Traditional Training MethodsThe communication of learne.docx

Traditional Training Methods
“The communication of learned capabilities is primarily one
way, from the trainer to the audience (Noe, 2017).”
Technology-based Training Methods
“…content is provided stand-alone, using software or DVDs
with no connection to the Internet (Noe, 2017).”
References
Noe, R. (2017). Employee Training & Development, 7th
Edition. Retrieved from https://devry.vitalsource.com/#/
books/1260428028 /cfi/6/38!/4/2/16/8/8/2/
4/[email protected]:54.3
Chapter Eight

Technology-Based Training Methods
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Explain how new technologies are influencing training.
2. Evaluate a web-based training site.
3. Explain how learning and transfer of training are enhanced by
new training technologies.
4. Explain the strengths and limitations of e-learning, mobile
learning training methods (such as iPads), and simulations.
5. Explain the different types of social media and the conditions
conducive to their use for training.
6. Describe to a manager the different types of distance
learning.
7. Recommend what should be included in an electronic
performance support system.
8. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of
traditional training methods versus those of technology-based
training methods.
9. Identify and explain the benefits of learning management
systems.
Time and Location Don’t Stall Learning at Nissan
Nissan has more than 150,000 people working around the world,
including automobile production locations in twenty countries
and product markets in more than 160 countries. To ensure that
the company could meet its global plans for growth and
expansion, Nissan identified sixty high-potential employees
who needed to develop the skills and competencies that would
prepare them to be successful in their careers. The high-
potential employees worked in different functional areas, levels,
and locations, including Latin America, Europe, Africa, the
Middle East, Asia, and Australia. For these employees, face-to-
face interaction in a classroom would be invaluable because it
would help them develop and expand their professional network
and work together on group projects. Also, classroom
instruction would ensure that the employees would receive a
consistent message and approach to developing leadership skills

and competencies based on Nissan’s core business principles
and331their questions could be immediately answered by the
instructor or facilitator. But face-to-face classroom instruction
was unrealistic because these employees could not be away
from their work for an extended period of time and traveling to
one location for training from sites around the world was too
expensive.
To gain the benefits of face-to-face instruction and overcome
time and travel challenges, Nissan created an e-learning
program, which included a virtual classroom. This allowed
Nissan to combine the strengths of a classroom experience,
including relationship building, immediate feedback, and the
ability to practice skills with those of an online learning
environment (easily accessible resources at any time or place).
The first step in the program was that program participants
assessed their own competencies. Their boss and peers
completed a similar assessment. Next, the participants attended
a virtual feedback session where the assessment results were
explained. Courses designed to improve their current skills or
develop new skills were offered in a virtual classroom. The
courses included a virtual learning lab for skill practice. Course
content in the virtual classroom was delivered by a live
instructor. Learners could connect to the course online. They
could ask questions, role-play, interact using virtual white
boards and polling tools, and work in small groups. To help the
participants build working relationships, they could view photos
of each other and the virtual class size was limited to twenty
learners.
The first twenty learners were from ten different countries! Yet,
the participants reported that they felt they were interacting in a
real classroom. They liked the ability to interact in real time,
work with small groups of other learners, and learn about other
participants’ roles. Evaluation results suggested that the
program was successful: Boss and peer assessments after the
program indicated that participants improved their leadership
behavior.

Source: Based on A. Lang, “Accelerate the leadership
engine,” Chief Learning Officer (April 2013): 42–47.
INTRODUCTION
As the opening vignette illustrates, technology is having a
major influence on how training is delivered. Nissan is using
technology-based training methods that provide a learning
environment that has similar benefits as well-designed face-to-
face instruction (practice, feedback, learner involvement) but
overcome the cost and time challenges related to trying to bring
employees together in one physical location for training. Online
learning provides trainees with access to training at any time
and place. The effective development and use of technology for
delivering training such as online learning requires
collaboration among the areas of training, information
technology, and top management. In addition, needs assessment,
design, transfer, and evaluation (training design) are critical
components of the effective use of training technology.
Although technologies such as social media, tablet computers,
and virtual reality provide exciting capabilities and
possibilities, it is critical that companies use training
technologies that support both business and learner needs.
Nissan is not alone in its use of new training technologies.
Technology is changing learning and training in corporate
settings, as well as in grade schools, high schools, colleges, and
universities.
332
In high school and elementary school classes, students are
playing games that are fun, engage them in the learning content,
and allow them to explore without fear of failure.1 For example,
Los Angeles, California, teachers are using “Minecraft” in
architecture classes to help students learn how to work in a
community to get things accomplished. A middle school physics
teacher in Houston, Texas, is using “Angry Birds,” which
involves using slingshots to send birds to knock out pigs hiding
in wood, rock, or glass towers. To knock out the pigs requires
correct estimates of the birds’ trajectories. The teacher is using

“Angry Birds” to help students understand arcs, and Newton’s
law of force, motion, mass, speed, and velocity by examining
how the birds fall and collide with the pigs. Medical students at
Columbia University are using digital technology to help them
identify the muscles and bones on cadavers.2 Medical students
use iPads to provide images of the types of muscles and tissues
that they are looking to identify on the cadaver. Students use
the iPad to magnify what they are looking for and to zoom out
to see supporting bones, veins, and other anatomical structures.
As we discussed in Chapter Seven, “Traditional Training
Methods,” instructor-led classroom training is still the most
popular training method. However, the use of technology for
training delivery and instruction is increasing and anticipated to
grow in the future. Table 8.1 provides a snapshot of the use of
new technology in training. The use of training technologies is
expected to increase dramatically in the next decade as
technology improves; the cost of technology decreases;
companies recognize the potential cost savings of training via
tablets, mobile phones, and social media; and the need for
customized training increases.3 As you will see later in this
chapter, new training technologies are unlikely to totally
replace face-to-face instruction. Rather, face-to-face instruction
will be combined with new training technologies (a combination
known as blended learning) to maximize learning.
The development, availability, and use of social media such as
Twitter and Facebook have the potential to have a significant
influence on training and learning. These tools are used by
many people in their daily lives, especially the millennial
generation. Many companies are using these tools for recruiting
new employees and marketing and developing products and
services. These tools are also increasingly being used for
learning. Figure 8.1 shows the use of social media tools for
work-related learning. Social media tools are reshaping learning
by giving employees access to and control of their own learning
through relationships and collaborations with others. Social
media tools, including shared workspaces, social networks,

wikis, blogs, podcasts, and microblogs, are being used for
learning. As shown in Figure 8.1, shared workspaces, social
networks, and wikis are the most commonly used social media
for learning.4 There appear to be generational differences in
using and realizing the potential benefits of social media tools.
Millennials believe that social media tools are helpful for
learning and getting work done, and do so to a greater extent
than baby boomers or Generation Xers. This may be because
millennials are more likely to use social media tools in their
personal lives, resulting in their being more comfortable using
them at work.
TABLE 8.1 Use of New Technology in Training
· 15 percent of training hours are delivered in a virtual
classroom and 29 percent is delivered online.
· 39 percent of learning hours involve technology-based training
methods.
· 74 percent of companies use learning management systems.
Broken down by size, 88 percent of large (10,000 or more
employees), 75 percent of midsize (1,000–9,999 employees),
and 65 percent of small companies (100–999 employees) use
learning management systems.
· 36 percent of large companies (10,000 or more employees)
deliver training online, compared to 26 percent of midsize
(1,000–9,999 employees) and 28 percent of small (100 or less
employees) companies.
Sources: L. Miller, 2014 State of the Industry (Alexandria, VA:
American Society for Training and Development, 2013); “2014
Industry Report,” training (November/December 2014):16–29.
333
FIGURE 8.1 Use of Social Media Tools for Work-Related
Learning
Source: Based on L. Patel, “The rise of social
media,” T+D (July 2010): 60–61.
The development of tablet computers such as the iPad also has
the potential to influence training and learning. One estimate is

that nearly 40 percent of executives plan to incorporate tablets
such as the iPad into their new training and development
initiatives.5 These devices are expected to be used for learning
and performance support, but also for coaching and mentoring
employees, mobile gaming, and microblogging (e.g., Twitter).
This chapter begins by discussing the influence of new
technology on training delivery, support, and administration.
How technology has changed the learning environment also is
addressed. Next, the chapter explores computer-based training,
online learning, and e-learning. E-learning emphasizes learning
through interaction with training content, sharing with other
trainees, and using Internet resources. Technologies that are
familiar to us in our nonwork life, such as social media, tablets
such as iPads, and mobile smartphones, which are just
beginning to be used for training purposes, are introduced.
Next, the use of expert systems and intelligent tutoring systems
as an instructional method and for on-the-job performance
support is discussed. The chapter also shows how learning
management systems aid in the delivery and administration of
training programs. The last section of the chapter compares the
various training methods that are based on334new technology.
A blended learning approach combining traditional face-to-face
and technology-based training methods may be the best way to
capitalize on the strengths of available training methods.
TECHNOLOGY’S INFLUENCE ON TRAINING AND
LEARNING
Chapters One and Two discussed the role that training and
development should play in helping companies to execute their
business strategy and deal with forces influencing the
workplace. For training to help a company gain a competitive
advantage, it needs to support business goals and be delivered
as needed to geographically dispersed employees who may be
working at home or in another country. Training costs (such as
travel costs) should be minimized and maximum benefits
gained, including learning and transfer of training. For learning
and transfer to occur (i.e., for the benefits of training to be

realized), the training environment must include learning
principles such as practice, feedback, meaningful material, and
the ability to learn by interacting with others.
New technologies have made it possible to reduce the costs
associated with delivering training to employees, to increase the
effectiveness of the learning environment, and to help training
contribute to business goals. Table 8.2 lists, describes, and
provides examples of some of the new technology training
methods that we will discuss in this chapter. New technologies
have influenced the delivery of training, training administration,
and training support. Technology has made several benefits
possible:6
· Employees can gain control over when and where they receive
training.
· Employees can access knowledge and expert systems on an as-
needed basis.
· Through the use of avatars, virtual reality, and simulations,
the learning environment can look, feel, and sound just like the
work environment.
· Employees can choose the type of media (print, sound, video,
etc.) that they want to use in a training program.
· Course enrollment, testing, and training records can be
handled electronically, reducing the paperwork and time needed
for administrative activities.
· Employees’ accomplishments during training can be
monitored.
· Traditional training methods, such as classroom instruction
and behavior modeling, can be delivered to trainees rather than
requiring them to come to a central training location.
Three of the most important ways that technology has
influenced training and learning is that it has provided for
greater collaboration, learner control, and a more dynamic
learning environment.7
Technology Facilitates Collaboration
Technology allows digital collaboration to occur. Digital
collaboration is the use of technology to enhance and extend

employees’ abilities to work together regardless of their
geographic proximity.8 Digital collaboration includes electronic
messaging systems, electronic meeting systems, online
communities of learning organized by subject where employees
can access interactive discussion areas and share training
content and web links, social networks, and document-handling
systems with collaboration technologies that allow interpersonal
interaction. Digital collaboration requires a computer, tablet, or
phone with a web browser or app, but collaborative. Digital
collaboration can be synchronous or
asynchronous.9 In synchronous communication, trainers,
experts, and learners interact with each other live and in real
time, the same way they would in face-to-face classroom
instruction. Technologies such as video teleconferencing and
live online courses (virtual classrooms) make synchronous
communication possible. Asynchronous communication refers to
non-real-time interactions. That is, persons are not online and
cannot communicate with each other without a time delay, but
learners can still access information resources when they desire
them. E-mail, self-paced courses on the web or on CD-ROM,
discussion groups, and virtual libraries allow asynchronous
communication.
335
TABLE 8.2 New Technologies Used for Training
E-learning, Online Learning, Computer-Based Training (CBT),
Web-Based Training (WBT)
Training delivered using a computer or the web. Can include
CDs or DVDs of text and/or video.
Webcasts/Webinars
Live web-based delivery of instruction to trainees in dispersed
locations.
Podcasts
Web-based delivery of audio and video files.
Mobile Learning
Delivery of training through handheld mobile devices such as
smartphones or tablet computers.

Blended Learning
Training is delivered using a combined technology and face-to-
face instructional delivery approach, such as classroom and
WBT.
Wikis
Websites that allow many users to create, edit, and update
content and share knowledge.
Distance Learning
Training delivered to trainees in other locations online, or
through webcasts or virtual classroom often supported with
communications tools such as chat, e-mail, and online
discussions.
Social Media
Online and mobile technology used to create interactive
communications allowing the creation and exchange of user-
generated content. They include wikis, blogs, networks such as
Facebook, MySpace, and LinkedIn, microsharing sites such as
Twitter, and shared media such as YouTube.
Shared Workspaces (Example: Google Docs)
A space hosted on a web server where people can share
information and documents.
RSS Feeds
Updated content sent to subscribers automatically instead of by
e-mail.
Blogs (Example: WorldPress)
A webpage where an author posts entries and readers can
comment.
Chat Rooms and Discussion Boards
An electronic room or message board on which learners
communicate. Communications between learners can occur at
the same or different times. A facilitator or instructor can
moderate the conversations, which may be grouped by topic.
Microblogs or Microsharing (Example: Twitter)
Software tools that enable communications in short bursts of
text, links, and multimedia, either through stand-alone
applications or through online communities or social networks.

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC)
Learning that is designed to enroll large number of learners
(massive), it is free and accessible to anyone with an Internet
connection (open), it takes place online using videos of lectures,
interactive coursework including discussion groups, and wikis
(online), and it has specific start and completion dates, quizzes
and assessment, and exams (courses).
Adaptive Training
Training that customizes the content presented to the trainee
based on their needs.
Sources: Based on R. Johnson and H. Gueutal, Transforming HR
Through Technology (Alexandria, VA: SHRM Foundation,
2010); American Society for Training and
Development, Transforming Learning with Web 2.0
Technologies, 2010 survey report; T. Bingham and M.
Conner, The New Social Learning (Alexandria, VA: American
Society for Training and Development Press, 2010); A. Kaplan
and M. Haenlein, “Users of the world unite! The challenges and
opportunities of social media,” Business Horizons, 53 (2010):
59–68. T. Poeppelman, E. Lobene, and N. Blacksmith,
“Personalizing the learning experience through adaptive
training,” The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist (April
2015), from www.siop.org.; R. Grossman, “Are massive open
online courses in your future,” HR Magazine (August 2013):
30–36.
336
Technology Creates a Dynamic Learning Environment
As discussed in Chapter Seven, learning can be an instructor-
driven primary process. That is, instructors present information
to the learners, and practice and applications occurred after
instruction was completed (see the classroom learning
environment shown in Figure 8.1). Many learning environments
include only the instructor or trainer and the learners. The
trainer is responsible for delivering content, answering
questions, and testing learning. Trainees play a passive role in
learning. Communication on course content is one-way: from

the instructor to the learner. Experts and resource materials are
separate from the learning environment. Contact with resource
materials and experts beyond the instructor and course materials
assigned for the course requires learners to go outside the
formal learning environment. Also, learners often have to wait
to access resource materials and experts until instruction is
completed. Interaction among learners occurs primarily outside
the training room and tended to be limited to those who worked
in the same geographic area.
Technology has allowed learning to become a more dynamic
process. As shown on the right side of Figure 8.2, the learning
environment can be expanded to include greater interaction
between learners and the training content, as well as between
learners and the instructor. The trainer may help design the
instruction, but the instruction is delivered to the learners
primarily through technology such as online learning,
simulations, iPods, or iPads. The instructor becomes more of a
coach and resource person to answer students’ questions and is
less involved in the delivery of content. Learning occurs
primarily through exchanges with other learners, using blogs,
wikis, or other types of social media training, working on
virtual team projects, participating in games, listening,
exchanging ideas, interacting with experts (engineers,
managers, etc.), and discovering ideas and applications using
hyperlinks that take the learner to other websites. Experts and
resource materials may be part of the learning environment.
While learners interact with the training content through
exercises, applications, and simulations, they can discuss what
they are learning with other learners or access experts or
resource materials available on the Internet. Training delivery
and administration (e.g., tracking learner progress) is all done
through a learning management system (discussed later in the
chapter). In the blended learning environment, shown at the
bottom of Figure 8.2, trainees have access to a blended training
curriculum that consists of both online and classroom
instruction. Collaboration can occur between learners, between

learners and training content (e.g., simulation or game),
between learners and instructors, and between learners and
experts. It is important that new technologies create a dynamic
learning environment, including collaboration, active learner
involvement, and access to other resources. A dynamic learning
environment likely includes the use of Web 2.0 technologies,
including social networking, blogs, wikis, and microblogs such
as Twitter.10
337
FIGURE 8.2 Types of Learning Environments
Technology Gives Learner’s Control
Learner control refers to giving trainees the option to learn
through self-pacing exercises, exploring links to other material,
and conversations with trainees and experts. It includes the
ability to select how content is presented (e.g., text, pictures,
videos, etc.) to pause, skip, and review content, and to link to
additional resources. That is, online learning allows activities
typically led by the instructor (presentation, slides, videos,
visuals) or trainees (discussions, questions), as well as group
interaction (discussion of application338of training content) to
be incorporated into training without trainees having to be
physically present in the training room. Recent technologies
enable training to be delivered and accessed by trainees anytime
and anywhere, including home, work, or even on the beach!
Training content can be delivered in a consistent manner to
trainees, who can decide when and where to participate.
Many of the training methods discussed in this chapter have
these features. For example, online learning, or e-learning,
includes instruction and delivery of training using the Internet
or web. Distance learning typically involves videoconferencing
and/or computers for delivery of instruction from a trainer to
trainees who are not in the same location as the trainer. Mobile
technologies allow training to be delivered through iPods,
iPhones, personal data assistants (PDAs), iPads, and notebook
computers that allow trainees to tune in to training programs at

any time or place. New training technologies allow for the use
of multiple media, including text, graphics, video, and audio.
This allows for learning content to be presented in multiple
ways, appealing to trainee preferences and learning styles.
Consider how technology has influenced how training is
delivered and instruction occurs at Farmers Insurance
Group.11 Farmers uses a blended learning approach to deliver
effective learning to its multigenerational employees and
insurance agents who are located across the United States.
Farmers Insurance training programs integrate face-to-face
instruction, print, online, video, audio, virtual simulations, and
coaching. Technology is used for delivering knowledge, and
instructor-led training is used for skill development. In the past
five years the amount of learning delivered through instructor-
led classroom-based training has dropped from 90 to 50 percent.
The other 50 percent is online or informal learning. For
example, Farmers Insurance is using various training methods to
help its employees cope with the changes made in claims
processing, ratings, billing, and product systems in support of
the company’s business strategy (Farmers Future 2020), which
emphasizes customer experience, distribution, and product
management excellence. Field managers were required to
complete online training and webinars designed to provide the
new knowledge they needed. Then the managers received
instructor-led training, videos, and coaching guides.
Farmers Insurance is also using virtual classrooms, mobile
learning, social networks, electronic tablets such as iPads, and
learning simulations. While taking courses at the University of
Farmers, learners can use electronic tablets to take notes, access
websites and articles, and view videos. The video capabilities of
the tablets allow instructors to use them to record the learners
practicing skills and then provide feedback and coaching. Also,
the instructors can create learning materials such as iBooks with
embedded videos. To encourage learning outside of a formal
classroom environment, Farmers developed iFarmers apps for
customers, sales agents, and employees. The iFarmers customer

app helps customers learn about different insurance products.
An iClaims app gives customers access to input and manage
their insurance claims. The iAgent app provides business-
focused learning for sales agents. Farmers Insurance has also
been experimenting with social networking for employees to
collaborate, create, and share knowledge, and to provide
performance support. Some training programs are using the
social network for collaborative exercises. Farmers’ “Agency
Insider” program allows learners to specify whether they want
to use Twitter, Facebook, e-mail, or an RSS feed.
The next section of the chapter discusses training technologies,
how they are used, and their potential advantages and
disadvantages.
339
COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING, ONLINE LEARNING, WEB-
BASED TRAINING, E-LEARNING
Computer-based training (CBT), online learning, e-
learning, and web-based training refer to instruction and
delivery of training by computer through the Internet or the
web.12 All of these training methods can include and integrate
into instruction text, interaction using simulations and games,
and video, and collaboration using blogs, wikis, and social
networks, and hyperlinks to additional resources. In some types
of CBT, content is provided stand-alone using software or
DVDs with no connection to the Internet. Trainees can still
interact with the training content, answer questions, and choose
responses regarding how they would behave in certain
situations, but they cannot collaborate with other learners. For
example, Wipro Technologies developed a tool they call a
Unified Learning Kit (ULK), a portable laptop programmable
computer that enables new employees to experiment in
engineering subjects.13 One ULK can teach more than ten
different technical subjects related to hardware and software
engineering.
Online learning, e-learning, and web-based training all include
delivery of instruction using the Internet or web. The training

program can be accessed using a password through the public
Internet or the company’s private intranet. There are many
potential features that can be included in online learning to help
trainees learn and transfer training to their jobs. For example,
online programs that use video may make it an interactive
experience for trainees. That is, trainees watch the video and
have the opportunity to use the keyboard or touch the screen to
answer questions, provide responses to how they would act in
certain situations, or identify the steps they would take to solve
a problem. Interactive video is especially valuable for helping
trainees learn technical or interpersonal skills. Online learning
can also include opportunities to collaborate with other learners
through discussion boards, wikis, and blogs. We discuss more of
the potential features and advantages of online learning next.
For example, during training needs assessment, Bayer
Pharmaceuticals discovered that its technical experts needed
new skills to manage large projects.14 These skills related to
keeping project managers focused on the task, managing
competing priorities, managing large cross-functional teams,
and supervising employees who did not report to them. These
skills are important to reduce the time needed to bring research
discoveries to the marketplace. To train in these skills, Bayer
used a computer-based simulation that requires teams of
trainees to manage a large-scale project. The management
decisions they make affect their odds of being successful. A
computer calculates each team’s probability of succeeding. The
simulation includes obstacles that can affect a project
negatively, such as unmotivated employees, absenteeism, and
projects being completed late. The simulation also includes
online work that trainees complete prior to training. The
prework provides trainees with an overview of the steps
involved in project management. All trainees complete a self-
assessment of their team-related behavior (e.g., conflict
resolution). The assessments are used for discussing
leader/team-member relationships. After completing the
simulation, trainees can access a program website that includes

a newsletter and tips for project management. Employees who
have completed the simulation are demonstrating increased
confidence in their ability to manage a project and to handle
changing priorities, and they are addressing team issues more
quickly.
340
Discover Financial Services uses online training to teach new
customer service representatives self-reliance, self-direction,
creative problem solving, and how to satisfy the customer.15 An
online syllabus provides trainees with expectations, goals, and
links to access coursework. Trainees can ask questions and
share experiences using online discussions. Each trainee has an
advisor whose job is to help them set learning goals, evaluate
their performance, and provide coaching. Also, trainees
participate in an online game daily, monthly, and between
customer calls.
Potential Features of Online Learning
In online learning, it is possible to enable learners to interact
with the training content and other learners and to decide how
they want to learn.16Figure 8.3 shows the possible features that
can be built into online learning. These features include content,
collaboration341and sharing, links to resources, learner control,
delivery, and administration. It is important to note that not all
these features are incorporated into online learning methods.
One reason is that certain methods make it difficult to
incorporate some of these features. For example, as you will see
later in the chapter, distance learning that involves
teleconferencing may limit the amount of collaboration between
trainees and the instructor. Also, in distance learning, trainees
do not have control over the content, practice, and speed of
learning. Another reason why a feature may not be incorporated
is that the designers may have chosen not to include it.
Although e-learning can include all the features to facilitate
learning that are shown in Figure 8.3, it may fall short of its
potential because, for example, program developers do not
include opportunities for trainees to collaborate. As Figure

8.3 shows, not only can online learning provide the trainee with
content, but it also can give learners the ability to control what
they learn, the speed at which they progress through the
program, how much they practice, and even when they learn. In
addition, online learning can allow learners to collaborate or
interact with other trainees and experts and can provide links to
other learning resources such as reference materials, company
websites, and other training programs. Text, video, graphics,
and sound can be used to present course content. Also,
simulations can be included in e-learning modules to engage
learners. Economical Insurance developed a safety procedures
course for risk control inspectors that includes embedded
simulations.17 The simulations allow the learner to practice
each step in safety procedures by using the mouse to mimic
different had movements. All learners received a perfect score
on mandatory testing and most reported that the simulations
were effective in understanding the safety procedures and
helped them engage in more safe behaviors. Online learning
may also include various aspects of training administration such
as course enrollment, testing and evaluating trainees, and
monitoring of trainees’ learning progress.
FIGURE 8.3 Potential Features of E-learning
Advantages of Online Learning
The possible features that can be built into online learning give
it potential advantages over other training methods. The
advantages of e-learning are shown in Table 8.3. E-learning
initiatives are designed to contribute to a company’s strategic
business objectives.18 E-learning supports company initiatives
such as expanding the number of customers, initiating new ways
to carry out business such as e-business (providing products
and342services through the internet), and speeding the
development of new products or services. E-learning may
involve a larger audience than traditional training programs that
focus on employees. E-learning may involve partners, suppliers,
vendors, and potential customers.

TABLE 8.3 Advantages of E-learning
It supports the company’s business strategy and objectives.
It is accessible at any time and any place.
The audience can include employees and managers, as well as
vendors, customers, and clients.
Training can be delivered to geographically dispersed
employees.
Training can be delivered faster and to more employees in a
shorter period of time.
Updating is easy.
Practice, feedback, objectives, assessment, and other positive
features of a learning environment can be built into the
program. Learning is enhanced through the use of multiple
media (sound, text, video, graphics, etc.) and trainee
interaction.
Paperwork related to training management (enrollment,
assessment, etc.) can be eliminated.
It can link learners to other content, experts, and peers.
Sources: Based on D. Hartley, “All aboard the e-learning
train,” Training and Development (July 2000): 37–42; V.
Beer, The Web Learning Field Book: Using the World Wide
Web to Build Workplace Learning Environments (San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000).
E-learning allows faster and more efficient delivery of training
and reduces geographic and time constraints for employees’
learning. Consider the advantages of e-learning for Jiffy Lube,
Greyhound Lines, and the San Diego Zoo.19 Jiffy Lube
determined that its instructor-led leadership training class
needed to be updated to include new information but not to
expand the class beyond its current three days. As a result,
content on time management, goal setting, and financials was
moved to e-learning, which freed up more than eight hours in
the class. Also, Jiffy Lube realized a 75 percent increase in the
number of employees who completed the new e-learning
courses. Greyhound Lines, the transportation company, has
geographically dispersed employees including supervisors, field

representatives, counter and customer service staff, and bus
drivers who work around the clock every day of the year.
Greyhound uses e-learning to give employees access to
leadership, business, and customer service skills courses when
they need them. Employees access the courses on the company’s
learning management system. The learning management system
allows Greyhound to track assignments, course participation,
and monitor employees’ progress in a course. Course
assignments are made available on the learning management
system with automatic reminders sent to the trainees.
Greyhound plans to provide iPhones to its bus drivers to make it
easier for them to access e-learning. Historically, the San Diego
Zoo used formal classroom training to provide its animal care
staff with knowledge and skills in care and feeding of animal,
regulatory requirements, safety procedures, conservation,
education, animal enrichment, and customer service. However,
they realized that they needed more cost-effective training and a
strategy on how to teach animal care staff who have varied work
schedules, are impossible to get together in one place for
training, and prefer hands-on learning. Thirteen courses that
would serve as basic courses were identified. They covered
transmission of diseases such as swine flu, avian flu, and West
Nile viruses, compliance with government regulations, working
safely with dangerous animals, and the fundamentals of animal
behavior, care, and management. Subject-matter experts were
identified and provided course content. Instructional designers
worked with the content and developed it into an interactive
online format. The online training included video case studies,
used rich visuals, illustrated facts and concepts, and used
module organization to ensure the training was the right length
and did not overload the learner’s memory. Also, following the
presentation of material, the online training included interactive
assessment, which provided the learner with feedback and
positive reinforcement and learning guidance in the form of
advanced organizers about topics to be covered and how
mastery of one topic could help improve mastery of the next

topic.
Some companies have training requirements that all employees
have to complete for the company to meet quality or legal
requirements. Online learning allows more employees to gain
access to these types of programs in a quicker time period than
if face-to-face instruction is used. A grocery store chain had to
train its pharmacy staff about the privacy rules that were part of
the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
(HIPAA). To quickly train the staff, a training course was
posted online, making it easier for employees to access it
through a laptop computer, cash register, smartphone, or
iPad.20 Online training allows retailers such as Luxottica, the
eyewear and optical company, the ability to343track who
enrolls and complete online courses that are required for
certification to some positions (such as licensed opticians).
E-learning is also easy to update, thanks to user-friendly
authoring languages such as HTML. Changes can be made on
the server that stores the e-learning program. Employees
worldwide can access the updated program. The administrative
features of e-learning make training management a more
efficient, paperless process. For example, CCH developed
Shared Learning, an online administration module that allows
companies to monitor employees’ completion of e-learning. It
tracks how many times employees complete the same class and
how much time employees spend per class, and it bookmarks the
point at which trainees leave an online class so they can enter
the program at the place they left it when they again begin
training.21
Effectiveness of Online Learning
Is e-learning effective for all types of learning outcomes and
trainees? Both research and company experiences suggest that
e-learning is effective for a wide range of outcomes, including
knowledge, skills, and behaviors.22Table 8.4 shows some of the
research results regarding the effectiveness of online learning
compared to other training methods. Online learning may be
most effective for training that emphasizes cognitive outcomes,

