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TheOtherStrugglePresentation

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Ellison Williams

The document discusses the history and evolution of the Mexican American community in the United States from the Mexican-American War to the mid-20th century. It describes how Mexican Americans faced discrimination and were often segregated into separate, inferior schools compared to white students. Educators at the time claimed this segregation was justified and would benefit Mexican American students, despite facing resistance from parents. The document examines the vocational tracking of Mexican American students and the policies that hindered their equal access to education during this period.

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TheOtherStrugglePresentation
The Mexican American Civil Rights Movement
The Chicano Movement
The Chicano Movement
El Movimiento
The Other Struggle For Equal Schools: Mexican Americans During the Civil Rights Movement
The Other Struggle For Equal Schools: Mexican Americans During the Civil Rights Movement Rubén Donato Presentation By Ellison Williams Melissa Rodriguez Amanda Tanti Vincent Narcia David Aponte
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community Mexican-American War (1846-1848) ‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community Mexican-American War (1846-1848) ‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens California ‣ Mexico lost half its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community Mexican-American War (1846-1848) ‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens California ‣ Mexico lost half its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens GOLD! ‣ 1850 brought an influx of white settlers and made Mexicans a minority group. Gold depleted miners turned to farming and squatting. ‣ Encroached onto properties with rent and good faith payments.
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community ‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community ‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios Land Act of 1851 ‣ Called for land titles, which Mexicans did not have. ‣ Mexicans/Californios could not afford legal fees to fight for land. ‣ When legal matters would not take their land, armed squatters or lynchers would force them off their property.
The Evolution of the Mexican American Community ‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios Land Act of 1851 ‣ Called for land titles, which Mexicans did not have. ‣ Mexicans/Californios could not afford legal fees to fight for land. ‣ When legal matters would not take their land, armed squatters or lynchers would force them off their property. White settlers thought that the amount of land that Mexicans owned was outrageous. ‣ It was impossible for the Mexicans to defend their property.
Northward Tide
Northward Tide Immigrating Mexicans made up labor force. ‣ Even former middle class was forced to become unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ‣ Caused tensions with Americans due to employers hiring Mexicans for cheap labor.
Northward Tide Immigrating Mexicans made up labor force. ‣ Even former middle class was forced to become unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ‣ Caused tensions with Americans due to employers hiring Mexicans for cheap labor. Bracero Program ‣ US/Mexico deal in 1942 for temporary contracted labor. ‣ It ended up lasting for over 20 years. ‣ 1946-1960, an average of 278, 800 Mexican Bracero were brought in each year
Brownfield, California
Brownfield, California Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to maintain higher wages for white laborers.
Brownfield, California Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to maintain higher wages for white laborers. However, Mexican laborers became necessary for the town’s economic survival.
Brownfield, California Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to maintain higher wages for white laborers. However, Mexican laborers became necessary for the town’s economic survival. Mexican enrollment in high schools rose.
Consolidation
Consolidation Restructured loosely constructed school systems into efficient and unified districts.
Consolidation Restructured loosely constructed school systems into efficient and unified districts. “The idea behind the consolidation movement maintained that larger school districts would generate higher teacher salaries, bestow status on educators, yield administrative efficiency, and generate a tax base where minimum educational standards were met.”
Consolidation
Consolidation Mexican American students caused local papers to point out problems ‣ Poverty ‣ Academic failure ‣ Inability to speak English ‣ Isolation from White peers
Consolidation Mexican American students caused local papers to point out problems ‣ Poverty ‣ Academic failure ‣ Inability to speak English ‣ Isolation from White peers Brownfield school officials were not giving much attention to the problems of Mexican American students.
“Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era”
“Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era” When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in schools.
“Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era” When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in schools. Progressivism evolved into an era of bureaucratization, tracking testing, and vocational education.
“Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era” When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in schools. Progressivism evolved into an era of bureaucratization, tracking testing, and vocational education. Schools sought to Americanize immigrants.
Segregation
Segregation Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but “failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S. Population.”
Segregation Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but “failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S. Population.” In 1930, 85% of Mexican Americans attended segregated schools.
Segregation Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but “failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S. Population.” In 1930, 85% of Mexican Americans attended segregated schools. Mexican Americans were segregated into separate classrooms and schools with ‣ Inferior Buildings and Equipment ‣ Poorly paid teachers
Segregation
Segregation School boards came up with strategies to avoid segregation laws. ‣ They classified Mexican Americans as Whites to legally segregate them. ‣ Texas schools claimed that it would benefit Mexican American students.
Segregation School boards came up with strategies to avoid segregation laws. ‣ They classified Mexican Americans as Whites to legally segregate them. ‣ Texas schools claimed that it would benefit Mexican American students. Parents threatened these school boards.
Milo Hogan
Milo Hogan Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would “hinder the academic progress of white children.”
