turbo machinery lecture notes.pdf

Turbo Machinery (Meng3201) Lecture Notes
Tsegaye Getachew Alenka
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Wolaita Sodo University
tsegaye.getachew@wsu.edu.et
February 26, 2023
Contents
1 Course Objectives and Competence 1
2 Introduction 1
2.1 Turbomachinery Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1.1 Classification Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Thermodynamics and Basic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Centrifugal pumps and fans 4
3.1 Introduction: Pumps other than Rotary Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.1 Characteristics of Dynamic Pumps against (PDP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Centrifugal Pump Impeller flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Efficiency and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 Performance characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5 Design of pumps, cavitation, water hammer and losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5.1 Dimensionless Pump Performance, Similarity & Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 Review Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Axial flow Pumps and Fans 12
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Stage Pressure Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Pump System Design and System Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Pumps Connected in Parallel, Series, Special Cases such as Multi-stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4.1 Special Case Problems: Multiple Stage Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Steam turbines 18
6 Gas Turbine 20
6.1 Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7 Hydraulic turbines 21
7.1 Pelton Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.2 Francis Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3 Power Specific Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8 Objective Questions 26
List of Figures
1 a. Thermodynamic system surrounding definition b. Control Volume Mass Balance . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Deceleration of Air in a Diffuser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 a.schematic of a typical centrifugal pump b.vane profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
I

4 a. Inlet and exit velocity diagrams for a pump impeller. b. Theoretical effect of blade exit angle on
pump head versus discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 Centrifugal pump perform. curves at const. impeller rotatn. speed. a. arbitrary unit b. measured
perform. of typical centr. water pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6 a. Measured perform. of typical centrifugal water pump in dimensionless form b. Pump Similarity . . 9
7 An axialflow pump: (a) basic geometry; (b) stator blades and exit velocity triangle; (c) rotor blades
and exitvelocity triangles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8 a. Dimensionless performance curves for a typical axialflow pump, Ns=12,000. Constructed from data
given b. Optimum efficiency of pumps versus capacity and specific speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9 Three types of system-head curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
10 Performance and operating points of two pumps a. operating singly and combined in parallel b. com-
bined in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
11 Seven stage centrifugal propane compressor cross section which delivers 40,000 ft3/min at 35,000 bhp
and a pres-sure rise of 300 lbf/in2
. Note the second inlet at stage 5 and the varying impeller designs. 16
12 (a) schematic diagram of steam power plant (b)impulse steam turbine principle (c) Reaction type . . . 19
13 (a)impulse turbine enthalpy and pressure drop (b) h& pr drop Reaction Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
14 a. Idealized actuator-disk and streamtube analysis of flow through a windmill. b. Estimated perfor-
mance of various wind turbine designs as a function of blade-tip speed ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
15 Impulse turbine: side view of wheel and jet; top view of bucket; and typical velocity diagram. . . . . . 22
16 a. Efficiency of an impulse turbine calculated from Eq 21 [1] solid curve:ideal β − 180o
, Cv = 1 dashed
curve: actual β = 160o
, Cv = 0.94, open circles data, Pelton wheel, diameter 2ft b. Efficiency versus
power level for various turbine designs at constant speed and Head c. Optimum efficiency of turbine
designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
17 a. Reaction turbines: 1. Francis, Radial type; 2. Francis mixed-flow; 3 propeller axialflow, b. perfor-
mance curves for a Francis turbine, n = 600rpm, D = 2.25ft, Nsp = 29 c. Optimum Power Performance
d. Operation Ranges of water turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
List of Tables
1 Classifications of Turbo Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Schematic design of positive-displacement pumps (PDP): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I

1 Course Objectives and Competence
Turbo machinery introduces the law of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, the means by which the energy transfer
is achieved in the chief types of turbomachine together with the differing behavior of individual types in operation. The
course applies basic principles and equations governing the steady and unsteady compressible fluid flow associated with
the Turbomachinery, fundamental needs to solve Turbomachinery problems are given and practical applications, design
aspects of the Turbomachinery parts and the methods to analyze the flow behavior that depends on the geometric
configuration of the turbomachines, machine produces or absorbs work. Objective of turbomachinery course and it’s
competency include:
ˆ Introducing the basic principles underlying all forms of pumping machinery.
ˆ Conducting a full analysis of the performance characteristics of various types of pumps, fans, and compressors
including the operational-type problems.
ˆ Introducing the main design aspects of various types of pumps, fans, and compressors.
ˆ Introducing the basic principles underlying all forms of pumping machinery.
ˆ Conducting a full analysis of the performance characteristics of various types of pumps, fans, and compressors
including the operational-type problems.
ˆ Introducing the main design aspects of various types of pumps, fans, and compressors.
ˆ To develop the ability for conducting a full analysis of a pumping system and for solving a wide range of
operational-type problems.
ˆ To demonstrate the ability to carry out a laboratory experiment for obtaining the performance characteristics
of a given pump.
ˆ To develop the ability for selecting the proper pump for a specific application and also to select the proper
method for flow rate control.
ˆ To demonstrate the ability for introducing design modifications for changing the performance characteristics for
a given pump.
ˆ Ability to conduct a performance analysis of a centrifugal compressor and to solve various operational-type
problems.
ˆ Understanding the common problems in the operation of dynamic pumps and different methods of flow rate
control.
ˆ Understanding the main design considerations for radial-, mixed-, and axial-flow pumps.
ˆ Students will be to carry out various design tasks related to pumping systems and also to select the proper pump
for a specific use.
ˆ Demonstrating the ability for solving a wide range of problems that may arise in related engineering practice.
2 Introduction
The most common practical engineering application for fluid mechanics is the design of fluid machinery. The most
numerous types are machines which add energy to the fluid (the pump family), but also important are those which
extract energy (turbines). Both types are usually connected to a rotating shaft, hence the name turbomachinery.
The pump is the oldest fluid-energy-transfer device known. At least two designs date before Christ: (1) the undershot-
bucket waterwheels, or norias, used in Asia and Africa (1000 B.C.) and (2) Archimedes’ screw pump (250 B.C.), still
being manufac- tured today to handle solid-liquid mixtures. Paddlewheel turbines were used by the Romans in 70
B.C., and Babylonian windmills date back to 700 B.C. [1] [2] Machines which deliver liquids are simply called pumps,
but if gases are involved, three different terms are in use, depending upon the pressure rise achieved. If the pressure
rise is very small (a few inches of water), a gas pump is called a fan; up to 1 atm, it is usually called a blower; and
above 1 atm it is commonly termed a compressor. [2] [3]
2.1 Turbomachinery Classification
Fluid machine is a device exchanging energy (work) between a fluid and a mechanical system. In particular: a turbo
machine is a device using a rotating mechanical system. Fluid machines are those devices that are used to either move
fluid or extract energy from it. Turbo machinery: is a device that exchanges energy with a fluid using continuously
flowing fluid and rotating blades. Turbo machine include all those machine that produce power such as turbines, as
well as those types that produce head or pressure, such as center fugal pumps and compressors.
1