such as declarative and procedural knowledge (recall the
discussion of learning outcomes in Chapters Four, “Learning
and Transfer of Training,” and Six, “Training Evaluation”).
Courses need to comply with laws and regulations (such as
sexual harassment or fraud) or software/technical skill-building
courses such as Windows or Java may be best suited for online
learning especially if these courses are video based and allow
employees to apply the lesson on their own computer. For
example, Allied Bank, based in Pakistan, used e-learning to
meet federal law requiring bank employees to identify and
report money laundering and funding for terrorism.23 Designers
created a learning portal in both English and Urdu344for
employees so they could take training based on the language
they understood. This reduced travel expenses related to
attending training from $420,000 to $218,000, lowered training
costs per employee from $250 to $150, and increased the
number of employees who received training from 6,500 to 9,200
in one year. Jiffy Lube offers thirteen e-learning courses as part
of its management certification program. These courses could
be taught using face-to-face instruction but Jiffy Lube believes
that the content is easily communicated and understood in an
interactive e-learning course.24 However, at Jiffy Lube learners
encounter other topics that benefit from discussion,
collaboration, role-play, and problem solving such as change
management, performance management, and building a team, so
they are trained using a combination of online learning and
face-to-face instruction.
TABLE 8.4 Research Results Regarding the Effectiveness of
Online Learning
· Online instruction is more effective than face-to-face
classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge
(cognitive knowledge assessed using written tests designed to
measure whether trainees remember concepts presented in
training).
· Web-based instruction and classroom instruction are equally
effective in teaching procedural knowledge (the ability of

learners to perform the skills taught in training).
· Learners are equally satisfied with web-based and classroom
instruction.
· Web-based instruction appears to be more effective than
classroom instruction (1) when learners are provided with
control over content, sequence, and pace; (2) in long courses;
and (3) when learners are able to practice the content and
receive feedback.
· Web-based instruction and classroom instruction are equally
effective when similar instructional methods are used (e.g., both
approaches use video, practice assignments, and learning tests).
· The employees who get the most from online learning are
those who complete more of the available practice opportunities
and take more time to complete the training.
· E-learning is not effective for all learners, especially those
with low computer self-efficacy.
Sources: Based on K. Kraiger, “Transforming our models of
learning and development: Web-based instruction as enabler of
third-generation instruction,” Industrial Organizational
Psychology 1 (2008): 454–467; T. Sitzmann et al., “The
comparative effectiveness of web-based and classroom
instruction: A meta-analysis,” Personnel Psychology 59 (2006):
623–634; E. Welsh et al., “E-learning: Emerging uses, empirical
results and future directions,” International Journal of Training
and Development 7 (2003): 245–258.
Online learning may facilitate greater social interaction between
trainees than face-to-face learning methods because other
trainees are equally accessible or more accessible than the
instructor and there are more methods available that allow
learners to interact, such as e-mail, blogs, wikis, and chat
rooms.25 Also, trainees may be more motivated to participate
because they avoid feelings of inadequacy and low self-
confidence, which can hinder participation in face-to-face
learning. Delaware North Companies (DNC), a hospitality and
food services company based in Buffalo, New York, provides
hospitality and food services to national parks, stadiums, and

airports. DNC delivers self-paced interactive training via the
web, followed by virtual classes.26 At DNC, soft skills, such as
managing a team, effective communication techniques,
delegation, empowerment, and conflict resolution, have been
identified as best for online training. Functional and technical
skills have been found to be best suited for OJT.
In considering whether to move some or all training online,
there are several things you have to consider.27 First, is
whether online training relates to business goals or employees
learning needs. Online training can save costs without
compromising quality and provide access to employees who
have difficulties attending face-to-face training because of their
schedules or locations. Moving training online likely will result
in development costs related to designing or purchasing training
and providing access. One estimate is that it takes eight hours
of development time for one hour of face-to-face instruction but
that number can be much higher depending on the sophistication
and complexity of the online course. It is also important to
consider if employees will be resistant to using online training
because of personal preferences or lack of familiarity with
training technology. If online training is developed, employees
need to know why it is being used, how they can use it to meet
their learning needs, how to find courses, and how to gain the
most benefits from them.
Despite the increasing popularity of online learning, many
companies such as Home Depot, Inc., Recreational Equipment,
Inc., and Qwest Communications International still prefer face-
to-face training methods for teaching skills for complex jobs
involving selling and repairing equipment.28 Online learning is
used to train employees when their job requires them to use a
standard set of facts or procedures. For example, Recreational
Equipment, Inc., uses role-playing between new employees and
trainers who simulate a wide range of customer behaviors,
helping them understand the difference between customers who
want a specific product and customers who want to discuss
different product choices. Qwest Communications estimates that

80 percent of training in its network department is completed
face to face, compared to 20 percent online. To learn how to fix
and install equipment, the company believes that employees
must have hands-on experience that is345similar to what they
will encounter working in homes and commercial locations.
Online learning may be valuable, but it is insufficient for
teaching complex analytical, conceptual, and interpersonal
skills.29 This may be because online learning lacks
communication richness, some online learners may be reluctant
to interact with other learners, and, although online learning
increases accessibility to training, employees with busy work
schedules have a greater opportunity to more easily delay, fail
to complete, or poorly perform learning activities. Later in the
chapter, we discuss how online learning can be combined with
face-to-face instruction, known as blended learning, to take
advantage of the strengths of both methods. Learning can be
enhanced by combining face-to-face instruction and e-learning
because learners are more engaged; the use of video, graphics,
sound, and text is combined with active learning experiences
such as cases, role-playing, and simulations. Also, blended
learning provides opportunities for learners to practice, ask
questions, and interact with other learners and peers both face
to face and online.
DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE ONLINE LEARNING
Table 8.5 provides tips for developing effective online
learning.30 The training design or ADDIE model discussed
in Chapter One, “Introduction to Employee Training and
Development,” should still be used in designing e-learning.
However, the emphasis at each stage should be slightly
different.31 Needs assessment, creating a positive online
learning experience, learner control, and providing time and
space for online learning are three central issues that need to be
addressed for effective online learning, including web-based
training.
Needs Assessment
Needs assessment includes getting management to support

online learning. Also, the information technology department
needs to be involved in the design of any web-based program to
ensure that the technology capabilities of the company network
are understood, to guarantee that trainees can get access to the
browsers and connections that they need to participate in e-
learning and use all of the tools (e.g., e-mail, chat rooms,
hyperlinks) that may accompany it, and to get technical support
when needed. Online tutorials may be needed to acquaint
trainees with the capabilities of the e-learning system and how
to navigate the web. Recall from Chapter Three, “Needs
Assessment,” that a needs assessment determines the company’s
resources for training and the tasks to be trained for, and it
analyzes the employees who may need training. The needs
assessment process for web-based training or any other type of
online learning should include a technology assessment (as part
of the organizational analysis) and an assessment of the skills
that users need for online training (person analysis). This
should include a technical analysis focused on identifying
minimum computing requirements (bandwidth, memory, hard
drive space, software, processing speed).
Bandwidth refers to the number of bytes and bits (information)
that can travel between computers per second. Graphics, photos,
animation, and video in courses can be slow to download and
can “crash” the system. Online learning courses should be
designed for the available bandwidth on the company’s system.
Bandwidth can be increased by upgrading access speed on the
users’ computers, buying and installing faster servers and
switches (computer hardware) on the company’s network, or
encouraging trainees to access the web when demand is not
high.32 Soon bandwidth may not be an issue because computer
servers will be able to transfer more data faster, personal
computers will have greater processing speed, and cables and
wireless communications systems that carry data will have
greater capacity. Online learning should also try to build in
interactivity without requiring the use of plug-ins. A plug-
in refers to additional software that needs to be loaded on the

computer to listen to sound, watch video, or perform other
functions. Plug-ins can be expensive because they may require
the company to pay licensing fees. Plug-ins also can affect how
the computer processes tasks. If trainees experience repeated
technology problems (such as slow download times, network
downtimes, or plug-in difficulties), they are likely to lose
patience and be reluctant to participate in online learning.
346
TABLE 8.5 Tips for Developing Effective Online Learning
Needs assessment
Identify the connection between online learning and the needs
of the business. Get management to buy in.
Make sure that employees have access to technology and
technology support.
Consult with information technology experts about system
requirements.
Identify specific training needs (knowledge, skills,
competencies, behaviors).
If needed, train learners on computer and Internet basics.
Creating a positive learning experience
Incorporate learning principles (practice, feedback, meaningful
material, an appeal to active learner involvement, and an appeal
to multiple senses).
Design the course for the available bandwidth (or increase the
available bandwidth to suit the course needs).
Use games and simulations, which are attractive to learners.
Structure materials properly.
Allow trainees the opportunity to communicate and collaborate
with each other and with the trainer, experts, or facilitators.
Make the program user-friendly: Learning modules should be
kept short, the content should not overload trainees, and
webpages should not be confusing.
Provide incentives for completing training.
Keep each instructional segment self-contained.
“Chunk” training modules.
Create smooth transitions between instructional segments.

Any audio, video, or animation should be useful to the learner;
otherwise, it is a waste of time and bandwidth.
Provide the developer/producer with clear specifications
regarding required file formats, maximum file sizes, window
and image dimensions, navigation, screen fonts, and available
bandwidth.
Provide writers and instructional designers with clear guidelines
for the maximum number of words per screen, how many
interactive exercises to include, and which exercises are best
suited to the content.
Conduct a formative evaluation (pilot test) before large scale
use of online learning.
Provide time and space under learner control
Provide learners with control, including the opportunity to skip
sections or modules and the ability to pause, bookmark, review,
and return to where they left off.
Give learners dedicated training time to participate in online
learning.
Sources: Based on K. Dobbs, “What the online world needs
now: Quality,” Training (September 2000): 84–94; P. Galagan,
“Getting started with e-learning.” Training and
Development (May 2000): 62–64; D. Zielinski, “Can you keep
learners online?” training (March 2000): 65–75; V. Beer, The
Web Learning Field Book: Using the World Wide Web to Build
Workplace Learning Environments (San Francisco Jossey-Bass,
2000); E. Zimmerman, “Better training is just a click
away,” Workforce (January 2001): 36–42; R. Clark and R.
Mayer, E-Learning and the Science of Instruction (San
Francisco: John Wiley, 2003); E. Salas, R. DeRouin, and L.
Littrell, “Research-Based Guidelines for Designing Distance
Learning: What We Know So Far.” In The Brave New World of
eHR, ed. H. Gueutal and D. Stone (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
2005): 104–137; S. Boehle, “Putting the learning back into e-
learning,” training (January 2006): 29–35; A Rossett and L.
Schafer, “What to do about e-dropouts,” T+D (June 2003): 40–
46; M. Morrison, “Leaner e-learning,” training (January 2008):

16–18; M. Allen, “The return of serious design,” Chief Learning
Officer (July 2014): 31–33.
347
Grant Thornton LLP, a global accounting, tax, and business
advisory firm, created Grant Thornton University (GTU), one
place for all of its employees’ training needs.33 Through GTU,
employees can register for any course, whether it is classroom-
based or online, and have access to more than 1,000 hours of
self-paced, live webcasts and virtual classroom courses. To
ensure that GTU was successful, the company investigated its
business learning needs and the best delivery method for each
topic (a needs assessment). Learning paths are broken down by
competencies and skill requirements and are related to job
performance. For example, if employees receive performance
feedback suggesting that they need to improve their teamwork
skills, managers can identify an appropriate course by position
and required competencies. A combination of self-paced lessons
and live virtual classroom is the optimal instructional method.
The self-paced lessons deliver content, and the live training is
used for question-and-answer sessions and case studies. Live
training also provides trainees with the opportunity to interact
with peers and course experts. To obtain support for GTU, the
company’s chief learning officer invited managers to participate
in a virtual kickoff from their desktop personal computers. The
kickoff covered the strategic goals of the initiative, showed
managers how the technology worked, and let them sample
various content.
Creating a Positive Online Learning Experience
In the design and development phase, the characteristics of a
positive learning environment discussed in Chapters
Four and Five (e.g., objectives, practice, interaction) should be
included to help aid retention of learning content and create a
meaningful experience that motivates learners. Flowcharts or
storyboards should be created that include all of the course
components such as a main menu, modules, webpages for each
lesson, assessments, discussion forums, images, color

specifications, and help menus. Rapid prototyping should be
used for designing the program.34Rapid prototyping refers to an
iterative process in which initial design ideas are proposed and
provided in rough form in an online working prototype that is
reviewed and refined by design team members and key learning
stakeholders. Watching how the users interact with the
prototype provides feedback about how easy (or difficult) it is
to navigate through the course and understand its contents,
elements, and instructions. Also, multiple types of media should
be chosen in order to appeal to different learning styles to the
greatest possible extent. This includes text, animation, pictures,
video, audio, games, simulations, or even e-books. E-learning
should be designed to minimize content or work that is
unrelated to the learning objectives. Extraneous content may
take up trainees’ limited cognitive processing resources,
resulting in less learning. Table 8.6 provides several design
principles that should be considered to create a positive online
learning experience.
Remember that just putting text online isn’t necessarily an
effective way to learn. Repurposing refers to directly translating
an instructor-led, face-to-face training program to an online
format. Online learning that merely repurposes an ineffective
training program will still result in ineffective training.
Unfortunately, in their haste to develop online learning, many
companies are repurposing bad training. The best e-learning
uses the advantages of the Internet in combination with the
principles of a good learning environment. Effective online
learning takes advantage of the web’s dynamic nature and
ability to use many positive learning features, including linking
to other training sites and content through the use of hyperlinks,
providing learner control, and allowing the trainee to
collaborate with other learners. Effective online learning uses
video, sound, text, and graphics to hold learners’ attention.
Effective online learning provides trainees with meaningful
content related to realistic on-the-job activities, relevant
examples, and the ability to apply content to work problems and

issues. Also, trainees have opportunities to practice and receive
feedback through the use of problems, exercises, assignments,
and tests.
348
TABLE 8.6 Principles for Creating a Positive Learning
Experience
Instruction includes relevant visuals and words.
Text is aligned close to visuals.
Complex visuals are explained by audio or text, rather than by
both text and audio that narrates the text.
Extraneous visuals, words, and sounds are omitted.
Learners are socially engaged through conversational language
agents.
Key concepts are explained prior to the full process or task
associated with the concepts.
Prompts are provided that encourage self-regulation.
Content is presented in short sequences over which learners
have control.
Activities and exercises that mimic the context of the job are
provided.
Explanations are provided for learner responses to quizzes and
exercises.
Exercises are distributed within and among the module(s) rather
than in a single place.
Sources: Based on R. Clark and R. Mayer, “Learning by doing:
Evidence-based guidelines for principled learning
environments,” Performance Improvement 47 (2008): 5–13; R.
Mayer, “Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based
principles for the design of multimedia instruction,” American
Psychologist (November 2008): 760–769; R. Clark and R.
Mayer, E-Learning and the Science of Instruction, 2d ed. (San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer, 2008); T. Sitz Mann and K.
Ely. “Sometimes you need a reminder: The effects of prompting
self-regulation on regulatory processes, learning, and
attrition.” Personnel Psychology 95 (2010): 132–144.
To ensure that materials are not confusing or overwhelming to

the learner, online learning content needs to be properly
arranged.35An orientation to the new program should be
provided to learners to explain how to learn online, how to get
help, and how to interact with peers, trainers, and
facilitators.36 Participants should be provided with an overview
of the course or program and success factors for completion.
After an e-learning program is implemented, the focus should
shift to on how to best distribute, maintain, update, and improve
it. Evaluation still involves collecting some combination of
reaction, learning, behavior, and results outcomes, including an
emphasis on questions related to the number and quality of the
interactive exercises and multimedia and the ease of use of the
navigation tools. Materials in online learning need to be
organized in small, meaningful modules of information. Each
module should relate to one idea or concept. The modules
should be connected in a way that encourages the learner to be
actively involved in learning. Active involvement may include
asking trainees to find resources on the Internet, try quizzes or
games, choose between alternative actions, or compare what
they know to the knowledge of an expert or model. Objectives,
videos, practice exercises, links to material that elaborates on
the module content, and tests should be accessible within each
module. The modules should be linked in an arrangement that
makes sense, such as by importance or by the order in which
content has to be learned (prerequisites). Trainees can choose to
skip over material that they are familiar with or that they are
competent in, based on a test of the content, or they can return
to modules they need more practice in.
349
Learner Control
As mentioned earlier in the chapter learner control refers to
giving trainees the option to learn actively though self-pacing,
exercises, exploring links to other material, and conversations
with other trainees and experts. Simply providing learner
control does not ensure that trainees will use all the features
provided by online learning (e.g., practice

exercises).37 Trainees should have access to instructions on
how to use learner control tools, or else difficulty using them
will take away from time and attention that they can devote to
learning. Companies must communicate the importance and
meaningfulness of the training content for employees’ jobs and
must hold employees accountable for completing the training.
Research provides several recommendations for maximizing the
benefits of learner control.38 Training programs should not
allow trainees to control the amount of feedback they receive
because they may rely too much on the feedback, reducing their
long-term retention of the training material. The program should
offer practice on each topic repeatedly throughout the program
so that trainees will not forget topics they have already
completed. The program should provide practice to trainees
using different examples to help the transfer of training content
(skills or knowledge), not only to the full range of situations
that trainees may encounter on the job, but also to unexpected
situations. Trainees should be allowed to control the sequence
in which they receive instruction but not be able to skip
practice. Prompting self-regulation improves performance in
online training. As was discussed in Chapter Four, self-
regulation refers to the learner’s involvement with the training
material and assessing their progress toward learning. Online
prompts asking trainees to recall key points or to set goals to
help them use and remember the content after the course will
help trainees remember the key principles/objectives presented
in training and how to apply their knowledge and skills.
Provide Time and Space for Online Learning
Using formative evaluation of prototypes of web training can be
helpful in identifying the appropriate length and time of
modules (formative evaluations were discussed in Chapter Six).
End users (managers, potential trainees) should be involved in a
formative evaluation to ensure that music, graphics, icons,
animation, video, and other features facilitate rather than
interfere with learning. Also, end users need to test the content,
the navigator, and the site map to guarantee that they can easily

move through the learning module and access resources and
links to other websites as needed. Online learning blurs the
distinction between training and work. Expectations that
trainees will be motivated and able to complete web-based
training during breaks in their normal workday or on their
personal time are unrealistic.39 Companies need to ensure that
employees are given time and space for e-learning to
occur.40 That is, employees need dedicated time, protected
from work tasks, for learning to occur. As with other training
programs, employees need to understand why they should attend
e-learning and the benefits they will receive so as to enhance
their motivation to learn. Accurate communications about the
content and types of learning activities in e-learning courses
need to be provided to employees.41 Managers need to give
employees time in their schedules, and employees need to
schedule “training time” to complete training and avoid
interruptions that can interfere with learning. Some companies
are moving away from their initial expectation that online
learning can be completed at the employee’s desktop without
time away from the job; instead, they are setting up learning
labs for online learning to occur without the distractions of the
workplace. “Chunking,”350or using one- to two-hour training
modules, helps trainees learn and retain more than they might in
a standard full-day or half-day training class. Training can also
be more easily integrated into the typical workday. Trainees can
devote one to two hours to a learning session from their office
and then return to their work responsibilities.
Technology for Collaboration and Linking
Chapter Four emphasized that learning often occurs as a result
of interaction or sharing between employees. Employees learn
by informal, unstructured contact with experts and peers.
Collaboration can involve an exchange among two or more
trainees or among the trainer or other experts. Linking includes
the use of hyperlinks.
Hyperlinks are links that allow a trainee to access other
websites that include printed materials, as well as

communications links to experts, trainers, and other learners.
Owens Corning’s learning resource home page has hyperlinks to
all available forms of training information, including CD-ROM,
web-based, and trainer-led programs. The site supports online
course registration and allows tests to be sent to trainees,
scored, and used to register trainees in appropriate courses.42
Research suggests that the reason some employees fail to
complete online learning and prefer instructor-led face-to-face
instruction over online learning is that they want to be able to
learn and network with their peers.43 Effective online learning
connects trainees and facilitates interaction and sharing through
the use of collaborative learning tools such as chat rooms,
discussion boards, or social media. Other methods for learner
interaction and sharing include having trainees participate in
collaborative online projects and receive tutoring, coaching, and
mentoring by experts. Online learning also should provide a
link between the trainees and the “instructor,” who can answer
questions, provide additional learning resources, and stimulate
discussion between trainees on topics such as potential
applications of the training content and common learning
problems.
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
Massive open online courses (MOOCs) refers to learning that is
designed to enroll large number of learners (massive), it is free
and accessible to anyone with an Internet connection (open), it
takes place online using videos of lectures, interactive
coursework including discussion groups, and wikis (online), and
it has specific start and completion dates, quizzes and
assessment, and exams (courses).44 MOOCs cover a wide
variety of subject matter, including chemistry, math, physics,
computer science, philosophy, mythology, health policy, cardiac
arrest and resuscitation, and even poetry! Popular providers of
MOOCs include Coursera, edX (nonprofit founded by Harvard
and MIT), and Udacity (a for-profit company founded by a
Stanford University research professor and founder of Google X
Labs). The courses are often developed in partnership with

colleges and universities, and, recently, private companies.
The interest in MOOCs likely originated in a free 2011 Stanford
University class, Introduction to Artificial Intelligence, that had
160,000 students.45 Since then, colleges and universities have
partnered with MOOC providers to offer free or low-cost online
courses, which learners can complete and earn certificates or
even college credit if they pass a credential exam. Typically,
there is a registration fee to take the exam. The fees range from
tens to hundreds of dollars depending on the course length and
content. What are the characteristics of learners who participate
in MOOCs? Typically, the learners have already351graduated
from college and are taking the course to explore an interest or
develop their skills, although the numbers of undergrads taking
courses has increased. MOOCs have been able to attract huge
numbers of learners. For example, Coursera estimates that it has
attracted over 5 million learners based in the United States and
around the world.
Companies are starting to work with the MOOC providers to
design custom courses or to create their own MOOCs that can
help them meet their skill needs.46 Also edX is working with
UPS, Procter & Gamble, and Walmart to design computer
science and supply-chain management courses. Learners can
take the course and complete a test that will earn them a
certificate. BloomNet partnered with Udemy (an online course
provider) to offer management and finance courses to floral
shop owners located across the United States.47 BloomNet also
created custom courses focused on skills related to the floral
industry. For some courses, employees take prerequisite courses
on Udemy before they take instructor-led courses offered by
BloomNet. Aquent, a staffing firm, was having difficulty
meeting client needs for HTML5 developers.48 To try to find a
way to meet this need, Aquent created a MOOC on HTML5.
More than ten thousand people registered for the class. Of the
367 who took the final exam, Aquent was able to place almost
two-thirds of them in jobs with clients. Udacity is offering an
online master’s degree program with the Georgia Institute of

Technology.49 The program fees are less than one-third of in-
state fees and one-seventh of out-of-state fees. It is the first
accredited degree to be offered by a MOOC provider. The
Georgia Tech professor will admit students and teach the
courses, students will get the Georgia State diploma, and
Udacity hosts the course material. AT&T is paying for the
program expenses because it will give the company access to a
talent pool of trained engineers. AT&T also plans to send some
of its employees to the program.
MOOCs have several advantages and disadvantages.50 Their
low cost, accessibility, and wide range of topics make them
attractive to learners. They include many features that facilitate
learning and transfer: Learning is interactive and learner-
controlled; it involves social interaction and emphasizes
application. Learning happens through engaging short lectures
combined with interaction with the course materials, interaction
with other students and the instructor. It emphasizes applying
knowledge and skills using role-plays, cases, and projects. It is
semi-synchronous, meaning that learners receive the same
assignments, video lectures, readings, quizzes, and discussions,
but they can complete the coursework on their own time. Also,
many MOOCs offer college credit or certificates of completion,
which provide incentives for learning and formal
acknowledgment. However, despite claims that MOOCs will
revolutionize training and education, they have significant
disadvantages. Among those who enroll in MOOCs, their
interaction with the course tends to drop off after the first two
weeks of the course; course completion rates are low (10 to 20
percent); and most students who complete the courses don’t take
the credential exam. MOOCs may also be inappropriate for
courses where synchronous or real-time collaboration or
interaction is needed.
To enhance their chances of being effective, MOOCs need to
provide an interesting and engaging lecture that is broken up
into quizzes and problem sets that learners must complete
before they can progress. Learners who complete course topics

should be provided with incentives such as badges. Visual
meters should be used to provide feedback on progress toward
completing the course. The course also needs to include
interaction through discussion boards, and interactive videos.
Also, learners need to have the technological skills and
technology capability needed to access the MOOC, view videos,
and participate in online discussions.
352
SOCIAL MEDIA: WIKIS, BLOGS, MICROBLOGS, AND
SOCIAL NETWORKS
Social media are online and mobile technology used to create
interactive communications allowing the creation and exchange
of user-generated content.51 They include blogs, wikis,
networks such as Facebook, and LinkedIn, microsharing sites
such as Twitter, and shared media such as YouTube. Social
media can be useful for:
· Providing links to resources such as webinars, videos, and
articles related to new learning content
· Helping determine future training needs and issues by using
tagging capabilities
· Reinforcing and sustaining learning
· Being used as a coaching and mentoring tool
· Linking learners before, during, and after a formal training
event
· Engaging Generation X and millennial employees
· Providing content before a face-to-face learning event
A blog refers to a webpage where an author posts entries and
readers often can comment. There are many different types of
blogs, including personal blogs written by one person, company
blogs used for marketing and branding purposes, topic blogs
focusing on a specific topic area, and blogs based on media
(video blogs) and devices (mobile device blog). There are
several considerations for effectively using blogs in
training.52 For a blog to be useful for training, it should be
related to the learning objectives; otherwise, trainees will find it
to be “busy work” and fail to see its benefits. Blogs can be

especially useful for trainees to analyze and synthesize
information, for learners to reflect on the lesson or course
content, and to share ideas and applications of learning content.
Instructors need to provide timely and relevant feedback on
blog entries. Also, instructors must provide guidelines regarding
how blog entries will be evaluated or what types of blog entries
are desired (e.g., new ideas, application-related, “what did I
learn?”). Blogs can also be useful for training courses involving
group work such as projects and cases. Blogs provide a way for
team members to share comments, insights, and even get
involved in brainstorming.
A wiki refers to a website that allows many users to create, edit,
and update content and share knowledge. A microblog or
microsharing refers to software tools such as Twitter that enable
communications in short bursts of text, links, and multimedia
either through stand-alone applications or through online
communities or social networks. Shared media refers to audio or
video such as YouTube that can be accessed and shared with
others.
How are social media being used for learning, training, and
development? Many companies are using social networking
tools to help employees learn informally and share knowledge
both on an as-needed basis and as part of formal training
courses.
Consider the following companies and nonprofit organizations’
use of social networking tools.53 Humana, a health-care
company, has a social learning platform, known as the
Knowledge Exchange, which is designed to build online
communities to help employees learn from one another. For
example, one hundred employees from different departments,
business units, and jobs interacting with each other using
Knowledge Exchange identified data visualization as an interest
and common learning need. They collaborated,353identified
learning resources, and learned from each other about data
visualization. They used the skills they learned to develop a
data visualization product that used the group members’ survey

results about the effectiveness of the course. Every new
employee at Cisco is trained about the appropriate use of social
media. Cisco’s employees have several tools they can use to
interact. An internal WebEx Social platform allows employees
to collaborate in teams and get feedback from experts
throughout the company. Employees can access a dashboard that
lets them check newsfeeds, check meetings and calendars, and
review work. General Electric Company created an internal
social media platform called GE Collab that allows employees
to follow each other, add hashtags to comments so they can be
found in searches, and link discussions to documents.
Advantage Sales and Marketing (ASM), a sales and marketing
agency based in Irvine, California, added social networking to
its sales training program (Accelerated Career Excellence in
Sales—ACES), which teaches individuals to become business
development managers. The five-month learning program
involves participants meeting face to face for a two-day training
session and then returning to their home sales markets. The
remaining time in the program is spent working in the field with
mentors and completing online training modules. During the
program, employees have access to the ACES workplace
community online for interaction with senior sales leaders,
peers, mentors, and other sales persons in the program. Adding
the social networking platform to the training program has
encouraged employees to share knowledge. For example, one
learner in the program contacted all of the ACES mentors to
identify best practices on a specific topic. He compiled this
information into a document that he shared with the entire
learner community. Verizon uses social networking tools to
train employees to support new products and devices. Device
Blog, Device Forum, and Learning Communities help ensure
that employees are ready to support customers when new
products and devices are introduced to the market, engages
Verizon’s multigenerational workforce, and facilitates peer-to-
peer learning. Device Blog makes available information and
updates on wireless devices (such as the Droid), frequently

asked questions (FAQs), how-to videos, and troubleshooting
tips. Device Forums enable retail employees to learn from peers
and product manufacturers. Employees can ask each other
questions, share issues, post tips, make suggestions, and access
product experts. Learning communities are accessed through the
Device Blog. They include video blogs, message boards, links
to online training modules, and product demonstrations. In
addition to these tools, employees have access to My Network
for collaborating with their peers, knowledge and document
sharing, and creating working groups. Some instructors also use
it for posting supplemental content for learners’ use.
IBM uses social media to connect its employees around the
world. IBM’s site, known as w3, contributes to the global
integration of the company. The w3 On Demand Workplace is a
powerful productivity and collaboration tool for 400,000 IBM
employees in seventy-five countries. The w3 can be used by
employees to find resources and knowledge from peers around
the world to help clients innovate and succeed. Employees can
create personal profiles, bookmark websites and stories that
they are interested in, comment on company blogs, contribute to
wikis, share files, and read and review position papers, videos,
and podcasts.
Special People in Northeast, Inc. (SPIN), a nonprofit
organization that provides services to individuals with
disabilities, makes webcasts as well as videos, how-to manuals,
and process flowcharts electronically available to employees to
ensure that knowledge354of key employees is documented and
current practices and procedures are available and shared. Intel
encourages informal learning two ways: through knowledge
sharing and providing employees with “performer support.”
Both knowledge sharing and performer support are part of
Planet Blue, a social media platform for Intel employees.
Employees also have access to Intelpedia, an internal wiki that
employees can edit. Intelpedia has millions of pages, and
thousands of employees have contributed to it. Intelpedia helped
create a culture for using technology-based information-sharing

solutions at Intel.
How would you determine if social media would be an effective
learning tool in a company? Table 8.7 shows the questions to
ask to address this issue. The more “yes” answers to these
questions, the more likely that social media will be an effective
learning solution. The most important consideration is whether
social media is already being used in the company, which would
make it easier to determine how it fits into the company’s
learning strategy and how easily it could be adapted to training.
It is important to support the use of social media and to
consider if the ideas, content, and recommendations provided in
social media are high quality and match company priorities: At
Evans Analytical Group (EAG), a high-tech analytical services
company, is using social media to reduce the time it takes to
locate subject-matter experts and to connect its globally
dispersed employees.54 This is important because EAG’s eight
hundred employees might not know about possible topic experts
because the company has completed over twenty-five mergers
and acquisitions during the past several years. Employees use
Twitter, LinkedIn, or the company’s intranet to find and
collaborate with subject-matter experts and acquire and
contribute knowledge. Social media usage is also encouraged to
reinforce knowledge and skills learned in training programs.
EAG supports the use of social media tools in several different
ways. Employees are encouraged to use blogs and wikis by
linking their usage to their performance appraisals, weekly
recognition of employees with the highest weekly usage rates of
social media tools is publicly done on the company’s intranet,
and the CEO endorses using the tools at company meetings. To
help employees understand how to use social media tools and
their potential value, EAG provides training videos, tutorials,
and frequently asked questions (FAQs) that employees can
access on the intranet. To ensure that the tools are effective an
employee steering committee conducts interviews and gathers
survey data. For example, they compared knowledge retention
between two groups of employees who collaborated after the

received training. One group used blogs and wikis and the other
group used355Chatter, a social collaboration tool. The
knowledge retention scores did not differ between the two
groups. However, 90 percent of the employees found the tools
useful. IBM conducts expertise assessment to ensure the quality
of the recommendations.55All employees conduct an annual
self-evaluation that defines their skill level and ability to serve
clients. The skills level choices include entry, foundational,
experienced, expert, and thought leader. These rankings help
employees find those who have the knowledge and experience
that they need for a particular skill or solution. Self-evaluations
of “thought leader” and “expert” are verified by a second line
manager and SMEs. Also, it may also be necessary to have an
editor monitor online postings to ensure that they reflect how
the company wants to be perceived. The tradeoff of quality
evaluations and monitoring is that they may inhibit
collaboration and networking.
TABLE 8.7 Factors to Consider in Deciding to Use Social
Media for Training and Learning
Are social networks already being used in the company?
Does social networking fit into the company’s learning
strategy?
Are employees geographically dispersed?
Does the learning strategy support on-the-job learning?
Is there is a need to foster collaboration?
Are a significant number of employees from the millennial
generation or Generation X?
Are employees comfortable using social networks?
Does the business require substantial teamwork?
Does knowledge need to be shared quickly?
Does the company value innovation?
Does the culture support decentralized decision making?
Sources: Based on T. Bingham and M. Conner, The New Social
Learning (Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and
Development, 2010); M. Derven, “Social networking: A force
for development?” T+D (July 2009): 59–63.

