and equivocal rather than direct and clear." ... "I am for richness of meaning rather than clarity of meaning ... A valid architecture evokes many levels of meaning ... its elements become readable and workable in several ways at once.“ Venturi's aesthetics demands a lot of the spectator: if the spectator is to read the message of architecture in several parallel ways, he should know the conventional interpretations, i.e., the main points from the history of architecture, in advance. Architecture becomes thus an art which can be fully appreciated only by other artists and educated critics, not by laymen -- a deplorably usual case in modern art. If the spectator is up to his task, he has expectations of the object of art. He relates the work to known references: to other comparable works of art and historical styles. The "competent" observer is also able to estimate if the work obeys these styles or if it deviates from them on purpose; and if there is such a deviation, he knows that he is supposed to find out the purpose and the message of the deviation. Finding this kind of clues, especially if it is not too easy, is conducive to the feeling of "eureka" which is one of the basic factors of aesthetic pleasure. he applied his theory to numerous new buildings and thus became the founder of the architectural style called postmodernism. Deliberate contradiction received some philosophical support in Jacques Derrida's several writings between 1967 and 1972, where he points out the inevitability of ambiguity in all human activity and especially in written texts. When applied to architecture , Derrida's ideas were taken to mean that there is no need to aspire to consistent and harmonious general pattern for a building. Instead, the principle of deconstruction (or 'deconstructivism') states that it is all right if the architect lets the eventual contradictions in the builder's goals shine through the finished design as well. Another usual trick was to manipulate the grid of construction which since Functionalism had become a conventional instrument of design giving crystalline structure to modern buildings. Typical for deconstructivists was to use simultaneously two (or even more) interlocking grids which departed from each other by a few degrees. This created at once a multitude of clashing points, each of them then presenting to the architect a new and unique problem to be solved ingeniously.
- 25. Modernism vs Post modernism. 25 1. modernism (1932-1984) industrial revolution broke out by around 1790, and became in full swing by the 1830-1840. the new technology led to use of new materials like iron, concrete and glass. the crystal palace by joseph paxton for the great exhibition of 1851 was an early example of steel and glass construction. by 1890, louis sullivan built skyscrapers, and by 1900s, f.l. wright employed concrete.(u.s) some historians regard modernism as a battle against the lavishness of eclecticism and art nouveau. by 1920s, the three most important members of modernism established themselves-corbusier(france), mies and gropius(germany)-the latter two, directors of bauhaus. in 1932 came moma exhibition by philip johnson. his work as well as henry-russel hitchcock’s, is called international style. with world war ii, the bauhaus figures fled to u.s. modernism never became prominent in case of houses, but for in dustrial and commercial buildings that was the only acceptable solution from 1932 to 1984. 2. crystal palace 3. sullivan’s skyscraper- wainwright building 4. falling water 5. corbusier’s city of tomorrow Postmodernism began to emerge in the 1960s after WWII and continues to grow today. Postmodernism embraced everything from decorative art to abstract art. It put a high emphasis on conceptual thinking and how you go about elements of design. Postmodernism also paved the way for artist to think outside the box in the design process. Post modernists are more concerned with the concept of the art rather than the skill level demonstrated in the art itself; they believe in good concepts rather the pure perfection as in modernist Example of Postmodernism architecture Example of modernism architecture The architecture of this building would be consider modern because of the fact that the architecture is pure perfection, there is an equal balance within the structure and the architecture has no reference to anything, the only reference in this design is itself.
- 26. Question bank 26 Thank you & wish you all the best Prof Mukund