Understanding language across curriculum

Chapter -2
UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE ACROSS CURRICULUM
TEACHER IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXT
There have been a great number of changes in education systems
worldwide recently. Schools used to be the source of knowledge, a place where
children were educated more or less without parental control. Together with
the changes, new expectations appeared towards our schools .Nowadays
schools need to teach their learners how to gain information and how to select
and use them. This happens so quickly that students learn how to use the
Internet together with their teachers
The changes that took place in schools have changed the roles of
teachers, too. In the past teachers used to be the major source of knowledge,
the leader and educator of their students' school life. Teachers would organise
after-school activities. They used to be the authority in the class and often
took over the role of parents. Nowadays, teachers provide information and
show their students how to tackle them. Although they are still considered to
be a kind of leader in the class, they can be thought of as facilitators in the
learning process. They are supporters rather than educators and also advisors
towards parents.
If we focus on the teaching process, we still realise that there are a great
number of changes in this field as well, and all of them have an influence on
the role of teachers. First of all, teachers in modern classrooms are no longer
lecturers, they are facilitators, their main task is to set goals and organise the
learning process accordingly. Then, in the past, teachers used to follow a
syllabus which was compulsory for them. Nowadays, teachers have a National

Curriculum, a Core Curriculum and a local (school) curriculum that they
have to consider, but - on the other hand - they have independence to choose
the teaching materials (textbook), make up a syllabus of their own and teach
their pupils so that they can perform well both at examinations and in life.
Curriculum design is a task teachers have to be prepared for, although the
present generation of teachers has been growing into making up syllabi for
years.
Another difference between the past and present tasks of teachers is
represented by the technical background they need to be able to use and
handle effectively (computer, photocopier, power point, projectors, etc).
Instead of teaching chalk face, they need to be an information technology
expert, a technician or/and a photocopy master. One of the biggest challenges
for teachers is that their role in the school management has also changed. The
school needs them as individuals, who can make decisions and cope with the
stress of the changing world of schools. At the same time teachers need to be
able to work in teams, co-operate with colleagues and parents.
Role Of Teachers In The Global Scenario
Education has a very significant role in developing an individual to the
level of perfection by drawing out the best citizen from him, best Indian from
him etc. In the opinion of Dr .A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, the former president of
India, “the whole purpose of education in a country is to develop and enhance
the potential of human resource and progressively transform it into a
knowledge society”. To fulfil this purpose of education, teacher has a very
significant and non- replaceable role. The new century is an era of
globalization, knowledge explosion, technological innovations and enormous

scientific growth. The field of education is undergoing changes miraculously.
Changes like virtual classrooms, global communications, distance learning,
global economies, telecourses, corporate classrooms, increased competition
among social agencies for scarce resources etc. comes. In this situation, in
addition to the role of teachers as knowledge provider, he has to perform a
number of roles .These roles can be summarized as follows.
1. Teacher - Role Model
This is the most important role of teacher. A role model is a person
whose behaviour is imitated by others. Educators can be considered to have
near to the same social status of social nearness to the children. Then children
will fully consider them as role models. There is a thirst of youth for positive
role models. The seven characteristics of a positive role model are Positive
Choice Making, Think Out Loudly, Apologise And Admit Mistakes, Shows
Respect, Demonstrate Confidence ,etc.
2. Teacher As A Guide
A guide is one who directs another in his course of life. In the early
years of child the teacher has to function as guide. He has to walk with the
students and to deliver the answers to his students. He has to show them the
goals they have to achieve and the way to attain it and lead him to the goal by
going along with him. A teacher who is a real guide to his students will feel
with them, suffer with them and struggle with them till he achieves the goal.
3. Teacher As A Friend