BLENDED LEARNING
Because of the limitations of online learning related to
technology (e.g., insufficient bandwidth and lack of high-speed
web connections), trainee preference for face-to-face contact
with instructors and other learners, and employees’ inability to
find unscheduled time during their workday to devote to
learning from their desktops, many companies are moving to a
hybrid, or blended, learning approach. Blended
learning combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and
other methods for distributing learning content and instruction.
Blended learning courses provide learners with the positive
features of both face-to-face instruction and technology-based
delivery and instructional methods (such as online learning,
distance learning, or mobile technologies like tablet computers
or iPhones), while minimizing the negative features of
each.56 In comparison to classroom delivery, blended learning
provides increased learner control, allows for self-directedness,
and requires learners to take more responsibility for their
learning—all factors consistent with the recommendations of
adult learning theory discussed in Chapter Four.57 In
comparison to pure online learning, blended learning provides
more face-to-face social interaction and ensures that at least
some of the instruction is presented in a dedicated learning
environment. Blended learning uses the classroom to allow
learners to learn together and to discuss and share insights,
which helps bring learning to life and make it meaningful. Live
feedback from peers is preferable to feedback received
online.58
One popular application of blended learning is the flipped
classroom. The flipped classroom blends online and face-to-face
instruction. Learners watch lectures, complete online
simulations, read books and articles, take quizzes to assess their
knowledge and skills, and come to class to work on projects and
cases, hear speakers, and interact with faculty.59 The flipped
classroom recognizes that face-to-face instruction using lectures
can be effective when it is delivered to individual learners

rather than to group of learners in the classroom. Lectures can
be captured on video and delivered online. This frees up face-
to-face classroom time for reinforcing and applying knowledge
and skills. For example, consider how stylists are trained when
a new product is introduced. Now, during a one-day training
program, the morning is spent with a trainer presenting the
features of the product followed by a demonstration of how to
apply the product using a model. During the afternoon the
stylists practice applying the product. Using a flipped
classroom, stylists would view videos before coming to
training. The training session would begin with a question-and-
answer356session and then stylists would have the remaining
day to work on the models with trainers and facilitators
available to help. This would provide the stylists with more
time to practice, observe other stylists and exchange ideas, and
get feedback than in the traditional classroom training program.
One of the keys for success of the flipped classroom is that
learners must understand and complete the assigned content
prior to coming to class. Although learners work by themselves
online, it is important that the trainer be available via phone, e-
mail, or chat room to answer the learners’ questions. Also,
learners should be required to complete quizzes or exams and
earn above a passing score before they can attend the classroom
session. Blended learning has been found to be more effective
than face-to-face instruction for motivating trainees to learn and
for teaching declarative knowledge or information about ideas
or topics.60 It appears that blended learning capitalizes on the
positive learning features inherent in both face-to-face and web-
based instruction. Interestingly, learners react more favorably
toward classroom instruction than blended learning. This may
be because blended learning courses are more demanding,
requiring a greater time commitment because of the use of two
learning approaches. Research suggests that the most significant
issues or problems with blended learning are fast-changing
technology, insufficient management support and commitment
to blended learning, and a lack of understanding of what

blended learning really is and how to implement it.61
The Water Quality Association (WQA) uses a blended learning
approach to enable member companies to train and certify their
employees, which include installers, service technicians, and
sales representatives.62 The competency-based system includes
learning paths that employees can follow to earn badges
demonstrating they have attained competencies. The learning
paths include structured on-the-job experiences using a mobile
performance support knowledge base, coaching, self-study
readings, and mini-tutorials. WQA tracks on-the-job
experiences using a mobile e-portfolio that employees can use
to complete a task checklist, take a photo of their work, and tag
its locations.
The pharmaceutical and life sciences company Novartis has the
Digital Acceleration Workshop, which is a blended learning
program that includes three parts.63 First, employees complete
four online self-study modules covering marketing and digital
solutions for the pharmaceutical industry. Next, they attend two
face-to-face sessions that use a case study to apply digital
marketing opportunities. The last part of the program focuses on
employees’ involvement sharing best practices using online
learning site to ensure that employees engage in continuous
learning about digital marketing. This allows Novartis to build
its experience base across different markets, project teams, and
brands. To help ensure that the program is successful,
employees are quizzed one month after they attend the program
to assess retained knowledge. Also, employees complete an
action plan at the end of the program. The action plan is shared
with their managers, who are asked to follow up with the
employees to see if they are applying what they learned to their
job.
SIMULATIONS AND GAMES
Simulations and games were introduced as a traditional training
method in Chapter Seven. This chapter discusses how
development in software and computer technology has improved
the learning and transfer that can result from simulators and

games. Simulation and games that can be delivered via a
personal computer (or gaming technology such357as an Xbox
immerse trainees in decision-making exercises in an artificial
yet realistic environment that allow them to learn the
consequences of their decisions. Simulation games are widely
popular—one estimate is that 53 percent of adults play video
games!64Serious games refer to games in which the training
content is turned into a game but has business
objectives.65 “Gamification” means that game-based strategies
are applied to e-learning programs. The key is to use the fun
and motivational aspects of games to help employees acquire
knowledge and skills. Table 8.8 shows four different types of
simulations and games. Some simulations include virtual reality
or take place in virtual worlds. Virtual reality is a computer-
based technology that provides trainees with a three-
dimensional learning experience. This allows simulations to
become even more realistic. Using specialized equipment or
viewing the immersive model on the computer screen, trainees
move through the simulated environment and interact with its
components.66Simulations allow the trainees to
experience presence, which refers to perceptions of actually
being in a particular environment. Presence is influenced by the
amount of sensory information available to the trainee, control
over the environment, and the ability to modify the
environment. In simulations, presence can include trainees
feeling a sense of motion or experiencing emotions such as
anger from a customer or colleague. Poor presence may result in
trainees experiencing vomiting, dizziness, headaches (simulator
sickness), and frustration because senses are inappropriately
distorted. Simulations can also take place in a virtual
world. Virtual worlds refer to the computer-based, simulated
online three-dimensional representation of the real world where
learning programs can be hosted. Second Life, ProtoSphere,
Forterra, and Virtual Heroes are examples of providers of
virtual worlds.67 In virtual worlds, trainees use avatars to
interact with each other in the classroom, webinars, or role-play

exercise. An avatar refers to computer depictions of humans
that are used as imaginary coaches, coworkers, customers, and
instructors.68 Virtual worlds allow employees to learn alone,
with their peers, or in teams. Virtual worlds such as Second Life
can be used to create virtual classrooms, but their strength is its
ability to get the learner actively involved in working with
equipment, peers, or customers. For example, British Petroleum
(BP) uses Second Life to train new gas station employees in the
safety features of gasoline storage tanks and piping
systems.69 BP’s virtual world includes three-dimensional
replicas of the tank and pipe system at a gas station. Trainees
are able to “see” the underground storage tanks and piping
systems and observe how safety devices control gasoline flow—
something they could never do in real life.
TABLE 8.8 Types of Simulations
Type of Simulation
Description
Branching story
Trainees are presented with a situation and asked to make a
choice or decision. Trainees progress through the simulation on
the basis of their decisions.
Interactive spreadsheet
Trainees are given a set of business rules (usually finance-
based) and asked to make decisions that will affect the business.
The decisions are entered into a spreadsheet that shows how the
decisions affect the business.
Game-based
Trainees play a video game on a computer.
Virtual
Trainees interact with a computer representation of the job for
which they are being trained.
Sources: Based on C. Cornell, “Better than the real
thing?” Human Resource Executive (August 2005): 34–37; S.
Boehle, “Simulations: The next generation of e-
learning,” Training (January 2005): 22–31.
358

The U.S. Army uses a three-dimensional virtual simulation to
help soldiers correctly identify social networks and norms in an
area of operations.70 The simulations reinforce classroom
training. Participating in the simulation helps soldiers develop
their critical thinking and cultural awareness skills by asking
them to identify leaders and evaluate the area for criminal
activities such as drug smuggling or human trafficking. The
simulation is also based on local and cultural norms such as
teenagers carrying assault rifles or perceptions that people
outside of the ethnic or religious group are inferior. The
simulation helps reduce the soldiers’ culture shock and perform
more effectively when they are involved in actual operations.
The simulation can include up to six square kilometers and
thirty players. For example, a group of soldiers can enter a
virtual village and, based on their interactions with the
villagers, they draw a map of family, friends, foes, and personal
and work relationships. Flight simulators including full motion
and high-resolution graphics are recent additions to pilot
training in the commercial helicopter industry.71 The
simulators are intended to improve helicopters’ safety record.
On average more than one major helicopter accident occurs each
day somewhere in the world. Training accidents using actual
helicopters account for approximately one-fourth of all
commercial crashes. Buying or leasing a simulator can cost
millions of dollars while contracting costs range between
$1,000 and $1,500 per hour. But the cost is much less than the
hourly cost of taking helicopters out of service to teach pilots.
Also, in addition to cost savings, the simulators allow pilots to
focus on important safety issues and emergency procedures that
are impossible to replicate in an actual helicopter.
Many companies are using games and gamification. An ATD
survey of learning professionals found that 25 percent of
companies use gamification in learning and 20 percent use
serious games.72 IBM uses simulation games to develop
employees’ skills in information technology, architecture and
infrastructure, finance, project management, and business

process management.73 In the game for business process
management the player takes the role of a consultant in a call
center. Players have to walk around the space, conduct
interviews, and make decisions. The game is supported by a
chat room, library, help videos, and leaderboards, which assist
the social and competitive nature of the game. Ford of Canada
uses gamification to train dealership salespersons.74 The
Professional Performance Program (p2p) is an online program
where sales and service staff from Ford stores in Canada can
access online product and service training, sales resources, and
certification. The Ford p2p Cup is a professional auto racing–
themed program that includes videos, product information, and
web courses. Trainees can earn points and advance to higher
levels, work on their personal goals, earn badges that are shown
in a trophy case, compete against their peers on a leaderboard,
compete against other dealerships, and receive feedback.
Allstate Insurance uses the “PII Protectors” game for employees
to review their knowledge on privacy protection, that is, how to
make sure client’s information is safe.75 The game begins with
a video showing the player being declined for a mortgage
because their identity was stolen. The player then joins an
agency to fight an evil company trying to steal other people’s
data. They choose to take one of four alter egos, such as
Captain Confidential or Firewall. Next, players are faced with
solving dilemmas by answering questions based on Allstate’s
privacy policy. The more problems they solve, the less data
their character stops leaking outside the company.
At NetApp Inc., twenty-five managers participated in a game in
which they played the role of top executives in an imaginary
company modeled after their employer.76359The managers
worked in five-person teams and competed to produce the
strongest sales and operating profit. They were faced with
challenges such as balancing long-term investments against
short-term results. Managers received information including
market analyses based on actual NetApp data and a menu of
strategic initiatives such as improving college recruiting. The

teams had to choose strategies and allocate employees and
money. They were given scenarios such as an important
customer seeking to add last-minute product features; in
responding, they had to decide whether to add the features
(which included determining their related costs) or refuse and
risk angering an important client. The teams saw the
consequences of their decisions. For example, one team
declined to add the product features, which resulted in a decline
in customer satisfaction and market share. At the end of the
simulation, the sales and total profits of each team, as well as
the effects of their strategies, were discussed.
PPD is a global contract research organization that is involved
in drug discovery, development, lifecycle management, and
laboratory services. PPD’s clients and partners include
pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical device, academic, and
government organizations. PPD has offices in forty-six
countries with more than thirteen thousand employees, making
it critical that effective training could be delivered without
travel and time demands. PPD used a virtual three-dimensional
learning environment to deliver its Clinical Foundations
Program.77 PPD created a virtual doctor’s office, as well as
reception, training, and conference rooms. Both trainees and
instructors communicate and interact using avatars. Excel,
PowerPoint, and video can also be used along with the virtual
universe. PPD found that the virtual training improved the cost-
effectiveness, speed, and employees’ accessibility to training.
Eighty percent of trainees who participated in virtual programs
prefer it to classroom training and 95 percent felt they were
more engaged than in traditional instruction.
As you can see from these examples, simulations can be
effective for several reasons.78 First, trainees can use them on
their desktop or notebook computer, eliminating the need to
travel to a central training location. Second, simulations are
meaningful, they get trainees involved in learning, and they are
emotionally engaging (they can even be fun!). This increases
employees’ willingness to practice, encourages retention,

improves their skills, and enhances transfer of training. Third,
simulators provide a consistent message of what needs to be
learned; trainees can work at their own pace; and, compared to
face-to-face instruction, simulators can incorporate more
situations or problems that a trainee might encounter.
Simulators can be used for training interpersonal skills, and
how to use equipment. Fourth, simulations can safely put
employees in situations that would be dangerous in the real
world. Trainees can learn and practice dangerous tasks without
putting themselves or others in danger. Fifth, simulations have
been found to result in such positive outcomes as shorter
training times and increased return on investment.
Simulations do have some disadvantages. The use of
simulations has been limited by their development costs. Games
and simulations are useful for practicing skills, but trainees
must first acquire knowledge and then apply it while playing the
game.79 Debriefing learners after a game is useful for helping
trainees understand how their simulation experience relates to
their work. A customized simulation can cost between $200,000
and $300,000, while a simulation purchased from a supplier
without any customization typically costs $100 to $200 per
trainee.80 The cost to rent space from a virtual-world program’s
campus within a public space is $200–$300 per day; it costs
$1,000 to $2,000 for a customized simulation within the
space.81 The average cost for a basic fifteen minute game is
$20,000 to $30,000 but games can range from $5,000 to
$250,000.82 Leased space in a virtual world is expensive. It can
range from $5,000 to $100,000 annually, depending on the size
and type of the space leased ($10,000–$20,000 is required for a
private space on a public server or a private, customized
island). However, although they continue to be an expensive
training method, development costs for simulations continue to
decrease, making them a more popular training method. Also,
the use of simulations as a training method is likely to increase
as technology development allows more realism to be built into
simulations. The novelty of the experience of a simulation may

help trainees recall the experience, but they may also interfere
with retention and transfer of the training content to the
job.83 Learners may not take a simulation seriously. Learning
in a simulation may be better for those who already have some
job experiences because for learners, simulations may confuse
and overwhelm them. Finally, trainees may not be comfortable
in learning situations that lack human contact.
360
TABLE 8.9 Questions to Consider About Serious Games
· What is the business objective?
· What behavior or tasks will be learned?
· How many levels and players should it include?
· Will everyone playing the game have access to the same
technology?
· Is the game fun and does it drive engagement in learning?
· Does the game provide feedback and elements such as
leaderboards, meters, or badges to motivate friendly
competition between employees or teams?
Source: Based on C. Balance, “Strategic ways to develop game-
based learning for high ROI,” T+D (September 2013): 76–77; B.
Roberts, “Gamification: Win, lose or draw,” HR Magazine (May
2014): 28.35; R. Paharia, Loyalty 3.0 (New York: McGraw-Hill
Education, 2013).
We all know that games can be fun, but what questions should
you consider in purchasing or building a serious game for
training? Table 8.9 shows the questions you should consider. It
is important to establish the purpose of the game and its
relationship to the business. Games can be used for several
business-related purposes, including safety training, product
training, team building, and new employee orientation. It is also
necessary to determine what behaviors or tasks trainees should
be able to perform as a result of playing the game. The business
purpose and behavior and skills should be included in the
game’s learning objectives. Learners should be engaged through
meaningful game scenarios, narratives, and problems. Feedback,
competition, and incentives can enhance the “fun” aspect of the

game. Trainees should be able to easily access and see their
score and the scores of all players (leaderboard) and have the
opportunity to earn badges. Games should be tested (recall our
discussion of formative evaluation in Chapter Six) to ensure
that they are easy to use and logical, and that technology
problems are minimized.
MOBILE TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING
Mobile technology allows learning to occur anywhere, at any
time. Mobile technology consists of84
· Wireless transmission systems such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
that allow transmission of data without the need for physical
connections between devices or between a device and an
Internet connection.
361
· Mobile devices such as smartphones, tablet computers, iPods,
iPads, global positioning system (GPS) devices, and radio
frequency identification (RFID) chips.
· Software applications related to processing audio files, word
processing, spreadsheets, Internet, e-mail, and instant
messaging.
GPS and RFID devices are used for tracking customers,
employees, and property. For example, many cars and trucks are
equipped with GPS devices to allow operators to locate drivers.
Trucking companies use GPS devices to track loads and to
determine expected arrival times. RFID chips are embedded in
products to track their movement and to help in inventory
control. Hotels are providing mobile devices to allow customers
to access information about guest services, dining,
entertainment, and accommodations anywhere on the hotel
property. Airlines are providing pilots with iPads they can use
while in the cockpit.85 The iPads give the pilots easy access to
airport runway approaches, real-time weather updates, and
runway diagrams. Before the iPads were available, pilots had to
carry heavy flight bags (some weighed thirty-five pounds) with
all of the necessary navigation charts and manuals. Besides
giving pilots easier access to the information they need,

replacing the flight bags with the iPads has resulted in the
airlines saving on fuel costs. American estimates that removing
the flight bags saved about 400,000 gallons of fuel, which is
close to a $1 million savings in fuel costs!
Mobile learning refers to training delivered using a mobile
device such as a smartphone, netbook, notebook computer, or
iPad. One estimate is that 17 percent of U.S. companies use
mobile learning.86 Mobile learning can involve both formal and
informal learning. Formal learning might include e-learning
courses, podcasts, or videos on the mobile device. Informal
learning includes engaging in communication and messaging
with other employees or experts via Twitter, blogs, or
Facebook. The advantages of mobile learning include that it is
an easy way to get up-to-date information to employees; it can
be useful for enhancing transfer of training through providing
follow-up; it brings training to employees who are constantly
traveling, are out of the office visiting customers or clients, or
don’t have the time to attend a face-to-face course or program
(such as salespeople or executives); and learners can complete
training on their own time and pace. Mobile learning allows
employees to generate content by creating video, taking photos,
or recording an interview and sharing it with others. Also, using
mobile devices for learning appeals to millennials. Mobile
devices can also provide RSS feeds, shared media (such as
YouTube), and podcasts. Podcasts are audio or video program
content distributed in episodes using software such as RSS. The
best use of podcasts is for narrative-based content that inspires
the user’s imagination using music and sound
effects.87 Podcasts are great for sharing expertise of SMEs
using interviews, stories, and role-plays. It is cheap and easy to
produce using a microphone, computer with audio software,
portable digital recorder, Skype phone recorder, headphones, or
speakers. An advantage of podcasts is that learners can listen at
any time or place using many different mobile devices such as
iPhones, iPads, or notebook computers. Through mobile
technologies, training and learning can occur naturally

throughout the workday or at home, employees can be
connected to communities of learning, and employees are given
the ability to learn at their own pace by reviewing material or
skipping over content that they already know.88
For example, Farmers Insurance Group supplies smartphones to
its claim representatives.89 They can use the smartphone to
access product cards to learn about insurance362policies,
review requirements for settling atypical insurance claims, or
learn about changes in policies. At Sonic, the fast-food
restaurant, recipes and employee activities are constantly
changing due to a rotating menu.90 At Sonic, managers can use
their smartphone to review food preparations with a team
member, view a video, access store reports, contact experts, and
post questions and answers to an online learning community.
Many companies are using tablets such as the iPad for training
because of their ease of use, colorful, easy-to-read display,
ability to connect to the web, and availability of powerful
apps. Apps refer to applications designed specifically for
smartphones and tablet computers. Apps are primarily being
used to supplement training, manage the path or sequence of
training, and to help employees maintain training records.91 An
app for the U.S. military combat medical teams provides details
on specific medical procedures such as controlling bleeding.
The American Ophthalmological Society (AOS) is using apps in
its continuous medical education courses to supplement
training. Courses are provided online, but learning tips and
techniques are provided as mobile apps.
Some companies are beginning to use apps as primary training.
To ensure that learning and transfer of training occurs using
these apps, they are designed to catch the learner’s attention by
incorporating attention-getting videos, stories, and interactions.
Sales representatives at Coca-Cola Bottling Company
Consolidated (CCBCC) are responsible for business
development and customer relationships.92 Most of their time is
spent traveling to meet customer needs or visiting prospects for
new business. To help sales reps better manage their workload

and meet their sales quotas, CCBCC developed an online
learning program. Sales reps can use an iPad to access an app
that links to the program’s content as well as videos on key
concepts and action planning templates. The program’s content
covers how to get work done, how to work smart, and how to
handle information overload. The app also includes editable
PDF files that allow sales reps working with their and their
managers during on-the-job coaching sessions to create and
update action plans. The app is frequently used by sales reps
and its use has contributed to a 20 percent increase in daily
sales calls. Watson Pharmaceuticals has developed an app for
its corporate university, allowing pharmaceutical
representatives to access videos and product knowledge from
their iPhones. Unisys Corporation offers employees both an e-
learning and mobile version of a compliance training
program.93 The mobile version includes four 20 minute
segments compared to the one-and-one-half-hour e-learning
program. The mobile version also has less content on each
screen and limited use of video. Unisys is also providing
samples of e-learning or face-to-face programs on mobile
devices to entice learners to get involved in other training
courses. Northrop Grumman, a defense contractor, is developing
games for tablets and iPads that train users on information
technology security using an interface that looks like a
motherboard. Learners move around the game board in their
“truck” and are presented with questions about information
technology security. Correctly answering all of the questions
earns them the opportunity to play an action game in which they
shoot down logic bombs, malicious code, and Trojan horses.
For mobile learning to be effective, it needs to be short, easy to
use, and meaningful.94 One estimate is that the course length
should not exceed ten minutes because users likely do not have
long periods of time for learning, and attention spans are
limited when looking at the small screens on many mobile
devices. The screen layout should work with or without
graphics. Images should be used only where relevant to the

content because download time may be slow due to bandwidth
limitations. Images used should be sized so that the363user can
see them without scrolling horizontally or vertically. Technical
requirements due to screen size, web browsers, and mobile
operating systems need to be considered, as well as the
availability and ability to use plug-ins such as Flash, Java, and
Portable Document Format (PDF). Also, simply repurposing
lectures by digitizing them and distributing them to employees
will not facilitate learning. For example, Capital One creates
simulated radio shows with phone-in questions and answers
given by announcers to create an audio learning environment
that is enjoyable and interesting. As with e-learning, training
that uses mobile technology may be most effective if it is part
of a blended learning approach that involves face-to-face
interaction among trainees as well as audio learning.
ADAPTIVE TRAINING
Adaptive training refers to training that customizes or adapts
the content presented to the trainee based on their learning
style, ability, personality, or performance.95 These adaptations
include the variety, difficulty, and sequencing of content as well
as practice problems. In adaptive training, instruction changes
based on trainees scores on tests or quizzes completed either
before training or at various times as they experience training.
This assessment results in adaptations of the content to best
help the trainee learn. Although trainers strive to meet the needs
of learners, it is very difficult using face-to-face training
methods. Online training makes it easier to use ongoing
assessments to identify the most effective instructional
pathways for learners. The major challenge in developing
adaptive training is to ensure that the different content
customizations match the learner needs and help them attain the
learning objectives. For example, LearnSmart is an interactive
and adaptive study tool that is used in some college
courses.96 Based on their performance on quizzes throughout
the course, students are directed to practice exercises and
sections of online textbooks they need to read. LearnSmart is

designed to help students better use their study time, as well as
improve their retention, recall of the material, and their grades.
Another example of adaptive training is an intelligent tutoring
system. An intelligent tutoring system (ITS) is an instructional
system that uses artificial intelligence.97
ITS has been used by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) in astronaut training.98 For example,
the Remote Maneuvering System ITS was used to teach
astronauts how to use the robotic arm on the space shuttle.
Astronauts had to learn to complete tasks and procedures related
to grappling a payload. The ITS generated processes that were
matched to individual astronauts. Feedback was matched to each
astronaut’s pattern of success and failure in learning the tasks.
The system recorded performance data for each astronaut, made
decisions regarding the student’s level of understanding, and
used those decisions to provide appropriate feedback.
DISTANCE LEARNING
Distance learning is used by geographically dispersed
companies to provide information about new products, policies,
or procedures, as well as deliver skills training and expert
lectures to field locations.99Distance learning can include
virtual classrooms, which have the following capabilities:
projection of still, animated, and video images;364instructor-
participant audio discussion; sharing of computer software
applications; interactions using instant polling technology; and
whiteboard marking tools.100 Distance learning features two-
way communications between people, and it currently involves
two types of technology.101 The first technology is
teleconferencing. Teleconferencing refers to synchronous
exchange of audio, video, and/or text between two or more
individuals or groups at two or more locations. Trainees attend
training programs in training facilities in which they can
communicate with trainers (who are at another location) and
other trainees using the telephone or personal computer. The
second type of distance learning also includes individualized,
personal computer–based training.102 Employees participate in

training anywhere they have access to a personal computer. This
type of distance learning may involve multimedia training
methods, such as web-based training. Course material and
assignments can be distributed using the company’s intranet,
video, or DVDs. Trainers and trainees interact using e-mail,
bulletin boards, and conferencing systems.
Teleconferencing usually includes a telephone link so that
trainees viewing the presentation can call in questions and
comments to the trainer. Also, satellite networks allow
companies to link up with industry-specific and educational
courses for which employees receive college credit and job
certification. IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Milliken. Corporation
are among the many firms that subscribe to the National
Technological University (now part of Walden University),
which broadcasts courses throughout the United States that
technical employees need to obtain advanced degrees in
engineering.103
A virtual classroom refers to using a computer and the Internet
to distribute instructor-led training to geographically dispersed
employees. The potential advantages of the virtual classroom
include its cost savings and convenience: geographically
dispersed employees can be brought together for training for
several hours each week, and content experts can be brought
into the classroom as needed. However, the training delivered
using a virtual classroom is not the same as the training
delivered face to face by an instructor. There are a number of
guidelines for developing effective training in the virtual
classroom:104
· Design short modules and follow up with an assignment that
applies the learning to the job.
· Make learning interactive and interesting, such as modeling
the program after a phone-in radio show.
· Include media such as video and audio.
· Limit classroom size to no more than twenty-five learners.
· Offer learners multiple ways of interacting with each other
and the instructor, including webinars, e-mail, discussion

rooms, message boards, and blogs.
· Test the technology before the first class to ensure it’s ready.
Interactive distance learning (IDL) refers to the latest
generation of distance learning, which uses satellite technology
to broadcast programs to different locations and allows trainees
to respond to questions posed during the training program using
a keypad.105 IDL is being used by companies that have
employees in many different locations and who lack computers
or online access. IDL allows employees in different locations to
see behaviors and how to get things done rather than just read
or hear about them. For example, JCPenney Company, which
produces more than 200 different IDL programs each year, uses
distance learning to reach every associate. Each store has a
training room365where up to twelve employees can sign in to
the program and watch on a large television screen. Each
employee has his or her own keypad to interact with the
program. Employees are able to watch the satellite broadcast
live or view a tape of the program later. Regardless of whether
watching the program live or via tape, employees can answer
questions such as, “How many square feet does your store have
for lingerie?” At the end of the program, managers and trainers
can access a report on how every store answered. Evaluations of
the interactive distance learning program have been positive.
IDL has allowed JCPenney to deliver training to every
employee in the company, and 86 percent of its employees
report that they have the training needed to perform their jobs
effectively.
An advantage of distance learning is that the company can save
on travel costs. It also allows employees in geographically
dispersed sites to receive training from experts who would not
otherwise be available to visit each location. Intuit finds that a
traditional classroom environment is good for introducing
software and providing trainees with the opportunity to
network. Virtual classroom training is used for courses on
special software features, for demonstrations, and for
troubleshooting using application-sharing features. General

