Unit 3: Dmitri Mendeleev Biography

DMITRI
MENDELEEV
BUILDING THE PERIODIC
TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Born
February 7, 1834
Tobolsk, Siberia, Russia

Died
January 20, 1907
St. Petersburg, Russia

By Michelle Feder

Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian
chemist and teacher,
devised the periodic table —
a comprehensive system
for classifying the chemical
elements.
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Organizing matter
In the mid-1700s, chemists began actively identifying elements, which are
substances made up of just one kind of atom. But a century later, they still
used a variety of symbols and acronyms to represent the different materials
— there just wasn’t a common lexicon. In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleev came to prominence with his tabular diagram of known elements.
This basic ingredient list, of which all matter exists, became known as the
periodic table. Here’s what’s especially amazing: Mendeleev’s chart allotted
spaces for elements that were yet to be discovered. For some of these missing pieces, he predicted what their atomic masses and other chemical properties would be. When scientists later discovered the elements Mendeleev
expected, the world got a glimpse of the brilliance behind the periodic table.

A difficult childhood
Mendeleev was born in 1834 in the far west of Russia’s Siberia, the youngest
of a dozen or more children (reports vary). His family faced one crisis after
another. When Dmitri was little, his father, a teacher, went blind, and his
mother went to work. She became the manager of a successful glass factory.
Tragedy struck again in 1848, when the factory burned down, and the
family faced poverty. Mendeleev’s mother was determined to get him an
education, and traveled with him a great distance, to Moscow and then to
St. Petersburg, to do so. Ten days after he was enrolled in school, his mother
died of tuberculosis, a disease that had also taken his father, at least
one of his siblings, and that Mendeleev himself would battle as a young adult.

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A young professor

A missed train and a dream

In 1861, Mendeleev returned to Russia from research in Europe and later
taught at the Technical Institute in St. Petersburg. He found that few of the
new developments in the field of chemistry had made their way to his
homeland — something he was determined to change, lecturing enthusiastically about the latest advances. Only 27 years old, he cultivated the persona
of an eccentric, with a flowing beard and long, wild hair that he was known
to trim only once a year. Still, he was a popular professor.

Next, Mendeleev began a text for inorganic chemistry (concerned with substances that are not organic, such as minerals), and the result, Principles
of Chemistry (two volumes, 1868–1870), would become the standard text for
the field until early in the 20th century. His research for this book would
also lead him to his most renowned work.

Mendeleev recognized that there was no contemporary textbook on modern
organic chemistry (concerned with carbon compounds, including living
things), so he wrote one. His Organic Chemistry (1861) was considered his
era’s most authoritative book on the subject. But the professor was painfully aware that many of his students “could not follow” him, as one student
observed. Mendeleev knew that a critical reason for peoples’ difficulty in
understanding chemistry was the lack of any clear system for classifying
the known elements. Without one, he could only offer particulars about
specific building blocks of matter, but no framework that would explain the
relationships between different substances.
As Mendeleev wrote:
The edifice of science requires not only material, but also a plan,
and necessitates the work of preparing the materials, putting them
together, working out the plans and symmetrical proportions of the
various parts. (Strathern, 2000)

In 1867, when Mendeleev began writing Principles of Chemistry, he set out to
organize and explain the elements. He began with what he called the “typical” elements: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Those substances
demonstrated a natural order for themselves. Next he included the halogens,
which had low atomic weights, reacted easily with other elements, and
were readily available in nature. He had begun by using atomic weights as
a principle of organization, but these alone did not present a clear system.
At the time, elements were normally grouped in two ways: either by their
atomic weight or by their common properties, such as whether they were
metals or gases. Mendeleev’s breakthrough was to see that the two could
be combined in a single framework.
Mendeleev was said to have been inspired by the card game known as solitaire in North America, and “patience” elsewhere. In the game, cards are
arranged both by suit, horizontally, and by number, vertically. To put some
order into his study of chemical elements, Mendeleev made up a set of
cards, one for each of the 63 elements known at the time. Mendeleev wrote
the atomic weight and the properties of each element on a card.
He took the cards everywhere he went. On February 17, 1869, right after
breakfast, and with a train to catch later that morning, Mendeleev set to work
organizing the elements with his cards. He carried on for three days and
nights, forgetting the train and continually arranging and rearranging the cards
in various sequences until he noticed some gaps in the order of atomic mass.