2.1.1 Classification Criteria
According to the various criteria, classifications of fluid machines and further categories summarized as: Pictures are
Table 1: Classifications of Turbo Machinery
Based on direction of flow of energy
Power Machines (Turbines):extract
energy from flow medium and transfer
it to shaft of the machine.
Work Machine: deliver energy from
the shaft of the machine to the flow
medium.
... ...
Power Machines: Based on kind of energy source
1. Water turbines :- convert pressure energy fur-
ther classified based on fluid flow head develop-
ment
(a) Impulse: velocity head
(b) Reaction: pressure head
2. Wind turbines:- convert kinetic energy of the
air further classified based on axis of rotation
(a) Horizontal axis
(b) vertical axis
3. Heat Turbines:- Convert heat energy of the gas
or steam
(a) steam turbines: further classified based on
fluid flow head development
i. Impulse: velocity head
ii. Reaction: pressure head
(b) Gas turbines further classified based on di-
rection and type of fluid flow
i. Axial: fluid flow parallel to machine
axis
ii. Radial/centrifugal: fluid flow perpen-
dicular to machine axis
Working Machines (Pumps): According to the kind of
flow medium and pressure generated working machines are
further classified into
1. Pumps (Liquid Medium)further classified based on di-
rection and type of fluid flow
(a) Reciprocating: fluid machine back & pro
(b) Rotary: axial, radial and mixed
2. Compressors (Gas Medium)further classified based on
direction and type of fluid flow
(a) Reciprocating: fluid machine back & pro
(b) Rotary: axial, radial and mixed
3. Fans: Low pressure rise: further classified based on
direction and type of fluid flow
(a) Axial: fluid flow parallel to machine axis
(b) Radial/centrifugal: fluid flow perpendicular to
machine axis
4. Blowers: medium Pressure rise further classified based
on direction and type of fluid flow
(a) Axial: fluid flow parallel to machine axis
(b) Radial/centrifugal: fluid flow perpendicular to
machine axis
5. Turbo-Compressors: high pressure rise
obtained from references [1] [2]
2.2 Application
Applications of turbomachineries include but not limited to:
1. Electricity generation (Hydro Turbines, Steam and Gas Turbines, Wind Turbines)
2. Jet engine (Multi-stage Turbines and Multi-stage Compressors coupled)
3. Industrial and miscellaneous service (Air Compressors in Pneumatic systems, pumps in
4. Hydraulic and cooling systems and also in steam generating cycle)
5. HVAC (Pumps, blowers, fans)
6. Refrigerators (centrifugal compressor)
7. Agriculture (pumps)
8. Automobiles (Radiator i.e air fan, Turbocharger i.e energy recovery unit)
9. Propellers in ships
2

2.3 Thermodynamics and Basic Relations
Thermodynamics derived from Greek words thermo (heat) and dynamics (power). The fundamental theories of
thermodynamics relevant to turbomachineries include
ˆ Conservation of energy principle: States that during an interaction, energy can change from one form to
another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed
ˆ The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conservation of energy principle, and it
asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property
ˆ The second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.
ˆ Zeroth law of thermodynamics When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Thermodynamic system i.e. definition shown in the figure 1 [1] [2] It’s defined as a definite area or a space where
some thermodynamic process takes place Internal energy (u): That portion of total energy E which is not kinetic or
(a) (b)
Figure 1: a. Thermodynamic system surrounding definition b. Control Volume Mass Balance
potential energy. It includes thermal, chemical, electric, magnetic, and other forms of energy Change in the specific
internal energy A large number of engineering devices such as turbines, compressors, and nozzles operate for long
periods of time under the same conditions once the transient start-up period is completed and steady operation is
established, and they are classified as steady-flow devices. Mark here that internal energy CvdT and internal work or
flow work CP dT incorporated in new thermodynamic property called enthalpy dh = CvdT + CP dT in equation 2.
du = CvdT (1)
That is, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume, but at any point, they remain
constant during the entire process. Thus, the volume V, the mass m, and the total energy content E of the control
volume remain constant. The mass and Energy balance for a general steady-flow system was given
ṁ1 = ṁ2 & → ρ1V1A1 = ρ2V2A2
| {z }
Continuity
......
Ė1 − Ė2
| {z }
Rate of Energ. Transfer Due to
Heat, Work and Mass Transfer
= dESustem/dt
0
| {z }
Rate of Change of Internal,
Kinetic, Potential, etc Energ
= 0
Q̇in + Ẇin + ṁin
X
in
(h +
v2
2
+ gz)
| {z }
for each inlet
= Q̇out + Ẇout + ṁout
X
exit
(h +
v2
2
+ gz)
| {z }
for each exit
∆Q̇ − ∆Ẇ = ṁ(h2 − h1 +
v2
2 − v2
1
2
+ g(z2 − z1))
q − w = h2 − h1 +
v2
2 − v2
1
2
+ g(z2 − z1)
(2)
Noting that energy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass only, the energy balance in the above equation for a
general steady-flow system can also be written more explicitly in the subsequent rows in equation 2 [4]
3

2.4 Review Questions
1. Air at 10°C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area
of the diffuser is 0.4 m2The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared with the inlet
velocity. Determine using equation 2 (a) the mass flow rate of the air and (b) the temperature of the air leaving
the diffuser. [1] [4]
Figure 2: Deceleration of Air in a Diffuser
2. Describe the classification of turbo machinery
3. What are the drawbacks and advantages of dynamic pumps
4. List the construction types of positive displacement pumps PDPs and write down advantage and drawbacks of
PDPs
3 Centrifugal pumps and fans
There are two basic types of pumps: positive-displacement and dynamic or momentum- change pumps. There are
several billion of each type in use in the world today. Positive-displacement pumps (PDPs) force the fluid along by
volume changes. A cavity opens, and the fluid is admitted through an inlet. The cavity then closes, and the fluid is
squeezed through an outlet. The mammalian heart is a good example, and many mechanical designs are in wide use.
3.1 Introduction: Pumps other than Rotary Pumps
Depending on how the pressure head generated in the pumping system design, pumps can either be positive displace-
ment and rotary. Pump classifications are presented in the table 1. [4] All PDPs deliver a pulsating or periodic
flow as the cavity volume opens, traps, and squeezes the fluid. Their great advantage is the delivery of any fluid
regardless of its viscosity. Schematics of the operating principles of seven of these PDPs. It is rare for such devices
to be run backward, so to speak, as turbines or energy ex- tractors, the steam engine (reciprocating piston) being a
classic exception. Since PDPs compress mechanically against a cavity filled with liquid, a common feature is that they
develop immense pressures if the outlet is shut down for any reason. Dynamic pumps can be classified as Table 2
3.1.1 Characteristics of Dynamic Pumps against (PDP)
Sturdy construction is required, and complete shutoff would cause damage if pressure relief valves were not used.
Dynamic pumps simply add momentum to the fluid by means of fast moving blades or vanes or certain special
designs. There is no closed volume: The fluid increases momentum while moving through open passages and then
converts its high velocity to a pressure increase by exiting into a diffuser section. Dynamic pumps generally provide
a higher flow rate than PDPs and a much steadier discharge but are ineffective in handling high viscosity liquids.
Dynamic pumps also generally need priming; i.e., if they are filled with gas, they cannot suck up a liquid from below
into their inlet. The PDP, on the other hand, is self-priming for most applications. A dynamic pump can provide very
high flow rates (up to 300,000 gal/min) but usually with moderate pressure rises (a few atmospheres). In contrast, a
PDP can operate up to very high pressures (300 atm) but typically produces low flow rates (100 gal/min) [5]
. The relative performance (∆pversusQ) is quite different for the two types of pump, as shown in table 2 (h). At
constant shaft rotation speed, the PDP produces nearly constant flow rate and virtually unlimited pressure rise, with
little effect of viscosity. The flow rate of a PDP cannot be varied except by changing the displacement or the speed.
The reliable constant speed discharge from PDPs has led to their wide use in metering flows. The dynamic pump, by
contrast in Table 2, provides a continuous constant-speed variation of performance, from near-maximum ∆p at zero
flow (shutoff conditions) to zero ∆p at maximum flow rate. High viscosity fluids sharply degrade the performance of a
dynamic pump. [1] [4]
4