Mills uses virtual classrooms at smaller plants where offering a
class on site is not cost effective.106 Employees have access to
courses in product-specific knowledge (e.g., cereal production),
general technical skills (e.g., food chemistry), and functional-
specific knowledge (e.g., maintenance). FileNeT Corporation
was concerned with how its sales force was going to keep up
with new software and software updates.107 FileNeT tried self-
paced online learning but discovered that salespeople did not
like to read a lot of material about new products on the web.
Enrollment in online courses dwindled, and salespeople flooded
the company’s training department with requests for one-on-one
assistance. To solve the training problem, the company decided
to use webcasting. Webcasting, or web conferencing, involves
instruction that is provided online through live broadcasts.
Webcasting helped spread the sales force training throughout
the year rather than cramming it into twice-a-year sales
meetings. Webcasting also helped ensure that the salespeople all
received the same information. The salespeople liked the
webcasts because of the timely information that helped them
have conversations with customers. The live sessions were also
popular because participants could ask questions. Webcasting
has not replaced face-to-face training at FileNeT; classroom
training is still about 80 percent of training, but that percentage
has decreased from 90 percent. Webcasting has also resulted in
savings of $500,000 annually (because one of the twice-yearly
sales meetings was canceled).
The major disadvantages of distance learning are the lack of
interaction between the trainer and the audience, technology
failures, and unprepared trainers. A high degree of interaction
among trainees or between the trainees and the trainer is a
positive learning feature that is missing from distance learning
programs that use the technology only to broadcast a lecture to
geographically dispersed employees. All this does is repurpose
a traditional lecture (with its limitations for learning and
transfer of training) for a new training technology. To engage
trainees in a distance learning environment, it is useful to limit

online sessions to sixty to ninety minutes in length, maintain a
good instructional pace, avoid presenting unnecessary text, use
relevant and engaging visuals (e.g., graphs and animation), and
allow trainees to participate using polling devices and small-
group breakout rooms for discussion and projects.108 A group
spokesperson can be assigned to summarize and communicate
the group’s ideas. Weather conditions and satellite glitches can
occur at any time, disconnecting the instructor from the
audience or making it difficult to show366video or other
multimedia presentations. Instructors need backup plans for
dealing with technical issues. Because many instructors have
difficulty speaking to trainees in another location without a live
group of trainees in front of them, it is important to prepare
instructors for distance delivery. For example, a producer who
is familiar with the technology can work with the instructor and
help facilitate the training session.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR TRAINING SUPPORT
Technologies such as expert systems, groupware, and electronic
support systems are being used to support training efforts.
Training support means that these technologies are helping to
capture training content so that it is available to employees who
may not have attended training. Training support also means
that these technologies provide information and decision rules
to employees on an as-needed basis (i.e., they are job aids).
Employees can access these technologies in the work
environment.
Table 8.10 shows when training support technologies are most
needed. Many conditions shown in the table relate to
characteristics of the task or the environment that can inhibit
transfer of training. For example, employees may work some
distance away from their manager, the manager may be difficult
to contact, or employees may need special expertise that the
manager lacks. These situations make it difficult for employees
to find answers to problems that arise on the job. Training
support technologies can assist in transfer of training by helping
employees generalize training content to the work environment

and by providing employees with new information (not covered
in training).
Expert Systems
Expert systems refer to technology that organizes and applies
the knowledge of human experts to specific
problems.109 Expert systems have three elements:
1. A knowledge base that contains facts, figures, and rules about
a specific subject
2. A decision-making capability that, imitating an expert’s
reasoning ability, draws conclusions from those facts and
figures to solve problems and answer questions
3. A user interface that gathers and gives information to the
person using the system
Expert systems are used as a support tool that employees refer
to when they have problems or decisions that they feel exceed
their current knowledge and skills. They can also be used to
help employees make sense of different conditions and problems
and keep track of tasks that need to be completed. For example,
at Johns Hopkins Medical Center’s data from patient records
and monitoring equipment is integrated and available to
intensive367care unit staff on a tablet computer.110 The system
shows staff what tasks need to be done and when to perform
preventative measures for surgical complications and alerts the
staff to situations when patients may be at risk such as when
drugs may interact to cause medical problems. Color coding
alerts the user to whether an urgent action needs to take place
(red), a task needs to be performed soon (yellow), or a
necessary task has been completed (green).
TABLE 8.10 Conditions When Training Support Technologies
Are Most Needed
· Performance of task is infrequent.
· The task is lengthy, difficult, and information intensive.
· The consequences of error are damaging.
· Performance relies on knowledge, procedures, or approaches
that frequently change.
· There is high employee turnover.

· Little time is available for training, or there are few resources
for training.
· Employees are expected to take full responsibility for learning
and performing tasks.
Source: Based on A. Rossett, “Job Aids and Electronic
Performance Support Systems.” In The ASTD Training and
Development Handbook, 4th ed., ed. R. L. Craig (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1996): 554–577.
Although expert systems are discussed as a technology that
supports training, expert systems can also be used as a delivery
mechanism. Expert systems can be used to train employees in
the decision rules of the experts. For example, a financial
company dramatically increased the portfolio of products that it
offered to customers.111 The sales force needed to be prepared
to introduce these products to clients and to make sales. The
company developed an expert system to capture the sales
processes used by top sales performers. This web-based expert
system allowed salespersons to access information on each
financial product, alerted salespersons to information they
needed from the customer, and used expert logic to identify
opportunities to introduce new products to customers based on
data entered by the salesperson (the expert system matches
general client characteristics with specific customer
characteristics).
Expert systems can deliver both high quality and lower costs.
By using the decision processes of experts, the system enables
many people to arrive at decisions that reflect experts’
knowledge. An expert system helps avoid the errors that can
result from fatigue decision biases, and the inability to make
sense of large amounts of information. The efficiencies of an
expert system can be realized if it can be operated by fewer or
less skilled (and likely less costly) employees than the company
would otherwise require.
Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSSs)
An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is an
electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes

individual and corporate knowledge assets throughout an
organization to enable individuals to achieve required levels of
performance in the fastest possible time and with a minimum of
support from other people.112 An EPSS includes all the
software needed to support the work of individuals (not just one
or two specific software applications).
EPSS can be used to help transfer of training and provide just-
in-time performance support that substitutes for training.
Microsoft’s Office software has “wizards,” a help function that
recognizes the task that the user is starting to perform (e.g.,
writing a letter) and offers information related to that task.
Also, retailers such as Sephora are supplying employee with
iPads that they can use as a product-reference guide (a
performance support tool). Both Coca-Cola Sabco and SNI use
performance support as a means to help transfer of
training.113 Coca-Cola Sabco, a South African bottling
company, provides on-demand learning materials using
YouTube videos accessible on phones and tablet computers that
focus on tasks such as the way to correctly stack products inside
coolers. SNI, a company that supplies negotiations skills
training, provides its clients with a checklist of seven
negotiating tactics they can pull up on their smartphones.
Although these tactics are covered in training, the checklist is
available to aid clients’ recall and transfer of skills to real
negotiation situations. Rather than train employees on
infrequently performed tasks, ADP provides employees with
“Learning Bytes” two-minute learning solutions demonstrating
how to perform these tasks. The Learning Bytes have helped
reduce calls into ADP’s service center.
368
To use EPSS as a substitute for training, trainers must
determine whether problems and tasks require employees to
actually acquire knowledge, skill, or ability (learned capability)
and whether periodic assistance through an EPSS is sufficient.
LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS: SYSTEMS FOR
TRAINING DELIVERY, SUPPORT, AND ADMINISTRATION

A learning management system (LMS) refers to a technology
platform that can be used to automate the administration,
development, and delivery of all of a company’s training
programs. LMSs can provide employees, managers, and trainers
with the ability to manage, deliver, and track learning activities.
Some of the features of LMSs are shown in Table 8.11. LMSs
provide the ability for users to search the database and their
company’s intranet simultaneously for information on training
courses, contact experts who are identified by the company as
topic experts, enroll in all courses related to a certification or
particular training topic at one time, and use simulations to
determine whether employees are complying with ethical
standards and skills that they have been trained in using by the
LMS.114
There are a number of reasons LMSs are being used. An LMS
can help a company reduce travel and other costs related to
training, reduce time for program completion, increase
employees’ accessibility to training across the business, and
provide administrative capabilities to track program completion
and course enrollments. LMSs allow companies to track all
learning activity in the business.
TABLE 8.11 Features of LMSs
Trainee management and reporting
Track and report on trainee progress and activity.
Training event and resource management
Organize courses and learning events in catalogs; manage and
track course resources such as classrooms and instructors;
support communications among administrators and students.
Online course delivery infrastructure
Deliver online courses; register and track trainees.
Authoring tools
Create new courses; promote consistency in courses.
Skill assessment
Create, edit, distribute, and deliver assessment tests; review
trainee achievements.
Professional development management

Track and compare trainee learning against goals, based on the
trainee’s job or function.
Knowledge bases
Integrate links to learning references that supplement online
learning.
Personalization
Engage employees in learning through the use of target courses,
references, and e-mails.
Link to human capital management systems
Link to performance management, career development, and
talent management systems.
Source: Based on S. Castellano, “The evolution of the,
LMS;” T+D (November 2014): 14; “Learning management
systems: An executive summary,” Training (March 2002): 4.
369
LMS is also important for human capital management. Human
capital management integrates training with all aspects of the
human resource function (e.g., performance evaluation, human
resource planning) to determine how training dollars are spent
and how training expenses translate into business dollars for the
company. Some of the reasons that companies adopt an LMS are
to centralize management of learning activities, track regulatory
compliance, measure training usage, measure employee
performance and help in talent management.115
LMSs are also important for companies to be able to track the
number of employees who have completed courses that are
required to meet state, federal, or professional regulations
(compliance training).116These courses cover a wide range of
topics, including financial integrity, health and safety,
environmental protection, and employee rights. For example,
various regulations mandate that companies be able to prove
that employees have completed courses in sexual harassment or
defensive driving. Employees from a variety of for-profit
businesses, including financial services, oil refining, and
pharmaceuticals, as well as employees in nonprofit
organizations such as government agencies and hospitals, have

to complete certain required courses. The Gunderson Lutheran
Health System includes hospitals, community clinics, nursing
homes, home care, pharmacies, ambulances, mental health
services, and vision centers.117 Employees are required to take
courses to comply with national standards on protecting patient
privacy, as well as courses related to providing a safe and
healthy work environment. Gunderson developed an LMS that
includes all mandatory compliance courses, as well as other
courses. Employees can access courses on the LMS through
computers located at their desks, in computer labs, or at health
sciences libraries. Gunderson has realized many benefits from
the LMS. The LMS has been useful in reducing the time
employees spend on compliance courses (e.g., safety courses
now take twenty minutes compared to the two hours required for
classroom training). The online courses provide employees with
flexibility to fit learning into their schedules. For example,
nurses can leave their online course to visit patients and then
return to continue learning right where they left off. The online
courses offer more interactivity through the use of exercises,
assessments, and role-plays than did the classroom training, and
such interactivity holds employees’ interest. Finally, since the
LMS was developed, the demand for learning has increased:
Departments want more classroom courses to be converted to
online courses.
An LMS can help companies understand the strengths and
weaknesses of their employees, including where talent gaps
exist.118 Also, an LMS can be linked to other human resource
systems, such as performance management or employee
development systems, to identify learning opportunities for
employees to strengthen their performance weaknesses. Turner
Construction has a competency model that divides jobs into nine
job families and divides the families into job levels (senior
management, administrative/clerical, and management).
Employees receive an online performance evaluation of their
skills based on their job family and level. The performance
management system links to the company’s LMS. The LMS

analyzes the employees’ skill weaknesses and provides
recommendations of courses that can improve those skills. The
LMS system allows Turner Construction to identify skill gaps
for entire levels, job families, or business units. The results can
be used to identify where to spend monies allocated for training
to develop new courses.
To maximize its effectiveness, an LMS should be integrated
with talent management systems. The interfaces between the
systems will provide basic employee information370such as
business unit, geographic location, and job title. Information
about which courses employees have completed and are eligible
to complete should also be stored in the LMS. Consider how
VCA Animal Hospitals, Vanguard, and MasTec Utility Services
Group contributes to the business, encourage employee
participation in training, and integrate talent management
practices and systems.119 VCA Animal Hospitals has a
geographically dispersed workforce with 13,000 workers in over
500 animal hospitals across forty states. It used to rely on
training based on Microsoft PowerPoint presentations with
audio narration but recognized that it had to improve the quality
of its courses. VCA Animal Hospitals purchased a new LMS
that now allows more engaging training methods, including
video clips of veterinarians discussing medical practices,
simulations, online collaboration between learners and learners
and between learners and the instructors, and safety inspection
checklists. The LMS is used for online courses, registering
veterinarians for classroom-based courses, and tracking who has
completed training and how well they scored on post-training
tests. Vanguard, the financial services firm, uses an LMS that
allows its employees, known as crew members, to get learning
recommendations from Vanguard’s University based on their
career interests, development goals, and relevant content for
their current jobs. It also makes it easier for crew members to
find and access videos, audio clips, interactive flash
demonstrations, and articles, as well as enrolling in classes. The
LMS categorizes informal learning sources, such as podcasts,

articles, and video clips, with formal learning solutions,
including online and classroom-based courses. Informal and
formal learning solutions as well as outside courses offered by
vendors can also be found using a key work search. MasTec
Utility Services Group, a utility company, uses an LMS to help
manage its training programs. MasTec wanted to be able to
make training content available to employees who work in rural
areas as well as in cities. Also, they wanted to make it easier for
employees to register for training and managers to approve their
enrollment, and to see training requirements, participation rates,
and training completion. Using MasTec’s online LMS,
employees can log in and view training courses and curriculum,
access e-learning and videos, and schedule instructor-led
courses. Employees can also access company safety bulletins
and enroll in U.S. Department of Labor apprenticeship
programs. Managers can request reports that show training
requirements and which employees have met them. They can
display course completion dates, training quiz scores, and
expiration dates for compliance training that employees may
have completed.
CHOOSING NEW TECHNOLOGY TRAINING METHODS
Table 8.12 compares technology-based training methods based
on the same characteristics used to compare traditional training
programs in Chapter Seven. Several trends are apparent in this
table. First, these methods require considerable investment in
development. Development costs are related to purchasing
hardware and software, as well as developing programs and
transferring programs to new media (e.g., smartphones using
apps). However, although development costs are high, costs for
administering the program are low. Advantages of these
methods include (1) cost savings due to training being
accessible to employees at their home or office, (2) reduced
number of trainers needed, and (3) reduced costs associated
with employees traveling to a central training location (e.g.,
airfare, food, and lodging). Moreover, with the exception of
distance learning and mobile learning, most of the important

characteristics needed for learning to occur (practice, feedback,
etc.) can be built into these methods. Note that only a limited
number of studies of the effectiveness of several methods (e.g.,
mobile learning, social networks, adaptive training, and
MOOCs) are available because companies are just starting to
use these technologies for training.
371
TABLE 8.12 Comparison of Technology-Based Training
Methods
Recall the discussion in Chapter Six of how to determine the
costs and benefits of training programs. Caterpillar found that it
spent approximately one-third as much for e-learning as for
classroom instruction because of the reduced number of
instructors, the lower costs associated with course materials,
and the reduced travel expenses.120 For a one-hour course with
a class size of 100 trainees, e-learning was 40 percent less
expensive than classroom training ($9,500 versus $17,062, or
$76 per trainee). As the number of trainees increases to, for
example, 40,000 trainees (Caterpillar has more than 70,000
employees worldwide), the company’s cost savings are 78
percent ($1.1 million versus $5 million, or $99 per trainee).121
You might assume that e-learning is superior to other methods,
but this is not necessarily the case. Its major advantage is that
web-based programs can offer collaboration and sharing
(connecting trainees to other trainees, experts, and chat rooms)
and links to resources available on the web. Web-based training
also allows the learner to be given assignments requiring open-
ended responses (e.g., write a report on a customer’s
needs)372rather than only yes/no or multiple-choice responses.
In web-based training, the instructor can read the assignment
and provide detailed feedback. However no training method is
inherently superior to other methods. Rather, for any method to
be effective it has to create a positive learning environment and
aid in training transfer. Face-to-face classroom instruction can
be ineffective for the same reasons as online learning, or

distance learning. For example, the material is not meaningful,
there are limited opportunities for practice, and managers don’t
support use of training content on the job.
How do new technology training methods relate to traditional
training methods discussed in Chapter Seven? Simulations and
games and adaptive training are best suited for teaching
complex processes related to operating machinery, tools, and
equipment. These technological methods are extensions of role-
plays, business games, experiential learning, and team training.
Online training and MOOCs are best suited for teaching facts,
figures, cognitive strategies (e.g., how to hold an effective
meeting), and interpersonal skills (e.g., closing a sale). These
are technological extensions of lectures and role-plays. Both
online training and simulations can be useful for training
interpersonal skills if the content and interactions are realistic.
However, it is important that simulations, games, and online
learning are used together with face-to-face instruction to
ensure skills are learned and practiced in real work situations.
Mobile learning is probably best suited for teaching facts given
the limited personal interaction, and interaction with the content
using many mobile devices. Currently, mobile learning and
social media are best used as supplements to face-to-face
instruction to facilitate learning and transfer of training. Social
media are also good tools for knowledge management because
they facilitate collaboration on documents, reports (wikis), and
personal interaction (blogs, Twitter, and Facebook). Although
traditional training methods can be effective, managers and
trainers should consider using new technology training methods
under certain conditions:122
1. Sufficient budget and resources will be provided to develop
and support the purchase and use of new technology.
2. Trainees are geographically dispersed, and travel costs
related to training are high.
3. Trainees are comfortable using technology, including the
Internet, web, iPads, and smartphones.
4. The increased use of new technology is part of the company’s

business strategy. New technology is being used or implemented
in manufacturing of products or service processes.
5. Employees have limited or no time for training.
6. Current training methods allow limited time for practice,
feedback, and assessment.
7. Use of new technology fits into the organizational culture or
business strategy.
The best uses for classroom instruction may be when trainees
need face-to-face interaction, instructor support, or visual cues.
It is important to note that many companies recognize the
strengths and weaknesses of both traditional training methods
and technology-based training methods and are using both in a
blended learning approach. Technology-based training methods
including MOOCs can be used to provide consistent delivery of
training content involving transfer of information (knowledge
and skills) to geographically dispersed employees who work at
their own pace, practice, and collaborate with the trainer and
other trainees online. Then trainees can be brought to a central
location for face-to-face training using traditional methods
(classroom, action learning, games,373and role-plays) that
emphasizes through the use of cases and problems the
application of the knowledge and skills. Face-to-face instruction
is also more useful for facilitating interaction among trainees as
well as collaboration, networking, and discussion. For example,
at Pitney Bowes, a mailing equipment provider, e-learning is
used for content that many geographically dispersed employees
must know, such as legal compliance requirements or new
product training.123 Learning that requires interaction with
others—such as leadership management training, problem
solving, or decision making—requires face-to-face classroom
instruction or a blended learning approach.
Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the use of new
technologies in training delivery, support, and administration.
Many new technologies have features that help ensure learning
and transfer of training (e.g., e-learning). If designed correctly

these technologies can create a positive learning environment
by appealing “to multiple senses and allow” employees to pace
themselves, receive feedback and reinforcement, and find
information from experts on an as-needed basis. Mobile
learning methods (such as iPads) allow employees to participate
in training from home or work on a twenty-four-hour basis.
Employees control not only the presentation of training content
but also when and where they participate in training.
Simulations and virtual reality also can create a more realistic
training environment, which can make the material more
meaningful and increase the probability that training will
transfer to the job. Expert systems and electronic support
systems are tools that employees can access on an as-needed
basis to obtain knowledge and information. Social media help
capture the knowledge that employees gain from training and
facilitate their sharing of information. Learning management
systems make it easier to store and record training information
such as course enrollments and employee training records. This
makes it easier for employees to participate in training and to
retrieve training-related information for managerial decision
making.
Most new technology training methods are superior to
traditional methods in one way because they allow trainees to
participate in courses at any time or place. However, similar to
traditional training methods, technology-based training methods
will be ineffective if they do not include interaction, feedback,
practice, and other features of a positive learning environment.
Considerations in choosing a training method include monies
for development, geographic dispersion of employees,
employees’ difficulty in attending training, and whether new
technologies are part of the company’s business strategy. Rather
than choosing between face-to-face and technology-based
training methods, companies are often choosing to use both in a
blended learning approach.
Key Terms
digital collaboration, 335

synchronous communication, 337
asynchronous communication, 337
Web 2.0, 338
learner control, 338
computer-based training (CBT), 340
online learning, 340
e-learning, 340
web-based training, 340
bandwidth, 346
plug-in, 347
374
rapid prototyping, 348
repurposing, 348
self-regulation, 350
MOOC, 351
hyperlinks, 351
social media, 353
blog, 353
microblog or microsharing, 353
wiki, 353
shared media, 353
blended learning, 356
flipped class room 356
avatar, 358
serious games, 358
virtual reality, 358
presence, 358
virtual worlds, 358
mobile learning, 362
apps, 363
adaptive training, 364
distance learning, 364
virtual classroom, 365
teleconferencing, 365
interactive distance learning (IDL), 365
webcasting or web conferencing, 366

expert systems, 367
electronic performance support system (EPSS), 368
learning management system (LMS), 369
human capital management, 370
Discussion Questions
1. Explain how technology has changed the learning
environment.
2. What types of learning outcomes are best suited for mobile
learning? Explain.
3. What are the differences between expert systems and
electronic performance tools?
4. Why are MOOCs a promising way to deliver learning? What
are their limitations?
5. Discuss how new technologies make it easier to learn. How
do they facilitate transfer of training?
6. Is all Internet training the same? Explain.
7. What are some potential problems with using games and
gamification for training?
8. What is social media? Explain how it can be used for
training.
9. Explain learner control, sharing, and linking. How do they
contribute to the effectiveness of e-learning?
10. What is repurposing? How does it affect the use of new
technologies in training?
11. Distance learning can be used to deliver a lecture to
geographically dispersed trainees. How might distance learning
be designed and used to avoid some of the learning and transfer
of training problems of the traditional lecture method?
12. Why would a company use a combination of face-to-face
instruction and web-based training?
13. What conditions are best for the use of social media tools as
part of a learning solution?
14. What is the most important way adaptive training differs
from other training methods?
Application Assignments
1. Using only the web, further investigate any training

technology discussed in this chapter. With any search engine on
the web (e.g., Google, Yahoo), conduct a search for information
about the technology that you have chosen. Find information
describing the technology, hints for developing or purchasing
the technology, and examples of companies marketing and/or
using the technology. Include web addresses in your
summary.375
2. Watch the video about MD Anderson’s Oncology Expert
Advisor at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CtyYI7ou2B0.
What are the benefits of such an expert system to oncology
doctors? Are there any disadvantages? What benefits of expert
systems are highlighted in this example?
3. Go to www.inspiredelearning.com, website for inspired
eLearning, a company that provides training solutions. Click on
“courses.” Under “Course Catalog,” choose one of the
following: (a) Go to the Skills Library. View the library for the
Business and Leadership Skill courses. View the course demos;
or (b) Go to Workplace Harassment and view the e-learning
format Workplace Harassment Prevention demos. Based on your
review of the demos, discuss the features the courses include
that help facilitate learning. Provide your ideas for how this
online course could be paired with face-to-face instruction to
create an effective blended learning approach. Discuss the
activities you would include in the face-to-face part of the
course.
4. Go to www.mzinga.com. Mzinga provides software solutions
for learning. Under “Products.” Review Omni Social Learning
and Omni Social Content. Do you believe that these solutions
are effective? Why?
5. Go to www.capellauniversity.edu, the website for Capella
University—a university that offers online courses. Click on
“About Capella,” and then “Online Learning.” Read “How
Online Learning Works” and watch the video on the course
room tour.
6. Go to www.youtube.com. Search for “Training in Second
Life” or “Training Simulations in Second Life.” Choose and

review a video of one of the many different types of training
offered in Second Life (e.g., medicine, nursing, or
management). Provide a brief description of the training and the
Universal Resource Locator (URL) for the video. Discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of the training. Based on the video
you reviewed, do you think that companies, interest in Second
Life for training will increase or decrease in the future? Why?
7. Go to www.edx.org, the website for edX, a MOOC provider
that offers interactive online courses. Watch “How It Works”
video and review the demo course. How is edX using
technology to facilitate learning? What are the strengths and
weaknesses of these technologies? Why do you think the
completion rate for MOOC courses is very low?
8. Go to http://www.halogensoftware.com website for Halogen
Software. Click on “Tours” and then click on “Halogen
Learning.” Review and watch the demo under “Managing the
Learning Offering.” This is an example of an LMS. How can a
company benefit from this LMS? Can employees benefit, too?
Explain.
Case: Training Jiffy Lube Service Technicians on New Products
Jiffy Lube International, the vehicle maintenance company, is
committed to providing a fast, high-quality, worry-free service
experience for its customers. Jiffy Lube’s technicians provide a
number of services, including changing a vehicle’s oil, tire
balancing, flushing cooling systems, and replacing worn-out
windshield wipers. Jiffy Lube’s service technicians need to be
up to date on the latest products and service requirements for
cars and trucks and provide consistent, excellent,
customer376service. As a result, training is critical for Jiffy
Lube’s success a top company priority for achieving continued
operational excellence. One new product that has been
introduced for cars and vehicles is synthetic motor oil, which is
required by many new models but can benefit the engines of
older models too. Although many car and truck manufacturers
recommend that vehicle owners use specialty oils such as
synthetic and high-mileage motor oils, Jiffy Lube found that the

proportion of specialty oils sold was low. A needs assessment
showed that service technicians were not knowledgeable about
or effectively communicating the benefits of specialty motor
oils. This suggested that training was necessary. It is difficult
for Jiffy Lube’s service technicians, many who work for
franchised stores, to attend face-to-face classes, making
technology-delivered training a realistic learning solution.
What knowledge, skills, or behaviors should the training focus
on? What technology training method would you recommend for
training the technicians on specialty oils? Why? Briefly
describe the learning features you would include in the program
and discuss why you recommend including them.
Source: Based on L. Freifeld, “Jiffy Lube revs up to no.
1,” training (January/February 2014): 30–
38; www.jiffylube.com, website for Jiffy Lube.
Endnotes
1.S. Banchero, “Today’s lesson: Calculate the acceleration of an
Angry Bird,” The Wall Street Journal (October 9, 2013): R5.
2.J. Bellini, “Teaching anatomy in a digital age,” The Wall
Street Journal (October 9, 2013): R6.
3.P. Ketter “2010: Six trends that will change workplace
learning forever,” T+D (December 2010): 34–40; T. Bingham
and M. Conner, The New Social Learning (Alexandria, VA:
American Society for Training and Development, 2010).
4.L. Patel, “The rise of social media,” T+D (July 2010): 60–61.
5.B. Mirza, “Social media tools redefine learning,” HR
Magazine, December 2010, 74; L. Patel, “The rise of social
media,” T+D, (July 2010), 60–61; J. Meister, E. Kaganer, and
R. Von Feldt, “2011: The year of the media tablet as a learning
tool,” T+D, (April 2011), 28–31.
6.P. Shank, “When to use instructional
technology,” T+D (September 2004): 30–37; S. E. O’Connell,
“New technologies bring new tools, new rules,” HR
Magazine (December 1995): 43–48; S. E. O’Connell, “The
virtual workplace moves at warp speed,” HR Magazine (March
1996): 51–57.