Milo Hogan Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would “hinder the academic progress of white children.” Hogan claimed that Mexican Americans would be happier with their own kind. ‣ Claimed that they were not as “independent” as their White counterparts. ‣ Claimed that “Mexican contact with bright white children [would have] damaging effects on Mexican children’s psychological well-being. ”
Milo Hogan Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would “hinder the academic progress of white children.” Hogan claimed that Mexican Americans would be happier with their own kind. ‣ Claimed that they were not as “independent” as their White counterparts. ‣ Claimed that “Mexican contact with bright white children [would have] damaging effects on Mexican children’s psychological well-being. ” Hogan’s ideas were widely accepted by educators in California.
TheOtherStrugglePresentation
TheOtherStrugglePresentation
Discrimination
Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.”
Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.” Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were inclined to fight.
Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.” Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were inclined to fight. Were considered to be workers and domestic servants.
Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.” Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were inclined to fight. Were considered to be workers and domestic servants. Critics wanted Mexican Americans “Americanized” before they integrated.
Vocational Education
Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.”
Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.” They were considered an economic threat whose only solution was manual labor.
Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.” They were considered an economic threat whose only solution was manual labor. They were placed in low level, vocational tracks.
Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.” They were considered an economic threat whose only solution was manual labor. They were placed in low level, vocational tracks. Emphasis placed on “hard work,” not academic preparation ‣ “Manual Training,” “Domestic Science,” “Hygiene,” “Home-Making Skills”
IQ Testing
IQ Testing Mexican Americans were considered low scorers compared to Blacks and Whites.
IQ Testing Mexican Americans were considered low scorers compared to Blacks and Whites. Whites were considered to be the highest achievers. ‣ The average Mexican American child was considered to be 14 months behind the regular White child in public schools.
Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism”
Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism” Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and education issues.
Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism” Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and education issues. 1963 - The Mexican American Education Committee was formed. ‣ Called for education in Spanish language and the history of Mexico. ‣ Parents pushed for unbiased testing instruments. ‣ Lyndon B Johnson started to focus on the Mexican American.
Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism” Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and education issues. 1963 - The Mexican American Education Committee was formed. ‣ Called for education in Spanish language and the history of Mexico. ‣ Parents pushed for unbiased testing instruments. ‣ Lyndon B Johnson started to focus on the Mexican American. Office of Education created a Mexican American Affairs Unit to investigate how Mexican American students were doing in public schools.
Findings
Findings Texas California ‣ 50% dropped out by 10th and 11th grade. ‣ 80% fell 2 grades behind white ‣ Made up 14% of school enrollment, students. but represented 40% of enrollments in “mentally handicapped” classes. ‣ Most left school in junior high. 89% were not completing high school. ‣ Made up less than 0.5% of University of California campus.
Findings Mexican American White Students Students Years Completed 8.6 21.1 76%
 Population in East L.A. (7%
had
no
formal
 schooling
and
9%
had
only
 one
year
of
college.) 47.5-58.3% in Garfield and 2.6-3.1% in Monroe and Dropout Rate Roosevelt High (East Palisades High (West Side) Side) ‣ Parents and activists attributed these findings to negative teacher attitudes towards Mexican American children.
Mobilization of Dissent
Mobilization of Dissent 1965 - Brownfield schools were not serving needs of Mexican American students and they were ignoring the problem.
Mobilization of Dissent 1965 - Brownfield schools were not serving needs of Mexican American students and they were ignoring the problem. Social Discrimination ‣ Housing discrimination - above market rent for substandard conditions or refusal to rent to Mexican families ‣ Mexican students automatically went to vocational programs and white students went to college. ‣ Educators expected them to act a certain way because they were Mexican.
Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble
Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble Silence was common for Mexican American rights.
Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble Silence was common for Mexican American rights. 1968 - Mexican American parents formed the Communidad Organizada Para Educacion (COPE) ‣ COPE sought reforms in education. ‣ They found out that Brownfield schools had received Title 1 funding, but couldn’t show how it was being used to help their children.
Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble
Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble COPE and school officials obtained a half-million dollar grant to set up bilingual-bicultural elementary school in Brownfield. The small victory led to inclusion in decision making process for schools. Mexican Americans still lacked representation on school boards and held almost no position of power. They saw forming a cohesive ethnic group would help bring about favorable changes.
Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield
Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle w/ bilingual education and community control of schools Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year round schooling
Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle w/ bilingual education and community control of schools Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year round schooling Focused mainly on education for white middle class students in urban and suburban areas.
Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle w/ bilingual education and community control of schools Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year round schooling Focused mainly on education for white middle class students in urban and suburban areas. Few studies were done to focus on Mexican Americans.
The Evolution of Year-Round Schools
The Evolution of Year-Round Schools Very controversial
The Evolution of Year-Round Schools Very controversial In 1904-1915 in Buffton, Indiana the school system first experimented with the concept. ‣ However the idea of year round schooling usually was rejected because of intense public criticism.