Table 2: Schematic design of positive-displacement pumps (PDP):
(a) reciprocating piston or plunger, (b) external gear pump, (c) threelobe pump,
(d) double-screw pump, (e) sliding vane, threelobe pump, (f)
vane design of dynamic pump
families for
various specific speed.
(g) flexible-tube squeegee. (h) performance curves of typical
dynamic and positive displacement
pumps at constant speed.
(i) double circumferential piston,
3.2 Centrifugal Pump Impeller flow
The modern centrifugal pump is a formidable device, able to deliver very high heads and reasonable flow rates with
excellent efficiency. It can match many system requirements. But basically the centrifugal pump is a high-head, and
low-flow machine
If the mechanical energy converted into hydraulic energy by centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the pump is known as
centrifugal pump. In these pumps, the liquid passes through the rotating element and its angular momentum changes.
Due to the change of angular momentum, the pressure energy increases. The centrifugal pump consists of an impeller
rotating within a casing. Fluid enters axially through the eye of the casing, is caught up in the impeller blades, and
is whirled tangentially and radially outward until it leaves through all circumferential parts of the impeller into the
diffuser part of the casing. The fluid gains both velocity and pressure while passing through the impeller. The dough
nut shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing decelerates the flow and further increases the pressure.
The impeller blades are usually backwardcurved, as in Fig.??, but there are also radial and forward-curved blade
designs, which slightly change the output pressure. The blades may be open, i.e., separated from the front casing only
by a narrow clearance, or closed, i.e., shrouded from the casing on both sides by an impeller wall. The diffuser may
be vaneless, as in Fig. 3 a., or fitted with fixed vanes to help guide the flow toward the exit 3 b. [5] [6]. To actually
predict the head, power, efficiency, and flow rate of a pump, two theoretical approaches are possible: (1) simple 1
dimensional flow formulas and (2) complex digital computer models which account for viscosity and 3 dimensionality.
To construct an elementary theory of pump performance, we assume 1 dimensional flow and combine idealized fluid
velocity vectors through the impeller with the angular momentum theorem for a control volume see Fig. 4. The fluid is
5

(a) (b)
Figure 3: a.schematic of a typical centrifugal pump b.vane profile
(a) (b)
Figure 4: a. Inlet and exit velocity diagrams for a pump impeller. b. Theoretical effect of blade exit angle on pump head versus discharge
assumed to enter the impeller at r = r1 with velocity component w1 tangent to the blade angle β1 plus circumferential
speed u1 = ωr1 matching the tip speed of the impeller. Its absolute entrance velocity is thus the vector sum of w1 and
u1, shown as V1. Similarly, the flow exits at r = r2 with component w2 parallel to the blade angle β2 plus tip speed
u2 = ωr2 with resultant velocity V2. Using angular momentum theorem, the applied torque T
T = ρQ(r2Vt2 − r1Vt1) (3)
where Vt1 and Vt2 are the absolute circumferential velocity components of the flow. The power delivered to the fluid
is thus head H becomes
Pw = ωT = ωρQ(r2Vt2 − r1Vt1) → H =
P
ρQg
=
1
g
(r2Vt2 − r1Vt1)
These are Eulor Equations another form from geometry 4
V 2
= w2
+ u2
− 2uwcosβ but w cosβ = u − Vt
uVt =
1
2
(V 2
+ u2
− w2
) H =
1
g
((V 2
2 − V 2
1 ) + (u2
2 − U2
1 ) − (w2
2 − w2
1))
(4)
Therefore, Bernoulli head
H =

P2
ρg
+
V 2
2
2g
+ z2

−

P1
ρg
+
V 2
1
2g
+ z1

substituting Equation 4 in Eq. 5
P
ρg
+
w2
2g
+ z −
rω2
2g
= constPw = ρg(u2Vn2cotα2 − u1Vn1cotα1)
(5)
and where b1 and b2 are the blade widths at inlet and exit. With the pump parameters r1, r2, β1β2, ω known, Eqs.
5 is used to compute idealized power and head versus discharge. The “design” flow rate Q∗ is commonly estimated
by assuming that the flow enters exactly normal to the impeller α1 = 90o
, Vn1 = Q
2πr1b1
= V1 We can expect this
simple analysis to yield estimates within ±25 % percent for the head, water horsepower, and discharge of a pump.
Let us illustrate with an example.
6

3.3 Efficiency and performance
The power delivered to the fluid simply equals the specific weight times the discharge times the net head change:
traditionally called the water horsepower. The power required to drive the pump is the brake horsepower, he power
required to drive the pump is the brake horsepower,
Pw = ρgQH quadbhp = ωT
η =
bhp
Pw
=
ωT
ρgQH
, hydraulic Efficiency:
manometric Efficiency
ηv =
Q
Q + Qloss





Euler’s Turbomachinery Rel. (6)
where ω is the shaft angular velocity and T the shaft torque. If there were no losses, Pw and brake horsepower would
be equal, but of course Pw is actually less, and the efficiency of the pump is defined in equation ?? where QL is the
loss of fluid due to leakage in the impeller-casing clearances. The hydraulic efficiency is
hydraulic etah = 1 −
hf
hs
where hf is friction loss
hs inlet blade mismatch shock losses
mechanical ηm = 1 −
Pf
bhp
wherePf is bearing friction power loss
overall pump efficiency η = ηvηhηm
(7)
Effects of Blade Angle on Pump Head: The simple theory above can be used to predict an important blade-angle
effect. If we neglect inlet angular momentum, Eqn. 8 is the theoretical water horsepower:
Pw = ρQu2Vt2
Vt2 = u2 − Vn2 cotβ2
Vn2 =
Q
2πr2b2
H ≈
u2
2g
−
u2 cotβ2
2πr2b2g
Q
(8)
The head varies linearly with discharge Q having a shutoff value u2
2/g, where u2 is the exit blade-tip speed. The slope
is negative if β2 90o
(backward curved blades) and positive for β2 90o
(forward curved blades). This effect is
shown in Fig. 4 (b) and is accurate only at low flow rates. The measured shutoff head of centrifugal pumps is only
about 60 percent of the theoretical value H0 = ω2r2
/2g. The positive slope condition in Fig. 4 can be unstable and
can cause pump surge, an oscillatory condition where the pump ”hunts” for the proper operating point. Surge may
cause only rough operation in a liquid pump, but it can be a major problem in gas compressor operation. For this
reason a backward curved or radial blade design is generally preferred. [1].
3.4 Performance characteristics
Since the theory of the previous section is rather qualitative, the only solid indicator of a pump’s performance lies in
extensive testing. For the moment let us discuss the centrifugal pump in particular. The general principles and the
presentation of data are exactly the same for mixed flow and axial flow pumps and compressors. Performance charts
are almost always plotted for constant shaft-rotation speed n (in r/min usually). The basic independent variable is
taken to be discharge Q (in gal/min usually for liquids and ft3
/min for gases). The dependent variables, or ”output”
are taken to be head H (pressure rise ∆P for gases), brake horsepower (bhp), and efficiency η.
Figure 5 a. shows typical performance curves for a centrifugal pump. The head is approximately constant at low
discharge and then drops to zero at Q = Qmax. At this speed and impeller size, the pump cannot deliver any more
fluid than Qmax. The positive slope part of the head is shown dashed; as mentioned earlier, this region can be unstable
and can cause hunting for the operating point. The efficiency η is always zero at no flow and at Qmax, and it reaches
a maximum, perhaps 80 to 90 percent, at about 0.6Qmax. This is the design flow rate Q∗ or best efficiency point
(BEP), η = ηmax. The head and horsepower at BEP will be termed H∗ and P∗ (or bhp∗), respectively. It is desirable
that the efficiency curve be flat near ηmax so that a wide range of efficient operation is achieved.
However, some designs simply do not achieve flat efficiency curves. Note that η is not independent of H and P but
rather is calculated from the relation in Eq. ??, η = ρgQH/Pw. As shown in Fig. 5 a., the horsepower required to
drive the pump typically rises monotonically with the flow rate. The net positive suction head (NPSH) of pump use
for pump similarity analysis defined as:
NPSH =
Pi
ρg
+
vi
2g
−
Pv
ρg
NPSH =
Pi
ρg
+
vi
2g
−
Pv
ρg
If the pump inlet is placed at
a heightZiabove a reservoir whose free surface
is at pressurePa, hfiis the friction head loss
between the reservoir and the pump inlet
(9)
7