In the early childhood of one the role of teacher is to function as a friend
to the student. Swami Vivekananda says, “The true teacher is one who can
immediately come down to the level of the student and transfer his soul to the
student and see through and understand through his mind”. The relationship
of a student to teacher involves trust, guidance, encouragement etc. Teachers
need to make a good rapport with the students. Teachers have to create
freedom with the students in such a way to create a situation for sharing with
them like friends.
4. Teacher As A Mentor
In the early teenage of a child teacher can take the role of a mentor. He
can help the individual to bring out his hidden talents and interests which has
a great influence on his future. It is best to celebrate the identified strength of
the child in the public. In this period teacher can encourage their acceptable
behaviour and correct the non- accepted ones. Teacher can provide him
values like punctuality, morality and perseverance.
5. Teacher –Substituent Parent
Sometimes the role of teacher is like substituent parents. The little kids
look to anyone as his parent who has love, affection and care to him and who
is ready to help him. The teacher has to compensate the lack of father or
mother in case of students those who haven’t them. School is the second home
and teacher is the second parent to him.
6. Teacher As A Facilitator

In the new approach (Constructivist) of education, teachers have to
function as a facilitator of learning. The teacher has to motivate the students
and encourage discussing and debating. The teacher has to interact with them
but the interaction has to follow the children as a whole. Techniques and
methods like laboratory work, field trips, discussions, seminars etc should be
developed among students with the purpose of producing good interaction
among them. As a facilitator of learning teacher has to maintain control in the
classroom and has to create a positive environment in classroom. Teacher
should enable the students to maximize the potential of their formal and
informal learning. He had to make him familiar with the great diversity of
space, resources, technology etc.
7. Social Engineer
An engineer is one who prepare plan, design a blue print of a task to be
completed. The teachers prepare the blueprint of the social development. As a
member of the society he has to work for the development of the society. He is
the social engineer who makes use of the human materials of the nation to
construct a stable structure. The culture, values and traditions of the country
is transmitted to the pupil through the teacher. Inside the school teacher
prepare children as better citizens with intellectual development. Outside the
classroom, he can live as a social worker. Since he is a teacher he is expected
to be above average member of the society. He should have a strong desire
and readiness to work for fulfilling the needs of the community.
8. Teacher-Leader

The person who has own knowledge and practice the ideas where
needed can be termed as leader. He has to monitor the system, plan, organize
and lead the activities to a sustainable development. Teacher leadership can
be defined as the process in which teacher connect the goal of an individual
with the ultimate goal of education. The teacher leader should give
importance on building teams. The importance of working with each other
and the ability to share the credit, team building should be conveyed to the
students.
9. Classroom Teacher
The responsibility of a teacher in the classroom is very significant.
There is a saying like this; “an ordinary teacher tells; a good teacher
demonstrates; the best teacher inspires”. The role of a teacher in the
classroom include the roles as inspirer, facilitator, guide which we already
discussed. The additional roles are:
10. Environmental Educator
The modern era is in a threat of the degradation of environmental
quality. The level of air pollution, water pollution etc. increased and disturbs
the ecological balance. In this context we have to create environmental
awareness to protect, preserve and conserve our environment. This is possible
with the help of a teacher
11. Value Educator

There is a comment, “education without vision is waste; education
without value is crime and education without mission is life burden”. Role of
teachers in value education can be summarized as follows: Teacher should (a)
develop a nationalistic feeling among students (b) create an awareness about
the modern problems related to food, water, energy, environment etc. (d)
eradicate illiteracy (e) ensure social equality and justice (f) develop the
qualities of character and strong leadership (g) organize field activities among
the marginalized with the students.
12. Role In Inclusion Of Pupils With Learning Differences
Inclusion of pupils with learning differences is a stepping stone to
achieve the goal, ‘universal education’. It involves changes and modifications
in the content, approaches, structures and strategies. Inclusion assumes that
all children are part of the regular school system. It demands high level of
teaching competence and organizational changes. The background of
inclusion is as follows: people have a negative outlook to such children. So
most of them kept at home itself and parents do not get any kind of support
from the community to raise them. The key element in inclusion is teaching
and the role of teachers in inclusive setup. Inclusion will become realized only
if teachers are aware of the nature of the situation and ready to commit for it.
13. Role Of Teacher In Curriculam Instruction And Implementation
The curriculum can be termed as ‘a tool in the hands of an artist to
mould his materials according to his idols in his studio” .Curriculum
development is a continuous process. Teacher is the most important factor in
the construction of curriculum. The teacher –student interactions in the