The Evolution of Year-Round Schools Very controversial In 1904-1915 in Buffton, Indiana the school system first experimented with the concept. ‣ However the idea of year round schooling usually was rejected because of intense public criticism. Early 20th century ‣ Newark, New Jersey wanted to serve non-English speaking immigrant children throughout the year. ‣ Omaha, Nebraska wanted to offer vocational training on a year-round basis. ‣ Buffton, Indiana wanted to institute curricular reforms.
National Resistance
National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities
National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost
National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions prevented the year-round movement to be reformed
National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions prevented the year-round movement to be reformed In the 1960s dramatic change to US schools due to, postwar increase in births, enrollments soared, school financial difficulties
National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions prevented the year-round movement to be reformed In the 1960s dramatic change to US schools due to, postwar increase in births, enrollments soared, school financial difficulties Consequence: ‣ Tried to find mew solutions other then building new schools
National Resistance
National Resistance Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established when america was largely and agrarian society and youngsters were needed at home during planting and harvesting time.”
National Resistance Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established when america was largely and agrarian society and youngsters were needed at home during planting and harvesting time.” School systems argued that a nine month schooling and a 3-month summer was failing education.
National Resistance Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established when america was largely and agrarian society and youngsters were needed at home during planting and harvesting time.” School systems argued that a nine month schooling and a 3-month summer was failing education. Year round school reform became more successful after 1960 but it did not have a major impact.
“[T]he long, hot summer is a period of retrogression through idleness and boredom...[the] manner in which the traditional school calendar was structured was an open invitation to mischief and vandalism.” George Jensen President of the Minneapolis Board of Education The Supreme Court
“[T]he long, hot summer is a period of retrogression through idleness and boredom...[the] manner in which the traditional school calendar was structured was an open invitation to mischief and vandalism.” George Jensen President of the Minneapolis Board of Education The Supreme Court
Year-Round Education Comes to Town
Year-Round Education Comes to Town Brownfield was a very nice place to live and go to school but soon it became over crowded. ‣ Every bond increase and tax increase was rejected between 1966 and 1971 ‣ Believed year round schooling would be a solution to there problem late 1960s ‣ Formed ad hoc advisory committee to study the extended school year and its effects
Year-Round Education Comes to Town Brownfield was a very nice place to live and go to school but soon it became over crowded. ‣ Every bond increase and tax increase was rejected between 1966 and 1971 ‣ Believed year round schooling would be a solution to there problem late 1960s ‣ Formed ad hoc advisory committee to study the extended school year and its effects School officials appeared to be operating under status congruent power model. ‣ Depended “on a thorough investigation of relevant facts before reaching important decisions ‣ Claimed to be open to new ideas
Year-Round Education Comes to Town
Year-Round Education Comes to Town Had a large Mexican American population and served more then 1,200 Mexican immigrant students ‣ Believed they would benefit from the nontraditional calendar of schooling ‣ Based on the hypothesis would improve the mexican migrant attendance record because they would attend school during the summer months. ‣ School officials said it was the only solution to overcrowding.
Year-Round Education Comes to Town Had a large Mexican American population and served more then 1,200 Mexican immigrant students ‣ Believed they would benefit from the nontraditional calendar of schooling ‣ Based on the hypothesis would improve the mexican migrant attendance record because they would attend school during the summer months. ‣ School officials said it was the only solution to overcrowding. 1960s early 1970s school systems were able to choose from over thirty extended school years patterns.
“Mandated Bilingual Education Comes to Town”
“Mandated Bilingual Education Comes to Town” Controversial because it provided curriculum and pedagogy in Spanish for Mexican American Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students
“Mandated Bilingual Education Comes to Town” Controversial because it provided curriculum and pedagogy in Spanish for Mexican American Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students Raised issues concerning ‣ Immigration ‣ Language Policy ‣ Patriotism ‣ Demographic Changes ‣ Ethnocentrism
National Debate
National Debate Bilingualism debate arose in the 1960s and 1970s
National Debate Bilingualism debate arose in the 1960s and 1970s Became a Civil Rights issue that entailed ‣ A means for Mexican Americans to obtain mainstream respect for their cultural ‣ An instrument to fight discrimination against the non-English- speaking ‣ A device for Mexican Americans to integrate themselves into the education profession
Bilingualism and the Law
Bilingualism and the Law 1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act
Bilingualism and the Law 1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act 1970 - U.S. Government enters a debate
Bilingualism and the Law 1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act 1970 - U.S. Government enters a debate Lau v. Nichols (1974) ‣ Argued that federally funded school districts had to provide students of foreign origin with limited English proficiency the services that would give them equal access to schools.