(a) (b)
Figure 5: Centrifugal pump perform. curves at const. impeller rotatn. speed. a. arbitrary unit b. measured perform. of typical centr.
water pump
where pi and V i are the pressure and velocity at the pump inlet and pv is the vapor pressure of the liquid. Sometimes
there is a large power rise beyond the BEP, especially for radial tipped and forward curved blades. This is considered
undesirable because a much larger motor is then needed to provide high flow rates. Backward curved blades typically
have their horsepower level off above BEP (”nonoverloading” type of curve).
Figure 5b. [1] shows actual performance data for a commercial centrifugal pump. Figure 5 b. is for a basic casing size
with three different impeller diameters. The head curves H(Q) are shown, but the horsepower and efficiency curves
have to be inferred from the contour plots. Maximum discharges are not shown, being far outside the normal operating
range near the BEP. Everything is plotted raw, of course [feet, horsepower, gallons per minute (1U.S.gal = 231in3
)]
since it is to be used directly by designers.
If the pump with performance in Fig. 5b. were used to deliver a dense and viscous fluid, say, mercury, the brake
horsepower would be about 13 times higher while Q, H, and η would be about the same. But in that case H should
be interpreted as feet of mercury, not feet of water. If the pump were used for SAE 30 oil, all data would change
(brake horsepower, Q, H, and η due to the large change in viscosity (Reynolds number). Again this should become
clear with the similarity rules. In the top of Fig. 5 is plotted the net positive suction head (NPSH), which is the
head required at the pump inlet to keep the liquid from cavitating or boiling. The pump inlet or suction side is the
low-pressure point where cavitation will first occur. The NPSH is defined in 9 Given the left hand side, NPSH, from
the pump performance curve, we must ensure that the right-hand side is equal or greater in the actual system to avoid
cavitation.
3.5 Design of pumps, cavitation, water hammer and losses
There are so many factors that contribute to deviation of practical pump performance from ideal case in section 3.4 If
cavitation does occur, there will be pump noise and vibration, pitting damage to the impeller, and a sharp dropoff in
pump head and discharge. In some liquids this deterioration starts before actual boiling, as dissolved gases and light
hydrocarbons are liberated. The actual pump head data in Fig. 5 differ considerably from ideal theory, Eq.??. Take,
e.g., the 36.75 in diameter pump at 1170 r/min in Fig. 5 b. The theoretical shutoff head is H0(ideal)
H0 =
ω2
r2
g
=
[1170rpm(2πrad/60sec)]
2
[(36.75/2)/12ft]
2
32.2ft/sec2
= 1093ft
From Fig 5, at Q = 0, we read the actual shutoff head to be only 670 ft, or 61 percent of the theoretical value. This
is a sharp dropoff and is indicative of nonrecoverable losses of three types:
ˆ Impeller recirculation loss, significant only at low flow rates
ˆ Friction losses on the blade and passage surfaces, which increase monotonically with the flow rate
ˆ ”Shock” loss due to mismatch between the blade angles and the inlet flow direction, especially significant at high
flow rates.
3.5.1 Dimensionless Pump Performance, Similarity Selection Rules
For a given pump design, the output variables H = n2
D2
and brake horsepower should be dependent upon discharge
which is an order of dimension nD5
, i.e Q = f(nD3
), Q = f(n3
D5
) and impeller diameter D, and shaft speed n,
8

at least. Other possible parameters are the fluid density ρ, viscosity µ, surface roughness ϵ. Thus the performance
curves in Fig. 5 are equivalent to the following assumed functional relations ( refer fluid mechanics module section 2.6
page 13 onwards in order to fully comprehend the derivation).
Note that only the power coefficient contains fluid density, the parameters CQ∗ and CH∗ being kinematic types. Figure
5 gives no warning of viscous or roughness effects. The Reynolds numbers are from 0.8 to 1.5 ×107
or fully turbulent
flow in all passages probably. The roughness is not given and varies greatly among commercial pumps. But at such
high Reynolds numbers we expect more or less the same percentage effect on all these pumps. Therefore it is common
to assume that the Reynolds number and the roughness ratio have a constant effect, so that Eqs. 10 a.,b., c. reduce
to d., approximately.
CQ∗ =
Q
nD3
a. Capacity coefficient
CH∗ =
gH
n2D2
b. Head coefficient
CP ∗ =
bhp
ρn3D5
c. Power coefficient
CP ∗ ≈ CH∗(CQ∗),
...
CP ∗ ≈ CH∗(CQ∗)





η =
CH∗CQ∗
CP ∗
= η(CQ∗) d. non dimensional coeffs.





























(10)
For geometrically similar pumps, we expect head and power coefficients to be (nearly) unique functions of the capacity
coefficient. We have to watch out that the pumps are geometrically similar or nearly so because
1. manufacturers put different-sized impellers in the same casing, thus violating geometric similarity, and
2. large pumps have smaller ratios of roughness and clearances to impeller diameter than small pumps.
3. In addition, the more viscous liquids will have significant Reynolds-number effects; e.g., a factor of 3 or more
viscosity increase causes a clearly visible effect on CQ∗ and CQ∗.
The efficiency η already dimensionless and is uniquely related to the other three. It varies with CQ also η(CQ∗)
Figure 6a. and Figure 5b. are plots of the pump performance data from typical centrifugal water pump manufacturer
in nondimensional and dimensional form respectively. Though these numbers in the plots are not representative of
other pump designs, the dimensionless equivalent of that of dimensional exhibit more accuracy as it captures sensitive
to slight discrepancies in model scaling up.
If pump 1 and pump 2 are from the same geometric family and are operating at homologous points (the same
(a) (b)
Figure 6: a. Measured perform. of typical centrifugal water pump in dimensionless form b. Pump Similarity
dimensionless position on a chart such as Fig. 6, their flow rates, heads, and powers will be related in Eq 11. There
are the similarity rules, which can be used to estimate the effect of changing the fluid, speed, or size on any dynamic
turbomachine pump or turbine within a geometrically similar family. A graphic display of these rules is given in Fig.
9

6 b., showing the effect of speed and diameter changes on pump performance. In Fig. 6 b. the size is held constant in
the middle chart and the speed is varied 20 percent, while the last chart shows a 20 percent size change at constant
speed. The curves are plotted to scale but with arbitrary units. The speed effect is substantial, but the size effect is
even more dramatic, especially for power, which varies as D5
.
Q∗2
Q∗1
=
n2
n1

