![The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows:
The entropy of a perfect crystal, at absolute zero kelvin, is exactly equal to zero.
At zero kelvin the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy, and this statement of the
third law holds true if the perfect crystal has only one minimum energy state. Entropy is related to the
number of possible microstates, and with only one microstate available at zero kelvin, the entropy is
exactly zero.[1]
Nernst-Simon statement follows:
The entropy change associated with any condensed system undergoing a reversible isothermal
process approaches zero as temperature approaches 0K, where condensed system refers to
liquids and solids.
Another simple formulation of the third law can be:
It is impossible for any process, no matter how idealized, to reduce the entropy of a system to its
zero point value in a finite number of operations.
The constant value (not necessarily zero) is called the residual entropy of the system.[2]
Physically, the law implies that it is impossible for any procedure to bring a system to the absolute zero of
temperature in a finite number of steps
The third law was developed by the chemist Walther Nernst during the years 1906-1912, and is therefore
often referred to as Nernst's theorem or Nernst's postulate. The third law of thermodynamics states
that the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant. This is because a system at zero
temperature exists in its ground state, so that its entropy is determined only by the degeneracy of the
ground state.
In 1912 Nernst stated the law thus: "It is impossible for any procedure to lead to the isotherm T = 0 in a
finite number of steps."[4]
An alternative version of the third law of thermodynamics as stated by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle
Randall in 1923:
If the entropy of each element in some (perfect) crystalline state be taken as zero at the absolute
zero of temperature, every substance has a finite positive entropy; but at the absolute zero of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thirdlawoftd-131201004659-phpapp01/85/Third-law-of-td-from-wikipedia-1-320.jpg)
![temperature the entropy may become zero, and does so become in the case of perfect crystalline
substances.
This version states not only ΔS will reach zero at 0 K, but S itself will also reach zero as long as the
crystal has a ground state with only one configuration. Some crystals form defects which causes a
residual entropy. This residual entropy disappears when the kinetic barriers to transitioning to one
ground state are overcome.[5]
With the development of statistical mechanics, the third law of thermodynamics (like the other laws)
changed from a fundamental law (justified by experiments) to a derived law (derived from even more
basic laws). The basic law from which it is primarily derived is the statistical-mechanics definition of
entropy for a large system:
where S is entropy, kB is the Boltzmann constant, and
is the number of microstates consistent
with the macroscopic configuration. The counting of states is from the reference state of absolute
zero, which corresponds to the entropy of S0.
Mathematical formulation[edit]
Consider a closed system in internal equilibrium. As the system is in equilibrium there are no irreversible
processes so the entropy production is zero. During the heat supply temperature gradients are generated
in the material, but the associated entropy production can be kept low enough if the heat is supplied
slowly. The increase in entropy due to the added heat δQ is then given by the second part of the Second
law of thermodynamics which states that the entropy change of a system undergoing a reversible process
is given by
(1)
The temperature rise δT due to the heat δQ is determined by the heat capacity C(T,X) according to
(2)
The parameter X is a symbolic notation for all parameters (such as pressure, magnetic field, liquid/solid
fraction, etc.) which are kept constant during the heat supply. E.g. if the volume is constant we get the
heat capacity at constant volume CV. In the case of a phase transition from liquid to solid, or from gas to
liquid the parameter X can be the fraction of one of the two components. Combining relations (1) and (2)
gives
(3)
Integration of Eq.(3) from a reference temperature T0 to an arbitrary temperature T gives the entropy at
temperature T
(4)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thirdlawoftd-131201004659-phpapp01/85/Third-law-of-td-from-wikipedia-2-320.jpg)
![Consequences of the third law
Fig.1 Left side: Absolute zero can be reached in a finite number of steps if S(0,X1)≠S(0,X2). Right: An infinite number of
steps is needed since S(0,X1)= S(0,X2).
Can absolute zero be obtained?[edit]
The third law is equivalent to the statement that
"It is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce the temperature of any
system to zero temperature in a finite number of finite operations".[6]
The reason that T=0 cannot be reached according to the third law is explained as follows: Suppose
that the temperature of a substance can be reduced in an isentropic process by changing the
parameter X from X2 toX1. One can think of a multistage nuclear demagnetization setup where a
magnetic field is switched on and off in a controlled way. [7] If there were an entropy difference at
absolute zero, T=0 could be reached in a finite number of steps. However, at T=0 there is no entropy
difference so an infinite number of steps would be needed. The process is illustrated in Fig.1.