classroom and the method of teaching etc influences the outcomes of learning.
By selecting appropriate materials and pedagogies and by the teaching of
issues of equality and rights in the society teacher can give opportunity to
develop their potential. The teacher can influence the curricula in developing
values among students. The values transmitted through these interactions
become the real curricular values. The learning outcome depends not only on
the content but also the method of teaching. Media and technology affect the
curriculum to a great extent. Electronic media such as TV, computer,
internet, communication facilities etc enrich students’ real curriculum. A good
library and effective study materials make the learning more effective.
14. Destiny Maker - Nation Building
According to the Kothari commission report (1964-1966) “the destiny of
India is being shaped in her classrooms”. Teacher is a maker of man. He is the
foundation of all education and thus of the whole civilization of mankind. No
nation reconstruction is possible without the active cooperation of the teacher.
Teacher can be called as ‘nation builder’ since the future of the nation is built
through education. The teacher influences the minds of the youth and helps
them to be proud of their culture, national character and national emblem
and ornament themselves with societal conducts. Thus teacher has to play a
vital role as nation builder. The great teachers reveal the values of their life
and empathy to the fellow beings .They create social cohesion, national
integration and a learning society.
15. Online Instructor

In the modern era teachers have to take the role as online Instructor. He
has to take responsibility of keeping discussions on track, share special
knowledge and insights, maintain group harmony, weaving together various
discussion threads, suggesting a human relationship, developing group unity,
helping members to work together in a mutual cause are all critical to success
of any online activities.
DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLS OF COMPREHENSION AND
PRODUCTION
A skill subject is one , proficiency in which is acquired mostly through
practice, not by merely learning the rules of the subject or by acquiring a lot
of knowledge on it. We can broadly classify subject as skill subjects and
content subjects. Being a behavioural science language is a skill subject.
Learning a language is not learning about the language. Learning the rules of
language will be helpful to refine the use of it. To use language for
communication especially oral, a lot of constant practice is required.
Language serves many purposes. Absence of language is mere dearth of
communication. The role that language plays is immense, since time
embarked. Identified as the need of the hour, the four necessities in language
or commonly known as the four skills- Reading, writing, listening and
speaking plays a vital role in any language learning quest. The four skills are
the pinnacles of language. They are separate yet bound together with an
inseparable bond. The integration of listening and speaking with reading and
writing will make good listeners, speakers, readers and writers so as to be able
to communicate effectively. The four skills are explained below;
 Reading (Comprehension Skill)

 Listening (Comprehension Skill)
 Speaking (Production Skill)
 Writing (Production Skill)
READING
Reading may be defined as the act of receiving meaning from the
written form. It is the ability to interpret linguistic sounds in their graphic
and symbolic representation. It is an active skill, in the sense it involves active
visual an mental processes. It is a receptive skill as the reader derives message
from written material. Reading skill can be developed only through constant
reading.
Reading is fun-way to knowledge hunt. It is true indeed- reading brings
wisdom. Through reading, we learn a lot and it is the most prominent
language skill. But the fact of making a reading habit or being good at it is
the question here. For now, students, adults and even educators read very
less. It is a well-known fact that when there were no televisions or computers
or other forms of entertainment, reading was a primary leisure activity
among the educated lot. Reading offers a productive approach to
improving language- vocabulary and word power.
WRITING
Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. It involves just a
graphic representation of speech. It is not natural as listening or speaking. A
person with good writing skills is always victorious at expressing oneself.
Writing skill is the ‘evidence’' of intellectual level or the level of expression .