7.K. Kraiger, “Transforming our models of learning and
development: Web-based instruction as enabler of third-
generation instruction,” Industrial and Organizational
Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 1 (2008):
454–457; K. Kraiger, “Third-generation instructional models:
More about guiding development and design than selecting
training methods,” Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Perspectives on Science and Practice, 1 (2008): 501–507.
8.J. Salopek, “Digital collaboration,” Training and
Development (June 2000): 39–43.
9.V. Beer, The Web Learning Fieldbook (New York: John
Wiley, 2000); A. Chute, P. Sayers, and R. Gardner, “Network
learning environments,” New Directions for Teaching and
Learning 71 (1997): 75–83.
10.“Qualcomm, Inc: Learning 2.0,” training (February 2009):
100.
11.www.farmers.com, website for Farmers Insurance; M.
Weinstein, “Farmers’ comprehensive training
policy,” training (January/February 2013): 42–44; L. Freifeld,
“Farmers’ premier position,” training(January/February 2011):
26–31; J. Salopek, “Thriving through change, cultivating
growth,” T+D (October 2010): 53–54.
12.M. Rosenberg, E-Learning: Strategies for Delivering
Knowledge in the Digital Age (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001);
“What Is Web-Based Training?”
(from www.clark.net/pub/nractive/fl.html); R. Johnson and H.
Gueutal, Transforming HR through Technology (Alexandria,
VA: SHRM Foundation, 2010).
13.P. Harris, “Where innovative learning is the
norm,” T+D (October 2011): 61–62.
14.“Project leadership,” Human Resource Executive (2000):
A16.
15.“Discover financial services,” training (January/February
2014): 110.
377
16.M. Moore, “Three types of interaction,” American Journal of

Distance Education 3(2) (1989): 1–6.
17.L. Freifeld, “Online versus in-class
success,” training (September/October 2014): 19–25.
18.P. Galagan, “The e-learning revolution,” Training and
Development (December 2000): 24–30; D. Khirallah, “A new
way to learn,” Information Week Online, May 22, 2000; G.
Wang, R. Von Der Linn, D. Foucar-Szocki, O. Griffin, and E.
Sceiford, “Measuring the business impact of e-learning—An
empirical study,” Performance Improvement Quarterly 16
(2003): 17–30.
success,” training (September/October 2014): 19–25; L. Cypher,
“Taming online training at the San Diego Zoo,” Chief Learning
Officer (April 2014): 42–48.
20.G. Wright, “Retailers buy into e-learning,” HR
Magazine (December 2010): 87–90.
21.Shared learning demo, January 24, 2001 (from the CCH
website, hr.cch.com).
22.K. Brown, “Using computers to deliver training: Which
employees learn and why?” Personnel Psychology 54 (2001):
271–296; E. T. Welsh et al., “E-learning: Emerging uses,
empirical results, and future directions,” International Journal
of Training and Development 7(4) (2003): 245–258; T.
Sitzmann et al., “The comparative effectiveness of web-based
and classroom instruction: A meta-analysis,” Personnel
Psychology 59 (2006): 623–624.
23.M. Mihelich, “Allied Bank,” Workforce (December 2014):
40.
generation instruction,” Industrial Organizational
Psychology, 1(4) (December 2008): 454–467.
26.B. Roberts, “Hard facts about soft-skills e-learning,” HR
Magazine (January 2008): 76–78.

28.G. Anders, “Companies find on-line training has its
limits,” The Wall Street Journal (March 26, 2007): B3.
29.E. T. Welsh et al., “E-learning: Emerging uses, empirical
results, and future directions,” International Journal of Training
and Development 7(4) (2003): 245–258.
30.K. Kiser, “10 things we know so far about online
training,” training (November 1999): 66–70; R. Wells, “Back to
the (Internet) classroom,” training (March 1999): 50–54; L.
Martins and F. Kellermans, “A model of business school
students’ acceptance of a Web-based course management
system,” Academy of Management Learning and Education 3
(2004): 7–26; H. Klein, R. Noe, and C. Wang, “Motivation to
learn and course outcomes: The impact of delivery mode,
learning goal orientation, and perceived barriers and
enablers,” Personnel Psychology 59 (2006): 665–702; M. Allen,
“The return of serious design,” Chief Learning Officer (July
2014): 31–33.
31.B. Neal, “e-Addie!” T+D (March 2011): 76–77.
32.D. Schaaf, “Bandwidth basics,” training (September 1999):
OL23–OL37; J. Adams, “Rapid talent
development,” T+D (March 2008): 68–73.
33.S. Gale, “Making e-learning more than ‘pixie
dust,’ ” Workforce (March 2003): 58–62.
34.B. Neal, “e-Addie!” T+D (March 2011): 76–77; N. Miner and
J. Hofman, “It’s not the technology, stupid,” T+D (February
2009): 30–32; E. Edwards, “Quick draw,” T+D (August 2009):
92–93; S. Putman, “Prototyping an e-learning
interface,” T+D (May 2014): 26–28.
35.K. Brown and J. Ford, “Using Computer Technology in
Training: Building an Infrastructure for Active Learning.”
In Creating, Implementing, and Managing Effective Training
and Development, ed. K. Kraiger (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
2002): 192–233.
36.B. Neal, “e-Addie!” T+D (March 2011): 76–77; N. Miner and

J. Hofman, “It’s not the technology, stupid,” T+D (February
2009): 30–32; E. Edwards, “Quick draw,” T+D (August 2009):
92–93.
37.S. Boehle, “Putting the learning back in e-
learning,” training (January 2006): 29–35; K. Brown, “Using
computers to deliver training: Which employees learn and
why?”
38.R. DeRouin, B. Fritzsche, and E. Salas, “Learner control and
workplace learning: Design, person, and organizational issues.”
In Research in Personnel and Human Resource
Management, vol. 24, ed. J. Martocchio (New York: Elsevier,
2005): 181–214; T. Sitzmann, B. Bell, K. Kraiger, and A.
Kanar, “A multilevel analysis of the effect of prompting self-
regulation in technology-delivered instruction.” Personnel
Psychology 62 (2009): 697–734; T. Sitzmann and K. Ely,
“Sometimes you need a reminder: The effects of prompting self-
regulation on regulatory processes, learning, and
attrition,” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 132–144.
378
39.D. Zielinski, “The lie of online learning,” training (February
2000): 38–40; D. Zielinski, “Can you keep learners on-
line?” training (March 2000): 65–75.
40.K. Brown, “A field study of employee e-learning activity and
outcomes,” Human Resource Development Quarterly (Winter
2005): 465–80.
41.S. Chyung and M. Vachon, “An investigation of the profiles
of satisfying and dissatisfying factors in e-
learning,” Performance Improvement Quarterly 18 (2005): 97–
113.
42.C. Pollack and R. Masters, “Using Internet technologies to
enhance training,” Performance Improvement (February 1997):
28–31.
43.D. Zielinski, “Can you keep learners on-
line?” training (March 2000): 65–75; K. Brown and J. Ford,
“Using Computer Technology in Training: Building an
Infrastructure for Active Learning.” In Creating, Implementing,

and Managing Effective Training and Development, ed. K.
Kraiger (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002): 192–233.
44.G. Fowler, “An early report card on MOOCs,” Wall Street
Journal (October 9, 2013): R1–R2; D. Belkin, “Former Yale
president to lead Coursera,” Wall Street Journal (March 25,
2014): B3; D. Belkin, “What role will large online courses play
in the future of higher education?” Wall Street Journal (May 12,
2014): R3; G. Fowler, “Most online course users well-
educated,” Wall Street Journal (November 21, 2013): A3.
45.L. Fleisher, “Time to test your knowledge,” Wall Street
Journal (October 8, 2013): R6.
46.D. Belkin and C. Porter, “Job market embraces massive
online courses,” Wall Street Journal (September 27, 2013): A3;
C. Proulx, “You’ll never guess who’s disrupting online
learning,” Forbes (December 5, 2013), from www.forbes.com,
accessed December 10, 2013.
47.S. Herring, “MOOCs come of age,” T+D (January 2014): 46–
49.
48.F. Kalman, “Here come the MOOCs,” Chief Learning
Officer (January 2014): 37–48; M. Fitzgerald, “Companies
create MOOCs to fill skill
gaps,” www.informationweek.com (May 28, 2013), accessed
September 3, 2013.
49.M. Chafkin, “Uphill climb,” Fast Company (December
2013/January 2014): 146–156; F. Kalman, “Here come the
MOOCs,” Chief Learning Officer (January 2014): 37–48; T.
Lewin, “Master’s degree is new frontier of study online,” New
York Times (August 17, 2013) from www.nytimes.com,
accessed August 20, 2013.
50.M. Weinstein, “Managing
MOOCs,” training (September/October 2014): 26–28; R.
Grossman, “Are massive open online courses in your
future,” HR Magazine (August 2013): 30–36; J. Meister, “How
MOOCs will revolutionize corporate learning and
development,” www.forbes.com (August 13, 2013), accessed
August 20, 2013; C. Straumsheim, “MOOC research conference

confirms commonly held beliefs about the medium,”
from www.insidehighered.com (December 6, 2013), accessed
January 3, 2014; K. Jordan, “MOOC completion rates: The
data,” http://www.katyjordan.com/MOOCproject.html (2013)
accessed (July 29, 2015); M. Chafkin, “Uphill climb,” Fast
Company (December 2013/January 2014): 146–156.
51.M. Derven, “Social networking a force for
development,” T+D (July 2009): 58–63; A. Kaplan and M.
Haenlein, “Users of the world unite! The challenges and
opportunities of social media,” Business Horizons53 (2010):
59–68.
52.B. Livingston “Harnessing blogs for learning,” T+D (May
2011): 76–77.
53.T. Bingham, M. Connor, and M. Weinstein, “Netting know-
how,” training, September/October 2010, 26–29; J. Roy,
“Transforming informal learning into a competitive
advantage,” T+D, (October 2010), 23–25; P. Galagan,
“Unformal, the new normal?,” T+D, (September 2010), 29–31;
M. Weinstein, “Verizon connects to success,” training,
January/February 2011, 40–42; R. Emelo, “Social, informal
learning can be measured,” Chief Learning Officer (February
2014): 18–21; S. Gale, “Still afraid to jump in?” Workforce
Management (May 2013): 24–29; C. Tate, “Mobile
masters”, T+D (April 2013): 22-24..
54.J. Thomas, “At EAG, learning’s all about the chatter,” Chief
Learning Officer (February 2015): 42–43, 49.
55.M. Derven, “Social networking: A force for
development?” T+D (July 2009): 59–63.
56.S. J. Hysong and L. M. Mannix, “Learning Outcomes in
Distance Education versus Traditional and Mixed
Environments” (paper presented at the annual conference of the
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando,
FL, 2003).
57.M. Knowles, The Adult Learner, 4th ed. (Houston, TX: Gulf
Publishing, 1990).
58.M. Weinstein, “Got class,” training (December 2005): 29–32.

379
59.J. Bergmann and A. Sams, “Flipped learning: Maximizing
face time,” T+D (February 2014): 28–31.
60.T. Sitzmann et al., “The comparative effectiveness of web-
based and classroom instruction: A meta-analysis,” Personnel
Psychology 59 (2006): 623–624; H. Klein, R. Noe, and C.
Wang, “Motivation to learn and course outcomes: The impact of
delivery mode, learning goal orientation, and perceived barriers
and enablers,” Personnel Psychology 59 (2006): 665–702.
61.K. Kim, C. Bonk, and E. Oh, “The present and future of
blended learning in workplace settings in the United
States,” Performance Improvement (September 2008): 5–14.
62.M. Resenheck, “Harnessing the 90%,” T+D (September
2013): 54–59.
63.F. Waltmann, “Honing the digital edge in
China,” training (September/October 2013): 26–27.
64.A. Lenhart, S. Jones, and A. Macgill, “Adults and video
games” (December 7, 2008), from www.pewinternet.org,
accessed March 28, 2015.
65.B. Roberts, “Gamification: Win, lose or draw,” HR
Magazine (May 2014): 28–35.
66.N. Adams, “Lessons from the Virtual World,” training (June
1995): 45–48.
67.H. Dolezalek, “Virtual vision,” training (October 2007): 40–
46.
68.J. Borzo, “Almost human,” The Wall Street Journal, May 24,
2004: R1, R10; J. Hoff, “My virtual life,” BusinessWeek, May
1, 2006: 72–78.
69.P. Galagan, “Second that,” T+D (February 2008): 34–37.
70.G. Dutton, “U.S. Army: Teaching peacekeepers to ID social
networks,” training (September/October 2013): 40–41.
71.A. Pasztor, “Chopper simulators take off,” Wall Street
Journal (Saturday/Sunday July 12–13, 2014): B4.
72.ASTD Research, “Playing to win: Gamification and serious
games in organizational learning” (February 2014),
from www.astd.org, accessed March 28, 2015.

73.G. Dutton, “IBM helping growth markets hone business
process management skills,” training (September/October
2013): 42.
74.R. Paharia, Loyalty 3.0 (New York: McGraw-Hill Education,
2013).
75.K. Everson, “Allstate is in gamification’s hands,” Chief
Learning Officer (July 2014): 42–43, 48.
76.P. Dvorak, “Theory and practice: Simulation shows what it is
like to be the boss; middle managers at NetApp receive useful
taste of reality,” The Wall Street Journal (March 31, 2008): B7.
77.P. Harris, “Avatars rule,” T+D (October 2013): 60–
61; www.ppdi.com, website for PPD.
78.C. Cornell, “Better than the real thing?” Human Resource
Executive (August 2005): 34–37; E. Frauenheim, “Can video
games win points as teaching tools?” Workforce
Management (April 10, 2006): 12–14; S. Boehle, “Simulations:
The next generation of e-learning,” training (January 2005): 22–
31; J. Borzo, “Almost human,” The Wall Street Journal, May
24, 2004: R1, R10.
79.T. Sitzmann, “A meta-analytic examination of the
instructional effectiveness of computer-based simulation
games,” Personnel Psychology 64: 489–528.
80.L. Freifeld, “Solid Sims,” training (October 2007): 48.
81.“What does it cost to use a virtual world learning
environment?” T+D (November 2008): 88.
82.C. Balance, “Strategic ways to develop game-based learning
for high ROI,” T+D (September 2013): 76–77.
83.K. Taylor and S. Chyung, “Would you adopt Second Life as
a training and development tool?” Performance
Improvement (September 2008): 17–25.
84.D. Gayeski, “Goin’ mobile,” T+D (November 2004): 46–51;
D. Gayeski and M. Petrillose, “No strings
attached,” Performance Improvement (February 2005): 25–31;
D. Hartley, “Pick up your PDA,” T+D(February 2004): 22–24.
85.S. Carey, “Airlines jettison a costly load of paper,” Wall
Street Journal (June 27, 2013): B6.

86.K. Kuehner-Hebert, “Go mobile?” Chief Learning
Officer (March 2014): 18–21.
87.J. Halls, “Give learning a listen: Audio podcasting and
learning,” T+D (October 2010): 92–93.
88.E. Wagner and P. Wilson, “Disconnected,” T+D (December
2005): 40–43; J. Bronstein and A. Newman, “IM
learning,” T+D (February 2006): 47–50.
89.K. Kuehner-Hebert, “Go mobile?” Chief Learning
Officer (March 2014): 18–21.
380
90.B. Hall, “Go slow, quickly: Make the move to mobile,”
January 22, 2013, from Chief Learning
Officer at http://clomedia.com, accessed January 30, 2013.
91.G. Dutton, “There’s an app for
that!” training (September/October 2011): 36–37.
92.C. Tate, “Mobile masters,” T+D (April 2013): 22–24.
93.L. Stevens, “Up close and insightful,” Human Resource
Executive (September 16, 2011): 24–29.
94.E. Wagner and P. Wilson, “Disconnected,” T+D (December
2005): 40–43; J. Brink, “M-learning: The future of training
technology,” T+D (February 2011): 27–29; G. Woodwill,
“Getting started with mobile learning,” T+D (December 2010):
76–77; A. Ahmad and P. Norton, “Smartphones make IBM
smarter, but not as expected,” T+D (January 2010): 46–50.
95.C. Landsberg, R. Astwood, Jr., W. Van Buskirk, L.
Townsend, N. SteinHauser, and A. Mercado, “Review of
adaptive training systems,” Military Psychology, 29 (2012): 96–
113; R. Spain, H. Priest, and J. Murphy, “Current trends in
adaptive training with military applications: An
introduction,” Military Psychology, 29 (2012): 87–95; T.
Poeppelman, E. Lobene, and N. Blacksmith, “Personalizing the
learning experience through adaptive training,” The Industrial-
Organizational Psychologist (April 2015), from www.siop.org.
96.From http://learnsmartadvantage.com/students/benefits/,
accessed March 30, 2015.
97.D. Steele-Johnson and B. G. Hyde, “Advanced Technologies

in Training: Intelligence Tutoring Systems and Virtual Reality.”
In Training for a Rapidly Changing Workplace, ed. M. A.
Quinones and A. Ehrenstein (Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association, 1997): 225–248.
98.D. Steele-Johnson and B. G. Hyde, “Advanced Technologies
in Training: Intelligence Tutoring Systems and Virtual Reality.”
In Training for a Rapidly Changing Workplace, ed. M. A.
Quinones and A. Ehrenstein (Washington, D.C.: American
99.“Putting the distance into distance
learning,” training (October 1995): 111–118.
100.R. Clark, “Harnessing the virtual
classroom,” T+D (November 2005): 40–45.
101.D. Picard, “The future is distance
training,” training (November 1996): s3–s10.
102.A. F. Maydas, “On-line networks build the savings into
employee education,” HR Magazine (October 1997): 31–35.
103.J. M. Rosow and R. Zager, Training: The Competitive
Edge (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988).
104.M. Lewis, “Moving into the live virtual
classroom,” T+D (July 2011): 76–77; R. Ubell, “How to run a
virtual classroom,” T+D (October 2011): 92–93; T. Byham and
A. Lang, “Avoid these 10 pitfalls of virtual classrooms,” Chief
Learning Officer (May 2014): 18–21.
105.M. Weinstein, “Satellite success,” training (January 2007):
36–38.
106.“Training Top 100 Best Practices 2006: General
Mills,” training (March 2006): 61.
107.S. Alexander, “Reducing the learning
burden,” training (September 2002): 32–34.
108.R. Clark, “Harnessing the virtual
classroom,” T+D (November 2005): 40–45; R. Clark and R.
Mayer, E-Learning and the Science of Instruction (San
Francisco: John Wiley, 2003; 2d ed. published in 2008 by
Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer); C. Huggett, “Make virtual training a
success,” T+D (January 2014): 40–45.

109.W. Hannum, The Application of Emerging Training
Technologies (Alexandria, VA: The American Society for
Training and Development, 1990).
110.L. Landro, “Hospitals make intensive care friendlier with
new apps,” Wall Street Journal (March 17, 2015): D3.
111.“Module Example: Financial Products Sales Applications,”
from PortBlue website, www.portblue.com/pub/solutions-sales-
marketing (April 24, 2006).
112.S. Caudron, “Your learning technology primer,” Personnel
Journal (June 1996): 120–136; A. Marquardt and G.
Kearsley, Technology-Based Learning (Boca Raton, FL: St.
Lucie Press, 1999).
113.P. Harris, “Relying on street smarts,” T+D (October 2014):
92–93; M. Weinstein, “Just-in-time technology
solutions,” training (September/October 2014): 36–39.
114.S. Boehle, “LMS leaders,” training (October 2008): 30–34.
115.“LMS Survey Results,”
from www.learningcircuits.org/2005/jun2005/LMS_survey.htm (
July 7, 2006), S. Castellano, “The evolution of the
LMS,” TD (November 2014): 14.
116.K. Oakes, “Mission critical,” T+D (September 2005): 25–
28; D. Sussman, “The LMS value,” T+D (July 2005): 43–45; H.
Johnson, “Prescription for success,” training (October 2003):
52.
381
117.H. Johnson, “Prescription for Success.”
118.J. Barbian, “Great expectations,” training (September
2002): 10–12; D. Sussman, “The LMS value,” T+D (July 2005):
43–45.
119.“LMS goes to the dogs,” training, (September/October
2010): 8; L. Freifeld, “LMS
lessons,” training (September/October 2010): 20–24; R. Shand,
S. Long, M. Mitchell-Norman, R. Rector, A. Delima, & J.
Muma, “A new lease on learning,” training (October 2009): 44–
46; J. Congemi, “MasTec tackles the
LMS,” training (July/August 2014): 52–54.

120.I. Speizer, “Value-minded,” Workforce Management (July
2005): 55–58.
121.M. Weinstein, “Got class,” training (December 2005): 29–
32.
122.P. Shank; “When to use instructional
technology,” T+D (September 2004): 30–37; H. Dolezalek,
“Dose of reality,” training (April 2004): 28–34; E. Salas, R.
DeRouin, and L. Littrell, “Research-Based Guidelines for
Designing Distance Learning.” In The Brave New World of
eHR, eds. H. Gueutal and D. Stone (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
2005): 104–137; G. Piskurich, “E-learning: Fast, cheap,
good,” Performance Improvement (January 2006): 18–24.
123.M. Weinstein, “Got class,” training (December 2005): 29–
32.
Chapter Seven
Traditional Training Methods
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational,
hands-on, and group building training methods.
2. Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training
(OJT).
3. Develop a case study.
4. Develop a self-directed learning module.
5. Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training.
6. Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be
effective.
7. Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team
performance.
Learning Develops Skills of Staff Dedicated to Battling Cancer
The American Cancer Society (ACS) is a nonprofit nationwide,
community-based, voluntary health organization dedicated to
creating a world without cancer. ACS strives to save lives by
helping people stay well and get well, by finding cures for

cancer, and by helping those who have cancer to fight the
disease. ACS is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, and has
regional and local offices throughout the United States that
support eleven geographical divisions to ensure a presence in
every community. The corporate office in Atlanta is responsible
for overall strategic planning, corporate support services
including training, development and implementation of research
programs, health program, a 24-hour call center, and providing
technical support and materials to regional and local offices.
Regional and local offices deliver patient programs and services
and engage in fund-raising activities.
The philosophy of the talent development department is to
provide “the right learning solution at the right time for the
right person.” One guiding principle is to support and drive the
business through employee development and training. Another
is that ACS wants employees to grow and develop, which is
captured by the slogan “save lives, fulfill yours.” Staff are
encouraged to participate292in leadership development,
mentoring, coaching, and job-specific training classes. For staff
interested in pursuing formal education, ACS has partnerships
with online universities. Also, staff are encouraged to work with
their manager to establish clear professional and development
goals that map a path to career success.
At ACS it is important for training and development programs
to be realistic in terms of taking into account budgetary
constraints and job responsibilities. The programs need to be
both efficient and effective and minimize the time that staff
members are taken away from their primary responsibilities
such as helping patients, working with the community, and
planning and carrying out fund-raising events. All delivered
content is evaluated on the extent to which it is related to the
job, staff member performance, and the organization’s mission.
For example, the Nationwide Manager Development Program is
designed to help build management strength for ACS. The
program is marketed as an “adventure in management” and its
design is intended to make training engaging, enjoyable, and

enriching for the participants. The eighteen-month program
helps participants learn management concepts using virtual
discussion forums and e-learning. Also, participants are put into
learning teams designed to represent a diversity of thought,
tenure, and experience. These teams engage in action learning,
which focuses on developing management skills, while
developing solutions to business issues and problems facing
ACS.
Source: Based on P. Harris, “Training as a change
agent,” TD (October 2014): 84–86; www.cancer.org, website for
the American Cancer Society.
INTRODUCTION
The American Cancer Society uses a combination of training
methods to develop the skills of its staff members. For most
companies, including the American Cancer Society, training
methods have to be developed or purchased within a budget,
there usually is a sense of urgency for the training, and training
must be made available to those employees who need it.
Several studies have shown that most workplace learning
doesn’t occur through formal courses or programs but rather on
the job, informally, and through social interactions with
others.1 For example, one study of executives found that 70
percent of learning occurred on the job in the workplace, 20
percent occurred socially through coaching and mentoring, and
only 10 percent occurred through formal classroom instruction.
This is known as the 70-20-10 model of learning. Many trainers
rely on this model for designing or choosing training methods
that will be included in courses and programs. Similar to the
emphasis on conditions for learning and transfer discussed
in Chapter Four, “Learning and Transfer of Training,” this
model suggests that to increase the likelihood that learning will
occur in training, the content needs to be meaningful and
practical, the learner has to be actively involved in the learning
process, and learning involves feedback and reinforcement from
others.
Before we discuss specific training methods, it is important for

you to consider more broadly the training methods that
companies are using to help employees learn and how the
emphasis placed on these different methods is changing. Figure
7.1 shows a learning system with four quadrants. This learning
system shows that how and what employees learn293varies and
influences the type of training methods used.2 Guided
competency development means that the company has defined a
broad set of competencies or skills for positions or for the
entire company. Training and development methods such as
lectures or online training are directed at the most common
needs in the company. Context-based learning, learning that
occurs on the job and during the everyday performance of work,
tends to be more unique to the employee’s needs and includes
training methods such as OJT, simulations, and mobile learning.
Both guided competence development and guided contextual
learning are usually formal training activities designed and
developed by the company to achieve specific learning goals.
Employees are expected to participate in these learning
activities. The bottom quadrants include social learning, that is,
learning activities that involve employees collaborating with
each other either one-to-one or in groups or teams. Social
competency development enhances specific job-related
competencies through interaction with others such as a mentor
or coach, or through encountering challenging job experiences.
The competencies that are developed are typically not necessary
for successful performance of one’s job but help prepare
employees for future roles or positions. As a result, mentoring,
coaching, and job experiences are considered development
activities. We discuss development activities in Chapter Nine,
“Employee Development and Career Management.” Social
contextual learning is informal and peer-to-peer, and it occurs
spontaneously on an as-needed basis. It usually involves
employees sharing knowledge on issues, problems, and topics
related to their current job. Employees have always learned
from face-to-face meetings and phone conversations with peers.
What is new is that the increased availability and access to

smartphones and tablet computers provide a multimedia, low-
cost, easy-to-use, and familiar way to interact with others using
social media such as blogs, wikis, social networks (such as
Facebook), and microblogs (such as Twitter). This provides
many possibilities for technology-aided social
contextual294learning. We will discuss blogs, wikis, social
networks, and microblogs in Chapter Eight, “Technology-Based
Training Methods.” Keep in mind that training methods can cut
across the quadrant shown in Figure 7.1 if they include multiple
types of learning, such as a virtual classroom that includes
simulations and use of social networks.
FIGURE 7.1 A Learning System
Source: From J. Meister and K. Willyerd, The 2020 Workplace.
How Innovative Companies Attract, Develop, and Keep
Tomorrow’s Employees Today (New York: Harper Business
2010).
Today, most companies’ training methods would be found in
Quadrants 1, 2, and 3, but some are beginning to explore how to
facilitate learning from peers either face to face or through the
use of social media. This is because traditionally training and
development activities have been largely “instructor focused.”
This means that the instructor or trainer, along with the
company, has the primary responsibility for ensuring that
employees learn.3 The learner plays a passive role as the
receiver of information, and learning occurs to the extent that
the appropriate conditions are provided by the learning
“experts” or are inherent in the learning method. For example,
the instructor bears the responsibility for identifying what
should be learned, determining the most appropriate methods,
and evaluating the extent to which knowledge and skill
acquisition resulted from the learning activity. Increased
recognition of the 70-20-10 model has resulted in training
emphasizing a more active role for the learner and informal
learning.4 Also, the greater availability and use of online and
mobile technology (e.g., iPads) to deliver instruction and

facilitate social collaboration gives the employee the
opportunity to choose when, how, from whom, and even what
content to learn.5Figure 7.1 provides an overview of how much
companies are using different training methods. Instructor-led
classroom training remains the most frequently used method,
but the use of online learning, virtual classroom, or a
combination of methods continues to grow.
Regardless of whether the training method is traditional or
technology-based, for training to be effective, it needs to be
based on the training design model shown in Figure
1.2 in Chapter One, “Introduction to Employee Training and
Development.” Needs assessment, a positive learning
environment, and transfer of training are critical for training
program effectiveness. Recall the discussions of needs
assessment, learning, and transfer of training in Chapters
Three to Five.
This chapter and Chapter Eight present various training
methods. This chapter focuses on traditional training
methods, which require an instructor or facilitator and involve
face-to-face interaction between trainees. However, most
methods discussed here can be adapted for online, virtual
reality, mobile learning, or other new training technologies used
for training delivery or instruction. For example, a classroom
lecture can occur face to face with trainees (traditional training)
or can be delivered through a virtual classroom, in which the
instructor is not in the same room as the trainees. Also,
instruction can be real-time (synchronous) or time-delayed
(asynchronous). Through technology, a lecture can be attended
live (although the trainees are not in the same classroom as the
trainer), or the lecture can be videotaped or burned onto a DVD.
The lecture can be viewed by the trainees at their convenience
on a notebook computer that gives them access to the
appropriate medium for viewing the lecture (e.g., DVD player
or Internet connection).
Chapter Eight discusses web-based training, e-learning, virtual
reality, and social media. The increased use of technology-

based training for delivery of instruction is occurring because of
the potential increases in learning effectiveness, as well as the
reductions in training costs.
Keep in mind that many companies’ training programs use a
combination of methods to capitalize on each method’s
strengths for learning and transfer. For example, LQ
Management, LLC is an owner operator of limited service hotels
in the United States.295It operates more than eight hundred
hotels in forty-six states, Canada, and Mexico, under La Quinta
Inns and Suites brands.6 La Quinta wants its employees to
provide the best rooms, atmosphere, and courteous service at
every hotel. La Quinta’s culture emphasizes continuous
improvement and its operating philosophy stresses taking care
of employees and guests, and keeping the hotels spotlessly
cleaned and well maintained.
This means that training plays an important role in the success
of every employee. La Quinta uses different training methods to
help employees learn, including web-based training, small-
group training involving games where they are challenged with
real-world scenarios that have occurred at hotel properties, and
DVDs. The goal of the small-group training is to make learning
fun and at the same time promote learning through conversation
and idea sharing. Additionally, employees have multiple
training resources available, including LQUniversity (LQU), LQ
Connect, and LQ Video Portal. LQU provides access to formal
training courses, LQ Connect is a web-based portal that
provides learning resources, and LQ Video Portal provides
training videos that employees can access at any time. The
videos cover La Quinta’s service philosophy, values, and
housekeeping and maintenance topics.
The traditional training methods discussed in this chapter are
organized into three broad categories: presentation methods,
hands-on methods, and group building methods.7 The following
sections provide a description of each method, a discussion of
its advantages and disadvantages, and tips for the trainer who is
designing or choosing the method. The chapter concludes by

comparing methods based on several characteristics, including
the learning outcomes influenced, the extent to which the
method facilitates learning transfer, cost, and effectiveness.
PRESENTATION METHODS
Presentation methods are methods in which trainees are passive
recipients of information. This information may include facts,
processes, and problem-solving methods. Lectures and
audiovisual techniques are presentation methods. It is important
to note that instructor-led classroom presentation methods may
include lectures, video, workbooks and manuals, DVDs, and
games. That is, a mix of methods can actively engage trainees in
learning and can help with transfer of training.
Lecture
In a lecture, trainers communicate through spoken words what
they want the trainees to learn. The communication of learned
capabilities is primarily one-way—from the trainer to the
audience. As Figure 7.2shows, instructor-led classroom
presentation remains a popular training method despite new
technologies such as interactive video and computer-assisted
instruction.
FIGURE 7.2 Use of training methods
Source: Based on “2014 Training Industry
report,” Training (November/December 2014): 24.
Lectures have several uses and advantages.8 A lecture is one of
the least expensive, least time-consuming ways to present a
large amount of information efficiently and in an organized
manner to groups of trainees. Lectures are useful when the
instructor is the main knowledge holder and it is the most
efficient and direct way to provide learners with that
knowledge. Lectures that are scripted can be used to deliver a
consistent message. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject-
matter expert’s passion and enthusiasm for a topic.296For
example, an AT&T executive who is in charge of emerging
enterprises and partnerships at AT&T shares stories with
general managers about how the company created its partnership

with Apple to provide service for the iPhone.9 The purpose of
the lecture is to convey the message that managers should not
be afraid of failure. At the annual meeting of Skanska, a
construction company, two former fighter pilots lectured senior
executives about the steps needed to successfully execute a
mission, including how to define a project, analyze progress,
debrief, and celebrate success.10 This was an especially
relevant topic because the company was implementing a new
business strategy. Also, TED talks (see www.ted.com) are a
good example of how lectures can be motivational, interesting,
and provide a simple message to learners in less than twenty
minutes. Lectures are also used to support other training
methods such as behavior modeling and technology-based
techniques. For example, a lecture may be used to communicate
information regarding the purpose of the training program,
conceptual models, or key behaviors to trainees prior to their
receiving training that is more interactive and customized to
their specific needs.
TABLE 7.1 Variations of the Lecture Method
Method
Description
Standard lecture
Trainer talks and may use visual aids provided on the
blackboard, whiteboard, or Microsoft PowerPoint slides, while
trainees listen and absorb information.
Team teaching
Two or more trainers present different topics or alternative
views of the same topic.
Guest speakers
A speaker or speakers visit the session for a predetermined time
period.
Primary instruction is conducted by the instructor.
Panels
Two or more speakers present information and ask questions.
Student presentations
Groups of trainees present topics to the class.

