Two Point Threshold Lab Report

Two Point Threshold Lab Report
In this experiment, the two–point threshold, or smallest separation of two points of stimulation on
the skin that are perceived as two separate impressions of touch, was measured using the method of
limits. The purpose of this experiment was to determine the participant's two–point threshold on
their finger, forearm, palm, and back. The identification of the stimulus is due to a variety of
somatosensation mechanoreceptors, meaning they sense touch in response to a mechanical
stimulation or pressure, which are located all over the body. When pressure is placed upon the
epidermis (outermost layer of skin), different receptors respond to that pressure which is felt through
vibrations. There are four types of mechanoreceptors: Merkel complexes ... Show more content on
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The ascending trials for each body part, with the exception of the second trial of the forearm, did not
vary far from the mean threshold. When the second trial of forearm stimulation was given to the
participant, there was a point in time (near the middle of administration) in which the experimenter
accidentally placed the dial caliber tips onto the participant's skin at two separate times. This caused
the participant to report feeling the stimulus as separate earlier than she did in the first and third
forearm trials. Because of this error, the mean two–point threshold of the forearm was not as reliable
as it could have been had there been no error in the deliverance of stimuli. The purpose of this lab
was, in fact, achieved and the participant's two–point threshold means were calculated. The errors of
this experiment could have been avoided by utilizing computer/mechanical stimulation as opposed
to a dial caliper. Using a machine to administer the touch would ensure that the pressures as well as
the timing and placement of each tip on the caliber were exactly the same. It is also important to
note that the temperature of the dial caliber could have had an effect of the collection of data. At
various points throughout the experiment, the participant jumped at the chilling temperature of the
metal caliber. With each startle of the participant, the experimenter had to remove and then re–place
the stimulus onto the participant's skin to attempt an accurate reading. In future experiments, it is
important to standardize the pressure and placement of the stimuli to record a more accurate data
set. It may also be helpful to eliminate the variable of temperature of the caliber to the best of one's
ability. As a continuation of this study, it may strike the experimenter as intriguing to add a variable
such as
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Masticatory Function
Masticatory function is an important aspect of oral health and oral rehabilitation should aim to
maintain or restore adequate function. However, even if the possibilities to anatomically restore lost
teeth never have been better, traditional replacement by prosthodontic means still fails to fully
restore oral function. To control masticatory movements and forces the brain needs information
from a variety of sense organs in and around the mouth (Lund and Kolta 2006; Trulsson 2006). By
virtue of their location in the ligaments anchoring the tooth to the alveolar bone, the periodontal
mechanoreceptors play a central role in encoding relevant aspects of the patterns of forces acting on
the dentition. To better understand the role of periodontal

Nt1310 Unit 9 Lab Report
Parth Thakkar
1. Explain the signal detection, delivery and process.
1a. Where and how the temperature signal is detected? (5 points)
The human sense of touch is known as the somatic or somatosensory system. The skin is the biggest
and most complex organ in the somatosensory system.The somatosensory system permits the human
body to experience pressure, texture, temperature, and pain, and to see the position and development
of the body's muscles and joints.The receptor cells in the skin can be separated into three useful
classifications: mechanoreceptors that sense pressure and surface, thermoreceptors that sense
temperature, and nociceptors that sense pain. Thermoreceptors distinguish changes in temperature
utilizing two sorts of receptor cells: warm and cold. Thus, thermoreceptors on the skin detects the
temperature signal using two specific receptors cell: warm and cold.
1b. How the signal is delivered? Describe the pathways (5 points).
People and other vertebrate creatures use specific tactile neurons to identify temperature, weight,
and other physical jolts on the skin. These neurons are situated in the spinal segment and are
associated with the skin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These receptors record on a extensive form of sensory modalities including changes in temperature,
stress, touch, sound, mild, style, odor, physique and limb actions, and even blood pressure and
chemistry. Scientists have recognized for nearly a hundred thirty years that distinct afferent nerve
fibers of the peripheral nervous procedure are in contact with specialized non neural receptive
buildings which realize and transmit sensory knowledge from the periphery to the Central Nervous
System. The non neural receptive structure in conjunction with its afferent nerve fiber is mainly
called a

Prosthetic Limbs
I've been reading many articles lately and found two that especially caught my eye. Both of the
articles are regarding improving prosthetic's to give amputees a more accurate and life like sense of
touch. Now researches believe that in the not very distant future, using a two–ply of flexible, thin
plastic they will be able to enhance prosthetic limbs so that they could feel the sensation of touch, as
if it were the real thing (see figure 1).
Multiple research teams have long worked on restoring touch to people with prosthetic limbs. So far
the researchers at Stanford University were able to send signals to the brain tissue of mice, which
closely mimicked the nerve messages of touch sensors in human skin, by creating electronic sensors.
Another breakthrough happen two years ago, when researchers at Case Western Reaserch University
in Cleveland, Ohio, gave people with prosthetic hands a sense of touch by wiring by wiring pressure
sensors on the hands to perpheral nerves in their arms. Although, a rudimentary sense of touch has
been restored with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, while reading these articles I couldn't help thinking that there was something more this
research could possibly lead to. Which includes the group of people affected by this development;
and whether that group was only limited to amputees. So, I started thinking if third degree burn
victims would also be able to benefit from this, if they could be able to also feel in their burned
area(s) again; seeing as they have no feeling in those area(s) anymore, because of the damage done
to their nerve

Cerebrospinal Fluid: Central Nervous System
Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear liquid substance that flows around the central nervous system; the
brain and spinal cord. Its primary function is to aid as a shock absorber should blunt trauma occur to
either the spinal or cranial area. Furthermore, CSF circulates vital nutrients to the brain to maintain
the health of the tissues in the brain. Arterial blood in the lateral and fourth ventricles of the brain
come together to form the Choroid Plexus where the majority of cerebrospinal fluid is produced.
Ependymal cells inside this plexus of the brain may also produce small amounts of cerebrospinal
fluid.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into 2 parts; the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions. The sympathetic division readies the