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Timeline of Mendeleev’s life

1850
Enrolls in Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg; mother and sister die of tuberculosis
1855
Graduates as a science teacher and accepts post in Simferopol in Crimea
1856
Returns to St. Petersburg to defend his master’s thesis and lecture in chemistry

1849
Travels with mother and sister from
Tobolsk to Moscow and St. Petersburg

1861
Publishes textbook, Organic Chemistry, which wins the prestigious Domidov Prize
1866
Becomes a professor of chemistry at University of St. Petersburg

1847
Father, Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev,
dies of tuberculosis

1868
Helps to found the Russian Chemical Society;
publishes first edition of Principles of Chemistry
1869
Devises the periodic table of elements

1834
Born in Tobolsk, Siberia, a province
of Russia, on February 7

1830

1840

1876
Visits the United States to see
the Pennsylvania oil fields

1850

1848
Karl Marx publishes
The Communist Manifesto
1837
Inventor Samuel Morse patents his electric telegraph

During the time of Mendeleev

1860

1870

1880

1868
Astronomer Henrietta
1879
Swan Leavitt is born
Thomas Edison tests
1867
his first light bulb
Chemist and physicist Marie
Curie is born Maria Sklowdowska
in Warsaw, Poland
1866
Gregor Mendel publishes Experiments on Plant
Hybridization, becoming the “father of modern genetics”

1860
Chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro discovers that
molecules can contain more than one kind of atom
1859
Naturalist Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species

1905
Royal Society of England
awards him the Copley Medal

After his dream, Mendeleev drew the table he had envisioned. While arranging these cards of atomic data, Mendeleev discovered what is called the
Periodic Law. When Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, the properties where repeated. Because the properties
repeated themselves regularly, or periodically, on his chart, the system
became known as the periodic table.

1890
Dismissed from his university
teaching position for supporting
student dissent

1893
Accepts post as director
of the Bureau of
Weights and Measures

1890

As one story has it, Mendeleev, exhausted from his three-day effort, fell
asleep. He later recalled, “I saw in a dream, a table, where all the elements
fell into place as required. Awakening, I immediately wrote it down on a
piece of paper.” (Strathern, 2000) He named his discovery the “periodic table
of the elements.”

1907
Dies of influenza in
St. Petersburg

1900

1910

1901
The Nobel Prize is founded by
Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel
1889
Astronomer Edwin Hubble is born
1883
Krakatoa erupts, one of the largest
volcanic explosions in modern history

In devising his table, Mendeleev did not conform completely to the order of
atomic mass. He swapped some elements around. (We now know that the
elements in the periodic table are not all in atomic mass order.) Although he
was unaware of it, Mendeleev had actually placed the elements in order of
increasing “atomic number,” a number representing the amount of positively
charged protons in the atom (also the number of negatively charged electrons that orbit the atom).
Mendeleev went even further. He corrected the known atomic masses of
some elements and he used the patterns in his table to predict the properties
of the elements he thought must exist but had yet to be discovered. He left
blank spaces in his chart as placeholders to represent those unknown elements. When the gap was in the middle of a triad, or trio of elements bearing
similar characteristics, he would guess at the hypothetical element’s atomic
mass, atomic number, and other properties. Then he named these with the
prefix eka, meaning “first” in Sanskrit. For instance, the predicted element
designated as “eka-aluminum,” he located below the known element aluminum. It was later identified as gallium.
Gallium, germanium, and scandium were all unknown in 1871, but Mendeleev
left spaces for each and predicted their atomic masses and other chemical
properties. Within 15 years, the “missing” elements were discovered, conforming to the basic characteristics Mendeleev had recorded. The accuracy
of those predictions led to the periodic table’s acceptance.

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Building on others’ achievements
Mendeleev did not develop the periodic table entirely on his own; he inherited and built on knowledge that was handed down from many chemists who
spent their lives investigating matter. In the early 1800s, about 30 elements
were known, and although chemists knew that some of these elements
acted in similar ways or had similar characteristics, no one had found an
overall, accepted pattern in their behaviors.
In 1860, scientists met at one of the first international chemistry conferences. They decided that hydrogen, the lightest element, be given a weight
of 1. All other elements’ weights would be compared to that of a hydrogen
atom. That means that if an element is eight times heavier than hydrogen,
its weight is 8. The concept of a systematic measure for atomic weights
greatly contributed to the success of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
In 1864, with about 50 elements known, the British chemist John Newlands
noticed a pattern when he arranged the elements in order of atomic mass,
or weight. He found that the properties of the elements seemed to repeat
every eighth element. He called this the Law of Octaves, comparing it to
musical scales. His ideas were rejected, and his peers joked that he may
as well have arranged the elements in alphabetical order. After calcium
(20 on today’s periodic table), Newlands’ order went amiss. He had grouped
the very unreactive metal copper in the same group as the highly reactive
elements lithium, sodium, and potassium. Far away in Russia, Mendeleev did
not know about Newlands.
As can happen in scientific developments, another researcher arrived at the
same theory as Mendeleev’s at about the same time. In 1870, German chemist
Julius Lothar Meyer published a paper describing the same organization of
elements as Mendeleev’s. Both scientists had similar backgrounds: They had
studied in Heidelberg, Germany, in the laboratory of the chemist Robert Bunsen. Both had attended, in September 1860, the first international chemistry
congress in Karlsruhe, Germany. The congress had addressed the need to
establish a common system to measure the weights of the different elements.
And both chemists were teachers working on textbooks for their students.