LISTENING
Listening is yet another necessitate in language. Listening is not merely
hearing: it is a state of receptivity that permits understanding of what is heard
and grants the listener full partnership in the communication process. We
need to develop a keen interest in making ourselves better ears. The fact that
we listen more than our ears and we listen far more than the sound is very
true. A good listener shows readiness and possesses an ability to manipulate
the sound into words and their contextual meaning. Then the good listener
relates given meanings to other experiences and he shares responsibility with
the speaker. Academically, listening skills plays a vital role in the teaching-
learning cycle. A student learns better when he can listen better. A teacher is
also in need of a good listening skill.
Types of Listening Skill
Listening skill can be classified into the following categories ;
1. Extensive Listening
It is the form of listening for getting a generalised idea about a talk. It is
not for detailed comprehension of information.
2. Intensive Listening
It is a detailed form of listening. The objective will be to collect detailed
information.
3. Focused Listening

It means listening attentively for getting a particular area of
information.
4. Casual Listening
It means listening without a particular purpose.
5. Discriminative Listening
It is a form of listening that helps for developing logical thinking.
6. Critical Listening
It helps to accept or reject an argument or an opinion.
7. Comprehensive Listening
It helps to understand a message clearly providing for a follow up
action.
8. Therapeutic Listening
It helps to grasp the meaning of a message superficially without
evaluating it.
9. Appreciative Listening
It helps to derive enjoyment or appreciation for delight.
Techniques for Developing Listening Skill
The following techniques can be used for improving our listening skill;

 Listening to good speeches great linguistics.
 Listening to news on radio and TV.
 Distinguishing sound from minimal pairs.
 Ask pupils to here e-audio tutorials
 Listening to stories , rhymes , conversations, debates, seminars, etc
SPEAKING
Speaking may be defined as the transmissions of communications. It is
the productive skill in the oral mode. Speaking skill is as important as the
others. When you have words read, ideas written and thoughts heard, all you
need is to express- your speaking skill. What you speak will determine the
expressiveness in you. Learning to speak a language is the shortest way to
learning to read and write it.
Techniques for Improving Speaking Skill
 Conducting discussions
 Watching movies & hearing music.
 Conducting extemporary speech
 Story telling
 Participate in debates.
 Role play
 Dialogues
 Participate in language games.
 Conduct loud reading
 Oral composition
 Continues practices with simple conversation.

 Practice speaking clearly with proper pausing of words.
LINGUISTIC SKILLS FOR PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is a very important tool in a human live. It is an
essential requirement in this world to survive. It is impossible for any
educational institute, organization or domestic life to exist without it. The art
of communication involves listening and speaking as well as reading and
writing. Teachers need to be highly skilled in all these areas to excel in their
profession. Proficient communicators receive information, understand and
synthesize it and express themselves at a high level. They make excellent
teachers because they are able to transmit knowledge, skills and values at the
same time they communicate their caring for the students entrusted to their
care. They help motivate students to learn.
Communication is both receptive and expressive. Teachers must be
skilled at listening to their students as well as explaining things clearly.
Teachers need clarity of thought to present the material. They must be able to
break down complex ideas into simpler parts and smaller steps to transmit to
their students. They must be able to adapt their methods of communication to
all students regardless of ability or learning style. They are able to "read"
their students and adapt to the needs of the individual. Effective
communication includes transforming the boring into the interesting and
having good presentation skills.
Teachers must be able to express themselves both verbally and in
writing in order to report student progress to parents. They need to explain
the strengths and weaknesses of their students so that parents will understand
the message and be receptive rather than defensive. This is especially