Specific heat
Suppose that the heat capacity of a sample in the low temperature region can be approximated
byC(T,X)=C0Tα, then
(11)
The integral is finite for T0→0 if α>0. So the heat capacity of all substances must go to zero at
absolute zero
(12)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thirdlawoftd-131201004659-phpapp01/85/Third-law-of-td-from-wikipedia-4-320.jpg)
![The molar specific heat at constant volume of a monatomic classical ideal gas, such as helium at
room temperature, is given by CV=(3/2)R with R the molar ideal gas constant. Substitution in Eq.(4)
gives
(13)
In the limit T0→0 this expression diverges. Clearly a constant heat capacity does not satisfy Eq.(12).
This means that a gas with a constant heat capacity all the way to absolute zero violates the third law
of thermodynamics.
The conflict is solved as follows: At a certain temperature the quantum nature of matter starts to
dominate the behavior. Fermi particles follow Fermi-Dirac statistics and Bose particles followBoseEinstein statistics. In both cases the heat capacity at low temperatures is no longer temperature
independent, even for ideal gases. For Fermi gases
(14)
with the Fermi temperature TF given by
(15)
Here NA is Avogadro's number, Vm the molar volume, and M the molar mass.
For Bose gases
(16)
with TB given by
(17)
The specific heats given by Eq.(14) and (16) both satisfy Eq.(12).
Vapor pressure[edit]
The only liquids near absolute zero are ³He and ⁴He. Their heat of evaporation has a limiting value
given by
(18)
with L0 and Cp constant. If we consider a container, partly filled with liquid and partly gas, the entropy
of the liquid-gas mixture is
(19)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/thirdlawoftd-131201004659-phpapp01/85/Third-law-of-td-from-wikipedia-5-320.jpg)
Third law of td from wikipedia
- 1. The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows: The entropy of a perfect crystal, at absolute zero kelvin, is exactly equal to zero. At zero kelvin the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy, and this statement of the third law holds true if the perfect crystal has only one minimum energy state. Entropy is related to the number of possible microstates, and with only one microstate available at zero kelvin, the entropy is exactly zero.[1] Nernst-Simon statement follows: The entropy change associated with any condensed system undergoing a reversible isothermal process approaches zero as temperature approaches 0K, where condensed system refers to liquids and solids. Another simple formulation of the third law can be: It is impossible for any process, no matter how idealized, to reduce the entropy of a system to its zero point value in a finite number of operations. The constant value (not necessarily zero) is called the residual entropy of the system.[2] Physically, the law implies that it is impossible for any procedure to bring a system to the absolute zero of temperature in a finite number of steps The third law was developed by the chemist Walther Nernst during the years 1906-1912, and is therefore often referred to as Nernst's theorem or Nernst's postulate. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well-defined constant. This is because a system at zero temperature exists in its ground state, so that its entropy is determined only by the degeneracy of the ground state. In 1912 Nernst stated the law thus: "It is impossible for any procedure to lead to the isotherm T = 0 in a finite number of steps."[4] An alternative version of the third law of thermodynamics as stated by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall in 1923: If the entropy of each element in some (perfect) crystalline state be taken as zero at the absolute zero of temperature, every substance has a finite positive entropy; but at the absolute zero of
- 2. temperature the entropy may become zero, and does so become in the case of perfect crystalline substances. This version states not only ΔS will reach zero at 0 K, but S itself will also reach zero as long as the crystal has a ground state with only one configuration. Some crystals form defects which causes a residual entropy. This residual entropy disappears when the kinetic barriers to transitioning to one ground state are overcome.[5] With the development of statistical mechanics, the third law of thermodynamics (like the other laws) changed from a fundamental law (justified by experiments) to a derived law (derived from even more basic laws). The basic law from which it is primarily derived is the statistical-mechanics definition of entropy for a large system: where S is entropy, kB is the Boltzmann constant, and is the number of microstates consistent with the macroscopic configuration. The counting of states is from the reference state of absolute zero, which corresponds to the entropy of S0. Mathematical formulation[edit] Consider a closed system in internal equilibrium. As the system is in equilibrium there are no irreversible processes so the entropy production is zero. During the heat supply temperature gradients are generated in the material, but the associated entropy production can be kept low enough if the heat is supplied slowly. The increase in entropy due to the added heat δQ is then given by the second part of the Second law of thermodynamics which states that the entropy change of a system undergoing a reversible process is given by (1) The temperature rise δT due to the heat δQ is determined by the heat capacity C(T,X) according to (2) The parameter X is a symbolic notation for all parameters (such as pressure, magnetic field, liquid/solid fraction, etc.) which are kept constant during the heat supply. E.g. if the volume is constant we get the heat capacity at constant volume CV. In the case of a phase transition from liquid to solid, or from gas to liquid the parameter X can be the fraction of one of the two components. Combining relations (1) and (2) gives (3) Integration of Eq.(3) from a reference temperature T0 to an arbitrary temperature T gives the entropy at temperature T (4)
- 3. We now come to the mathematical formulation of the third law. There are three steps: 1: in the limit T0→0 the integral in Eq.(4) is finite. So that we may take T0=0 and write (5) 2. the value of S(0,X) is independent of X. In mathematical form (6) So Eq.(5) can be further simplified to (7) Equation (6) can also be formulated as (8) In words: at absolute zero all isothermal processes are isentropic. Eq.(8) is the mathematical formulation of the third law. 3: as one is free to chose the zero of the entropy it is convenient to take (9) so that Eq.(7) reduces to the final form (10) The physical meaning of Eq.(9) is deeper than just a convenient selection of the zero of the entropy. It is due to the perfect order at zero kelvin as explained before.