Table 7.1 describes several variations of the standard lecture
method. All have advantages and disadvantages.11 Team
teaching brings more expertise and alternative perspectives
to297the training session. Team teaching does require more
time on the part of trainers to not only prepare their particular
session but also coordinate with other trainers, especially when
there is a great deal of integration between topics. Panels are
good for showing trainees different viewpoints in a debate. A
potential disadvantage of a panel, however, is that trainees who
are relatively naive about a topic may have difficulty
understanding the important points. Guest speakers can motivate
learning by bringing to the trainees relevant examples and
applications. For guest speakers to be effective, trainers need to
set expectations with speakers regarding how their presentation
should relate to the course content. Student presentations may
increase the material’s meaningfulness and trainees’
attentiveness, but they can inhibit learning if the trainees do not
have presentation skills.
The lecture method has several disadvantages. Lectures tend to
lack participant involvement, feedback, and meaningful
connection to the work environment—all of which inhibit
learning and transfer of training. Lectures appeal to few of the
trainees’ senses because trainees focus primarily on hearing
information or seeing facts, principles, or processes. Lectures
also make it difficult for the trainer to judge quickly and
efficiently the learners’ level of understanding. To overcome
these problems, the lecture is often supplemented with question-
and-answer periods, discussion, video, games, case studies, or
simulations. These techniques allow the trainer to build into the
lecture more active participation, job-related examples, and
exercises, which facilitate learning and transfer of training.
For example, Paychex provides training to employees through
lectures provided on the web (webinars), which involve learners
through the use of chat, polling, and electronic blackboard
work.12 PPL Electric Utilities uses a classroom session to
introduce its storm damage assessors to devices used to identify

damage, patrolling techniques, and reporting.13 Then, the
assessors participate in a simulation involving a downed power
line and are asked to perform a patrol and provide a written
assessment of the power line. Assessors are also invited to
participate in an annual storm drill.
Audiovisual Techniques
Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and video.
Video is used for improving communications skills,
interviewing skills, and customer-service skills and for
illustrating how procedures (e.g., welding) should be followed.
Video is usually used in conjunction with lectures to show
trainees real-life experiences and examples.
Microsoft created videos in its AlwaysOnprogram for sales,
marketing, and services employees.14 The purpose of the
program is to help these employees learn about devices and
services that Microsoft offers so they can promote and sell the
products. The ten-minute videos are released to employees the
same day as new or updated products and services. The videos
include product demos, breaking news and announcements, and
the latest Windows hardware. The videos can be tagged by
product, series, or business group. Links to the videos are
provided on the Microsoft web home page and in a weekly
newsletter.
Video is also a major component of behavior modeling and,
naturally, interactive video instruction. The use of video in
training has a number of advantages.15 First, trainers can
review, slow down, or speed up the lesson, which gives them
flexibility in customizing the session depending on trainees’
expertise. Second, trainees can watch the video multiple times if
they have access to it during and after the training session. This
gives them control over their learning. Third, trainees can be
exposed to equipment, problems, and events298that cannot be
easily demonstrated, such as equipment malfunctions, angry
customers, or emergencies. Fourth, trainees are provided with
consistent instruction. Program content is not affected by the
interests and goals of a particular trainer. Fifth, videotaping

trainees allows them to see and hear their own performance
without the interpretation of the trainer. That is, video provides
immediate objective feedback. As a result, trainees cannot
attribute poor performance to the bias of external evaluators
such as the trainer or peers. Sixth, video requires minimal
knowledge of technology and equipment. Most trainers and
trainees can easily use a VCR or DVD player.
Most problems in video result from the creative approach
used.16 These problems include too much content for the
trainee to learn, poor dialogue between the actors (which
hinders the credibility and clarity of the message), overuse of
humor or music, and drama that makes it confusing for the
trainee to understand the important learning points emphasized
in the video.
HANDS-ON METHODS
Hands-on methods are training methods that require the trainee
to be actively involved in learning. These methods include OJT,
simulations, case studies, business games, role-playing, and
behavior modeling. These methods are ideal for developing
specific skills, understanding how skills and behaviors can be
transferred to the job, experiencing all aspects of completing a
task, or dealing with interpersonal issues that arise on the job.
On-the-job training (OJT)
On-the-job training (OJT) refers to new or inexperienced
employees learning in the work setting and during work by
observing peers or managers performing the job and then trying
to imitate their behavior. OJT is one of the oldest and most used
types of informal training.17 It is considered informal because
it does not necessarily occur as part of a training program, and
because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers. If OJT is
too informal, learning is less likely to occur. OJT can be useful
for training newly hired employees, upgrading experienced
employees’ skills when new technology is introduced, cross-
training employees within a department or work unit, and
orienting transferred or promoted employees to their new jobs.
OJT takes various forms, including apprenticeships and self-

directed learning programs. (Both of these are discussed later in
this section.) OJT has several advantages over other training
methods.18 It can be customized to the experiences and abilities
of trainees. Training is immediately applicable to the job
because OJT occurs on the job using actual tools and
equipment. As a result, trainees are highly motivated to learn.
Both trainees and trainers are at the job site and continue to
work while training occurs. This means that companies save the
costs related to bringing trainees to a central location, hiring
trainers, and renting training facilities. OJT can be offered at
any time, and trainers will be available because they are peers
or managers. Finally, OJT uses actual job tasks and occurs at
work. As a result, skills learned in OJT more easily transfer to
the job.
Reliance Industries, one of India’s largest businesses, uses OJT
in its Nagothane Manufacturing Division (a refinery that makes
polymers and chemicals).19 Because of rapid company growth
and the demand for experienced employees, the company needed
to299decrease the length of time required for new engineers to
contribute. In response to this need, the training staff identified
mentors who would help accelerate learning for the new
engineers. The mentors and new hires are carefully matched
based on an assessment of the mentor’s training style and the
new employee’s learning style. Mentors are paired with up to
three new employees, each for nine months. The mentors and
new employees work together on four learning modules, each of
which takes two months to complete. Each module includes
predetermined lesson plans, and progress is tracked using an
online portal. As a result, the length of time that it takes new
engineers to contribute at work has decreased from twelve to six
months.
At Sweets Candy, a candy maker based in Salt Lake City, Utah,
new employees receive training in basic safety and emergency
evacuation procedures in an orientation session and then are
assigned a mentor.20The mentor works with the new employee
for two weeks, providing hands-on, one-on-one training. Teams

hold weekly meetings, and managers provide training on safety
issues throughout the year. Employees also receive a weekly
safety contact card on which they note safety hazards that they
have encountered on their job and how they have fixed the
problem. The safety contact cards are turned in, and each month
the company has a safety celebration where the cards are put
into a drawing. Employees win prizes such as a day off or a $10
gift card. All of the safety contact cards are reviewed to identify
safety issues and hazards, which are then communicated to the
employees.
OJT is an attractive training method because compared to other
methods, it needs less investment in time or money for
materials, the trainer’s salary, or instructional design. Managers
or peers who are job-knowledge experts are used as instructors.
As a result, it may be tempting to let them conduct the training
as they believe it should be done.
There are several disadvantages to this unstructured approach to
OJT. Managers and peers may not use the same process to
complete a task. They may pass on bad habits as well as useful
skills. Also, they may not understand that demonstration,
practice, and feedback are important conditions for effective
OJT. Unstructured OJT can result in poorly trained employees,
employees who use ineffective or dangerous methods to produce
a product or provide a service, and products or services that
vary in quality.
OJT must be structured to be effective. Table 7.2 shows the
principles of structured OJT. Because OJT involves learning by
observing others, successful OJT is based on the principles
emphasized by social learning theory. These include the use of a
credible trainer, a manager or peer who models the behavior or
skill, communication of specific key behaviors, practice,
feedback, and reinforcement. For example, at Rochester Gas and
Electric in Rochester, New York, radiation and chemistry
instructors teach experienced employees how to conduct
OJT.21 While teaching these employees how to demonstrate
software to new employees, the trainer may ask the employees

to watch other OJT instructors as they train new recruits so that
they can learn new teaching techniques. Regardless of the
specific type, effective OJT programs include:
1. A policy statement that describes the purpose of OJT and
emphasizes the company’s support for it.
2. A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting
OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job
descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations.300
3. A thorough review of OJT practices (program content, types
of jobs, length of program, cost savings) at other companies in
similar industries.
4. Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured
OJT (see Table 7.2).
5. Availability of lesson plans, checklists, procedure manuals,
training manuals, learning contracts, and progress reports for
use by employees who conduct OJT.
6. Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading,
computation, and writing) before OJT.22
Self-Directed Learning
Self-directed learning has employees take responsibility for all
aspects of learning, including when it is conducted and who will
be involved.23 Trainees master predetermined training content
at their own pace without an instructor. Trainers may serve as
facilitators. That is, trainers are available to evaluate learning
or answer questions for the trainee. The trainer does not control
or disseminate instruction. The learning process is controlled by
the trainee. Hilton Worldwide uses self-guided tutorials for its
revenue management professionals.24 The Revenue
Management at Work course is designed to help learners acquire
knowledge, skills, and use tools to help them improve revenue
management. Learners identify their own objectives and
complete exercises that help them determine what they need to
know as well as a learning action plan. Also, self-directed
learning could301involve the company providing employees
with information such as databases, training courses, and
seminars while still holding them responsible for taking the

initiative to learn. Because the effectiveness of self-directed
learning is based on an employee’s motivation to learn,
companies may want to provide seminars on the self-directed
learning process, self-management, and incentives for
completing learning. Best Buy rewards employees with virtual
“badges” when they complete training that is appropriate and
necessary for their current career stage.25 For example,
employees receive bronze status when they have prepared for a
new role by completing foundational training courses. Gold
status can be reached when employees become leaders and
complete courses relating to managing other employees. In
addition to badges for completing training, employees earn pins
they can wear on their uniforms and points they can exchange
for products and services.
TABLE 7.2 Principles of OJT
Preparing for Instruction
1. Break down the job into important steps.
2. Prepare the necessary equipment, materials, and supplies.
3. Decide how much time you will devote to OJT and when you
expect the employees to be competent in skill areas.
Actual Instruction
1. Tell the trainees the objective of the task and ask them to
watch you demonstrate it.
2. Show the trainees how to do the task without saying
anything.
3. Explain the key points or behaviors. (Write out the key points
for the trainees, if possible.)
4. Show the trainees how to do it again.
5. Have the trainees do one or more single parts of the task and
praise them for correct reproduction (optional).
6. Have the trainees do the entire task and praise them for
correct reproduction.
7. If mistakes are made, have the trainees practice until accurate
reproduction is achieved.
8. Praise the trainees for their success in learning the task.
Transfer of Training

Provide support materials and job aids such as flowcharts,
checklists, or procedures. Arrange for manager or trainer
support and observation on the job, especially for difficult or
complex tasks.
Evaluation
Prepare and allow time for final tests and exercises and surveys
of trainee reactions.
Sources: Based on R. Buckley and J. Caple, “Developing one-
to-one training programs,” T+D (April 2010): 108–109; W. J.
Rothwell and H. C. Kazanas, “Planned OJT is productive
OJT,” Training and Development Journal (October 1990): 53–
55; P. J. Decker and B. R. Nathan, Behavior Modeling
Training (New York: Praeger Scientific, 1985).
Self-directed learning has several advantages.26 It allows
trainees to learn at their own pace and receive feedback about
the learning performance. For the company, self-directed
learning requires fewer trainers, reduces costs associated with
travel and meeting rooms, and makes multiple-site training
more realistic. Self-directed learning provides consistent
training content that captures the knowledge of experts. Self-
directed learning also makes it easier for shift employees to
gain access to training materials.
A major disadvantage of self-directed learning, however, is that
trainees must be willing to learn on their own and feel
comfortable doing so. That is, trainees must be motivated to
learn. From the company perspective, self-directed learning
results in higher development costs, and development time is
longer than with other types of training programs.
Several steps are necessary to develop effective self-directed
learning:27
1. Conduct a job analysis to identify the tasks that must be
covered.
2. Write trainee-centered learning objectives directly related to
the tasks. Because the objectives take the place of the
instructor, they must indicate what information is important,
what actions the trainee should take, and what the trainee

should master.
3. Develop the content for the learning package. This involves
developing scripts (for video) or text screens (for computer-
based training). The content should be based on the trainee-
centered learning objectives. Another consideration in
developing the content is the medium (e.g., paper, video,
computer, or website) that will be used to communicate the
content.
4. Break the content into smaller pieces (“chunks”). The chunks
should always begin with the objectives that will be covered
and include a method for trainees to evaluate their learning.
Practice exercises should also appear in each chunk.
5. Develop an evaluation package that includes evaluation of
the trainee and evaluation of the self-directed learning package.
Trainee evaluation should be based on the objectives (a process
known as criterion referencing). That is, questions should be
developed that are written directly from the objectives and can
be answered directly from the materials. Evaluation of the self-
directed learning package should involve determining ease of
use, how up-to-date the material is, whether the package is
being used as intended, and whether trainees are mastering the
objectives.
Self-directed learning is likely to become more common in the
future, as companies seek to train staff flexibly, take advantage
of technology, and encourage employees to be proactive in their
learning rather than driven by the employer.
302Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a work-study training method with both on-
the-job and classroom training.28 The typical length of an
apprenticeship is four years but this can range from two to six
years. To qualify as a registered apprentice under state or
federal guidelines, apprentices in most cases must complete at
least 144 hours of classroom instruction and, depending on state
rules, must obtain a certain number of hours of on-the-job
experience.29 For example, learners in the Ohio State
Apprenticeship Program are required to complete 144 hours of

instruction and a minimum of 2,000 hours of paid, on-the-job
training.30 Once their training is complete, apprentices are
called journey workers, and they earn certification from the
U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship
agency. Table 7.3 shows the top occupations for apprentices. In
2013, there were over 375,000 active apprentices in over 19,000
registered apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeships can be
sponsored by individual companies or by groups of companies
cooperating with a union. The typical costs of apprenticeships
for employers ranges from $170,000 to $250,000, including four
years of classroom training, medical benefits, and salary on the
job while the apprentices learn. Apprentices are not required to
work for the company after they graduate. Unions’ collective
bargaining agreements designate what proportion of union dues
or hours worked by its members are used to fund apprenticeship
programs. As Table 7.3 shows, most apprenticeship programs
are in the skilled trades such as plumbing, carpentry, electrical
work, and pipe fitting. Table 7.4 is an example of an
apprenticeship program for a machinist.
In an apprenticeship program, the hours and weeks that must be
devoted to completing specific skill units are clearly defined.
The OJT involves assisting a certified tradesperson (a journey
worker) at the work site. The OJT portion of the apprenticeship
follows the guidelines for effective OJT by including modeling,
practice, feedback, and evaluation.31 First, the employer
verifies that the trainee has the required knowledge of the
operation or process. Next, the trainer (who is usually a more
experienced, licensed employee) demonstrates each step of the
process, emphasizing safety issues and key steps. The senior
employee provides the apprentice with the opportunity to
perform the process until all are satisfied that the apprentice can
perform it properly and safely.
Apprenticeships have benefits for both the learner and the
company.32 Learners earn pay while they learn and their wages
increase automatically as their skills improve. Learners303often
receive a job offer and good wages from the company that

sponsors their training. Apprentices gain a wide range of skills
and knowledge based on their classroom and on-the-job
experience. They tend to be cross-trained, which means they can
move to different tasks and jobs. For example, an individual
who completes a machinist apprenticeship can begin working as
a machinist, move to other areas of production, sales, and
eventually to management. The costs for the learner are usually
limited to textbooks unlike the expense of a college education.
Employers benefit from high employee retention and loyalty
rates among apprentices, improved morale and emphasis on
continuous learning, a talent pool, improved safety, and training
customized to their needs. For example, graduates of
apprenticeship programs make up 13 percent of Newport News
Shipbuilding’s workforce. Their program includes eight hundred
apprentices in twenty-five occupations. Eighty percent of
graduates are still employed by Newport News ten years later.
Because apprentices want to learn, it helps create an
environment where more experienced employees want to share
their knowledge and help apprentices learn new skills. This
helps develop a skilled internal labor force, which is likely
unavailable outside the company (recall the
discussion304in Chapter One of how companies are having
difficulty finding employees with the skills they need). At its
manufacturing facility in Toledo, Ohio, Libbey Glass has
apprenticeship programs in mold making, machine repair,
millwrighting, and maintenance repair.33 These programs are
viewed as the best jobs within the company because the wage
rates are high and because most apprentices are scheduled to
work day shifts instead of afternoon or midnight shifts. The
apprenticeship program has been costly for the company but has
paid dividends. Each apprentice requires the support of a
journey worker for each work assignment. This means that work
is being performed by two employees when only one worker is
normally required. The program also requires apprentices to be
evaluated every 1,000 hours to meet U.S. Department of Labor
standards. The reviews are conducted by a committee that

includes management and department journey workers. The
committee also develops tests and other evaluation materials.
The committee members cannot perform their normal duties
during the time they are reviewing apprentices, so their
workload has to be distributed among other employees or
rescheduled for some other time. The program offers many
benefits to Libbey: The company is developing employees who
are more receptive to changes in the work environment; work
can be performed at Libbey, so the company does not have to
outsource jobs to contract labor; and Libbey is given an edge in
attracting talented employees who like the idea that after
completing an apprenticeship, they are eligible for promotions
to other positions in the company, including management
positions. Also, the apprenticeship program helps Libbey tailor
training and work experiences to meet specific needs in
maintenance repair, which is necessary to create and repair
production mold equipment used in making glass products.
TABLE 7.3 Top 10 Occupations for Active Apprentices
Rank
Occupation
Active Apprentices
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Electrician
Carpenter
Plumber
Pipe fitter (construction)
Construction craft laborers

Sheet metal worker
Roofer
Structural-steel worker
Painter (construction)
Sprinkler fitter
36,237
13,685
12,116
8,665
7,901
7,101
5,285
4,651
3,254
3,052
Source: Based on “Top 10 Occupations for Fiscal year 2013,”
from U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration. Available
at www.doleta.gov/OA/data_statistics2013.cfm.
TABLE 7.4 Example of a Machinist Apprenticeship
Hours
Weeks
Unit
240
6.0
Bench Work
360
9.0
Drill Press
240
6.0
Heat Treat
200
5.0
Elementary Layout
680

17.0
Turret Lathe (Conventional and Numerical Control)
800
20.0
Engine Lathe
320
8.0
Tool Grind
640
16.0
Advanced Layout
960
24.0
Milling Machine
280
7.0
Profile Milling
160
4.0
Surface Grinding
240
6.0
External Grinding
280
7.0
Internal Grinding
200
5.0
Thread Grinding
520
13.0
Horizontal Boring Mills
240
6.0
Jig Bore/Jig Grinder
160

4.0
Vertical Boring
600
15.0
Numerical Control Milling
240
6.0
Computer Numerical Control
640
16.0
Related Training
8,000
200.0
TOTAL
Probationary: The following hours are included in the totals
above, but must be completed in the first 1,000 hours of
apprenticeship:
80
2.0
Drill Press (probation)
280
7.0
Lathe Work (probation)
360
9.0
Milling Machine (probation)
40
1.0
Elementary Layout (probation)
80
2.0
Related Training (probation)
840
21.0
TOTAL
Source: A. H. Howard III, “Apprenticeship.” In The ASTD

Training and Development Handbook, 4th ed., ed. R. L. Craig
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996): 808.
Apprentice-like programs are also used to prepare new
managers. The president and chief executive officer of
Goldcorp, a company in the mining industry, offers the chance
for MBAs to apply for a nine-month apprenticeship.34 The
apprentice shadows Goldcorp’s CEO and observes board
meetings, negotiations, mine acquisitions, and other important
aspects of the mining industry. Goldcorp hopes the
apprenticeships will attract more MBAs to the mining industry,
which is viewed by many graduates as an unsafe and dirty
business. Hyatt Hotels offers several programs in which
management trainees complete training in the areas of facilities,
culinary arts, sales, hotel operations, accounting, and
catering.35 Trainees rotate through all parts of the hotel and
perform all aspects of each job, ranging from washing dishes to
catering, and then spend the rest of the training time in their
specialty area. Employees who complete the training are placed
in entry-level management positions.
Besides the development costs and time commitment that
management and journey workers have to make to
apprenticeship programs, another disadvantage of many of these
programs is that despite efforts to be inclusive, there still may
be limited access for minorities and women.36 Also, there is no
guarantee that jobs will be available when the program is
completed. This is especially a problem in poor economic times
such as the 2009 recession.
Simulations
A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life
situation, with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that
mirror what would happen if they were on the job. A common
example of the use of simulators for training is flight simulators
for pilots. Simulations, which allow trainees to see the impact
of their decisions in an artificial, risk-free environment, are
used to teach production and process skills as well as
management305and interpersonal skills. As you will see

in Chapter Eight, new technology has helped in the development
of virtual reality, a type of simulation that even more closely
mimics the work environment.
Simulators replicate the physical equipment, patients, and
conditions that employees encounter on the job. For example,
the Fire Division of the City of Columbus trains its paramedics
and firefighters using mannequins that can present a variety of
medical conditions, including strokes and drug
overdoses.37 The mannequins can vomit, sweat, breathe, give
birth, and be programmed with different mental states. Drugs
can be injected and IVs run into the mannequins. For example,
at training, paramedics recently encountered a child mannequin
that was choking on a piece of candy. After the paramedics ran
an IV, applied chest compressions, and gave medications, the
mannequin had a pulse. The trainer was controlling the
mannequin through a wireless tablet. He observed the
paramedics to make sure they were giving the right amount of
fluids at the correct time. A debrief including trainers and
paramedics is held immediately after training. The debrief
focuses on what the paramedics did correctly, what they did
wrong, and the knowledge and skills they need to improve.
Thirty high-potential global managers at Automatic Data
Processing, Inc., in teams of six, participate in a computer-
based business simulation that replicates the company’s
business model.38 The team, acting as the company’s executive
board, must operate a financially sound and profitable business
through five rounds by creating growth opportunities in a
competitive global market.
A key aspect of simulators is the degree to which they are
similar to the equipment and situations that the trainee will
encounter on the job. Recall the discussion of near transfer
in Chapter Five, “Program Design.” Simulators need to have
elements identical to those found in the work environment. The
simulator needs to respond exactly like the equipment would
under the conditions and response given by the trainee. For
example, flight simulators include distractions that pilots have

to deal with, such as hearing chimes in the cockpit from traffic
alerts generated by an onboard computer warning system while
listening to directions from an air traffic controller.39 For this
reason, simulators are expensive to develop and need constant
updating as new information about the work environment is
obtained.
Case Studies
A case study is a description about how employees or an
organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are
required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the
appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done
differently.40 A major assumption of the case study approach is
that employees are most likely to recall and use knowledge and
skills if they learn through a process of discovery.41 Cases may
be especially appropriate for developing higher-order
intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
These skills are often required by managers, physicians, and
other professional employees. Cases also help trainees develop
the willingness to take risks given uncertain outcomes, based on
their analysis of the situation. To use cases effectively, the
learning environment must give trainees the opportunity to
prepare and discuss their case analyses. Also, face-to-face or
electronic communication among trainees must be arranged.
Because trainee involvement is critical for the effectiveness of
the case method, learners must be willing and able to analyze
the case and then communicate and defend their positions.
306Table 7.5 presents the process used for case development.
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or
situation. It is important to consider if the story is related to the
instructional objectives, will provoke a discussion, forces
decision making, can be told in a reasonable time period, and is
applicable to the situations that trainees may face. Information
on the problem or situation must also be readily accessible. The
next step is to research documents, interview participants, and
obtain data that provide the details of the case. The third step is
to outline the story and link the details and exhibits to relevant

points in the story. Fourth, the media used to present the case
should be determined. Also, at this point in case development,
the trainer should consider how the case exercise will be
conducted. This may involve determining if trainees will work
individually or in teams, and how the students will report
results of their analyses. Finally, the actual case materials need
to be prepared. This includes assembling exhibits (figures,
tables, articles, job descriptions, etc.), writing the story,
preparing questions to guide trainees’ analysis, and writing an
interesting, attention-getting case opening that will attract
trainees’ attention and provide a quick orientation to the case.
There are a number of available sources of preexisting cases. A
major advantage of preexisting cases is that they are already
developed, but a disadvantage is that the case may not actually
relate to the work situation or problem that the trainee will
encounter. It is especially important to review preexisting cases
to determine how meaningful they will be to the trainee.
Preexisting cases on a wide variety of problems in business
management (e.g., in human resource management, operations,
marketing, advertising) are available from Harvard Business
School, the Darden Business School at the University of
Virginia, Ivey Business School at the University of Western
Ontario, and various other sources.
KLA-Tencor uses cases studies as part of a program known as
“The Situation Room” to help managers learn how to deal with
common leadership problems.42 A group of between eight and
twenty managers get together face to face or virtually each
month for one year and read one of twelve 350–400 word case
studies. The case is based on a real situation or problem that
occurred at KLA-Tencor. IT has to be broad enough for most
managers to have experienced the situation, issue, or problem,
but specific enough to be useful. After they read the case, the
managers are given three minutes to write their response to the
situation. Participants share their responses and their peers
provide feedback. If a peer doesn’t like the response, he or she
can provide an alternative. After all participants have shared

their responses, four teams are formed and they are given
“homework.” Between the first and next session participants are
expected to meet for an hour in their teams and review content,
models, methodology, and or tools that they have been exposed
to in prior courses. Based on this review, they are asked to
provide a response to the situation. During the second session
each of the participants share their prepared responses and
discuss307them. Based on what they learned from both the first
and second session, participants are asked to prepare a personal
response focusing on how they will handle this situation if they
encounter it on their job. The outcomes of the sessions are
documented on the company’s knowledge management system
so practices can be shared with other managers facing similar
challenges. Managers who completed the program felt that it
was valuable and the company is currently analyzing employee
engagement survey scores to see if managers who participated
in The Situation Room have improved in the leadership and
management categories assessed on the survey.
TABLE 7.5 Process for Case Development
1. Identify a story.
2. Gather information.
3. Prepare a story outline.
4. Decide on administrative issues.
5. Prepare case materials.
Source: Based on J. Alden and J. K. Kirkhorn, “Case Studies.”
In The ASTD Training and Development Handbook, 4th ed., ed.
R. L. Craig (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996): 497–516.
Business Games
Business games require trainees to gather information, analyze
it, and make decisions. Business games are primarily used for
management skill development. Games stimulate learning
because participants are actively involved and because games
mimic the competitive nature of business. The types of
decisions that participants make in games include all aspects of
management practice: labor relations (agreement in contract
negotiations), ethics, marketing (the price to charge for a new

product), and finance (financing the purchase of new
technology). Games are also used for developing job-specific
skills such as patient triage or aircraft repair. They are similar
to simulations in that they can be used for training that
otherwise would involve risk of injury, accidents, or would be
too costly.43
Typical games have several characteristics.44 The game
involves a contest among trainees or teams of trainees or
against an established criterion such as time or quantity. The
game is designed to demonstrate an understanding of or
application of a knowledge, skill, or behavior. Several
alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and
trainees can estimate the consequences of each alternative, but
only with some uncertainty. Trainees do not know for certain
what the consequences of their actions will be because the
consequences are partially based on the decisions of other game
participants. Finally, rules limit participant behavior.
To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in
training should be simple enough that trainees can play them in
a short period of time. The best games generate excitement
among the participants and interest in the game. Meaningfulness
of the game is enhanced if it is realistic. Trainees need to feel
that they are participating in a business and acquiring
knowledge, skills, and behaviors that are useful on the
job.45 Debriefing from a trainer can help trainees understand
the game experience and facilitate learning and transfer.
Debriefing can include feedback, discussions of the concepts
presented during the game, and instructions in how to use at
work the knowledge, skills, or behavior emphasized in the
game. Table 7.6 contains some questions that can be used for
debriefing.
TABLE 7.6 Questions to Use When Debriefing a Game
How did the score of the game affect your behavior and the
behavior of the team?
What did you learn from the game?
What aspects of the game remind you of situations at work?