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Was it fair that Mendeleev received all the credit for the periodic table while
Meyer stayed unknown? It’s possible that this happened because Mendeleev,
confident in his theory, published his findings first.
Whatever the case, Mendeleev’s periodic table, with placeholders strategically saved for upcoming discoveries, provided invaluable scaffolding to
classify the building blocks of matter. The spaces he reserved reflected a
confidence, also, in the ongoing search for knowledge.

Completing the puzzle
The periodic table did not immediately impact the field of chemistry, though
that changed with the discovery of the first missing element, gallium, in
1875. All of its qualities fit those Mendeleev had foreseen for the element he
called eka-aluminum.
As invaluable a reference tool as it was, the periodic table left plenty of room
for discovery and enhancement. In the 1890s, an entirely new and unexpected group of elements was detected: the noble gases. They were added to
the table as a separate column. Helium, the second-most abundant element
in the Universe, wasn’t found on Earth until 1895. Another 60 or so elements
have since been discovered and others may still be waiting to be found.
Beneath the contiguous periodic table, you can see two rows known as the
“lanthanides” (atomic numbers 57–71) and “actinides” (atomic numbers
89–103), named after the first, left-most members of their groups. As scientists found the heavier elements and began to create many more, the
newer elements have been separated to keep the table’s cohesive shape.
As of 2012, the periodic table has a total of 118 elements. Some elements
have been named after scientists, such as atomic number 99, Einsteinium,for
Albert Einstein. Rutherfordium, atomic number 104, is named in honor of
physicist Ernest Rutherford, who developed the modern model of the atom.
Atomic number 101, Mendelevium, is named after the periodic table’s architect.

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The matrix
Mendeleev’s periodic table presented a new paradigm, with all of the elements
positioned within a logical matrix. The elements are arranged in a series of
rows called “periods,” so that those with similar properties appear in vertical columns. Each vertical column is called a “group,” or family, of elements.
This instantly shows one set of relationships when read up and down, and
another when read from side to side. Some groups have elements sharing
very similar properties, such as their appearance and their behavior. For
example, each element has its own melting and boiling point, the temperatures at which it changes from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to a gas.
Another characteristic is how “reactive” an element is, meaning how quick it
is to join up with other elements. Scientists recognize how an element will
react based on its location on the table.
The elements are known by an atomic symbol of one or two letters. For
example, the atomic symbol for gold is “Au,” the atom’s name is “gold,” and
its atomic number is 79. The higher the atomic number, the “heavier” an
element is said to be.
Hydrogen is 1 on the periodic table, in the upper left corner. Its atomic number is 1; its nucleus contains one proton and one electron. About 98 percent
of the Universe consists of the two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium.

Continuing the mission
Scientists continue to adjust the periodic table as new elements are found.
Mendeleev’s mission, to clarify chemistry, lives on. He dedicated his
textbook to his mother with what he claimed were her last words to him:
Refrain from illusions; insist on work and not on words. Patiently seek
divine and scientific truth. (Strathern, 2000)

The periodic table as first drawn by Mendeleev in 1869

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Sources
Bryson, Bill. A Short History of Nearly Everything.
New York: Delacorte Press. 2008.
Krebs, Robert E. The History and Use of Our Earth’s Chemical Elements.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006.
Strathern, Paul. Mendeleyev’s Dream: The Quest for the Elements.
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.
Winston, Robert. It’s Elementary! How Chemistry Rocks Our World.
New York: Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2007.
Zannos, Susan. Dmitri Mendeleyev and the Period Table.
Hockessin, DE: Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2005.

Image credits
Dmitri Mendeleev in 1897, public domain
An engraving of Mendeleev, public domain
Mendeleev’s 1869 periodic table
© RIA Novosti / Photo Researchers, Inc.

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Unit 3: Dmitri Mendeleev Biography

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Unit 3: Dmitri Mendeleev Biography