D2
D1
3
discharge similarity
P∗2
P∗1
=

n2
n1
3
D2
D1
5
brakepower similarity
1 − η2
1 − η1
≈

D2
D1
1/4
Moody Efficiency similarity
0.94 − η2
0.94 − η1
≈

D2
D1
0.32
Anderson’s Eff. similarity
(11)
Generally, we see that a given pump family can be adjusted in size and speed to fit a variety of system characteristics.
Strictly speaking, we would expect for perfect similarity that η1 = η2 but we have seen that larger pumps are more
efficient, having a higher Reynolds number and lower roughness and clearance ratios. Two empirical correlations are
recommended for maximum efficiency. One, developed by Moody [1] for turbines but also used for pumps, is a size
effect. The other, suggested by Anderson [1] from thousands of pump tests, is a flow rate effect. makes the practical
observation that even an infinitely large pump will have losses. He thus proposes a maximum possible efficiency of 94
percent, rather than 100 percent. Anderson recommends that the same formula be used for turbines if the constant
0.94 is replaced by 0.95. The formulas in Eq. 11 assume the same value of surface roughness for both machines, one
could micropolish a small pump and achieve the efficiency of a larger machine.
Viscosity Effect on Performance of Centrifugal Pump: Centrifugal pumps are often used to pump oils and
other viscous liquids up to 1000 times the viscosity of water. But the Reynolds numbers become low turbulent or
even laminar, with a strong effect on performance. Typical test shown that high viscosity causes a dramatic drop
in head and discharge and increases in power requirements. The efficiency also drops substantially according to the
following typical results:.Beyond about 300 µwater however, the deterioration in performance is so great that a positive
displacement pump is recommended. [1]
Example 1 Given are the following data for a commercial centrifugal water pump: r1 = 4in, r2 = 7in, β1 = 30o
, n =
1440rpm Estimate (a) the design-point discharge, (b) the water horsepower, and (c) the head if b1 = b2 = 1.75in.
10

Example 2: The 32-in pump of Fig. 5 is to pump 24,000 gal/min of water at 1170 r/min from a reservoir whose sur-
face is at 14.7lbf/in2
absolute. If head loss from reservoir to pump inlet is 6 ft, where should the pump inlet be placed
to avoid cavitation for water at (a) 60o
F, pv = 0.26lbf/in2
absolute, SG = 1.0 and (b) 200o
F, pv = 11.52lbf/in2
absolute, SG = 0.9635?
Example 3 A pump from the family of Fig. 6 has D=21 in and n=1500 rpm. Estimate (a) discharge,(b) head, (c)
pressure rise, and (d) brake horsepower of this pump for water at 60o
F and best efficiency.
Example 4 We want to build a pump from the family of Fig. 6 which delivers 3000 gal/min water at 1200 rpm at
11

best efficiency. Estimate (a) the impeller diameter, (b) the maximum discharge, (c) the shutoff head, and (d) the
NPSH at best efficiency.
3.6 Review Question
1. We want to use a centrifugal pump from the family of Fig. 6 to deliver 100,000 gal/min of water at 60o
F with
a head of 25 ft. What should be (a) the pump size and speed and (b) brake horsepower, assuming operation at
best efficiency?
2. A repeat Review Question 1 using Fig. 8 would show that this propeller pump family can provide a 25ft head
and 100,000 gal/min discharge if D=46 in and n=430 rpm, with bhp=750
3. A centrifugal pump having outer diameter equal to two times the inner diameter and running at 1000rpm works
against a total head of 40 m. The velocity of flow through the impeller is constant and equal to 2.5 m/s. The
vanes are set back at an angle of 40◦
at outlet. If the outer diameter of the impeller is 500 mm and width
at outlet is 50 mm, determine: i) Vane angle at inlet, ii) Work done by impeller on water per second and iii)
ManometricHydraulic efficiency
4 Axial flow Pumps and Fans
Axial flow pumps used in many applications requiring low head and high discharge. To see that the centrifugal design
is not convenient for such systems. There are other dynamic-pump designs which do provide low head and high
discharge. For example, there is a type of 38-in, 710 r/min pump, e.g., with the same input parameters as scheme in
Table 2(i), which will deliver the 25-ft head and 100,000 gal/min flow rate called for new design as shown in figure
in Table 2 (i). This is done by allowing the flow to pass through the impeller with an axial-flow component and less
centrifugal component. The passages can be opened up to the increased flow rate with very little size increase, but
the drop in radial outlet velocity decreases the head produced. These are the mixed-flow (part radial, part axial)
and axialflow (propeller type) families of dynamic pump. Some vane designs are sketched in Fig. in Table 2, which
introduces an interesting new ”design” parameter, the specific speed Ns or Ns’.
4.1 Introduction
Most pump applications involve a known head and discharge for the particular system, plus a speed range dictated
by electric motor speeds or cavitation requirements. The designer then selects the best size and shape (centrifugal,
mixed, axial) for the pump. To help this selection, we need a dimensionless parameter involving speed, discharge, and
head but not size. This is accomplished by eliminating the diameter between CQ∗ and CH, applying the result only
to the BEP. This ratio is called the specific speed and has both a dimensionless form and a somewhat lazy, practical
12

form:
Ns′
=
CQ∗1/2
CH∗3/4
Rigorous Form
Ns =
(rpm)(gal/min)1/2
(Hft)3/4
Common Form, Ns = 17, 182Ns′
(12)
Note that Ns is applied only to BEP; thus a single number characterizes an entire family of pumps. For example, the
family of Fig.5 b. has Ns=(0.115)1/2/(5.0)3/4=0.1014, Ns=1740, regardless of size or speed.
It turns out that the specific speed is directly related to the most efficient pump design. Low Ns means low Q and
high H, hence a centrifugal pump, and large Ns implies an axial pump. The centrifugal pump is best for Ns between
500 and 4000, the mixed flow pump for Ns between 4000 and 10,000, and the axialflow pump for Ns above 10,000.
Note the changes in impeller shape as Ns increases.
4.2 Stage Pressure Rise
A multistage axial-flow geometry is shown in Fig. 11.12a. The fluid essentially passes almost axially through alternate
rows of fixed stator blades and moving rotor blades. The incompressible-flow assumption is frequently used even for
gases, because the pressure rise per stage is usually small. The simplified vector-diagram analysis assumes that the
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 7: An axialflow pump: (a) basic geometry; (b) stator blades and exit velocity triangle; (c) rotor blades and exitvelocity triangles.
flow is one dimensional and leaves each blade row at a relative velocity exactly parallel to the exit blade angle. Figure
7(b) shows the stator blades and their exit-velocity diagram. Since the stator is fixed, ideally the absolute velocity
V1 is parallel to the trailing edge of the blade. After vectorially subtracting the rotor tangential velocity u from V1,
we obtain the velocity w1 relative to the rotor, which ideally should be parallel to the rotor leading edge. Figure 7(c)
shows the rotor blades and their exit velocity diagram. Here the relative velocity w2 is parallel to the blade trailing
edge, while the absolute velocity V2 should be designed to enter smoothly the next row of stator blades.
Since there is no radial flow, the inlet and exit rotor speeds are equal, u1 = u2 and onedimensional continuity requires
that the axial velocity component remain constant.
vn1 = vn2 = vn =
Q
A
From diagram in Figure 7(c)
Vnin terms of blade rot speed u
u = ωrav = Vn1(tanα1 + tanβ1) →
= Vn2(tanα2 + tanβ2)
Euler’s relation in Eq.6.Vt1 = Vn1cotα
Vt2 = u − V n2cotβ2
gH = uVn(cotα2 − cotα1)
= u2
− uVn(cotα1 + cotβ2)
→
The shutoff or noflow head H0 =
u2
g
blade anglescotα1 − cotβ2 can
be designed + ve, −ve or 0





























(13)
Strictly speaking, Eq. (13) applies only to a single streamtube of radius r, but it is a good approximation for very
short blades if r denotes the average radius. For long blades it is customary to sum Eq. 13 in radial strips over the
blade area. Such complexity may not be warranted since theory, being idealized, neglects losses and usually predicts
the head and power larger than those in actual pump performance.
13