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a class of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by
deficits in social interaction, communication, and restrictive, repeated patterns of behavior observed
at the onset of early infancy. The importance of somatosensory, including tactile, processing when
studying ASD is often overlooked, but research in the field has progressed to better understand the
role that touch plays in the core diagnostic symptoms of the disorder. Early observations of ASD
include abnormalities in the response to sensory, especially tactile, stimuli (Kanner 1973). Tactile
defensiveness is a common component of these observations, characterized by hyper and/or
hypersensitivity to textures, temperatures, vibration, and other tactile ... Show more content on
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Participants were stroked with three textures: a soft brush, a burlap fabric, and a plastic mesh
material. Manually touched on the forearm (affiliated with affective touch) by the experimenter with
these three materials, participants rated each texture for roughness and pleasantness. Previous
studies show that in normal adults, the brush is typically perceived as pleasant, the burlap fabric as
neutral, and the plastic mesh as unpleasant (Essick et al., 2010). Ratings of pleasantness are
consistent in individuals with ASD: the brush was reported as the least rough, most pleasant, burlap
as intermediate, and the mesh as most rough, least pleasant. Compared to previous studies on adults
without ASD, however, the ASD group gave more variable ratings for the neutral burlap, and more
extreme ratings for the most and least pleasant stimulus (Cascio et al.,

How Does The Structure Of Neurones Reflect Their Function?
How does the structure of neurones reflect their function?
The brain is a unique organ, it allows us as humans, for example to imagine, speak and perform a lot
more complex functions. To function well as a complex organ, the brain has a lot of cells. The brain
consists of neurones and glia cells. Neurones observe changes from the environment, communicate
these changes to other neurones and issue commands to the body to react on these changes. Glia
cells give the neurones among other things protection and support. Neurones are really small cells
composed of two parts: the soma, which contain the cell nucleus and neurites, which are projections
from the soma. There are two different types of neurites, the axon and the dendrite. Dendrites
receive signals to transfer to the neurones and axons carry the output of the neurones. Figure 1 gives
a schematic overview of a neuron and shows the dendrites, cell body and axon. This essay will
discuss the structure of neurones and the different types of neurones further in detail. It will start
with the structure of a typical structure of a neuron and then the different types of neurones, the
sensory–, motor– and interneurones. (Bear, M.F. et al. (2007))
Figure 1: Schematic view of the structure of a neuron (Anon. (undated))
A neuron contains as mentioned above dendrites. Through many dendrites, the neuron receives
signals from other neurones. The neuron passes this signal on, by most of the time one axon. This
axon can travel a long,

Sensory Recepters
5 types of sensory receptors are: chemoreceptor A sense organ, or one of its cells (such as those for
the sense of taste or smell), that can respond to a chemical stimulus; a chemosensor.
mechanoreceptor Any information about mechanical changes in its environment, such as movement,
tension and pressure. photoreceptor A specialized neuron able to detect, and react to light nociceptor
A sensory receptor that sends signals that cause the perception of pain in response to a potentially
damaging stimulus. thermoreceptor A nerve cell that is sensitive to changes in temperature A
sensation is : A physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes
into contact with the body. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some drugs affect pupils. Amphetamines (speed, meth) can dilate them, for example, while opiates
(heroin) can constrict them. Cornea, Sclera, Choroid, Ciliary Body, Suspensory ligament, lens, iris,
pupil, retina, fovea centralis The optic nerve has to enter the confines of the eye somewhere in order
to innervate the retina. Where it enters has no rods and cones (the very nerve endings of the optic
nerve which allow us to see). Therefore, this is a "blind spot." There are two types of photoreceptors
in the human retina, rods and cones. Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic
vision). They do not mediate color vision, and have a low spatial acuity. Cones are active at higher
light levels (photopic vision), are capable of color vision and are responsible for high spatial acuity.
The central fovea is populated exclusively by cones. There are 3 types of cones which we will refer
to as the short–wavelength sensitive cones, the middle–wavelength sensitive cones and the long–
wavelength sensitive cones or S–cone, M–cones, and L–cones for

100 Mla Case Study
1. (odors were puffed over the antenna from a 100 ml syringe, and I used the same PowerLab
system and cables we used) except I used a different species of ant. The antenna got 10 alternate
stimulus presentations, 5 each of a plant volatile odorant (octanal) and 5 of blank air (in a sequence
of octanal, blank air, octanal. etc.). The figure demonstrates a difference in EAG signal after octanal
vs. blank air presentations. What explains this difference? Why is there any signal at all after the
blank air puff? In insects, the olfactory receptor neurons are located on the appendages, specifically,
the antennae. In the presence of an ordant, the receptor proteins bind with the specific chemical and
participate in a conformational change which

Artificial Intelligence And Human Science
Imagine living life without the fear of cancer, or injuries, or even a headache. Imagine being
immortal. Now imagine looking down at your arms and seeing metal, or knowing the warmth of that
hug you just had was not body heat but just an electrochemical signal that told your brain to feel that
way. Imagine this, for the rest of your immortal life. Technology is improving at an astonishing rate
in the field of human science. Artificial hearts and wombs are successful in transplants, and more
utilizable prosthetic limbs are being introduced to the world currently. In college, students are
learning how to program a robot hand that can replicate basic motions of a human hand. From there,
scientists are attempting to place artificial ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the definition, humans have four limbs and are bipedal, but there are exceptions to that
generalization. People who lack one or more limbs experienced a physical disadvantage in all
recorded history, but modern technological advances are helping them to narrow the gap between
themselves and someone who was born with all their extremities. New technologies for prosthetics
have changed from a nonfunctional replica of a body part into a functioning part of the body. One
field of prostheses is externally powered myoelectric prosthetics. Myoelectric prostheses can sense
electric signals from muscle contractions at the point they are connected to and are able to carry out
simple functions of an actual arm, while providing more strength and ranges of motion than other
current prosthetics. If the residual limb, where the prosthetic attaches to, can still demonstrate
nervous function, a myoelectric prosthetic is a viable option for people who have lost, or were born
without, forearms (Behrend). In the future, it has become a viable possibility that people who lack
one or more limbs will be able to perform the same functions as people who have natural limbs due
to powerful prosthetics that can read brain waves and translate them into a code read by a prosthesis
which can, in turn, mimic the function of a normal