“[Bilingual education is going to] tempt the infestation of [Brownfield] with more people from Mexico [and] aid in the deterioration of our society as we know it.” J. Crawlings Resident of Brownfield, Texas
“[Bilingual education is going to] tempt the infestation of [Brownfield] with more people from Mexico [and] aid in the deterioration of our society as we know it.” J. Crawlings Resident of Brownfield, Texas
Opposition to Bilingualism
Opposition to Bilingualism White teachers became frustrated with bilingual education because they lacked the skills to work with non-English- speaking students.
Opposition to Bilingualism White teachers became frustrated with bilingual education because they lacked the skills to work with non-English- speaking students. As the district drew closer to a Bilingual Master Plan draft, a group of white parents and teachers, calling themselves Concerned Citizens for Education (CCFE), sought to defeat the expansion of bilingual education in their district. ‣ They believed that it was harmful to their children.
Opposition to Bilingualism
Opposition to Bilingualism
Opposition to Bilingualism If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be legal ramifications
Opposition to Bilingualism If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be legal ramifications Opponents of the bill felt that it was “foreign and un- American.”
Opposition to Bilingualism If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be legal ramifications Opponents of the bill felt that it was “foreign and un- American.” Support of the bill was crucial for Mexican American students.
Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation
Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s.
Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s. Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as a “political nightmare” because they ‣ Had different “linguistic needs” ‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context”
Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s. Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as a “political nightmare” because they ‣ Had different “linguistic needs” ‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context” In the 1970s, policymakers questioned the “ethnic status” of Mexican Americans.
Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s. Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as a “political nightmare” because they ‣ Had different “linguistic needs” ‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context” In the 1970s, policymakers questioned the “ethnic status” of Mexican Americans. The Keyes v. School District No. 1 decision determined that Mexican Americans were a “protected minority group.”
Indeed, the District Court recognized this in classifying predominantly Hispano schools as "segregated" schools in their own right. But there is also much evidence that, in the Southwest, Hispanos and Negroes have a great many things in common. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973)
Indeed, the District Court recognized this in classifying predominantly Hispano schools as "segregated" schools in their own right. But there is also much evidence that, in the Southwest, Hispanos and Negroes have a great many things in common. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973)
Ethnic Isolation
Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolated, ethnically, than African American students.
Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolated, ethnically, than African American students.
TheOtherStrugglePresentation
Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African American students.
Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African American students.
Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African American students. These ethnically isolated schools were inferior. ‣ “‘Inadeqaute Resources, poor equipment, and unfit building construction”
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners.
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.”
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.” Became over-represented in lower tracks
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.” Became over-represented in lower tracks 1 in 3 Mexican American students was in a low-ability class (1 in 7 for White students)
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.” Became over-represented in lower tracks 1 in 3 Mexican American students was in a low-ability class (1 in 7 for White students) 1 in 7 Mexican American students were in high-ability classes (1 in 4 for White studentsMexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools In the 1970s policymakers realized that separating language-minority students was segregation. ‣ Some felt that bilingual education and integration contradicted each other.
Segregation Within Desegregated Schools In the 1970s policymakers realized that separating language-minority students was segregation. ‣ Some felt that bilingual education and integration contradicted each other. Integration and bilingual education were “pitt[ed]” against each other.
Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation
Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.”
Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.” Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the White school (Atherton) to achieve integration.
Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.” Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the White school (Atherton) to achieve integration. Busing had proved unsuccessful by the 1980s.
Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.” Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the White school (Atherton) to achieve integration. Busing had proved unsuccessful by the 1980s. Mexican American and White families both opposed busing to achieve integration.
TheOtherStrugglePresentation
TheOtherStrugglePresentation

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TheOtherStrugglePresentation

  • 2. The Mexican American Civil Rights Movement
  • 3. The Chicano Movement
  • 4. The Chicano Movement
  • 5. El Movimiento
  • 6. The Other Struggle For Equal Schools: Mexican Americans During the Civil Rights Movement
  • 7. The Other Struggle For Equal Schools: Mexican Americans During the Civil Rights Movement Rubén Donato Presentation By Ellison Williams Melissa Rodriguez Amanda Tanti Vincent Narcia David Aponte
  • 8. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community
  • 9. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community Mexican-American War (1846-1848) ‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
  • 10. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community Mexican-American War (1846-1848) ‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens California ‣ Mexico lost half its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens
  • 11. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community Mexican-American War (1846-1848) ‣ Mexico lost the war and half of its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens California ‣ Mexico lost half its territory ‣ Approx. 6000 Mexicans had to move or become U.S. citizens GOLD! ‣ 1850 brought an influx of white settlers and made Mexicans a minority group. Gold depleted miners turned to farming and squatting. ‣ Encroached onto properties with rent and good faith payments.