(a) (b)
Figure 8: a. Dimensionless performance curves for a typical axialflow pump, Ns=12,000. Constructed from data given b. Optimum
efficiency of pumps versus capacity and specific speed.
At high specific speeds, the most efficient choice is an axial-flow, or propeller, pump, which develops high flow rate
and low head. A typical dimensionless chart for a propeller pump is shown in Fig.8 Note, as expected, the higher CQ∗
and lower CH∗ compared with Fig.6. The head curve drops sharply with discharge, so that a large system-head change
will cause a mild flow change. The power curve drops with head also, which means a possible overloading condition
if the system discharge should suddenly decrease. Finally, the efficiency curve is rather narrow and triangular, as
opposed to the broad, parabolic-shaped centrifugal pump efficiency (Fig. 6).
By inspection of Fig.8, CQ∗ ≈ 0.55, CH∗ ≈ 1.07, CP ∗ ≈ 0.70, ηmax ≈ 0.84,.
From this we compute Ns′
= (0.55)1/2/(1.07)3/4 = 0.705, Ns = 12, 00. The relatively low efficiency is due to small
pump size:d=14 inch,n=690 rpm, Q*=440 gal/min.
Example A repetition of Example 11.5 using Fig.8 would show that this propeller pump family can provide a 25 ft
head and 100,000 gal/min discharge if D = 46 in and n=430 r/min, with bhp = 750; this is a much more reasonable
design solution, with improvements still possible at larger Ns conditions.
4.3 Pump System Design and System Losses
The ultimate test of a pump is its match with the operating-system characteristics. Physically, the system head must
match the head produced by the pump, and this intersection should occur in the region of best efficiency. The system
head will probably contain a static-elevation change Z1 = Z2 plus friction losses in pipes and fittings.
Hsys = (z2 − z1) +
V 2
2g
X fl
D
+
X
K

(14)
where
P
K denotes minor losses and V is the flow velocity in the principal pipe. Since V is proportional to the
pump discharge Q, Eq. 14 represents a system-head curve Hs(Q). Three examples are shown in Fig.9: a static head
Hs = a, static friction plus laminar friction Hs = a + bQ, and static head plus turbulent friction Hs = a + bQ2
. The
intersection of the system curve with the pump performance curve H(Q) defines the operating point. In Fig. 9 [1] the
laminar-friction operating point is at maximum efficiency while the turbulent and static curves are off design. This
may be unavoidable if system variables change, but the pump should be changed in size or speed if its operating point
is consistently off design. Of course, a perfect match may not be possible because commercial pumps have only certain
discrete sizes and speeds.
4.4 Pumps Connected in Parallel, Series, Special Cases such as Multi-stage
If a pump provides the right head but too little discharge, a possible remedy is to combine two similar pumps in
parallel, i.e., sharing the same suction and inlet conditions. A parallel arrangement is also used if delivery demand
varies, so that one pump is used at low flow and the second pump is started up for higher discharges. Both pumps
should have check valves to avoid backflow when one is shut down. The two pumps in parallel need not be identical.
Physically, their flow rates will sum for the same head, as illustrated in Fig. 10 (a). If pump A has more head than
pump B, pump B cannot be added in until the operating head is below the shutoff head of pump B. Since the system
curve rises with Q, the combined delivery QAB will be less than the separate operating discharges QA + QB but
certainly greater than either one. For a very flat (static) curve two similar pumps in parallel will deliver nearly twice
14

Figure 9: Three types of system-head curves
(a) (b)
Figure 10: Performance and operating points of two pumps a. operating singly and combined in parallel b. combined in series
the flow. The combined brake horsepower is found by adding brake horsepower for each of pumps A and B at the
same head as the operating point. The combined efficiency equals
ηAB =
ρgQA+BHA+B
550bhpA+B
Similar Parallel Pumps (15)
If pumps A and B are not identical, as in Fig.10 [1] (a) pump B should not be run and cannot even be started up
if the operating point is above its shutoff head. If a pump provides the right discharge but too little head, consider
adding a similar pump in series, with the output of pump B fed directly into the suction side of pump A. As sketched
in Fig. 10 (b), the physical principle for summing in series is that the two heads add at the same flow rate to give
the combined-performance curve. The two need not be identical at all, since they merely handle the same discharge;
they may even have different speeds, although normally both are driven by the same shaft. The need for a series
arrangement implies that the system curve is steep, i.e., requires higher head than either pump A or B can provide.
The combined operating-point head will be more than either A or B separately but not as great as their sum. The
combined power is the sum of brake horsepower for A and B at the operating point flow rate.
For very high heads in continuous operation, the solution is a multistage pump, with the exit of one impeller feeding
directly into the eye of the next. Centrifugal, mixedflow, and axial-flow pumps have all been grouped in as many as 50
stages, with heads up to 8000 ft of water and pressure rises up to 5000 lbf/in2 absolute. Figure 11.20 shows a section
of a seven-stage centrifugal propane compressor which develops 300 lbf/in2 rise at 40,000 ft3/min and 35,000 bhp.
15

Figure 11: Seven stage centrifugal propane compressor cross section which delivers 40,000 ft3/min at 35,000 bhp and a pres-sure rise of
300 lbf/in2. Note the second inlet at stage 5 and the varying impeller designs.
4.4.1 Special Case Problems: Multiple Stage Pump
Most of the discussion in this section concerns incompressible flow, that is, negligible change in fluid density. Even
the pump of Fig. 11, which can produce 600 ft of head at 1170 r/min, will only increase standard air pressure by
46 lbf/ft2
about a 2 percent change in density. The picture changes at higher speeds, ∆p ∝ n2
and multiple stages,
where very large changes in pressure and density are achieved. Such devices are called compressors, as in Fig. 11.
The concept of static head, H = ∆p
ρg becomes inappropriate, since ρ varies. Compressor performance is measured by
1. The pressure ratio across the stage p2/p1 and
2. the change in stagnation enthalpy h02 − h01 where h0 = h + 1/2V 2
.
Combining m stages in series results in pfinal/pinnitial = (p2/p1)m
. As density increases, less area is needed: note the
decrease in impeller size from right to left in Fig. 11.20. Compressors may be either of the centrifugal or axialflow
type. Compressor efficiency, from inlet condition 1 to final outlet f, is defined by the change in gas enthalpy, assuming
an adiabatic process:
ηcomp =
hf − h01
h0f − h01
≈
Tf − T01
T0f − T01
(16)
Example 5 We want to use the 32-in pump of Fig. 5b at 1170 rpm to pump water at 60o
F from one reservoir to
another 120 ft higher through 1500 ft of 16 in-ID pipe with friction factor f=0.030. (a) What will the operating point
and efficiency be? (b) To what speed should the pump be changed to operate at the BEP?
16

Example 6 Investigate extending Example 5 by using two 32-in pumps in parallel to deliver more flow. Is 82 %
efficient correct?
17

Example 7 Suppose the elevation change in Example 5 is raised from 120 to 500 ft, greater than a single 32-in pump
can supply. Investigate using 32-in pumps in series at 1170 rpm.
1. Design analysis of an Axial Compressor follows similar trend with multistage pump in section 4.4.1 in Fig. 11.
Typical generalized inlet and exit velocity triangle of axial compressor given here. Describe specific work and
isentropic efficiency.
2. A multistage axial compressor is require for compressing air at 293 K, through a pressure ratio of 5 to 1 . Each
stage is to be 50% reaction and the mean blade speed 275 m/s, flow coefficient 0.5, and stage loading factor 0.3,
are taken, for simplicity, as constant for all stages. Determine the flow angles and the number of stages required
if the stage efficiency is 88.8%. Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/ (kg◦
C) and γ = 1.4 for air.
5 Steam turbines
In a steam turbine, high-pressure steam from the boiler expands in set of stationary blades or vanes (nozzle) as shown
in the Fig. 12.The high velocity steam from the nozzles strikes the set of moving blades. Here the KE of the steam is
utilized to produce work on the turbine rotor .Low pressure steam then exhausts to the condenser. As we saw in the
introduction in Table 1, Steam turbines can be classified based on:
1. On the base of flow direction: Axial, radial and tangential
2. On the base of expansion process:Impulse,reaction,combined impulse and reaction
3. On the base of number of stage: Single stage and multiple stage
Steam turbine can be condensing and noncondensing. Noncondensing turbine (back pressure turbine): steam
exhaust at a pressure greater than atmospheric. Steam then leaves the turbine and utilized in other parts of the plant
that use the heat of steam for other processes. The back pressure turbines have very high efficiencies (range from 67%
to 75%).
18