The Anterior Cruciate Ligament ( Acl ) Essay
Overview: The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is crucial to knee stability as its function is directly
related to the anatomical morphology.9 The ACL is one of the two ligaments that interconect the
femure and tibia in the intercondylar sector of the knee.4 It consists of two bundles: antromedial
(AMB) and postrolatral (PLB). Both bundles originate from the postero–medial aspect of the lateral
femoral condyle and run in an oblique manner to insert on the anterior region to the intercondylar
tibial eminence.17 The ACL is comprised of multiple collagen fascicles, mainly type I collagen,
surrounded by connective tissue and covered by the synovial membrane.17 The average width of the
ACL is 11mm and the mean length of the AMB is 33mm, while it is 18mm for the PLB.14 The ACL
is mainly supplied with blood by the middle geniculate artery branch from the anterior aspect of the
popliteal artery.1 The inferior medial and lateral geniculate artery is considered a secondary blood
supply, and is innervated by the posterior articular branches of the tibial nerve.9 The majority of
neural structures are located in the subsynovial layer and close to the insertion.17 The ACL mainly
contains mechanoreceptors and nociceptors. Mechanoreceptors, which include Ruffin, Pacini, and
Golgi–like receptors, act as a proprioceptive while free nerve endings function as the nociceptors.5
Variations around the ACL morphology: There is considerable controversy around the morphology
of the ACL in the

Extracellular Recording Electrodes Used For Measure The...
Extracellular recording electrodes were used to measure the compound action potentials (CAPs) in a
cockroach leg nerve. CAPs are the summations of all present action potentials (APs) in the
individual axons of the nerve. When an AP is conducted along an axon, sodium channels open and
positively charged sodium ions enter the axon. Therefore the inside and the outside voltage changes.
The voltage changes in the extracellular fluid were measured. A depolarisation of the axonal
membrane causes a local negative charge in the extracellular fluid. The summation of all the voltage
changes in the extracellular fluid at a specific position is measured by the recording electrodes.
During the baseline measurement (Figure 1), when the setup was not actively manipulated, low
amplitude, but still clearly visible signals where observed. This suggest that the skin contains
receptors which constantly to respond to very subtle changes in the environment. Since the
experimental conditions (temperature, air pressure, vibrations of the setup) were relatively stable
throughout the baseline measurement, only receptors with a very low threshold of activation could
respond. Since then only a relatively few number of primary sensory neurons are excited to the point
that they fire APs, the amplitude of the CAPs that were measured were low. A variety of receptors
could have responded to subtle stimuli. Since the temperature was not tightly controlled in the
experiment, thermoreceptors could have

Lion Leer Research Paper
A new species of lions have adapted to live in the temperate mountains regions in Europe. A
crossover between a lion and a deer has been discovered, the leer. The leer, also known as the Leo–
Cervidae, it lives in the temperate mountain regions in Europe. It has the body and characteristics of
a lion, which are speed and aggressiveness, but it also has the characteristics of a deer. It has horns
like deer. These horns are used for mating season. Leers use sexual reproduction and the
reproductive behaviors of these leers are that they fight with the other males by using their horns.
They attack and fight each other with their horns to show dominance of the other leers. They use the
horns because they do not want to kill each other, but to prove who the strongest and most powerful
leer is. Unlike regular lions, they fight until death, but the leer is a rare species and they do not want
their population to decrease. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lions aren't usually accustomed to live in cold conditions, but the deer does. This is a great
combination because it can survive and stay warm in the winter while in the spring and summer it
loses its fur to be cooler. The leers can be found in the temperate mountain regions of Europe.
Temperate mountains tend to be a little colder than the tropical mountains. In the spring and
summer, there is a burst in plant life at a high altitude of the mountains. This encourages these
animals to climb up for food

Animal Physiology Lab Report
03 – 03 – 2006
RESULT
The amount of neural discharge due to stimulation of tactile sensilla receptor is posted on figure 1.
FIGURE 1: Mean action potential activity of tactile sensilla receptors in femural of cockroach.
In this experiment, it was found that there exists a spontaneous resting activity within the cockroach
tibia even though tactile sensilla receptors have not yet been stimulated. From figure 1 it can be
observed that the mean spontaneous resting activity of the cockroach leg is (42+/–9.7) action
potentials/sec. After the tactile sensilla receptors were stimulated by moving the receptor with and
against direction of growth there was an increase of action potentials. From figure 1 it can be seen
that tactile sensilla ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cockroach femoral tactile spine is a type I mechanoreceptors and it contains a single bipolar sensory
neuron. At the base of the tactile spine, there are afferent neural sensory dendrites which are
sensitive to signals. These dendrite in the wall of the spine leads through the spine lumen to a cell
body, and then to an axon that proceeds along the femur. One interesting point is that the cell body is
surrounded by glial cell however there is no glial cell wrapped around axon body or dendrites. The
location of glial wrapping can suggest that they assist in passive conduction action potential from
dendrites to the axon. (French 1993).
Originally the dendrites are surrounded by fluid called endolymph which is rich in K+. When there
is no stimulation there are few movement of ions in and out of the dendrites, this is can be seen in
figure 1 as resting spontaneous potential activity. When there is a movement in tactile receptors
bristle, the K+ channels open. Due to different concentration of K+ ions across the cell membrane,
K+ ions enter the cell, causing the cell to depolarize. These causes increase in neural discharge
resulting in increase in number of action potential. (Moyes & Schulte 2006).Depending on which
direction the bristle moves, more or less K+ channel opens and therefore result in different amounts
of action potential discharge as seen in figure 1.
Sensory neurons associated with peripheral sensory structures, tactile