How does the game relate to your work?
What did you learn from the game that you plan to use at work?
Source: Based on S. Sugar, “Using Games to Energize Dry
Material.” In The ASTD Handbook of Training Design and
Delivery, eds. G. Piskurich, P. Beckschi, and B. Hall (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2000): 107–120.
At ConAgra Foods, new vice-presidents participate in a game on
the last of eight days of leadership training.46 Teams run a
simulated business based on ConAgra, rotating308through roles
including sales and marketing, research and development, and
finance. The teams compete for business and market share while
developing their teamwork and other interpersonal skills. At the
end of the game, ConAgra executives determine the winning
teams based on financial measures, as well as team work skills.
CMS Energy uses an online game (The Resolver) to teach
employees about conflicts of interest.47 For example,
employees understand that accepting bribes is illegal, but they
might not understand all of the different types of bribes. The
Resolver begins with clinking champagne glasses and receiving
tickets for a sporting event. In the game players interact with
different characters and make decisions. Each decision they
make affects different people, including colleagues, friends, and
family members. Those affected by each decision discuss how
the player’s decision affects them. Teams of five employees
were formed to compete against each other. During game play,
the team format facilitated conversations and questions among
team members about ethics and conflicts of interest. When the
competition ended, team members could see how they ranked
against others on an electronic online leaderboard. This
stimulated further employee conversations about how they
responded to the scenarios and what they should have done
differently to earn more points.
A review of research on computer games shows that trainees
learn more when they are actively involved in learning the
content (rather than reading text or listening), they have
unlimited access to the game, and the game is used as a

supplement to other training methods such as
lecturing.48 Games may give team members a quick start at
developing a framework for information and may help develop
cohesive groups. For some groups (such as senior executives),
games may be more meaningful training activities (because the
game is realistic) than are presentation techniques such as
classroom instruction.
Role-Plays
Role-plays refer to experiences in which trainees take on a role
such as a manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore
what is involved in the role.49 Role-plays are usually included
in training programs involving interpersonal skills such as
communications, sales, providing performance feedback,
coaching, leadership, and team building. Role-plays can be
completed in small groups of two to three persons in which all
trainees complete the role-play. Or several trainees can
volunteer to role-play while the remaining trainees observe
them. In a role-play, outcomes depend on the emotional (and
subjective) reactions of the other trainees.
At Wequassett Resort and Golf Club in Chatham,
Massachusetts, the training schedule considers both the need to
make guests happy and the need to help both new and returning
employees learn to do that.50From April to October, the resort
is closed, but 340 employees start work in the spring before the
resort opens. Half of the employees are receiving training for
the first time, while the returning employees need refresher
training. Wequassett Academy offers seventy courses in four
schools (customer intimacy, technical training, information and
technology, and management). The goal of training is to provide
the kind of service that will encourage guests to come back
again, as well as recommend the resort to their friends. The
resort’s training is in step with its business, which requires a
personal touch. Training involves classroom instruction with
role-plays, as well as the use of DVDs. Employees have to
successfully complete competency checklists before they are
able to work. For example, food servers may have to take

courses in menu knowledge, food service, and wine knowledge.
309For role-plays to be effective, trainers need to engage in
several activities before, during, and after the role-play. Table
7.7 shows the activities that comprise effective role-plays.
TABLE 7.7 Activities for Effective Role-Plays
Provide background information on the purpose of and context
for the role-play.
Make sure that a script is provided with enough detail for
trainees to understand their role.
The room is arranged so trainees can see and hear the role-
players.
Observations sheets and checklists that emphasize the issues in
the role-play are developed and used.
Debriefing occurs on the experience of the role-players and
observers, the relationship of the role play to the company
context, and important learning points.
Sources: Based on S. Karve, “Setting the stage for effective role
plays,” T+D (November 2011): 76–77; S. Thiagarajan,
“Instructional Games, Simulations, and Role Plays.” In The
ASTD Training and Development Handbook: 517–533.
Behavior Modeling
Behavior modeling presents trainees with a model who
demonstrates key behaviors to replicate and provides trainees
with the opportunity to practice the key behaviors. Behavior
modeling is based on the principles of social learning theory
(discussed in Chapter Four), which emphasize that learning
occurs by (1) observation of behaviors demonstrated by a model
and (2) vicarious reinforcement. Vicarious reinforcement occurs
when a trainee sees a model receiving reinforcement for using
certain behaviors.
Behavior modeling is more appropriate for teaching skills and
behaviors than for teaching factual information or knowledge.
Research suggests that behavior modeling is one of the most
effective techniques for teaching interpersonal and computer
skills.51
Table 7.8 presents the activities in a behavior modeling training

session. These activities include an introduction, skill
preparation and development, and application planning.52 Each
training session, which typically lasts four hours, focuses on
one interpersonal skill such as coaching or communicating
ideas. Each session includes a presentation of the rationale
behind the key behaviors, a video of a model performing the key
behaviors, practice opportunities using role-playing, evaluation
of a model’s performance in the videotape, and a planning
session devoted to understanding how the key behaviors can be
used on the job. In the practice sessions, trainees are provided
with feedback regarding310how closely their behavior matches
the key behaviors demonstrated by the model. The role-playing
and modeled performance are based on actual incidents in the
employment setting in which the trainee needs to demonstrate
success.
TABLE 7.8 Activities in a Behavior Modeling Training Program
Introduction (45 mins.)
· Watch video that presents key behaviors.
· Listen to rationale for skill module.
· Discuss experiences in using skill.
Skill Preparation and Development (2 hrs., 30 mins.)
· View model.
· Participate in role-plays and practice.
· Receive oral and video feedback on performance of key
behaviors.
Application Planning (1 hr.)
· Set improvement goals.
· Identify situations in which to use key behaviors.
· Identify on-the-job applications of the key behaviors.
Well-prepared behavior modeling training programs identify the
key behaviors, create the modeling display, provide
opportunities for practice, and facilitate transfer of
training.53 The first step in developing behavior modeling
training programs is to determine (1) the tasks that are not
being adequately performed due to lack of skill or behavior and
(2) the key behaviors that are required to perform the task.

A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that are necessary to
complete a task. In behavior modeling, key behaviors are
typically performed in a specific order for the task to be
completed. Key behaviors are identified through a study of the
skills and behaviors necessary to complete the task and the
skills or behaviors used by employees who are effective in
completing the task.
Table 7.9 presents key behaviors for a behavior modeling
training program on problem analysis. The table specifies
behaviors that the trainee needs to engage in to be effective in
problem analysis skills. Note that the key behaviors do not
specify the exact behaviors needed at every step of solving a
problem. Rather, the key behaviors in this skill module specify
more general behaviors that are appropriate across a wide range
of situations. If a task involves a clearly defined series of
specific steps that must be accomplished in a specific order,
then the key behaviors that are provided are usually more
specific and explained in greater detail. For example, tennis
players learning how to serve must follow a detailed sequence
of activities (e.g., align feet with the baseline, take the racquet
back over the head, toss the ball, bring the racquet forward over
the head again, pronate the wrist, and strike the ball). People
learning interpersonal skills must develop more general key
behaviors because there is always more than one way to
complete the task. The development of general key behaviors
promotes far transfer (discussed in Chapter Five). That is,
trainees are prepared to use the key behaviors in a variety of
situations.
TABLE 7.9 Example of Key Behaviors in Problem Analysis
Get all relevant information by:
· Rephrasing the question or problem to see if new issues
emerge
· Listing the key problem issues
· Considering other possible sources of information
Identify possible causes.
If necessary, obtain additional information.

Evaluate the information to ensure that all essential criteria are
met.
Restate the problem considering new information.
Determine what criteria indicate that the problem or issue has
been resolved.
Another important consideration in developing behavior
modeling programs is the modeling display. The modeling
display provides the key behaviors that the trainees will practice
to develop the same set of behaviors. DVDs and online video
are the predominant methods used to present modeling displays.
In online behavior modeling training the learner can practice the
key behaviors by watching scenarios that mimic an
interpersonal interaction. At certain points during the scenario,
for example, when asked a question, the learner is asked to
choose one of several choices of how they would respond. Just
like in a real interpersonal interaction, they then see how the
other person would react to their311response. (The use of new
technology in training is discussed in Chapter Eight.) Effective
modeling displays have six characteristics:54
1. The display clearly presents the key behaviors. The music
and the characteristics of the situation shown in the display do
not interfere with the trainee seeing and understanding the key
behaviors.
2. The model is credible to the trainees.
3. An overview of the key behaviors is presented.
4. Each key behavior is repeated. The trainee is shown the
relationship between the behavior of the model and each key
behavior.
5. A review of the key behaviors is included.
6. The display presents models engaging in both positive use of
key behaviors and negative use (i.e., ineffective models not
using the key behaviors).
Providing opportunities for practice involves (1) having trainees
cognitively rehearse and think about the key behaviors and (2)
placing trainees in situations (such as role-plays) in which they
have to use the key behaviors. Trainees may interact with one

other person in the role-play or in groups of three or more in
which each trainee can practice the key behaviors. The most
effective practice session allows trainees to practice the
behaviors multiple times, in a small group of trainees where
anxiety or evaluation apprehension is reduced, with other
trainees who understand the company and the job.
Practice sessions should include a method for providing trainees
with feedback that should provide reinforcement to the trainee
for behaviors performed correctly, as well as information
needed to improve behaviors. For example, if role-plays are
used, trainees can receive feedback from the other participants
who serve as observers when not playing the role. Practice
sessions may also be videotaped and played back to the trainees.
The use of video objectively captures the trainees’ behavior and
provides useful, detailed feedback. Having the trainees view the
video shows them specifically how they need to improve their
behaviors and identifies behaviors that they are successfully
replicating.
Behavior modeling helps ensure that transfer of training occurs
by using application planning. Application planning prepares
trainees to use the key behaviors on the job (i.e., enhances
transfer of training). Application planning involves having all
participants prepare a written document identifying specific
situations in which they should use the key behaviors. Some
training programs actually have trainees complete a “contract”
outlining the key behaviors that they agree to use on the job.
The trainer may follow up with the trainees to see if they are
performing according to the contract. Application planning may
also involve preparing trainees to deal with situational factors
that may inhibit their use of the key behaviors (similar to
relapse prevention, discussed in Chapter Four). As part of the
application planning process, a trainee may be paired with
another participant, with the stated expectation that the two
should periodically communicate with each other to discuss
successes and failures in the use of key behaviors.
GROUP BUILDING METHODS

Group building methods are training methods designed to
improve team or group effectiveness. A team refers to two or
more people with specific roles or functions who work together
with shared responsibility to achieve a common goal or mission
or complete tasks312in a company.55 In group building
methods, trainees share ideas and experiences, build group
identity, understand the dynamics of interpersonal relationships,
and get to know their own strengths and weaknesses and those
of their co-workers. Group techniques focus on helping teams
increase their skills for effective teamwork. A number of
training techniques are available to improve work group or team
performance, to establish a new team, or to improve interactions
among different teams. All involve examination of feelings,
perceptions, and beliefs about the functioning of the team;
discussion; and development of plans to apply what was learned
in training to the team’s performance in the work setting. Group
building methods include adventure learning, team training, and
action learning.
Group building methods often involve experiential
learning. Experiential learning training programs have four
stages: (1) gain conceptual knowledge and theory; (2) take part
in a behavioral simulation; (3) analyze the activity; and (4)
connect the theory and activity with on-the-job or real-life
situations.56
For experiential training programs to be successful, several
guidelines should be followed. The program needs to tie in to a
specific business problem. The trainees need to be moved
outside their personal comfort zones, but within limits so as not
to reduce trainee motivation or ability to understand the purpose
of the program. Multiple learning modes should be used,
including audio, visual, and kinesthetic. When preparing
activities for an experiential training program, trainers should
ask trainees for input on the program goals. Clear expectations
about the purpose, expected outcomes, and trainees’ role in the
program are important. Finally, the training program needs to be
evaluated. Training programs that include experiential learning

should be linked to changes in employee attitudes, behaviors,
and other business results. If training programs that involve
experiential learning do not follow these guidelines, they may
be questioned. For example, the U.S. Postal Inspector resigned
after criticisms surfaced about postal team training activities.
Current and former postal employees complained to several U.S.
senators about training activities that included having
employees wrap each other in toilet paper, dress as cats, and
hold signs that spelled “teamwork.”57
Adventure Learning
Adventure learning is an experiential learning method that
focuses on the development of teamwork and leadership skills
through structured activities.58 Adventure learning includes
wilderness training, outdoor training, improvisational activities,
drum circles, and even cooking classes. Adventure learning
appears to be best suited for developing skills related to group
effectiveness, such as self-awareness, problem solving, conflict
management, and risk taking. Adventure learning may involve
strenuous, challenging physical activities such as dogsledding
or mountain climbing. Adventure learning can also use
structured individual and group activities, such as wall
climbing, rope courses, trust falls, ladder climbing, and
traveling from one tower to another using a device attached to a
wire that connects the two towers.
For example, “The Beam” requires team members to cross a six-
foot-high beam placed between two trees, using only help from
the team. Trainees can help by shouting advice and
encouragement.59 Rope-based activities may be held three to
four feet or twenty-five to thirty feet above the ground. The
high-ropes course is an individual-based exercise whose
purpose is to help the trainee overcome fear. The low-ropes
course requires the entire team of trainees to complete the
course successfully. The purpose is to develop team identity,
cohesiveness, and communication skills.
313To improve their leadership skills and teamwork, lawyers at
Weil, Gotshal & Manges in New York worked with New York

City firefighters to learn how to hook up a fire hose, set the
water pressure, and extinguish fires.60At the fire academy,
four-person teams rushed into burning buildings and rescued
passengers in simulated subway accidents or other emergency
drills. The Fire Department of New York (FDNY) program,
Firefighter for a Day Team Challenge, was created to help
teams develop decision-making and problem-solving skills.
These skills are especially necessary for work teams made up of
employees from different specialties or areas of expertise who
work on large projects or deal with complex problems requiring
coordination and delegation. Companies pay up to $2,500 for
each four-person team.
Adventure learning can also include demanding activities that
require coordination but place less of a physical strain on team
members. In drum circles, each team member is given a drum,
and facilitators work with the team to create a drumming
orchestra. Toyota spent $20,000 for drums to accommodate
forty people at its training center in Torrance,
California.61 Drum circles are held twice a week. Toyota
believes that the drum circles are metaphors for how high-
performance teams should operate: cooperatively and smoothly.
Cookin’ Up Change is one of many team-building courses
offered around the United States by chefs, caterers, hotels, and
cooking schools.62 These courses have been used by companies
such as Honda and Microsoft. The idea is that cooking classes
help strengthen communications and networking skills by
requiring team members to work together to create a full-course
meal. Each team has to decide who does what kitchen tasks
(e.g., cooking, cutting, cleaning) and who prepares the main
course, salads, and dessert. Often, team members are required to
switch assignments in mid-preparation to see how the team
reacts to change.
For adventure learning programs to be successful, exercises
should relate to the types of skills that participants are expected
to develop. Also, after the exercises, a skilled facilitator should
lead a discussion about what happened in the exercise, what was

learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation,
and how to set goals and apply what was learned on the
job.63 DaVita Healthcare Partners provides kidney-related
health care services such as dialysis.64 DaVita contracted with
a training provider to develop a three-hour experiential learning
activity that would be collaborative, have a sense of purpose,
and reinforce the company’s values of teamwork, fulfillment,
and fun. The goals of the program were to understand the
importance or why of work, understand how team members
relate to patients and to each other, and how to address
challenges. The activity started with a discussion of the
importance of communicating and collaborating for successful
teamwork on the job. Employees were divided into three-
member teams and given the task of building prosthetic hands,
which would be donated to organizations serving amputees.
Building the prostheses provided an opportunity for the
achievement of the program goals. The employees built more
than fourteen thousand prostheses during the three-hour
activity! The activity concluded with a discussion of ways to
apply what they learned to their jobs at DaVita.
This approach does have disadvantages, however. The physical
demands of some types of adventure learning and the
requirement that trainees often touch each other in the exercises
may increase a company’s risk for negligence claims due to
personal injury, intentional infliction of emotional distress, and
invasion of privacy. Also, the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) raises questions about requiring disabled employees to
participate in physically demanding training experiences.65
314Given the physically demanding nature of adventure
learning, it is important to consider when to use it instead of
another training method. Adventure learning allows trainees to
interact interpersonally in a situation not governed by formal
business rules. This type of environment may be important for
employees to mold themselves into a cohesive work team. Also,
adventure learning exercises allow trainees to share a strong
emotional experience. Significant emotional experiences can

help trainees break difficult behavior patterns and open trainees
to change their behaviors. One of the most important
characteristics of adventure learning is that the exercises can
serve as metaphors for organizational behavior. That is, trainees
will behave in the same way in the exercises that they would
when working as a team (e.g., developing a product launch
plan). As a result, by analyzing behaviors that occur during the
exercise, trainees gain insight into ineffective behaviors.
Does adventure learning work? Rigorous evaluations of its
impact on productivity or performance have not been conducted.
However, former participants often report that they gained a
greater understanding of themselves and how they interact with
co-workers.66 One key to an adventure learning program’s
success may be the insistence that whole work groups
participate together so that group dynamics that inhibit
effectiveness can emerge and be discussed.
Team Training
Team training refers to training that is designed to improve
team effectiveness. There are many different types of teams in
companies, including production teams, service teams,
committees, project teams, and management teams. Teamwork
tends to be episodic.67 That is, teams engage in a cycle of
identifying their goals, engage in interpersonal interactions, and
take actions to achieve their goals. They repeat this cycle as
goals are reached and tasks are completed and they move on to
new tasks or goals. Regardless of the type of team, successful
team performance depends on the knowledge, attitudes, and
behaviors of its members. Figure 7.3 shows the three
components of team performance: knowledge, attitudes, and
behavior.68 The behavioral requirement means that team
members must perform actions that allow them to communicate,
coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks to accomplish
their objective. The knowledge component requires team
members to have mental models or memory structures that allow
them to function effectively in unanticipated or new situations.
Team members’ beliefs about the task and feelings toward each

other relate to the attitude component. Team morale, cohesion,
and identity are related to team performance. For example, in
the military, as well as many areas of the private sector (e.g.,
nuclear power plants and commercial airlines), much work
is315performed by crews, groups, or teams. Successful
performance depends on coordination of individual activities to
make decisions, on team performance, and on readiness to deal
with potentially dangerous situations (e.g., an overheating
nuclear reactor). Research suggests that teams that are
effectively trained develop procedures to identify and resolve
errors, coordinate information gathering, and reinforce each
other.69
FIGURE 7.3 Components of Team Performance
Source: Based on E. Salas and J. A. Cannon-Bowers, “Strategies
for Team Training.” In Training for 21st-Century Technology:
Applications of Psychological Research, eds. M. A. Quinones
and A. Dutta (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological
Association, 1997): 249–281.
Figure 7.4 illustrates the four main elements of the structure of
team training (tools, methods, strategies, and team training
objectives). Several tools help define and organize the delivery
of team training.70These tools also provide the environment
(e.g., feedback) needed for learning to occur. These tools work
in combination with different training methods to help create
instructional strategies. These strategies are a combination of
the methods, tools, and content required to perform effectively.
FIGURE 7.4 Main Elements of the Structure of Team Training
Sources: Based on E. Salas and J. A. Cannon-Bowers,
“Strategies for Team Training.” In Training for 21st-Century
Technology: Applications of Psychological Research, eds. M.
A. Quinones and A. Dutta (Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association, 1997): 249–281; J. Cannon-Bowers
and C. Bowers, “Team Development and Functioning.” In S.
Zedeck (eds.). APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational

Psychology, eds. S. Zedeck (Washington, D.C.: American
The strategies include cross training, coordination training, and
team leader training. Cross training has team members
understand and practice each other’s skills so that members are
prepared to step in and take the place of a member who may
temporarily or permanently leave the team. Research suggests
that most work teams would benefit from providing members
with at least enough understanding of teammates’ roles to
discuss trade-offs of various strategies and behaviors that affect
team performance.71Coordination training instructs the team in
how to share information and decision-making responsibilities
to maximize team performance. Coordination training is
especially important for316commercial aviation or surgical
teams who are in charge of monitoring different aspects of
equipment and the environment but who must share information
to make the most effective decisions regarding patient care or
aircraft safety and performance. Team leader training refers to
training that the team manager or facilitator receives. This may
involve training the manager on how to resolve conflict within
the team or helping the team coordinate activities or other team
skills. Scenario-based training refers to training that places
team members in a realistic context while learning. This type of
team training helps trainees experience the consequences of
their actions, make adjustments, accomplish their tasks, and
build team self-efficacy (feeling that the team can successfully
perform tasks). Guided team self-correction refers to training
that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing in
teams. In this type of training, team members observe each
other’s behavior and give and receive performance feedback.
Employees obviously need technical skills that can help the
team accomplish its task. But team members also need skills in
communication, adaptability, conflict resolution, and other
teamwork issues.72 Team training usually involves multiple
methods. For example, a lecture or video may be used to
disseminate knowledge regarding communication skills to

trainees. Role-plays or simulations may be used to give trainees
the opportunity to put into practice the communication skills
emphasized in the lecture. Regardless of the method chosen,
opportunities for practice and feedback need to be included.
For example, Aquarius is an undersea laboratory used during the
NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations (NEEMO).
The base, located several miles off the coast of Key Largo,
Florida, is owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and managed by the University of
North Carolina.73 The NEEMO experience places astronauts in
an environment with challenges that parallels the hostile
physical and stressful psychological environment experienced in
long-duration missions. These challenges can include allowing
the crew to experience the effects of gravity in space, on the
moon, and Mars, providing a compressed timeline for
completing tasks, practicing procedures such as spacewalks to
repair or replace equipment and emergency procedures used to
rescue crew members, and performing tasks with delayed and
limited communications with the mission control crew. The
NEEMO experience helps crew members develop important
team processes, such as communication, coordination,
performance monitoring and back up behaviors, to successfully
meet the challenges and perform the task they encounter, both
in Aquarius and on their space missions.
United Airlines sent its supervisor, or lead, ramp employees to
Pit Instruction and Training (Pit Crew U), which focuses on the
preparation, practices, and teamwork of NASCAR pit crews.
United is using the training to develop standardized methods to
safely and more efficiently unload, load, and send off its
airplanes.74 Pit Instruction and Training, located outside
Charlotte, North Carolina, has a quarter-mile race track and a
pit road with pit stops for six cars. The school offers programs
to train new racing pit crews, but most of its business comes
from companies interested in teaching their teams to work as
safely, efficiently, and effectively as NASCAR pit crews do.
NASCAR pit crews work safely, quickly, and efficiently

because each crew member knows what tasks to do (change
tires, use an air gun, add gasoline, or clean up spills), and after
the crew members have finished servicing the race car, they
move new equipment into position in anticipation of the next pit
stop. At Pit Crew U, trainees actually work as pit crews. They
learn how to handle jacks, change tires, and fill fuel tanks on
race cars. They are videotaped and timed just317like real pit
crews, and they receive feedback from trainers and from
professional pit crew members who work on NASCAR teams.
Also, the program requires trainees to deal with unforeseen
circumstances similar to what they may encounter on the job.
For example, at one pit stop, lug nuts had been sprinkled
intentionally in the area where the race car stops, and the
United employees were observed to see whether they noticed
the lug nuts and cleaned them up. On their jobs, ramp
employees are responsible for removing debris from the tarmac
so that it is not sucked into jet engines or does not harm
equipment. At another pit stop, United teams had to work with
fewer members, which sometimes occurs when ramp crews are
understaffed due to absences.
United’s training is part of a multimillion-dollar investment that
includes updating equipment and providing bag scanners. The
purpose of the training is to standardize the tasks of ramp team
members, to reinforce the need for ramp teams to be orderly and
communicative, and to increase morale. Training has been
optional for ramp employees, and they have survived layoffs
and have been asked to make wage concessions to help pull the
company out of bankruptcy. United has already started
scheduling shorter ground times at some airports in anticipation
of the positive results of the program. With shorter ground
times, United can offer more daily flights without having to buy
more airplanes. United hopes to make the airline more
competitive by cutting the average airplane ground time by
eight minutes.
Action Learning
Action learning gives teams or work groups an actual problem,

has them work on solving it and committing to an action plan,
and then holds them accountable for carrying out the
plan.75 Companies use action learning to solve important
problems, develop leaders, quickly build high-performance
teams, and transform the organizational culture. Table
7.10 shows the steps involved in action learning. Several types
of problems are addressed in action learning, including how to
change the business, better use technology, remove barriers
between the customer and company, and develop global
leaders.318Typically, action learning involves between six and
thirty employees. It may also include customers and vendors.
There are several variations in the composition of the group.
One variation is that the group includes a single customer for
the problem being dealt with. Sometimes the groups include
cross-functional representatives who all have a stake in the
problem. Or the group may involve employees from multiple
functions who all focus on their own functional problems, each
contributing to solving the problems identified. Employees are
asked to develop novel ideas and solutions in a short period of
time. The teams usually need to gather data for problem solving
by visiting customers, employees, academics, and/or industry
leaders. Once the teams have gathered data and developed their
recommendations they are required to present them to top-level
executives.
TABLE 7.10 Steps in Action Learning
· Identification of the sponsors of action learning, including
CEOs and top managers
· Identification of the problem or issue
· Identification and selection of the group who can address the
problem
· Identification of coaches who can help the group reframe the
problem and improve its problem solving by listening, giving
feedback, offering assumptions, and so on
· Presentation of the problem to the group
· Group discussion that includes reframing the problem and
agreement on what the problem is, what the group should do to

solve the problem, and how the group should proceed
· Data gathering and analysis relevant to solving the problem,
done by the group as a whole as well as by individual members
· Group presentation on how to solve the problem, with the goal
of securing a commitment from the sponsors to act on the
group's recommendations
· Self-reflection and debriefing (e.g., What have the group and
group members learned? What might they have done
differently?)
Sources: Based on P. Malone, “The untapped power of action
learning,” T+D (August 2013): 54–59; M. Pedler and C.
Abbott, Facilitating Action Learning (New York: McGraw-Hill,
2013).
Consider how Sony Music and Kirin Brewery used action
learning teams to provide solutions to urgent and complex
business problems.76 Sony Music was losing income because of
sales losses due to consumers’ increased use of downloaded
music such as iTunes. An action learning team of seven
managers, all from different countries, met for a week in
London, England, to identify ways to increase revenue. The
solution they developed was a services contract in which Sony
Music would distribute music and arrange artists tours, market
their merchandise, and help get their music placed in movies
and television shows. This solution led to millions of dollars in
revenue and helped Sony sign contracts with music artists from
other record labels. Leaking beer cans and stale beer were
examples of the types of quality problems that Kirin Brewery
was experiencing, resulting in decreased sales and undermining
customer relationships. An action learning team with
representatives from customer service, sales, manufacturing,
and quality control was given the problem to develop a strategy
for producing a higher quality can. The action learning team
developed a redesigned beer can, resulting in reduced
manufacturing time, costs, and customer complaints. The
process action learning maximizes learning and transfer of
training because it involves real-time problems that employees