(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 12: (a) schematic diagram of steam power plant (b)impulse steam turbine principle (c) Reaction type
Condensing turbines :steam exhaust to a condenser and is condensed by air cooled condensers exhaust pressure
from turbine is less than atmosphere .in this turbine cycle efficiency is low because a large part of the steam energy
is lost in the condenser.
In Impulse turbine, the enthalpy drop (pressure drop) completely occurs in the nozzle itself (see Fig 12 (b) Fig 13
(a)) and when the fluid pass over the moving blades it will not suffer pressure drop again. Therefore, pressure remain
constant when the fluid pass over the rotor blades. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of Impulse turbine 12 (b).The
basic idea of an impulse turbine is that a jet of stream from a fixed nozzle pushes against the rotor blades and impels
them forward.
In reaction turbine, there is a gradual pressure drop and takes place continuously over the fixed and moving blades.
The rotation of the shaft and drum, which carrying the blades is the result of both impulse and reactive force in the
steam. The reaction turbine consist of a row of stationary blades (see Fig 12 (c)) and the following row of moving
blades. The fixed blades act as a nozzle which are attached inside the cylinder and the moving blades are fixed with the
rotor as shown in figure 13 When the steam expands over the blades there is gradual increase in volume and decrease
in pressure. But the velocity decrease in the moving blades and increases in fixed blades with change of direction.
Because of the pressure drops in each stage, the number of stages required in a reaction turbine is much greater than
in a impulse turbine of same capacity . In Reaction turbines, addition to the pressure drop occurs in the nozzle there
will also be pressure drop occur when the fluid passes over the rotor blades, as seen in Fig. 13(b)
19

(a) (b)
Figure 13: (a)impulse turbine enthalpy and pressure drop (b) h pr drop Reaction Type
6 Gas Turbine
You have learnt system design of gas turbine and steam turbine in thermodynamics II. In the subsequent sections, we
will discuss wind turbine and hydraulic turbines
6.1 Wind Turbine
(a) (b)
Figure 14: a. Idealized actuator-disk and streamtube analysis of flow through a windmill. b. Estimated performance of various wind
turbine designs as a function of blade-tip speed ratio
The propeller is represented by an actuator disk in Fig. 14 [1] which creates across the propeller plane a pressure
discontinuity of area A and local velocity V. The wind is represented by a streamtube of approach velocity V1 and a
slower downstream wake velocity V2. The pressure rises to pb just before the disk and drops to pa just after, returning
to free-stream pressure in the far wake. To hold the propeller rigid when it is extracting energy from the wind, there
must be a leftward force F on its support, as shown. Power extracted from wind energy obtained by subtracting power
20

left in the far wake from power available and defined as
P =
1
4
ρA(V 2
1 − V 2
2 )(V1 + V2) power extracted
Pmax =
8
27
ρAV 3
1 maximum power possible to extact
This obtained by driving the first equation equating to0
Power CoefficentCP =
P
1/2ρAV 3
1
where
X
CP =
8
27
= 0.593
Energy Harnessed E =
V cutout
X
V cutin
CP ti1/2ρAV 3
1i

+ tratedCP 1/2ρAV 3
1rated
Vcutout
Vrated































(17)
With weight of system components and friction within running elements, not all available energy can be harnessed.
The material strength and operational limit also denies energy at beyond the highest wind sped that can damage the
infrastructure. Therefore 0 ≤ VV1rated cannot overcome rotor the inertia and friction whereas V1 ≥ VVcutout cannot be
harnessed due to the Material Limit.
1. Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade length is 50 m
2. The following is a graph of fraction of power produced versus fraction of radial distance from the hub of a blade
of a 3MW wind turbine operating at rated speed. Which of the following is true?
(a) The power fraction at mid-span is greater than 6 percent.
(b) The contribution to the overall power produced by the blade is greatest at the tip.
(c) The region of the blade closest to the hub contributes over 3 percent of the power fraction produced by the
blade.
(d) After the blade root, the power produced increases approximately linearly with radius up to a point where
the tip effect attenuates it.
7 Hydraulic turbines
7.1 Pelton Wheel
For high head and relatively low power, i.e., low Nsp, not only would a reaction turbine require too high a speed but
also the high pressure in the runner would require a massive casing thickness. The impulse turbine of Fig. 15 is ideal
for this situation. Since Nsp is low, n will be low and the high pressure is confined to the small nozzle, which converts
the head to an atmospheric pressure jet of high velocity Vj. The jet strikes the buckets and imparts a momentum
change similar to that in our controlvolume analysis for a moving vane. The buckets have an elliptical split-cup shape,
as in Fig. 15. They are named Pelton wheels, after Lester A. Pelton (1829–1908), who produced the first efficient
design. The force and power delivered to a Pelton wheel are theoretically:
F = ρQ(Vj − u)(1 − cosβ)
P = Fu = ρQu(Vj − u)(1 − cosβ)
(18)
where u = 2πnr is the bucket linear velocity and r is the pitch radius, or distance to the jet centerline. A bucket angle
β = 180 degrees gives maximum power but is physically impractical. In practice,β ≈ 165 degrees or 1 − cosβ ≈ 1.966
21

Figure 15: Impulse turbine: side view of wheel and jet; top view of bucket; and typical velocity diagram.
or only 2 percent less than maximum power. From Eq. 18 the theoretical power of an impulse turbine is parabolic in
bucket speed u and is maximum when dP/du = 0, or
u∗ = 2πn ∗ r entire avail. head converted to Vj, Vj = (2gH)1/2
Vj = Cv(2gH)1/2
where vel. coeff. 0.92 ≤ Cv ≤ 0.98 2 to 8 % loss in Nozzle
η = 2(1 − cosβ)(Cv − ϕ) where ϕ =
u
(2gH)1/2
pheripheral vel. factor









(19)
Figure 11.26 shows Eq. 21 plotted for an ideal turbine (β − 180o
, Cv = 1) and for typical working conditions
(β = 160o
, Cv = 0.94). The latter case predicts ηmax = 85percent at ϕ = 0.47, but the actual data for a 24-in Pelton
wheel test are somewhat less efficient due to windage, mechanical friction, backsplashing, and nonuniform bucket flow.
For this testηmax = 85percent, and, generally speaking, an impulse turbine is not quite as efficient as the Francis
or propeller turbines at their BEPs. Figure 11.27 shows the optimum efficiency of the three turbine types, and the
importance of the power specific speed Nsp as a selection tool for the designer. These efficiencies are optimum and are
obtained in careful design of large machines. The water power available to a turbine may vary due to either net-head
or flow-rate changes, both of which are common in field installations such as hydroelectric plants. The demand for
turbine power also varies from light to heavy, and the operating response is a change in the flow rate by adjustment of
a gate valve or needle valve (Fig.15). As shown in Fig.??(b), all three turbine types achieve fairly uniform efficiency
as a function of the level of power being extracted. Especially effective is the adjustable-blade (Kaplan-type) propeller
turbine, while the poorest is a fixed-blade propeller. The term rated power in Fig. ??(b) [1] is the largest power
delivery guaranteed by the manufacturer, as opposed to normal power, which is delivered at maximum efficiency
22