Professor Paul Brand Leprosy Analysis
Professor Paul Brand was the first physician to appreciate that leprosy is not simply a rotting away
of tissues was. He made a huge contribution to understanding leprosy as a disease. Professor Brand
studies discovered that leprosy attacked mainly a single type of cell, the nerve cell. He felt his
theory was sound. Professor Brand whole view of medicine is inspiring .He was thrilled when he
discovered the power that blood can have as he witnessed the full recovery of trauma patient. He
was excited as he reminisced on how the blood spread and flushed into the young lady as she started
to recover quickly from the accident.
In the video presentation Professor Brand starts out by discussing his time in India as a doctor where
he investigated the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To a regular person gently walking a short distance both these receptors are not stimulated, but after
several miles the PMN's are active and pain becomes severe. If walking continues for several hours
the area becomes warmer and inflamed to the point where a blister may develop. He went on to say
that inflamed foot tissue responding to PMN'S causes this tendency to change the way we walk or
limp to reduce the effects on the area that has been inflamed. This explains why the insensitive foot
of the patients was warmer than that of their normal foot because they were limping in such a way
as to minimize the painful effects on their good foot. Their weight was carried on the insensitive
foot which causes the response of an increase in temperature and inflammation to that foot and since
the nerves are damaged they do not feel any sense of pain on this foot which leads to continuous
inflammation and eventually ulcers of the foot. This observation was greater in the out patients as
they were coming to the clinic barefoot and on rough

Somatosensory System Essay
The somatosensory system is a portion of the nervous system that concerns the reception and
perception of environmental and internal stimuli through receptors located around the body. This
information manifests as pressure, pain, position, temperature, vibration and movement, and often
tells the body of potentially dangerous stimuli (1). Stimuli is perceived externally through touch,
called exteroception, and internally through the stimulation of muscles, joints and ligaments as
proprioception. Once the information is collected through receptors, they are transmitted first to the
spinal cord and then to the primary sensory cortex through a series of complex neural pathways. The
specific pathway depends on the type and location of stimuli received. Once received the
information is processed, an appropriate response ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First order neurons concern the initial nerve impulse from the receptor and transmission of the
stimuli to the spinal cord. Interestingly, many of these neurons are psuedounipolar (2). They have
two axons and a central cell body. The central bodies of these neurons are concentrated in the dorsal
root ganglion, which is located in the dorsal root of a spinal nerve. This nodule allows for
organization of the neurons, particularly the axons, which join to form neural fibers. The peripheral
axons extend away the cell body and end where stimuli will be received. This is where the receptors
are located (1). Sensory receptors detect changes in the immediate environment. The key distinction
between different receptors lies in location, sensitivity and the ability to adapt to continuous
stimulation. Exteroceptive receptors concern the external environment, proprioceptive receptors
concern the position of the

Muscle Massage: A Case Study
Exhaustive training, particularly exercise training at high intensity swimming, can induce temporary
damage to muscle. Exercise–induced muscle damage (EIMD) can occur by sudden active stretching
of the muscle–tendon unit through unaccustomed or increased training intensity. Muscle damage is
frequently observed in swimmers, as they often push their limits in training and competition.
Therapeutic massage is frequently used as a treatment to recover from muscle fatigue or damage.
Massage increases local blood and lymph flow, decreases edema production, reduces muscular tone,
and enhances mood. It has been suggested that massage decreases the stress hormone cortisol and
increases levels of serotonin and dopamine [read about how ice baths may need to be reconsidered].
Not long ago, I wrote extensively about 5 reasons you should have swim meet massages. These 5
reasons for swim meet massages discuss ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Awareness of the orientation of the body in space and direction, extent, and rate of movement in the
limbs is essential to position and coordinate movement.
Shin (2015) noted significant improvements in joint proprioception in the ankle after 15 minutes of
post–exercise massage compared to a control. The study also found improvements in knee
proprioception after this same massage, but the results were not significant.
Higher muscular activation allow greater force and power production. In this same study, calf
muscular contraction was significantly higher (by ~13%) in the experimental group compared to the
control group. [also if you get frequent calf cramps, try this tip!]. This large improvement can
greatly improve performance and strength, once again, important aspects for

Blood Pressure Regulation
Blood pressure regulation and changes occurring after increase in blood pressure
Each time the heart pumps, it sends blood all over the body to supply organs and tissues with
oxygen and nutrients. The strength of the force created as the heart pumps blood into the vessels
together with the vessels' resistance to the blood flow is defined as the body's blood pressure
(Darovic, 2002). A normal range blood pressure (BP) must be between 100–130mmHg systolic
(when the heart is beating) and 60–90mmHg diastolic pressure (between heart beats) (Sherwood,
1997). Many factors can change blood pressure, including exercise and diet. The regulation of BP
within the body is tightly maintained by nerves, hormones and renal control in relation to three ...
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These signal messengers will rapidly communicate with the autonomic neural system, in order to
decrease sympathetic influence on the heart and blood vessels and increase parasympathetic activity,
so that mean arterial blood pressure returns to its normal. By releasing the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (Ach), parasympathetic nerves will decrease the frequency of the action potentials of
the sinoatrial (SA) and the atrioventricular (AV) nodes, found in the heart. This mechanism will
decrease cardiac output by reducing the number of heart beats and the organ's force of contractions
(Milnor, 1990). Parasympathetic activity will also expand vessels, decreasing their resistance to
blood flow and therefore decreasing total peripheral resistance. As veins get wider, they will retain
blood causing a reduction in venous return to the heart. Decreased amount of blood in the ventricles
at the end of diastole (period between contractions of the heart) will consequently decrease cardiac
output and blood pressure (Constanzo, 2012).
Electrolytes such as sodium and chloride are essential as they help to maintain body's water balance.
However, excessive dietary intake of salt increases the amount of water retained by the body and as
a result increases blood volume (Thomas and Bishop, 2007). When the heart senses the rise in blood
volume, atrial and brain–type natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) are synthesized and released. The