are facing. Also, action learning can be useful for identifying
dysfunctional team dynamics that can get in the way of
effective problem solving. Action learning at General Electric
has required employees to use and apply skills to team building,
problem solving, change management, conflict resolution,
communications, coaching, and facilitation. General Electric
believes that action learning has resulted in such benefits as
greater speed in decision making and implementation,
employees who work more easily across borders and business
units, management that is willing to take more risks, and an
increase in open dialogue and trust among employees.77
Six Sigma, Black Belt Training, and Kaizen
Six Sigma and Kaizen, black belt training programs, involve
principles of action learning. Six Sigma and Kaizen provide
employees with measurement and statistical tools to help reduce
defects and to cut costs.78Six Sigma is a quality standard with a
goal of no more than 3.4 defects per million processes. There
are several levels of Six Sigma training, resulting in employees
becoming certified as green belts, champions, or black
belts.79 To become black belts, trainees must participate in
workshops and written assignments coached by expert
instructors. The training involves four 4-day sessions over about
sixteen weeks. Between training sessions, candidates apply what
they learn to assigned projects and then use them in the next
training session. Trainees are also required to complete319not
only oral and written exams but also two or more projects that
have a significant impact on the company’s bottom line. After
completing black belt training, employees are able to develop,
coach, and lead Six Sigma teams; mentor and give advice to
management on useful Six Sigma projects; and provide Six
Sigma tools and statistical methods to team members. After
black belts lead several project teams, they can take additional
training and be certified as master black belts. Master black
belts can teach other black belts and help senior managers
integrate Six Sigma into the company’s business goals.
First Data Corporation used Six Sigma to train green belts and

yellow belts with the goal of improving the execution of
projects, alignment with customers, and creating a continuous
improvement culture.80The green belts and yellow belt
programs include e-learning, instructor-led courses, coaching,
and support transfer of training through an online community of
practice, Six Sigma fair days, assignments, and projects linked
to business goals. The Six Sigma training has resulted in
beneficial projects, resulting in outcomes such as reducing the
time it takes to hire a new employee from seventy-five to forty-
five days and reducing waste, defects, and rework.
Just Born, the company that makes Mike and Ike and Peeps
candies, uses the Wow … Now Improvement Process, a
customized Kaizen process to improve business processes and
results.81 The Wow … Now Improvement Process includes
training employees how to identify improvement opportunities,
collect data, make improvements, measure results, and refine
practices based on the results. Kaizen, the Japanese word for
improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean
manufacturing and total quality management (we discussed lean
thinking in Chapter One). Kaizen refers to practices participated
in by employees from all levels of the company that focus on
continuous improvement of business processes.82 As the Wow
… Now Improvement Process illustrates, Kaizen involves
considering a continuous cycle of activities, including planning,
doing, checking, and acting (PDCA). Statistical process control
techniques are used by employees to identify causes of
problems and potential solutions. They include process flow
analysis, cause-and-effect diagrams, control charts, histograms,
and scattergrams.
CHOOSING A TRAINING METHOD
As a trainer or manager, you will likely be asked to choose a
training method. Given the large number of training methods
available to you, this task may seem difficult. One way to
choose a training method is to compare methods. Table
7.11 evaluates each training method discussed in this chapter
according to a number of characteristics. The types of learning

outcomes related to each method are identified. Also, for each
method, a high, medium, or low rating is provided for each
characteristic of the learning environment, for transfer of
training, for cost, and for effectiveness.
TABLE 7.11 Comparison of Training Methods
320
How might you use this table to choose a training method? The
first step in choosing a method is to identify the type of
learning outcome that you want training to influence. As
discussed in Chapter Four, these outcomes include verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes,
and motor skills. Training methods may influence one or several
learning outcomes. Research on specific learning methods has
shown that for learning to be effective, the instructional method
needs to match the desired learning outcome. For example,
research on behavior modeling and role-playing shows that
these321methods lead to positive results, but their effectiveness
varies according to the evaluation criteria used.83 This
emphasizes that the particular learning method used to deliver
learning is not what is most important. Rather, the choice of the
learning method should be based on the desired learning
outcomes and the features that facilitate learning and transfer of
training. Once you have identified a learning method, the next
step is to consider the extent to which the method facilitates
learning and transfer of training, the costs related to the
development and use of the method, and its effectiveness.
As was discussed in Chapter Four, for learning to occur,
trainees must understand the objectives of the training program,
training content should be meaningful, and trainees should have
the opportunity to practice and receive feedback. Also, a
powerful way to learn is through observing and interacting with
others. As you may recall from Chapter Five, transfer of
training refers to the extent to which training will be used on
the job. In general, the more the training content and
environment prepare trainees for use of learning outcomes on

the job, the greater the likelihood that transfer will occur. As
discussed in Chapter Six, “Training Evaluation,” two types of
costs are important: development costs and administrative costs.
Development costs relate to design of the training program,
including costs to buy or create the program. Administrative
costs are incurred each time that the training method is used.
These include costs related to consultants, instructors,
materials, and trainers. The effectiveness rating is based on both
academic research and practitioner recommendations.
Several trends in Table 7.11 are worth noting. First, there is
considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the
training methods. Group building methods are unique because
they focus on individual as well as team learning (e.g.,
improving group processes). If you are interested in improving
the effectiveness of groups or teams, you should choose one of
the group building methods (e.g., adventure learning, team
training, or action learning). Second, comparing the
presentation methods to the hands-on methods illustrates that
most hands-on methods provide a better learning environment
and transfer of training than do the presentation methods. The
presentation methods are also less effective than the hands-on
methods. If you are not limited by the amount of money that can
be used for development or administration, choose a hands-on
method over a presentation method. The training budget for
developing training methods can influence the method chosen.
If you have a limited budget for developing new training
methods, use structured OJT—a relatively inexpensive, yet
effective, hands-on method. If you have a larger budget, you
might want to consider hands-on methods that facilitate transfer
of training, such as simulators. Keep in mind that many of the
methods discussed in this chapter can be adapted for use in
online learning, e-learning, and distance learning. These
training methods are discussed in Chapter Eight.
If possible, you may want to use several different methods
within a single training program to capitalize on the different
strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer.

For example, Nationwide Mutual Insurance uses several
different methods to train new agents.84 An interactive game is
used to help agents understand the life cycle of an insurance
policy. It includes an animated simulation using different
customer profiles. New agents watch and listen to experienced
agents interacting and communicating with customers both face
to face and over the phone. They also engage in self-directed
learning, including calling competitors to get an322insurance
quote and evaluating their experience.
Summary
Companies are using a variety of training methods to guide
competency development and contextual learning. Although new
technology such as social networks are being used by some
companies for training delivery and instruction, most training is
still conducted face to face with an instructor. This chapter
discussed traditional face-to-face training methods, including
presentation, hands-on, and group building training methods.
Presentation methods (such as lecturing) are effective for
efficiently communicating information (knowledge) to a large
number of trainees. Presentation methods need to be
supplemented with opportunities for trainees to practice,
discuss, and receive feedback to facilitate learning. Hands-on
methods get trainees directly involved in learning. Hands-on
methods are ideal for developing skills and behaviors. Hands-on
methods include OJT, simulations, self-directed learning,
business games, case studies, role-playing, and behavior
modeling. These methods can be expensive to develop but
incorporate the conditions needed for learning and transfer of
training to occur. Group building methods such as team
training, action learning, and adventure learning focus on
helping teams increase the skills needed for effective teamwork
(e.g., self-awareness, conflict resolution, and coordination) and
help build team cohesion and identity. Group building
techniques may include the use of presentation methods, as well
as exercises during which team members interact and
communicate with each other. Team training has a long history

of success in preparing flight crews and surgical teams, but its
effectiveness for developing management teams has not been
clearly established.
Key Terms
70-20-10 model, 293
traditional training methods, 295
presentation methods, 296
lecture, 296
audiovisual instruction, 298
hands-on methods, 299
on-the-job training (OJT), 299
self-directed learning, 301
apprenticeship, 303
simulation, 305
case study, 306
business games, 308
role-plays, 309
behavior modeling, 310
vicarious reinforcement, 310
key behavior, 311
modeling display, 311
application planning, 312
group building methods, 312
team, 312
experiential learning, 313
adventure learning, 313
team training, 315
cross training, 316
coordination training, 316
team leader training, 317
scenario-based training, 317
guided team self-correction, 317
action learning, 318
kaizen, 320
Discussion Questions
1. What are the implications of the 70-20-10 model for choosing

a training method?
2. What are the differences between social contextual learning
and guided competency development? Are both types of
learning (and associated training methods) necessary? Explain.
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the lecture, the
case study, and behavior modeling?
4. If you had to choose between adventure learning and action
learning for developing an effective team, which would you
choose? Defend your choice.
5. Discuss the process of behavior modeling training.323
6. How can the characteristics of the trainee affect self-directed
learning?
7. What are the components of effective team performance?
How might training strengthen these components?
8. Table 7.11 compares training methods on a number of
characteristics. Explain why simulation and behavior modeling
receive high ratings for transfer of training.
9. What are some reasons why on-the-job training (OJT) can
prove ineffective? What can be done to ensure its effectiveness?
10. Why are apprenticeship programs attractive to employees?
Why are they attractive to companies?
11. Discuss the steps of an action learning program. Which
aspect of action learning do you think is most beneficial for
learning? Which aspect is most beneficial for transfer of
training? Explain why. Defend your choices.
Application Assignments
1. Choose a job with which you are familiar. Develop a self-
directed learning module for a skill that is important for that
job.
2. Go to www.sabrehq.com, the website for Sabre Corporate
Development. Click on Team Building Events. Choose one of
the activities and events found on this page, and review it.
Discuss what you would do to ensure that the team building
event you selected is successful.
3. Divide into teams of two students. One student should be
designated as a “trainer,” the other as a “trainee.” The trainee

should briefly leave the room while the trainer reads the
instructions for folding a paper cup. After the trainers have read
the instructions, the trainees should return to the room. The
trainers should then train the trainees in how to fold a paper cup
(which should take about 15 minutes). When the instructor calls
time, the trainers should note the steps they followed to conduct
the training. The trainees should record their evaluations of the
strengths and weaknesses of the training session (5–10
minutes). If time allows, switch roles.
SUPPLEMENT TO APPLICATION ASSIGNMENT 3
Steps and Key Points in Folding a Paper Cup:
Steps in the Operation
Key Points
Step: A logical segment of the operation in which something is
done to advance the task.
Key point: Any directions or bits of information that help
perform the step correctly, safely, and easily.
Place 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of paper in front of you on a flat
surface.
1. Be sure that the surface is flat—free of interfering objects.
Fold the lower-left corner up.
2a. Line up the right edges.
b. Make a sharp crease.
Turn the paper over.
3. Pick up the lower-right corner with your right hand and place
it at the top. (The folded flap should not be underneath.)
Fold the excess lower edge up.
4a. Line up the right edges. The fold should line up with the
bottom edge.
b. Make a sharp crease.324

Fold the lower-left corner flush with edge “A.”
5a. Keep edges “B” and “C” parallel.
b. Hold the bottom edge in the center with your finger while
making the fold.
Fold the upper corner to point “D.”
6a. Hold the cup firmly with your left hand.
b. Bring the upper corner down with your right hand.
Separate the lower-right corner and fold back.
7a. Hold the cup with your left hand.
b. Fold back with your right hand.
c. Make sharp creases.
Turn the cup over and fold the remaining flap back.
8. Make sharp creases.
Check the cup to be sure it will hold water.
9. Open the cup and look inside.
Source: Adapted from P. Decker and B. Nathan, Behavior
Modeling Training (New York: Praeger Scientific, 1985).
Be prepared to discuss the training process and your reactions
as a trainer or trainee. Also, be prepared to discuss the extent to
which the training followed the steps for effective OJT.
4. Review one of the following websites, which feature
simulations: www.incomeoutcome.com or www.celemi.com.
Describe the situation that the simulation is designed to
represent. What elements in the simulation replicate the work
environment? How could the simulation be improved to ensure
that learning and transfer of training occur?
5. Watch the Wendy’s training video “Wendy’s Training Video
Chili Can Be Served With Cheese” on YouTube
at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOvHZDGK-kY.
How is this video effective for helping staff learn how to serve
Wendy’s food to customers? What would you add to the video

to increase its effectiveness?
6. Go to www.drumcafe.com, the website for Drum Cafe, a
company that specializes in corporate team building through the
use of drum circles. Review the website and answer the
following questions:
f. What are drum circles? What skills can participants
develop?325
f. What recommendations would you make to a company that
uses drum circles to train teams regarding how to ensure that
transfer of training occurs?
f. Do you think that drum circles are good for team training?
Why or why not?
1. Go to www.5off5on.com, the website for Pit Instruction and
Training, a company that provides training for auto racing pit
crews as well as team training. Click on “Corporate Training.”
Read about Lean Performance U and Team Performance U.
Watch the YouTube video of the training
at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6akX9THcrg and http://w
ww.youtube.com/watch?v=VVQefr0bMNo.
g. What skills can this type of training improve?
g. What could be done to ensure transfer of training occurs?
g. How would you recommend evaluating the effectiveness of
this program?
1. Go to www.ted.com, the website for TED, a nonprofit
devoted to spreading ideas through short talks. TED stands for
“Technology, Entertainment, & Design.” Choose a TED talk and
watch it. First, briefly describe the purpose and content of the
talk. Next, consider the speaker. What did they do that held (or
distracted) your attention?
1. Go
to http://www.wtb.wa.gov/Documents/OJTBestPracticesManual
_emailversion.pdf, which describes on-the-job training best
practices for the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Committee.
What steps should be taken to develop an on-the-job training
program for apprentices? List and briefly describe each step and
its importance to the training process.

Case
Training Methods for Bank Tellers
BB&T Corporation, headquartered in Winston-Salem, North
Carolina, is among the nation’s top financial holding
companies, with $186 billion in assets. Its bank subsidiaries
operate approximately 1,800 financial centers in twelve states
and Washington, D.C. BB&T’s operating strategy distinguishes
it from other financial holding companies. BB&T’s banking
subsidiaries are organized as a group of community banks, each
with a regional president, which allows decisions to be made
locally, close to the client. This also makes BB&T’s client
service more responsive, reliable, and empathetic. Typical the
bank tellers’ tasks include:
· Balancing currency, coin, and checks in cash drawers at the
end of each shift, and calculating daily transactions using
computers, calculators, or adding machines
· Cashing checks and paying out money after verifying that
signatures are correct, that written and numerical amounts
agree, and that accounts have sufficient funds
· Receiving checks and cash for deposit, verifying amounts, and
checking the accuracy of deposit slips
· Examining checks for endorsements and to verify other
information such as dates, bank names, identification of the
persons receiving payments, and the legality of the documents
· Entering customers’ transactions into computers to record
transactions and issue computer-generated receipts
· Counting currency, coins, and checks received, either by hand
or using a currency-counting machine, to prepare them for
deposit or shipment to branch banks or the Federal Reserve
Bank
· Preparing and verifying cashier’s checks
· Sorting and filing deposit slips and checks
· Ordering a supply of cash to meet daily needs
· Receiving and counting daily inventories of cash drafts and
travelers’ checks326
Recently, Apple introduced Apple Pay, which allows customers

to make credit card purchases or pay bills using contactless
payment technology and unique security features. Customers
can use their iPhones, Apple Watches, or iPads to make
payments and purchases in a simple, secure, and private way.
You can learn more about Apple Pay at www.apple.com/apple-
pay.
Describe the methods or combination of methods you would
recommend to train BB&T’s tellers on Apple Pay. Justify your
choice of methods.
Sources: Based on “BB&T Winston-Salem, North Carolina,
Channeling Aristotle,” T+D (October 2008): 50–
52; www.bbt.com, website for BB&T. Tasks and work
responsibilities are taken from http://onlinecenter.onet.org,
O*Net online summary report for bank tellers (Job Code 43-
3071.00), accessed March 25, 2015, www.apple.com/apple-pay.
Endnotes
1.M. Lombardo and R. Eichinger, The Career Architect
Development Planner, 3rd ed. (Minneapolis, MN: Lominger
Limited); D. Pontefract, Flat Army: Creating a Connected and
Engaged Organization(Boston: Jossey-Bass, 2013); E. Sinar, R.
Wellins, and R. Ray, “Seeking Answers on the Lackluster State
of Leadership,” TD (December 2014): 37–41.
2.J. Meister and K. Willyerd, The 2020 Workplace (New York:
HarperCollins, 2010).
generation instruction,” Industrial and Organizational
Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 1 (2008):
454–457.
4.B, Bell, and S. Kozlowski, “Goal orientation and ability:
Interactive effects on self-efficacy, performance, and
knowledge,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 87 (2002): 495–
505; J. Colquitt, J. LePine, and R. Noe, “Toward an integrative
theory of training motivation: A meta-analytic path analysis of
20 years of research,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 85
(2000): 678–707.

5.L. Miller, 2014 State of the Industry (Alexandria, VA:
American Society for Training & Development, 2014).
6.“Who is La Quinta?” “Culture,” and “Training”
from www.lq.com, website for La Quinta Inns and Suites,
accessed March 24, 2015; “LQ Management,
LLC,” training (January/February 2013): 94.
7.L. Miller, 2014 State of the Industry (Alexandria, VA:
American Society for Training & Development, 2013); “2014
Training Industry Report,” training (November/December
2014): 24.
8.M. Van Wart, N. J. Cayer, and S. Cook, Handbook of Training
and Development for the Public Sector (San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, 1993); R. S. House, “Classroom Instruction.” In The
ASTD Training and Development Handbook, 4th ed., ed. R. L.
Craig (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996): 437–452; J. J.
Goldsmith, “Revisiting the Lecture,” T+D (June 2014): 30–32.
9.R. Feintzeig, “Managing in the Middle: Building Middle-
Manager Morale”, Wall Street Journal (August 8, 2013): B1.
10.M. Korn, “Wanted: Gurus with actual experience,” Wall
Street Journal (July 3, 2013): B6.
11.M. Van Wart, N. J. Cayer, and S. Cook, Handbook of
Training and Development for the Public Sector (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1993).
12.“Paychex, Inc.,” training (January/February 2015): 65.
13.“PPL Electric Utilities,” training (January/February 2015):
101.
14.“Microsoft: The readiness edge always on
program,” training (January/February 2015): 58–59.
15.L. Ford, “Caught on Tape,” T+D (December 2005): 63–64.
16.R. B. Cohn, “How to Choose a Video
Producer,” training (July 1996): 58–61.
17.R. DeRouin, T. Parrish, and E. Salas, “On-the-job training:
Tips for ensuring success,” Ergonomics in Design 13 (Spring
2005): 23–26; D. Gallup and K. Beauchemin, “On-the-job
training.” In The ASTD Handbook of Training Design and

18.R. DeRouin, T. Parrish, and E. Salas, “On-the-job training:
Tips for ensuring success,” Ergonomics in Design 13 (Spring
2005): 23–26; C. Aik, “The synergies of the learning
organization, visual factory management, and on-the-job
training,” Performance Improvement 44 (2005): 15–20.
327
19.“Reliance Industries Limited, Nagothane Manufacturing
Division,” T+D (October) 2008: 78.
20.N. Woodward, “Making safety job no. 1,” HR
Magazine (January 2007): 60–65.
21.B. Filipczak, “Who owns your OJT?” training (December
1996). 44–49; R. DeRouin, T. Parrish, and E. Salas, “On-the-job
training: Tips for ensuring success,” Ergonomics in Design 13
(Spring 2005): 23–26; D. Gallup and K. Beauchemin, “On-the-
Job Training.” In The ASTD Handbook of Training Design and
22.W. J. Rothwell and H. C. Kazanas, “Planned OJT is
productive OJT,” Training and Development Journal (October
1996): 53–56; R. Buckley and J. Caple, “Developing one-to-one
training programs,” T+D (April 2010): 108–109.
23.G. M. Piskurich, Self-Directed Learning (San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1993).
24.S. Boyer and B. Lambert, “Take the handcuffs off sales team
development with self-directed learning,” T+D (November
2008): 62–66; “Hilton Worldwide,” T+D (October 2014): 72.
25.“‘Best Buy’ path to excellence,” training (January/February
2013): 106.
26.G. M. Piskurich, “Self-Directed Learning.” In The ASTD
Training and Development Handbook, 4th ed., ed. R. L. Craig
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 453–72; G. M. Piskurich,
“Developing Self-Directed Learning,” Training and
Development (March 1994): 31–36.
27.P. Warr and D. Bunce, “Trainee characteristics and the
outcomes of open learning,” Personnel Psychology 48 (1995):

347–375; T. G. Hatcher, “The ins and outs of self-directed
learning,” Training and Development (February 1997): 35–39.
28.R. W. Glover, Apprenticeship Lessons from
Abroad (Columbus, OH: National Center for Research in
Vocational Education, 1986).
29.Commerce Clearing House, Orientation-Training (Chicago:
Personnel Practices Communications, Commerce Clearing
House, 1981): 501–505; K. Tyler, “The American
apprentice,” HR Magazine (November 2013): 33–36.
30.“S. Wartenberg, “No snow days,” The Columbus
Dispatch (February 22, 2015): D1, D3.
31.A. H. Howard III, “Apprenticeships.” In The ASTD Training
and Development Handbook: 803–813.
32.K. Tyler, “The American apprentice,” HR
Magazine (November 2013): 33–36; S. Wartenberg, “No snow
days,” The Columbus Dispatch (February 22, 2015): D1, D3; L.
Weber, “Here’s one way to solve the skills gap,” Wall Street
Journal (April 28, 2014): R3.
33.M. Rowh, “The rise of the apprentice,” Human Resource
Executive (February 2006): 38–43.
34.A. Ciaccio, “‘You’re hired’: Goldcorp stint touts
opportunities in mining,” The Wall Street Journal, September
25, 2005: B6.
35.M. Rowh, “The rise of the apprentice.”
36.Eldredge v. Carpenters JATC (1981), 27 Fair Employment
Practices (Bureau of National Affairs): 479.
37.L. Sullivan, “Programmed for success,” The Columbus
Dispatch (November 3, 2013): B1, B3.
38.“Best practices and outstanding initiatives: Automatic Data
Processing, Inc.: Leaders in action,” training (January/February
2011): 94–95.
39.S. McCartney, “Addressing small errors in the cockpit,” The
Wall Street Journal (September 13, 2005): D5.
40.J. Alden and J. Kirkhorn, “Case Studies.” In The ASTD
Training and Development Handbook: 497–516.
41.H. Kelly, “Case Method Training: What It Is and How It

Works.” In Effective Training Delivery, ed. D. Zielinski
(Minneapolis: Lakewood Books, 1989): 95–96.
42.“KLA-Tencor: The Situation
Room,” training (September/October 2014): 60–61.
43.J. Martin, “Serious games,” training (September/October
2014): 43.
44.S. Wiebenga, “Guidelines for selecting, using, and
evaluating games in corporate training,” Performance
Improvement Quarterly 18 (2004): 19–36; S. Sugar, “Using
Games to Energize Dry Material,” In The ASTD Handbook of
Training Design and Delivery: 107–120.
45.D. Schwartz, J. Bransford, and D. Sears, “Efficiency and
Innovation in Transfer” In Transfer of Learning: Research and
Perspectives, ed. J. Mestre (Greenwich, CT: Information Age
Publishing, 2004); B. Roberts, “Gamification: Win, lose, or
draw,” HR Magazine (May 2014): 28–35.
46.D. Zielinski, “Training games,” HR Magazine (March 2010):
64–66.
328
47.“CMS Energy: Tackling conflicts with ‘The
Resolver,’” training (September/October 2014): 46.
48.T. Sitzmann, “A meta-analytic examination of the
instructional effectiveness of computer-based simulation
games,” Personnel Psychology, 64 (2011): 489–528.
49.S. Thiagarajan, “Instructional Games, Simulations, and Role
Plays.” In The ASTD Training and Development
Handbook: 517–533; S. Karre, “Setting the stage for effective
role plays,” T+D (November 2011): 76–77.
50.“Wequassett Resort and Golf Club: Heroic customer
service,” Training (March/April 2008): 36–37.
51.S. J. Simon and J. M. Werner, “Computer training through
behavior modeling, self-paced, and instructional approaches: A
field experiment,” Journal of Applied Psychology 81 (1996):
648–659; P. Taylor, D. Russ-Eft, and D. Chan, “A meta-analytic
review of behavior modeling training,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 90 (2005): 692–709.

52.W. C. Byham and A. Pescuric, “Behavior modeling at the
teachable moment,” Training (December 1996): 51–56.
53.P. Decker and B. Nathan, Behavior Modeling Training (New
York: Praeger Scientific, 1985).
54.Ibid.; T. T. Baldwin, “Effects of alternative modeling
strategies on outcomes of interpersonal/skills training,” Journal
of Applied Psychology, 77 (1992): 147–154.
55.J. Cannon-Bowers and C. Bowers, “Team development and
functioning.” In S. Zedeck (ed.) APA Handbook of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology (Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association, 2010): 597–650; J. Mathieu et al.,
“Team effectiveness 1997–2007: A review of recent
advancements and a glimpse into the future,” Journal of
Management 34 (2008): 410–476; S. Kozlowski and D. Ilgen,
“Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and
teams,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 7 (2006):
77–124.
56.D. Brown and D. Harvey, An Experiential Approach to
Organizational Development (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 2000); J. Schettler, “Learning by doing,” Training (April
2002): 38–43; P. Mirvis, “Executive development through
consciousness-raising experiences,” Academy of Management
Learning and Education (June 2008): 173–188.
57.S. Lueck, “Postal Service’s top inspector should be fired,
senators say,” The Wall Street Journal, (May 2, 2003): A2.
58.R. J. Wagner, T. T. Baldwin, and C. C. Rowland, “Outdoor
training: Revolution or fad?” Training and Development
Journal (March 1991): 51–57; C. J. Cantoni, “Learning the
ropes of teamwork,” The Wall Street Journal, (October 2, 1995):
A14.
59.C. Steinfeld, “Challenge courses can build strong
teams,” Training and Development (April 1997): 12–13.
60.G. Kranz, “From fire drills to funny skills,” Workforce
Management (May 2011): 28–32.
61.M. Regan, “Execs scale new heights in the name of
teamwork,” Columbus Dispatch (February 15, 2004): F2.

62.D. Mishev, “Cooking for the company,” Cooking
Light (August 2004): 142–147.
63.G. M. Tarullo, “Making outdoor experiential training
work,” training (August 1992): 47–52.
64.“Lending a hand,” T+D (December 2013): 72.
65.C. Clements, R. J. Wagner, and C. C. Roland, “The ins and
outs of experiential training,” Training and
Development (February 1995): 52–56.
66.G. M. McEvoy, “Organizational change and outdoor
management education,” Human Resource Management 36
(1997): 235–250.
67.M. Marks, J. Mathieu, and S. Zaccaro, “A temporally based
framework and taxonomy of team processes,” Academy of
Management Review 26 (2001): 356–376.
68.E. Salas and J. A. Cannon-Bowers, “Strategies for Team
Training.” In Training for 21st-Century Technology:
Applications for Psychological Research, eds. M. A. Quinones
Association, 1997): 249–281.
69.R. L. Oser et al., Toward a Definition of Teamwork: An
Analysis of Critical Team Behaviors, Technical Report 89-004
(Orlando, FL: Naval Training Research Center, 1989).
70.E. Salas and J. A. Cannon-Bowers, “Strategies for Team
Training.” In Training for 21st-Century Technology:
Applications of Psychological Research, eds. M. A. Quinones
Association, 1997): 249–281.
329
71.M. Marks et al., “The impact of cross-training on team
effectiveness,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 87 (2002): 3–13.
72.E. Salas, C. Burke, and J. Cannon-Bowers, “What We Know
about Designing and Delivering Team Training: Tips and
Guidelines.” In Creating, Implementing, and Managing
Effective Training and Development,ed. K. Kraiger (San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2002): 234–262.
73.R. Noe, A. Dachner, B. Saxton, and K. Keeton, Team

Training for Long-Duration Missions in Isolated and Confined
Environments: A Literature Review, Operational Assessment,
and Recommendations for Practice and Research. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Technical
Report NASM/TM-2011-216162, available
from http://ston.jsc.nasa.giv/collections/TRS.
74.S. Carey, “Racing to improve,” The Wall Street
Journal (March 24, 2006): B1, B6.
75.M. Pedler and C. Abbott, Facilitating Action Learning (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2013); D. Dotlich and J. Noel, Active
Learning: How the World’s Top Companies Are Recreating
Their Leaders and Themselves(San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,
1998).
76.M. Marquardt, “Action learning around the
world,” T+D (February 2015): 44–49.
77.M. Marquardt, “Harnessing the power of action
learning,” T+D (June 2004): 26–32
78.H. Lancaster, “This kind of black belt can help you score
some points at work,” The Wall Street Journal, (September 14,
1999): B1; S. Gale, “Building frameworks for six sigma
success,” Workforce (May 2003): 64–66.
79.J. DeFeo, “An ROI story,” Training and Development (July
2000): 25–27.
80.“First Data Corporation: Six Sigma accreditation
program,” training (January/February 2014): 110–111.
81.M. Sallie-Dosunmu, “Born to grow,” TD (May 2006): 33–37.
82.A. Brunet and S. New, “Kaizen in Japan: An empirical
study,” International Journal of Production and Operations
Management 23 (2003): 1426–1446.
83.M. Burke and R. Day, “A cumulative study of the
effectiveness of managerial training,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 71 (1986): 232–245.
84.“Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company: Fast-start for
agents,” training (January/February 2015): 107.

Traditional Training MethodsThe communication of learne.docx

Traditional Training MethodsThe communication of learne.docx

More Related Content

Similar to Traditional Training MethodsThe communication of learne.docx (20)

More from juliennehar (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Traditional Training MethodsThe communication of learne.docx