  • 12. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community
  • 13. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community ‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios
  • 14. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community ‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios Land Act of 1851 ‣ Called for land titles, which Mexicans did not have. ‣ Mexicans/Californios could not afford legal fees to fight for land. ‣ When legal matters would not take their land, armed squatters or lynchers would force them off their property.
  • 15. The Evolution of the Mexican American Community ‣ Settlers started to acquire positions in government and challenge land ownership of Mexican Americans/Californios Land Act of 1851 ‣ Called for land titles, which Mexicans did not have. ‣ Mexicans/Californios could not afford legal fees to fight for land. ‣ When legal matters would not take their land, armed squatters or lynchers would force them off their property. White settlers thought that the amount of land that Mexicans owned was outrageous. ‣ It was impossible for the Mexicans to defend their property.
  • 17. Northward Tide Immigrating Mexicans made up labor force. ‣ Even former middle class was forced to become unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ‣ Caused tensions with Americans due to employers hiring Mexicans for cheap labor.
  • 18. Northward Tide Immigrating Mexicans made up labor force. ‣ Even former middle class was forced to become unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ‣ Caused tensions with Americans due to employers hiring Mexicans for cheap labor. Bracero Program ‣ US/Mexico deal in 1942 for temporary contracted labor. ‣ It ended up lasting for over 20 years. ‣ 1946-1960, an average of 278, 800 Mexican Bracero were brought in each year
  • 20. Brownfield, California Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to maintain higher wages for white laborers.
  • 21. Brownfield, California Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to maintain higher wages for white laborers. However, Mexican laborers became necessary for the town’s economic survival.
  • 22. Brownfield, California Tried to keep Mexican laborers out to maintain higher wages for white laborers. However, Mexican laborers became necessary for the town’s economic survival. Mexican enrollment in high schools rose.
  • 24. Consolidation Restructured loosely constructed school systems into efficient and unified districts.
  • 25. Consolidation Restructured loosely constructed school systems into efficient and unified districts. “The idea behind the consolidation movement maintained that larger school districts would generate higher teacher salaries, bestow status on educators, yield administrative efficiency, and generate a tax base where minimum educational standards were met.”
  • 27. Consolidation Mexican American students caused local papers to point out problems ‣ Poverty ‣ Academic failure ‣ Inability to speak English ‣ Isolation from White peers
  • 28. Consolidation Mexican American students caused local papers to point out problems ‣ Poverty ‣ Academic failure ‣ Inability to speak English ‣ Isolation from White peers Brownfield school officials were not giving much attention to the problems of Mexican American students.
  • 29. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era”
  • 30. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era” When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in schools.
  • 31. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era” When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in schools. Progressivism evolved into an era of bureaucratization, tracking testing, and vocational education.
  • 32. “Schooling in the Pre-Brown Era” When Progressive Education (1890s-1930s) came into play, policymakers forgot about issues of race in schools. Progressivism evolved into an era of bureaucratization, tracking testing, and vocational education. Schools sought to Americanize immigrants.
  • 34. Segregation Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but “failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S. Population.”
  • 35. Segregation Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but “failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S. Population.” In 1930, 85% of Mexican Americans attended segregated schools.
  • 36. Segregation Schools assimilated 35 million immigrants, but “failed to integrate a significant portion of the U.S. Population.” In 1930, 85% of Mexican Americans attended segregated schools. Mexican Americans were segregated into separate classrooms and schools with ‣ Inferior Buildings and Equipment ‣ Poorly paid teachers
  • 38. Segregation School boards came up with strategies to avoid segregation laws. ‣ They classified Mexican Americans as Whites to legally segregate them. ‣ Texas schools claimed that it would benefit Mexican American students.
  • 39. Segregation School boards came up with strategies to avoid segregation laws. ‣ They classified Mexican Americans as Whites to legally segregate them. ‣ Texas schools claimed that it would benefit Mexican American students. Parents threatened these school boards.
  • 41. Milo Hogan Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would “hinder the academic progress of white children.”
  • 42. Milo Hogan Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would “hinder the academic progress of white children.” Hogan claimed that Mexican Americans would be happier with their own kind. ‣ Claimed that they were not as “independent” as their White counterparts. ‣ Claimed that “Mexican contact with bright white children [would have] damaging effects on Mexican children’s psychological well-being. ”
  • 43. Milo Hogan Hogan (a scholar of education) claimed that segregation would “hinder the academic progress of white children.” Hogan claimed that Mexican Americans would be happier with their own kind. ‣ Claimed that they were not as “independent” as their White counterparts. ‣ Claimed that “Mexican contact with bright white children [would have] damaging effects on Mexican children’s psychological well-being. ” Hogan’s ideas were widely accepted by educators in California.
  • 47. Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.”
  • 48. Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.” Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were inclined to fight.
  • 49. Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.” Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were inclined to fight. Were considered to be workers and domestic servants.