The Mechanics Of Acupuncture : Applying Mechanoreceptors...
The Mechanics of Acupuncture: Applying Mechanoreceptors
Holly McChesney
Course/Number
October 26, 2016
Dr. Jaskic
The Mechanics of Acupuncture: Applying Mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreception is a practice where mechanical sensations of touch reinforce the stimulation of
mechanoreceptors applied affecting the body's tissue. Equal parts of impulse effects of
mechanoreceptor input can excite and inhibit functions. Acupuncture points are special sites with
deeper sensory disbursement to different body parts and connective tissue. The insertion of a needle
into these points acts as a mechanical stimulus that activates the mechanoreceptors and sends
conduit (vessels) signals to the central nervous system (CNS), where pain is processed in the brain.
Neurochemical processes of pain modulation are consequently activated, inducing acupuncture
analgesia.
What are Mechanoreceptors? Mechanoreceptors are structures in the body that enable people to
experience physical sensations. They feed perceptible data to the brain in order to be processed.
There are several forms of mechanoreceptors, intended to sense diverse types of perceptible
information, and these constitutions function in different ways. In disorders concerning sensory
sensitivity, some people have issues with their mechanoreceptors or the nervous system does not
transfer information normally from these structures to the brain (place reference here).
Physical sensations can create a sense of pressure, distortion,

Shark Adaptations
Members of the class Chondrichthyes, subclass Elasmobranchii, have been around since the
Devonian period millions of years ago. Most notable of this group of organisms is the shark. Known
for its dangerous appearance, sharks have made many adaptations to survive in aquatic
environments. The marine environment can be extremely dangerous and difficult to survive in.
Sharks are faced with many challenges due to this sort of habitat, especially in regards to oxygen.
Oxygen levels in aquatic environments are very low. As sharks need oxygen to survive, they have
many features to help them adapt. Due to a lack of muscle in the mouth and gill area, they must be
constantly moving to keep water moving pass the gill slits, or risk drowning. Externally, ... Show
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As there is more salt in the ocean than in the shark itself, the physiological structures of a shark need
to prevent the water in the cells from osmotically leaving. One such structure is the rectal gland,
which secretes a fluid containing sodium chloride. It also helps the opisthonephric kidney regulate
the blood's salt concentration. Another important physiological element to regulate salt
concentration are extracellular nitrogen compounds. One of the most important nitrogen compounds
are urea. Produced in the liver with extra amino acids, urea combines with the blood to raise blood
solute concentration until it either matches or exceeds the ocean's salt

Evaluation Of The Research Performed By Maurice Kernan Essay
The main purpose of the research performed by Maurice Kernan, David Cowan, and Charles Zuker,
is to determine which specific genes are linked with mechanotransduction. In order to proceed with
any experimentation, a model for the research was chosen to be Drosophila since the adults are
found to have cuticular mechanosensory organs that allow for tractable genetic and behavioral
analysis. The hypothesis formulated was that if Drosophila with X–linked mutations were screened,
then the effects and the factors involved with behavioral response to touch and mechanotransduction
would be understood more and be able to apply the findings on human mechanosensory receptors;
however, with each experimentations, variables that may have altered or also have influenced the
results must be isolated to eliminate any error through the experimentation and to reach an accurate
conclusion about mechanotransduction on a biophysical and molecular level. Significant findings
from their research that were not already known were that since the adult flies showed a reduced
growth when they had mutations in their genes and from the results, it can be concluded that this is
due to behavioral phenotypes that ranged from reduction of locomotor activity to complete
incoordination. Through their experimentation of the behavioral analysis of the mosaic flies, it was
observed that there was an indication that the unc (uncoordinated) allele is a focus concerning
external sensory bristles. Additionally, from

Skin Thermoreceptors
–Skin is composed of 3 layers– the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fat/hypodermis.
–In addition to the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fat, the skin also has sebaceous glands and
sensory receptors (located in the dermis).
–Sensory receptors are either interoceptors (detect stimuli in the body) or exteroceptors (detect
stimuli outside the body).
–These receptors can be further categorized into chemoreceptors (react with chemicals),
photoreceptors (react with light energy), mechanoreceptors (react with mechanical forces), or
thermoreceptors (react with changes in temperature).
–Skin color is caused by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Melanin is located in the epidermis
and is produced by special cells known as melanocytes when they ... Show more content on
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Allergies can cause a variety of symptoms such as inflammation, swelling, irritation, itching, hives,
or anaphylactic shock.
–There are various types of infections that affect the integumentary system. Some of these infections
include boils, impetigo, folliculitis, tinea pedis (athlete's foot) and warts. Some symptoms and
effects of these are blisters, inflammation, pus, and itching.
–Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer and there are many types. The most common are
basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. These cancers cause lesions, spots,
bumps, or

Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome Essay
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome (PFPS) is a common disorder of the knee. Most patients present with
complaints of stiffness or pain behind the patella. Physical Therapists and Physical Therapist
Assistants use a variety of interventions to treat PFPS. Conservative interventions and treatments
may include: muscle strengthening exercises, flexibility exercises, thermotherapy, cryotherapy,
splinting, bracing, and Electrical Muscle Stimulation (Estem). Two additional PFPS interventions,
mainly reserved for athletes, include Kinesio taping and McConnell taping. At first glance Kinesio
taping and McConnell taping might appear to be the same thing. However, this is not the case, as
they are two different types of tape applied using different techniques. In the article, "Effects of
Kinesio ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kinesio taping involves affixing tape to the skin folds to increase the space between the muscle and
the fascia and to increase circulation. McConnell tape is applied in an effort to restrict abnormal
patella tracking, believed to reduce joint friction. Researchers in this study hypothesize that the pain
relief may actually be in accordance with the gate control theory of pain modulation. They say more
study is needed, but it appears that both tapes stimulate cutaneous mechanoreceptors which may be
the mechanism for pain reduction. This is noteworthy for physical therapy, because this could also
reinforce the use of other physical therapy interventions, in treating patients with patellofemoral
dysfunction. Specifically, the use of massage or patellar joint mobilizations since these modalities
may work under the same principle of pressure overriding pain receptors. If reducing pain is a goal
for a patient, then Physical Therapists and Physical Therapist Assistants can add Kinesio taping and
McConnell taping to the list of successful interventions to treat patients with PFPS as revealed in
this