(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 16: a. Efficiency of an impulse turbine calculated from Eq 21 [1] solid curve:ideal β − 180o, Cv = 1 dashed curve: actual
β = 160o, Cv = 0.94, open circles data, Pelton wheel, diameter 2ft b. Efficiency versus power level for various turbine designs at constant
speed and Head c. Optimum efficiency of turbine designs
7.2 Francis Turbine
Reaction turbines are low-head, high-flow devices. The flow is opposite that in a pump, entering at the
larger-diameter section and discharging through the eye after giving up most of its energy to the impeller. Early
designs were very inefficient because they lacked stationary guide vanes at the entrance to direct the flow smoothly
into the impeller passages. The first efficient inward-flow turbine was built in 1849 by James B. Francis, a U.S.
engineer, and all radial- or mixed-flow designs are now called Francis turbines. At still lower heads, a turbine can be
designed more compactly with purely axial flow and is termed a propeller turbine. The propeller may be either
fixed-blade or adjustable (Kaplan type), the latter being complicated mechanically but much more efficient at
low-power settings. Figure 17 (a) shows sketches of runner designs for Francis radial, Francis mixed-flow, and
propeller-type turbines.
The Euler turbomachine formulas Equation 6 also apply to energy-extracting machines if we reverse the flow
direction and reshape the blades. Figure 17 (b) shows a radial turbine runner. Again assume one-dimensional
frictionless flow through the blades. Adjustable inlet guide vanes are absolutely necessary for good efficiency. They
bring the inlet flow to the blades at angle α2 and absolute velocity V2 for minimum ”shock” or directional-mismatch
loss. After vectorially adding in the runner tip speed u2 = ωr2, the outer blade angle should be set at angle β2 to
accommodate the relative velocity w2, as shown in the figure. (See Fig. 17 (b) for the analogous radial-pump
velocity diagrams.)
Application of the angular-momentum control-volume theorem,yields an idealized formula for the power P extracted
by the runner:
P = ωT = ρωQ(r2Vt2 − r1Vt1) = ρQ(u2V2cosα2 − u1V1cosα1) (20)
where Vt2 and Vt1 are the absolute inlet and outlet circumferential velocity components of the flow. Note that Eq. 20
is identical to Eq. 5 or Eq 3 for a radial pump, except that the blade shapes are different. The absolute inlet normal
velocity Vn2 = V2sinα2 is proportional to the flow rate Q. If the flow rate changes and the runner speed u2 is
constant, the vanes must be adjusted to a new angle α2 so that w2 still follows the blade surface. Thus adjustable
inlet vanes are very important to avoid shock loss.
23

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 17: a. Reaction turbines: 1. Francis, Radial type; 2. Francis mixed-flow; 3 propeller axialflow, b. performance curves for a Francis
turbine, n = 600rpm, D = 2.25ft, Nsp = 29 c. Optimum Power Performance d. Operation Ranges of water turbine
7.3 Power Specific Speed
Turbine parameters are similar to those of a pump, but the dependent variable is the output brake horsepower,
which depends upon the inlet flow rate Q, available head H, impeller speed n, and diameter D. The efficiency is the
output brake horsepower divided by the available water horsepower ρgQH. The dimensionless forms are
CQ, CH, CP , defined just as for a pump, Eqs. 10, or 10. If we neglect Reynolds-number and roughness effects,
the functional relationships are written with CP as the independent variable:
CH∗ ≈ CH∗(CP ∗), CQ∗ ≈ CQ∗(CP ∗) η =
bhp
ρgQH
= η(CP ∗) (21)
Figure 11.21d shows typical performance curves for a small Francis radial turbine. The maximum efficiency point is
called the normal power, and the values for this particular turbine are
ηmax = 0.89 Cp∗ = 2.7 CQ∗ = 0.34 CH∗ = 9.03
A parameter which compares the output power with the available head, independent of size, is found by eliminating
the diameter between CH and CP . It is called the power specific speed:
N′
sp =
CP ∗1/2
CH∗5/4
Rigorious Form Nsp =
(rpm)(bhp)1/2
(Hft)5/4
Lazzy Common Form (22)
Like pumps, turbines of large size are generally more efficient, and Eqs. (11) Moody and Anderson’s formulas can be
used as an estimate when data are lacking. The design of a complete large-scale power-generating turbine system is a
major engineering project, involving inlet and outlet ducts, trash racks, guide vanes, wicket gates, spiral cases,
24

generator with cooling coils, bearings and transmission gears, runner blades, draft tubes, and automatic controls.
Some typical large-scale reaction turbine designs are shown in Fig. 17 (a). The reversible pump-and-turbine design
of Fig. 17 (b) requires special care for adjustable guide vanes to be efficient for flow in either direction
Example 8 Investigate the possibility of using (a) a Pelton wheel similar to Fig. 11.26 or (b) the Francis turbine
family of Fig. 16b to deliver 30,000 bhp from a net head of 1200 ft.
1. Suppose two Pelton turbines working with the same specific speed under the same head. If turbine A produces
400 kW power at 1000 rpm, what rpm does turbine B require to produce 0.1 MW power?
2. Describe the following velocity triangle of typical pelton turbine
3. Describe functions of hydraulic turbine components in the following figure and elaborate the design suit of each
turbine type with an aid of Figure 17
25

8 Objective Questions
More objective and multiple choice questions with answers can be found online at [7] [8]. Refer websites and practice
1. Which of the following is true?
(a) Both kaplan and pelton turbines are impulse type
(b) Francis turbine is an axial flow type
(c) Kaplan turbine is an axial flow type
(d) None
2. What is he ratio of actual mass flow rate ṁa to ideal mass flow rate ṁi
(a) nozzle coefficient
(b) coefficient of nozzle friction
(c) coefficient of discharge
(d) coefficient of mass
3. The blade speed ratio of impulse turbine is given as
(a) (Blade velocity) / (Steam velocity at inlet)
(b) (Blade velocity) / (Steam velocity at exit)
(c) (Steam velocity at inlet) / (Blade velocity)
(d) (Steam velocity at exit) / (Blade velocity)
4. Discharge capacity of the reciprocating pump is that of the centrifugal pump
(a) higher than
(b) lower than
(c) same as
(d) cannot be compared
5. Which pump is more suitable for an application where very high pressure is required to be developed at moderate
discharge?
(a) Reciprocating pump
(b) Centrifugal pump
(c) Turbine
(d) None
6. The process of filling the liquid into the suction pipe and pump casing upto the level of delivery valve is called
as
(a) Discharge
(b) Pumping
(c) Priming
(d) Shock
26

7. Which of the following centrifugal pumps has higher specific speed than the others?
(a) Axial
(b) Radial
(c) Mixed
(d) All
References
[1] F. M. White, 2011.
[2] S. Yahya, Turbines compressors and fans, Vol. 103, Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2011.
[3] F. Kreith, Fluid mechanics, CRC press, 1999.
[4] E. Logan Jr, Turbomachinery: Basic theory and applications, CRC press, 1993.
[5] In Engineering Thermofluids: Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer, Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
Berlin, Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 223–430.
[6] H. Ramasamy, P. Prakash, International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Applied Science 2015, 1, 500–503.
[7] Turbo Machinery Multiple Choice Questions and Answers, https://testbook.com/objective-questions/mcq-on-
turbomachinery–5eea6a0d39140f30f369e196, Accessed: Feb 18, 2023.
[8] Turbo Machinery Objective Questions and Answers, https://www.gkseries.com/mcq-on-turbomachines/multiple-
choice-questions-and-answers-on-turbomachines, Accessed: Feb 18, 2023.
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