  • 50. Discrimination Charles Carpenter gave Mexican Americans terrible labels: ‣ “lawless,” “dirty,” “lazy,” and “violent.” ‣ Claimed that they had different “morals, standards, and hygiene.” Mexican Americans were stigmatized as drunkards who were inclined to fight. Were considered to be workers and domestic servants. Critics wanted Mexican Americans “Americanized” before they integrated.
  • 52. Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.”
  • 53. Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.” They were considered an economic threat whose only solution was manual labor.
  • 54. Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.” They were considered an economic threat whose only solution was manual labor. They were placed in low level, vocational tracks.
  • 55. Vocational Education Mexican Americans were placed in vocational schools because they were considered to have a “natural capacity for the manual arts.” They were considered an economic threat whose only solution was manual labor. They were placed in low level, vocational tracks. Emphasis placed on “hard work,” not academic preparation ‣ “Manual Training,” “Domestic Science,” “Hygiene,” “Home-Making Skills”
  • 57. IQ Testing Mexican Americans were considered low scorers compared to Blacks and Whites.
  • 58. IQ Testing Mexican Americans were considered low scorers compared to Blacks and Whites. Whites were considered to be the highest achievers. ‣ The average Mexican American child was considered to be 14 months behind the regular White child in public schools.
  • 59. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism”
  • 60. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism” Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and education issues.
  • 61. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism” Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and education issues. 1963 - The Mexican American Education Committee was formed. ‣ Called for education in Spanish language and the history of Mexico. ‣ Parents pushed for unbiased testing instruments. ‣ Lyndon B Johnson started to focus on the Mexican American.
  • 62. Sleeping Giant: “Emergence of Grassroots Activism” Mexican Americans were almost invisible when it came to civil rights and education issues. 1963 - The Mexican American Education Committee was formed. ‣ Called for education in Spanish language and the history of Mexico. ‣ Parents pushed for unbiased testing instruments. ‣ Lyndon B Johnson started to focus on the Mexican American. Office of Education created a Mexican American Affairs Unit to investigate how Mexican American students were doing in public schools.
  • 64. Findings Texas California ‣ 50% dropped out by 10th and 11th grade. ‣ 80% fell 2 grades behind white ‣ Made up 14% of school enrollment, students. but represented 40% of enrollments in “mentally handicapped” classes. ‣ Most left school in junior high. 89% were not completing high school. ‣ Made up less than 0.5% of University of California campus.
  • 65. Findings Mexican American White Students Students Years Completed 8.6 21.1 76%
 Population in East L.A. (7%
had
no
formal
 schooling
and
9%
had
only
 one
year
of
college.) 47.5-58.3% in Garfield and 2.6-3.1% in Monroe and Dropout Rate Roosevelt High (East Palisades High (West Side) Side) ‣ Parents and activists attributed these findings to negative teacher attitudes towards Mexican American children.
  • 67. Mobilization of Dissent 1965 - Brownfield schools were not serving needs of Mexican American students and they were ignoring the problem.
  • 68. Mobilization of Dissent 1965 - Brownfield schools were not serving needs of Mexican American students and they were ignoring the problem. Social Discrimination ‣ Housing discrimination - above market rent for substandard conditions or refusal to rent to Mexican families ‣ Mexican students automatically went to vocational programs and white students went to college. ‣ Educators expected them to act a certain way because they were Mexican.
  • 69. Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble
  • 70. Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble Silence was common for Mexican American rights.
  • 71. Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble Silence was common for Mexican American rights. 1968 - Mexican American parents formed the Communidad Organizada Para Educacion (COPE) ‣ COPE sought reforms in education. ‣ They found out that Brownfield schools had received Title 1 funding, but couldn’t show how it was being used to help their children.
  • 72. Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble
  • 73. Mexican American Communities Start to Rumble COPE and school officials obtained a half-million dollar grant to set up bilingual-bicultural elementary school in Brownfield. The small victory led to inclusion in decision making process for schools. Mexican Americans still lacked representation on school boards and held almost no position of power. They saw forming a cohesive ethnic group would help bring about favorable changes.
  • 74. Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield
  • 75. Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle w/ bilingual education and community control of schools Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year round schooling
  • 76. Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle w/ bilingual education and community control of schools Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year round schooling Focused mainly on education for white middle class students in urban and suburban areas.
  • 77. Mobilization of Mexican American Parents in Brownfield In Southwest, scholars linked Mexican American struggle w/ bilingual education and community control of schools Rarely ever linked Mexican American education with year round schooling Focused mainly on education for white middle class students in urban and suburban areas. Few studies were done to focus on Mexican Americans.
  • 78. The Evolution of Year-Round Schools
  • 79. The Evolution of Year-Round Schools Very controversial
  • 80. The Evolution of Year-Round Schools Very controversial In 1904-1915 in Buffton, Indiana the school system first experimented with the concept. ‣ However the idea of year round schooling usually was rejected because of intense public criticism.