Clinical Conditions And Their Underlying Pain Mechanisms
We all know that pain is invariably unpleasant and can be experienced from the stimuli which cause
peripheral tissue damage. However, people can also experience pain without any signs of peripheral
tissues damage in parts of their body which do not exhibit any sign of trauma or disease. The
intensity of pain has known to be vary between different individual and is often influenced by
previous experience, individual's beliefs and knowledge, fear and anxiety, sex, culture, age and so
on (Butler & Mosely 2013). Pain is pointed out as more than just a sensation as it is also an
emotional experience. It can influence both mental states and behaviour response or in oppose, an
emotional experience can influence the pain output. Therefore, the following part of the essay, we
will be discussing about two clinical conditions and their underlying pain mechanisms where for one
of them, the degree of pain relates well to the extent of the peripheral tissue damage or pathology
and for another, the degree of pain does not relate well to the peripheral tissue damage or pathology
follow by appropriate physiotherapy management programmes relatively (Craft & Gordon 2015).
Firstly, we will be looking at a clinical condition where the degree of pain reported usually relates
well to the extent of the peripheral tissue damage or pathology which is the anterior cruciate
ligament sprain. Anterior cruciate ligament sprain often involved peripheral tissue damage or
pathology. It is usually due to

Lab We Use A Metal Compass Essay
In lab we used a metal compass to measure and to find our two–point threshold acuity. When Dario
was measuring my two–point sensitivity, I was blindfolded and had to judge whether or not I felt
one–point or two–points. We tested these on multiple locations being, the pad of my index finger,
pinky and thumb. We also measured our two–point sensitivity on the center of my palm, back of my
hand and the top and bottom of my forearm. We took these measurements by starting the metal
compass at 1mm for each location. The experimenter would incrementally increase the metal
compass after each trial until the participant said they felt two points. The experimenter would then
verify that measurement and would repeat the measurement once again for accuracy. My results for
my two–point threshold sensitivity can be found on the table above. However, we found that the
pads of my fingertips had the greatest number of receptive field. This didn't surprise me because it
makes sense to have a greater number of receptive fields in areas that are most predominantly used
for touch. Something that did surprise me though was how few of receptive fields I had on my palm,
back of my hand and on the top and bottom of my forearms. It makes sense that I'd have fewer
receptive fields in this area because I don't use this for touch usually but how few of receptive fields
I had in these areas really surprised me. These measurements tell us that the number of receptive
fields are predominantly

Cone Cells
All living organism relies heavily on their senses for survival. The sensations felt by an organism
allow it to navigate around, detect food source, detect harm, regulate body temperature and
chemicals, change in pressure, etc. Each sensation is produce after a stimulus is registered by a
receptor and since there are different kinds of sensation, there are also different types of receptor to
accommodate each stimulus. Photoreceptors, like the name suggested are specialized cells that is
capable of transducing light into visible sensation. In human, as well as other mammals, there are
two primary type of photoreceptor cells, rod and cone cells, both of which locates in the retina. Rod
and cones cells features striation–like structure on the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thermoreceptors are specialized nerve cells that have free nerve endings that locate beneath the
skin. When these thermoreceptors detect a change in temperature, the information is sent via
afferent neurons up the spinal cord and to the brain, more specifically the hypothalamus. After
information is integrated in the hypothalamus, nerve impulses are sent via the efferent neurons to the
appropriate locations of the body that will response to the temperature. Many organisms utilize
thermoreceptors to assist in maintaining their homeostasis and keeping a constant temperature.
Human and other endotherms are organisms that are capable of regulating their body temperature by
generating internal heat to maintain a close temperature set point. When the temperature is too high,
the body will response by sweating, the evaporation of sweat will reduce the kinetic energy, which
will reduce the temperature on the skin surface. The blood vessels will also vasodilate, bringing
more blood to the surface, allowing more heat to escape the body. On the contrary, when it is cold,
the blood vessels will vasoconstrict, keeping the blood in the core of the body, which will keep the
heat within our body. Shivering will also generate heat by using energy to cause muscle movements.
Another mechanism to endotherms use to generate heat is to uncoupled electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis in cellular respiration within

Static And Dynamic Stretching Research Paper
Effects of Stretching on Power and Performance
Megan Mahoney
March 18, 2016
Thesis: An analysis of the effects of static and dynamic stretching on power and performance.
Stretching is a vital component for warming up prior to exercise. It reduces the risk for injury by
increasing flexibility and range of motion. Warm–ups generally consist of aerobic exercise followed
by static stretching. The goal of warm–ups have been to increase body and muscle temperature
which in turn increases nerve conduction velocity, enzymatic cycling, and muscle compliance
(Behm & Chaouachi, 2011). There are also a variety of non–temperature related factors that occur
during warm–ups. These include an increase in blood flow to the muscles, increase ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2011). A review of the acute effects of static and dynamic stretching on performance. European
Journal of Physiology, 2633–2651.
Bishop, D., Middleton, G. (2013). Effects of static stretching following a dynamic warm–up on
speed, agility and power. Journal of Human Sport & Exercise, 2(8), 391–400.
Edwen, C. Thorlund, J., Magnusson, S., Slinde, F., Svantesson, U., Hulthen. L., Aagaard, P. (2014).
Stretch–shortening cycle muscle power in women and men aged 18–81 years: Influence of age and
gender. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24, 717–726.
Franco, B., Signorelli, G., Trajano, G., Costa, P., Oliveira, C. (2012). The acute effects of three
different stretching protocols on the Wingate test performance. Journal of Sports Science &
Medicine, 11, 1–7.
Herda, T., Herda, N., Costa, P., Walter–Herda, A., Valdez, A., Cramer, J. (2012). The effects of
dynamic stretching on the passive properties of the muscle–tendon unit. Journal of Sports Sciences,
1–9.
Leon, C., Oh, H., Rana, S. (2012). A purposeful dynamic stretching routine strategies. A Journal for
Physical and Sport Educators, 25(5).