- 4. Consequences of the third law Fig.1 Left side: Absolute zero can be reached in a finite number of steps if S(0,X1)≠S(0,X2). Right: An infinite number of steps is needed since S(0,X1)= S(0,X2). Can absolute zero be obtained?[edit] The third law is equivalent to the statement that "It is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce the temperature of any system to zero temperature in a finite number of finite operations".[6] The reason that T=0 cannot be reached according to the third law is explained as follows: Suppose that the temperature of a substance can be reduced in an isentropic process by changing the parameter X from X2 toX1. One can think of a multistage nuclear demagnetization setup where a magnetic field is switched on and off in a controlled way. [7] If there were an entropy difference at absolute zero, T=0 could be reached in a finite number of steps. However, at T=0 there is no entropy difference so an infinite number of steps would be needed. The process is illustrated in Fig.1. Specific heat Suppose that the heat capacity of a sample in the low temperature region can be approximated byC(T,X)=C0Tα, then (11) The integral is finite for T0→0 if α>0. So the heat capacity of all substances must go to zero at absolute zero (12)
- 5. The molar specific heat at constant volume of a monatomic classical ideal gas, such as helium at room temperature, is given by CV=(3/2)R with R the molar ideal gas constant. Substitution in Eq.(4) gives (13) In the limit T0→0 this expression diverges. Clearly a constant heat capacity does not satisfy Eq.(12). This means that a gas with a constant heat capacity all the way to absolute zero violates the third law of thermodynamics. The conflict is solved as follows: At a certain temperature the quantum nature of matter starts to dominate the behavior. Fermi particles follow Fermi-Dirac statistics and Bose particles followBoseEinstein statistics. In both cases the heat capacity at low temperatures is no longer temperature independent, even for ideal gases. For Fermi gases (14) with the Fermi temperature TF given by (15) Here NA is Avogadro's number, Vm the molar volume, and M the molar mass. For Bose gases (16) with TB given by (17) The specific heats given by Eq.(14) and (16) both satisfy Eq.(12). Vapor pressure[edit] The only liquids near absolute zero are ³He and ⁴He. Their heat of evaporation has a limiting value given by (18) with L0 and Cp constant. If we consider a container, partly filled with liquid and partly gas, the entropy of the liquid-gas mixture is (19)
- 6. where Sl(T) is the entropy of the liquid and x is the gas fraction. Clearly the entropy change during the liquid-gas transition (x from 0 to 1) diverges in the limit of T→0. This violates Eq.(8). Nature solves this paradox as follows: at temperatures below about 50 mK the vapor pressure is so low that the gas density is lower than the best vacuum in the universe. In other words: below 50 mK there is simply no gas above the liquid. Latent heat of melting The melting curves of ³He and ⁴He both extend down to absolute zero at finite pressure. At the melting pressure liquid and solid are in equilibrium. The third law demands that the entropies of the solid and liquid are equal at T=0. As a result the latent heat of melting is zero and the slope of the melting curve extrapolates to zero as a result of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation. Thermal expansion coefficient The thermal expansion coefficient is defined as (20) With the Maxwell relation (21) and Eq.(8) with X=p it is shown that (22) So the thermal expansion coefficient of all materials must go to zero at zero kelvin.