  • 81. The Evolution of Year-Round Schools Very controversial In 1904-1915 in Buffton, Indiana the school system first experimented with the concept. ‣ However the idea of year round schooling usually was rejected because of intense public criticism. Early 20th century ‣ Newark, New Jersey wanted to serve non-English speaking immigrant children throughout the year. ‣ Omaha, Nebraska wanted to offer vocational training on a year-round basis. ‣ Buffton, Indiana wanted to institute curricular reforms.
  • 83. National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities
  • 84. National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost
  • 85. National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions prevented the year-round movement to be reformed
  • 86. National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions prevented the year-round movement to be reformed In the 1960s dramatic change to US schools due to, postwar increase in births, enrollments soared, school financial difficulties
  • 87. National Resistance Conflicted with athletes, extracurricular activities, summer camps, social activities Timing was bad for year-round reform, due to space and cost Government support, public confidence, established cultural traditions prevented the year-round movement to be reformed In the 1960s dramatic change to US schools due to, postwar increase in births, enrollments soared, school financial difficulties Consequence: ‣ Tried to find mew solutions other then building new schools
  • 89. National Resistance Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established when america was largely and agrarian society and youngsters were needed at home during planting and harvesting time.”
  • 90. National Resistance Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established when america was largely and agrarian society and youngsters were needed at home during planting and harvesting time.” School systems argued that a nine month schooling and a 3-month summer was failing education.
  • 91. National Resistance Argued the that the traditional calendar “was established when america was largely and agrarian society and youngsters were needed at home during planting and harvesting time.” School systems argued that a nine month schooling and a 3-month summer was failing education. Year round school reform became more successful after 1960 but it did not have a major impact.
  • 92. “[T]he long, hot summer is a period of retrogression through idleness and boredom...[the] manner in which the traditional school calendar was structured was an open invitation to mischief and vandalism.” George Jensen President of the Minneapolis Board of Education The Supreme Court
  • 93. “[T]he long, hot summer is a period of retrogression through idleness and boredom...[the] manner in which the traditional school calendar was structured was an open invitation to mischief and vandalism.” George Jensen President of the Minneapolis Board of Education The Supreme Court
  • 95. Year-Round Education Comes to Town Brownfield was a very nice place to live and go to school but soon it became over crowded. ‣ Every bond increase and tax increase was rejected between 1966 and 1971 ‣ Believed year round schooling would be a solution to there problem late 1960s ‣ Formed ad hoc advisory committee to study the extended school year and its effects
  • 96. Year-Round Education Comes to Town Brownfield was a very nice place to live and go to school but soon it became over crowded. ‣ Every bond increase and tax increase was rejected between 1966 and 1971 ‣ Believed year round schooling would be a solution to there problem late 1960s ‣ Formed ad hoc advisory committee to study the extended school year and its effects School officials appeared to be operating under status congruent power model. ‣ Depended “on a thorough investigation of relevant facts before reaching important decisions ‣ Claimed to be open to new ideas
  • 98. Year-Round Education Comes to Town Had a large Mexican American population and served more then 1,200 Mexican immigrant students ‣ Believed they would benefit from the nontraditional calendar of schooling ‣ Based on the hypothesis would improve the mexican migrant attendance record because they would attend school during the summer months. ‣ School officials said it was the only solution to overcrowding.
  • 99. Year-Round Education Comes to Town Had a large Mexican American population and served more then 1,200 Mexican immigrant students ‣ Believed they would benefit from the nontraditional calendar of schooling ‣ Based on the hypothesis would improve the mexican migrant attendance record because they would attend school during the summer months. ‣ School officials said it was the only solution to overcrowding. 1960s early 1970s school systems were able to choose from over thirty extended school years patterns.
  • 100. “Mandated Bilingual Education Comes to Town”
  • 101. “Mandated Bilingual Education Comes to Town” Controversial because it provided curriculum and pedagogy in Spanish for Mexican American Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students
  • 102. “Mandated Bilingual Education Comes to Town” Controversial because it provided curriculum and pedagogy in Spanish for Mexican American Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students Raised issues concerning ‣ Immigration ‣ Language Policy ‣ Patriotism ‣ Demographic Changes ‣ Ethnocentrism
  • 104. National Debate Bilingualism debate arose in the 1960s and 1970s
  • 105. National Debate Bilingualism debate arose in the 1960s and 1970s Became a Civil Rights issue that entailed ‣ A means for Mexican Americans to obtain mainstream respect for their cultural ‣ An instrument to fight discrimination against the non-English- speaking ‣ A device for Mexican Americans to integrate themselves into the education profession
  • 107. Bilingualism and the Law 1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act
  • 108. Bilingualism and the Law 1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act 1970 - U.S. Government enters a debate
  • 109. Bilingualism and the Law 1968 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act 1970 - U.S. Government enters a debate Lau v. Nichols (1974) ‣ Argued that federally funded school districts had to provide students of foreign origin with limited English proficiency the services that would give them equal access to schools.