Powers, S., Howley, E. (2007). Exercise physiology: Theory and application to fitness and
performance. Boston:

Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries ( Acl )
Anterior cruciate ligament injuries (ACL) can be detrimental for individuals who want to excel in
their sport. The debilitating injury leads to a period of regression in performance essentially
deconditioning the athlete, which can be a huge drawback for individuals of different levels of
competition. The knee is one of the most commonly injured joints of the human body and carries an
increased risk of injury with sports participation. Recent research states approximately 40% of all
ligamentous knee injuries are ACL related and 70% of all ACL injuries occur during sports (Lam et
al., 2009). Sporting activities involving jumping, cutting and decelerating are ranked the highest
provokers of ACL injury (Renstrom et al., 2008). ACL injuries have produced a mass of research
surrounding the mechanisms and biomechanics leading to the injury and the rehabilitation outcomes
to effectively bring back the original state of an individuals impaired limb. The majority of literature
in the present has undertaken an overview of rehabilitation and the effects it may or may not have on
individuals at a neuromuscular and proprioceptive level. These interventions may require further
research and revision on the programs delivered itself to foresee what may be optimal due to the
majority of research indicating the various effects an ACL injury has at a neurophysiological and
mechanical level. The programs are of upmost importance as the redevelopment of robust sufficient
muscle mass after a

Prosthetic Trauma
In the United States, over 500,000 people live with lower extremity loss [1] and 130,000 lower
extremity amputations are carried out annually [2]. The lifetime health care cost after amputation is
estimated to be $649,953 [3]. In order to restore stable and independent ambulation, and improve the
quality of life for persons with lower extremity amputation, advanced prosthetic joint devices have
been proposed (e.g. [4]–[7]). Normalization of function for individuals with LEA is within reach,
and direct communication between neural implants and biomimetic, external prosthetic devices
represents a crucial step forward.
Current clinical amputation procedures date back to the Civil War era, and are designed to prepare
the residuum for fitting of a prosthetic socket [8]. In the current surgical ... Show more content on
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State– of–the–art approaches to peripheral nerve interfacing have been developed within the bounds
of this dated amputation paradigm, working to extract efferent signals from and reproduce afferent
signals in transected peripheral nerves that are buried deep within the residual tissues [10], [11].
The fundamental motor unit to control a biological joint is an agonist–antagonist muscle–tendon
pair. Such a muscle–tendon relationship allows for simultaneous control of joint state (position and
speed) and impedance (stiffness and damping) for upper and lower extremity motor tasks. At least
one pair of antagonistic muscles is needed for each degree of freedom of a limb in order to control
joint state, torque, and impedance [12]. Proprioceptive feedback from this agonist–antagonist
architecture is crucial to reliable joint control. Biological feedback of joint state, which is an
essential component of proprioception, depends on a differential stretch signal from the spindle
fibers in agonist and antagonist muscle groups acting

Senses Pre-Lab Report
Judy Vang Professor Aaron Biol–5–20345, MW 12:30–11:45am 1 Sep. 2016 Senses Pre–lab 1.
What is the basic function of a sensory receptor? What are the different types of receptors and what
are their functions? The basic function of sensory receptors is to respond to environmental stimuli
and convert them into action potentials. The different types of receptors are: photoreceptors
(respond to light), chemoreceptors (respond to chemicals), thermoreceptors (respond to
temperature), pain receptors (respond to pain), and mechanoreceptors (all receptors that respond to
mechanical energy, such as touch, pressure, stretch, hearing and balance). 2. What are rods and
cones? Where are they found? What is the macula? What is the optic disk? Rods (responsible

Chronic Pain
Brandy Shields
Mrs. Knutsen
ENC1101–83
16 April 2014
Chronic Pain: Curable or Not
Abstract
Chronic Pain is an interesting problem in society today. The exact cause of Chronic Pain is not the
same in every patient. In fact most patients present with different symptoms and associated
pathologies, such as the strong link with depression. Treatment of Chronic Pain is often performed a
single practitioner whether that be a Medical Doctor, Chiropractor, Nutritionist, or an alternative
health care professional. Chronic Pain is often extremely complex, because of this treatment needs
to be multidimensional. Effective care of Chronic Pain requires the collective cooperation of health
care professionals
Chronic pain is an increasing problem ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also pain may start with a disease or injury that persists due to stress emotional problems, improper
treatment, or persistent abdominal pain signals in the body. It is possible for chronic pain to occur
any previous injury illness or known cause. Therefore, patients suffering with chronic pain
significantly benefit from a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach to treatment. Often you
achieve optimal care several different health professionals may be involved in patient care
alternative care to the traditional medical phonological could include but is not limited to traditional
chiropractic care nutritional diet yoga exercise acupuncture meditation support groups soft tissue
therapies and network chiropractic. Often, they cannot be cured, that it can be managed well enough
through these alternative disciplines of care to improve the quality of life.
Medical Treatment
Most medical treatment for chronic pain includes from pharmaceutical treatments for pain
management, which can range from over–the–counter medicines like aspirin to prescription drugs.
The problem with chronic pain management treatments that involve drugs is that they lose their
effectiveness. Worse they actually can create more chronic or that can add to the chronic pain cycle.
This class of opiate, opiate like narcotics

The Somatosensory System
Sensation is the input about the physical world that's obtained by the sensory receptors. There are 5
primary human senses: sight, smell, taste, and touch and each are perceived through our eyes, ears,
nose, hands, mouth, etc.
Sight is the ability for our eyes to focus and detect visible light on the preceptors in our eyes which
then create nerve impulses for features like color, brightness, and etc. There are 2 types of
photoreceptors; rods, which are responsible for our ability to see in dim light and cones, which are
responsible for our ability to see in bright light, image clarity, and more. The photoreceptors
transduce light into electrical signals that can be sent to the brain for further processing. Some
neuroanatomists consider the ability of each photoreceptor as type of sensation by itself.
Hearing is the sense of sound perception and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Our sense of touch is controlled by a huge network of nerve endings and touch receptors in the skin
known as the somatosensory system. This system is responsible for all the sensations we feel.
Within the somatosensory system, there are four main types of receptors: mechanoreceptors, pain
receptors, thermoreceptors, and proprioceptors. Mechanoreceptors decipher sensations such as
pressure, vibrations, and texture. The thermoreceptors are responsible for perceiving the temperature
of objects we touch. Pain receptors do exactly as they are named, they are responsible for detecting
the feeling of pain. Finally, proprioceptors sense the position of the different parts of the body in
relation to each other and the surrounding environment. When your hand touches an object, the
mechanoreceptors in the skin are activated, and they start a chain of events by signaling to the
nearest neuron that they touched something until the message reaches the brain, and causes a
reaction (Pediaopolis