important when the teacher conveys a difficult message about the student's
misbehaviour or learning problems. The message must be delivered clearly
and with tact. Teachers should be comfortable communicating with parents
regularly, with phone calls and informal notes in addition to formal report
cards.
For effective professional communication teachers must possess some
important linguistic skills. Following are the four basic linguistic skill
necessary for effective communication.
 Vocabulary Knowledge
 Grammatical Skills
 Pragmatic Abilities
 Metalinguistic Awareness, Idioms and Figurative Language.
Vocabulary Knowledge
Listening comprehension depends upon lexical knowledge (vocabulary).
The meanings of words contribute to the meanings of sentences, which make
up much of oral communication. The same skills are used during reading
individual words as a foundation for text comprehension.
Grammatical Skills
Comprehension at the sentence level (and beyond) depends upon having
good grammatical skills. Grammar is a system of rules that specifies the order
in which words can be used in sentences (syntax), and how word order is used
to convey meaning. Formally, grammar is made up of morphology as well as

syntax. Morphology refers to the basic structure of words and the units of
meaning (or morphemes) from which they are formed.
Pragmatic Abilities
Pragmatics is the system of language which is concerned with
communication and, specifically, how language is used in context. Efficient
communication depends upon the speaker and listener having certain
assumptions in common, for example that the communication should be both
informative and relevant to the topic under discussion. In addition it should be
truthful, clear, unambiguous, economical and delivered in an orderly fashion.
Violations of these assumptions include talking at length about topics not
directly relevant to the present situation or using an inappropriate register,
such as speaking in an overly formal manner for the context. Pragmatic failure
commonly occurs when the speaker does not take into account the listener’s
perspective and either provides too much or too little information for them to
be able to communicate well.
Metalinguistic Awareness, Idioms And Figurative Language
Metalinguistic awareness develops after basic linguistic competence and
refers to the ability to reflect on the structure of language. It could be argued
that metalinguistic awareness is required in order to understand non-literal,
figurative and metaphorical use of language, as well as for reflecting on
author’s style and purpose. Idioms are expressions or parts of speech that
cannot be understood from the individual meanings of their elements.
Figurative language departs from literal meaning in order to achieve a special

effect in spoken or written language. The most common forms of figurative
language are metaphors.
MULTILINGUALISM AND MULTICULTURALISM IN INDIAN
CLASSROOMS
Language Shift, Linguistic Pluralism, And Bilingualism
Indian literary history shows that people used to switch between Pali
and Sanskrit, Tamil and Sanskrit, and Ardhmagadhi and Sanskrit with ease.
During the Mogul period, there were many scholars had mastered both
Sanskrit and Persian/Arabic. Tulsidas, Vidyapati, and authors of
Apabhramsa of the North, and the Azhwars and Nayanmars of the South
emphasized the importance of the language styles spoken by the ordinary
people, even as they used the language of high literature. Indian classical
drama used dialects and 'standard' languages. Writers used Magadhi,
Shaurseni, Prakrit, and Apabhramsa, even as they excelled in the use of
Sanskrit. The pattern of language use seemed to be flexible depending upon
what roles the individual was playing.
Linguistic pluralism is a term used to describe the acceptance of
linguistic diversity, a scenario where all people (majority and minority) have
the right to speak their language in public and private domain without fear of
condemnation. Linguistic pluralism is the process of recognition and support
of multiple languages within one society. India is a pluralistic nation, in terms
of ethnicity, culture, language and religion.
India continues to manifest a high degree of multilingualism. The 1961
Census showed 9.5% of the incidence of bilingualism in the country. But this
figure did not really portray the actual situation. It is not just the educated
Indians who practice bilingualism. Semi-literate and the illiterate people also