  • 110. “[Bilingual education is going to] tempt the infestation of [Brownfield] with more people from Mexico [and] aid in the deterioration of our society as we know it.” J. Crawlings Resident of Brownfield, Texas
  • 111. “[Bilingual education is going to] tempt the infestation of [Brownfield] with more people from Mexico [and] aid in the deterioration of our society as we know it.” J. Crawlings Resident of Brownfield, Texas
  • 113. Opposition to Bilingualism White teachers became frustrated with bilingual education because they lacked the skills to work with non-English- speaking students.
  • 114. Opposition to Bilingualism White teachers became frustrated with bilingual education because they lacked the skills to work with non-English- speaking students. As the district drew closer to a Bilingual Master Plan draft, a group of white parents and teachers, calling themselves Concerned Citizens for Education (CCFE), sought to defeat the expansion of bilingual education in their district. ‣ They believed that it was harmful to their children.
  • 117. Opposition to Bilingualism If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be legal ramifications
  • 118. Opposition to Bilingualism If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be legal ramifications Opponents of the bill felt that it was “foreign and un- American.”
  • 119. Opposition to Bilingualism If Brownfield did not follow the law, their would be legal ramifications Opponents of the bill felt that it was “foreign and un- American.” Support of the bill was crucial for Mexican American students.
  • 120. Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation
  • 121. Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s.
  • 122. Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s. Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as a “political nightmare” because they ‣ Had different “linguistic needs” ‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context”
  • 123. Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s. Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as a “political nightmare” because they ‣ Had different “linguistic needs” ‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context” In the 1970s, policymakers questioned the “ethnic status” of Mexican Americans.
  • 124. Where Mexican Americans Stood in Desegregation Mexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the 1970s. Policymakers saw Mexican American students’ integration as a “political nightmare” because they ‣ Had different “linguistic needs” ‣ Did not fit into a “Black White context” In the 1970s, policymakers questioned the “ethnic status” of Mexican Americans. The Keyes v. School District No. 1 decision determined that Mexican Americans were a “protected minority group.”
  • 125. Indeed, the District Court recognized this in classifying predominantly Hispano schools as "segregated" schools in their own right. But there is also much evidence that, in the Southwest, Hispanos and Negroes have a great many things in common. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973)
  • 126. Indeed, the District Court recognized this in classifying predominantly Hispano schools as "segregated" schools in their own right. But there is also much evidence that, in the Southwest, Hispanos and Negroes have a great many things in common. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado (1973)
  • 128. Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolated, ethnically, than African American students.
  • 129. Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolated, ethnically, than African American students.
  • 131. Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African American students.
  • 132. Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African American students.
  • 133. Ethnic Isolation In the mid-1970s, Mexican American students were slightly more isolation, ethnically, than African American students. These ethnically isolated schools were inferior. ‣ “‘Inadeqaute Resources, poor equipment, and unfit building construction”
  • 136. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners.
  • 137. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.”
  • 138. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.” Became over-represented in lower tracks
  • 139. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.” Became over-represented in lower tracks 1 in 3 Mexican American students was in a low-ability class (1 in 7 for White students)
  • 140. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools Mexican Americans were placed into low track courses because they were English Language Learners. Educators believed that ELL should “improve their competency in English before mixing with white children.” Became over-represented in lower tracks 1 in 3 Mexican American students was in a low-ability class (1 in 7 for White students) 1 in 7 Mexican American students were in high-ability classes (1 in 4 for White studentsMexican Americans were generally left out of the desegregation rhetoric until the
  • 142. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools In the 1970s policymakers realized that separating language-minority students was segregation. ‣ Some felt that bilingual education and integration contradicted each other.
  • 143. Segregation Within Desegregated Schools In the 1970s policymakers realized that separating language-minority students was segregation. ‣ Some felt that bilingual education and integration contradicted each other. Integration and bilingual education were “pitt[ed]” against each other.
  • 144. Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation
  • 145. Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.”
  • 146. Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.” Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the White school (Atherton) to achieve integration.
  • 147. Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.” Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the White school (Atherton) to achieve integration. Busing had proved unsuccessful by the 1980s.
  • 148. Continued Struggle For Equitable Desegregation Policymakers in the 1970s attempted to “prevent and eliminate...racial imbalance.” Minority students in Brownfield were “bused” to the White school (Atherton) to achieve integration. Busing had proved unsuccessful by the 1980s. Mexican American and White families both opposed busing to achieve integration.

Editor's Notes