Abdominal Wall Block Analysis
Abdominal wall blocks became a part of clinical anesthesia practice 40 years ago. Their popularity
has dramatically increased in the last decade, thanks to the introduction of simple and effective
ultrasound guided techniques such as the transversus abdominis plane (TAP) block and more
recently the quadratus lumborum block (QLB). QLB is a posterior abdominal wall block that's
performed only under ultrasound guidance. Since its first description as a variant of TAP block in
2007, this technique has been further investigated and modified. Now, there are 4 approaches of
QLB when it comes to the point of local anesthetic injection. QLB provides both visceral and
somatic analgesia. The mechanism of action isn't clear yet. The key could be in the

Locust Tactile Hair
In the research article "Physiological Properties of Afferents From Tactile Hairs on the Hindlegs of
the Locust", Newland investigated how particular physiological properties of locust tactile hairs
transmit different information. The overall aim of Newton's research was to investigate how local
networks of interneurons process sensory signals from afferent tactile hairs to preserve information
encoded by understanding the physiological properties of the tactile hairs themselves. Newton
outlined two primary findings derived from his research that related to the overall aim of the
experiment. The first major finding was that locust tactile hairs fall under two physiological
categories, high–threshold and low–threshold hairs. High–threshold hair afferents respond rapidly to
stimulus but adapt after a short period of excitation and require a larger degree of stimulus. In
contrast, low–threshold hair afferents respond a low degree of stimulus and adapt at a slower rate,
allowing the hairs to transmit information for as long as the stimulus is present. The second major
finding was that both types of hair are directionally sensitive, meaning that certain directionality
stimulates the hairs more than others. These findings did not completely answer the original
question but provided key insights bringing researchers closer to ... Show more content on
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More importantly, Newton discovered sensory mechanisms in insects that could mirror the sensory
systems of humans. It is now known that aspects of human mechanoreceptors are similar to the
receptors that Newton investigated. Humans have mechanoreceptors that adapt rapidly to stimuli
(Meissners and Pacinian corpuscles) similar to the high threshold afferent hairs that Newton
examined. Additionally, humans have slowly adapting mechanoreceptors (Merkels disks and
Ruffinis endings) like the low threshold afferent hairs that Newton

Biological Response To Swimming
Swimming is an activity that demands much physical and mental attention from the partaker. Every
time I go to Hearst Memorial Gym to swim laps, a flurry of activity occurs within my physical
existence. A schedule as full as mine, after all, is stressful and exhausting. Once I enter the pool,
though, most of my academic and social anxieties evaporate. While I may feel relaxed, many
biological responses occur in my body's muscular, nervous, and cardiovascular systems to
accommodate my act of swimming. This is not to say these are the only organ systems involved in
the act of swimming. Rather, I believe they are the most interesting in the context of biological
psychology. Upon diving into the pool, skeletal muscles in the legs, arms, and torso ... Show more
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These physiological changes occur in response to the physical stresses of swimming. In the
cardiovascular system, exercise increases the pH of blood as carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations
increase and oxygen (O2) concentrations decrease. This occurs because muscle cells use O2 and
release CO2 as a byproduct; during exercise, more O2 is consumed and more CO2 is released.
Chemoreceptors in the brainstem's medulla oblongata detect increases in blood pH and respond by
triggering the release of neurotransmitters such as epinephrine and norepinephrine (Christensen et
al., 1983). These neurotransmitters (and hormones) trigger the sympathetic nervous system to
elevate heart rate via increased synaptic input to the sinoatrial node. The sympathetic nervous
system also increases respiratory rate to equilibrate CO2 and O2 levels in the bloodstream, dilates
blood vessels to increase laminar blood flow, and increase sweating to release heat by evaporative
cooling (Morgan et al.,

How My Perception Differences
In my everyday college life, there are several ways in which my perception differs from that of my
peers. These differences relate to our own experiences within developmental stages of life, each
experience serves a specific role on how we perceive things everyday. Such as, the culture we were
raised in, environmental factors, parental method, genetics, etc. Each of these factors influence
sensory adaption, vision, auditory, touch, and taste. To begin with, sensory adaptation relates to the
tendency to pay less attention to an unchanging source of stimulation"(151). In other words, we
become less aware of the everyday sounds heard during our basic routines, rather instead we focus
on the new or sudden noises that stand out. Another point to

The Effect Of Calcium On The Rapid Adaptation Of An Insect...
In the research paper "The Role of Calcium in the Rapid Adaption of an Insect Mechanoreceptor",
researchers aimed to identify whether calcium entry into the cell is correlated with neuronal
adaption. To address this question researcher varied the concentration of calcium in the extracellular
space of the cell in addition to applying calcium blocking agents (cobalt and cadmium), and by
applying a calcium ionophore (antibiotic A23187). Three primary findings pertaining to these
substances were derived from the experiment. The most important finding was that increasing the
extracellular concentration of calcium did not increase the rate of adaption and instead reduced the
rate of adaption. Secondly, researchers found that the presence of cobalt reduced the rate of
adaption, the opposite of what they had originally expected. Lastly, no significant difference in
adaption rate was found for solutions containing the antibiotic A23187. The methodology employed
to derive the findings listed above involved examining the adaption rates of tactile spine neurons.
Neurons in the tactile spine were directly stimulated with varying intensities followed by a
frequency–response analysis. Neuronal behavior was characterized as a function of the extracellular
calcium concentration, the presence of calcium channel agonist, or calcium ionophore antibiotic
A23187. Extracellular concentrations of calcium included, 1 mM (low), 5 mM (normal), and 15 mM
(high). The subject of stimulation and

Two Point Threshold Lab Report

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