practice bilingualism. Bilingualism is not a recent phenomenon but it is
attested throughout the Indian history. When we study the language returns
in the Census, we find that a sizeable population of the people in each State
speaks the dominant language of the neighbouring State. This sizeable
population is often bilingual and they continue to use their mother tongue
while they learn and use the dominant language of the State in which they are
settled.
Multiculturalism & Multilingualism
Culture can be described as totality of thought processes, belief systems
and behavioural patterns of a community, handed over to them by previous
generations. The culture and environment in which the language is spoken,
determine structure of language and its semantic networking.
Multiculturalism refers to the doctrine that several different cultures (rather
than one national culture) can coexist peacefully and equitably in a single
country. Multilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple
languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers.
Knowing two or more than two languages became the need for
communication among speech communities as well as individuals.
Multilingualism basically arises due to the need to communicate across speech
communities. Multilingualism is not a rare but a normal necessity across the
world due to globalization and wider cultural communication.
Benefits Of Multilingualism
In the face of the challenges of implementing mother tongue/first
language instruction, it is critical to also consider the benefits of maintaining
bilingualism. Bilinguals show greater number of independent cognitive
strategies at their disposal and exhibit greater flexibility in the use of these
strategies to solve problems. They perform better especially in tasks that call

for selective attention that includes inhibition, monitoring, and switch of focus
of attention . One of the benefits that bilingual students have is related to
metalinguistic awareness. Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to be
aware of the language system to focus on the form and function of words and
monitor the process of comprehension. Bilingual children up to the age of six
generally tend to outperform monolingual children on isolated tasks of
metalinguistic awareness related to reading. They also performed better on
metalinguistic and meta-cognitive task. 9
Given the fact that bilingual children have two or more languages in
their repertoire, they have the advantage of cross-linguistic transfer. Bilingual
students are able to employ strategies of code-switching, code-mixing, and
translation using cognates for cross linguistic transfer. Several studies on
cross-language transfer have particularly indicated that phonological
awareness skills transfer from one language to the other, especially from the
first to the second. Multilingualism has various advantages:
a) Accessibility to knowledge of other cultures;
b) Communication between different linguistic and cultural groups become
easier;
c) Increases job opportunities;
d) High cognitive development of a child;
e) A broader world view, etc.
Types of Multilingualism
In simple term a person who knows two or more than two languages at
a time is known as multilingual. Multilingualism serves the necessity of
effective communication and for that it is not necessary to have competence in
all the languages. Multilingualism can be categorized into different types. So

multilingualism can be categorized according to degree of acquisition, manner
of acquisition.
Degree of Acquisition: By degree it means the level of competence a
person has in other languages which he knows. If a person has native like
command in all the languages he knows, then it is known as Ambilingualism.
And if a person has equal degree of competence in the languages he uses, is
known as Equilingualism.
Manner of Acquisition: By manner it means how a person is becoming a
multilingual. This also takes into account the stage at which a person acquires
or learns other languages. When a child acquires more than one language
naturally at home, it is termed as Natural bilingualism. This situation
generally happens in childhood. In natural multilingualism a child grows with
several languages naturally. And when a person learns other languages in an
artificial or classroom setting, it is known as Artificial multilingualism.
Sometimes it is also known as Elective multilingualism. This can be at
childhood and adulthood too.
Many scholars use the notion of bilingualism and multilingualism
interchangeably to refer to the knowledge of more than one language.
According to Sridhar - multilingualism is more than just a magnified version
of bilingualism. He classified multilingualism as individual multilingualism
and societal multilingualism.
Individual Multilingualism: The ability of an individual to have competence in
two or more languages is known as Individual multilingualism. How an
individual acquires a language and when it has been acquired, in childhood or
later. How these languages are presented in mind. All these questions are
important in order to understand the kind of multilingualism.

Societal Multilingualism: The linguistic diversity present in a society is known
as Societal Multilingualism. In societal multilingualism some issues like role
and status, attitude towards languages, determinants of language choices, the
symbolic and practical uses of the languages and the correlation between
language use and social factors such as ethnicity, religion and class are
important. Societal multilingualism does not necessarily imply individuals.
Mansour. G characterized multilingualism into two types: Horizontal
multilingualism and Vertical multilingualism. These two types of
multilingualism differed mostly in the potentials inherent in each social
situation.
Horizontal Multilingualism: Speakers who live in their own geographic
spaces and are often monolingual are grouped under horizontal
multilingualism. The idea is that multilingualism may be there at the higher
level of society, but separate groups are not particularly integrated into this
larger society. Each does its living in its own space or lives in virtual isolation.
This is like a patch work on a quilt of tiny monolingual societies.
Vertical Multilingualism: In this people of different ethnicity are in
direct contact with others because they share the same territory and
participate jointly in all socio-economic activities. Instances of vertical
multilingualism are more in urban centre in multilingual countries where
people interact more frequently in different languages.
One more type of multilingualism is known as receptive
multilingualism. It is yet not an established field within research on
multilingualism. It was only after mid-nineties receptive multilingualism was
promoted by the European commission.
Receptive Multilingualism: Receptive multilingualism is a broader term. It
basically deals with reading and understanding of other languages. Receptive

multilingualism is a constellation of language in which interlocutors use their
respective mother tongue while speaking to each other.
MULTILINGUALISM IN INDIA
Indian multilingualism dates back historically to ancient times when
ethnic groups and races came in contact with one another through migration
from one region to another. Although political compulsions and social re-
structuring might have contributed a little to its growth, multilingualism in
India was largely a product of close contact between the four language
families from the earliest recorded history. This contact had resulted in the
growth of India as a linguistic area with certain common features.
Co-existence of many languages, races, cultures, and religions has been
the essence of Indian heritage. In contrast to this, language uniformity is
considered necessary for the economic development in the West. To dissolve
the linguistic diversities in the melting pot, and accepting exclusively the
dominant language for all purposes such as education, law, administration,
and mass communication, is not truly an Indian model. Indian
multilingualism or pluralism can be divided into three stages of Indian
history: Ancient, Medieval and Modern.
Multilingualism in Ancient India:
Foreign invasions have always contributed a lot in making India a
multilingual hub. India had contact with the outer world, right from about the
middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. Not only this, multilingualism has always
been considered an important tool of socialization, from Ashokan time till
today. Ashokan inscription which are considered to be the earliest tool were

written in four different scripts. In his empire in Afghanistan he used
Aramaic and Greek scripts for his edicts, in Pakistan region he used
Kharosthi and Brahmi script was used for rest of his empire from Khalsi in
the north up to Mysore in the south. Basically the period up to 998 A.D is
considered as the ancient period. The Aryan rule, the coming of Alexander,
Persian invasion, the coming of the Chinese pilgrims in search of knowledge,
manuscript and relics between the 5th and 7th century A.D, all come under
the ancient period. In 1500 B.C Aryans came to India and brought with them
„Sanskrit‟ .
The invading Aryans allegedly displaced the Dravidian who until then
had occupied all of inhabitable India, from the central parts of Afghanistan to
the hills of Jharkhand- Chhattisgarh, Nagaland, Arunachal, etc. But
subsequently others too explored India, basically due to its wealth and
brought with them their culture and language. Thus made India linguistically
diverse. The first among them were the Persians. King Cyrus came to India in
558 B.C and ruled here approximately for 150 yrs. Persian domination
continued here for about 330 B.C. Then came Greeks under the leadership of
Alexander (356-323 BC) but his stay was not for long. He came to India
through the Khyber Pass and dismantled the Persian Empire. From Europe
they were the first one to come to India as traders and military adventurers.
“Before the sway of Islam in India, Chinese contact with India reached its
peak. In
AD 966, a group of 157 Chinese Buddhist monks came to India and the same
year, they returned with Buddhist relic and scriptures. All this also facilitated
copying and the translation industry for Indian languages too, among others,
Chinese and Mongol.” Also three great Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien, Hiuen-
Tsang and I-Tsang visited India in between 5th-7th A.D. They translated a

number of texts and compiled a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary. Also the Post-
Harsha period is very relevant because it was the last stage of Prakrit i.e.,
Apabhramsa, which was considered important on the account of the fact that
the modern languages like Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, and Bangla have all
evolved from it.
Multilingualism in Medieval India:
By the sway of Islam started the medieval period. The first Arab to
come
India in 715 A.D was Mohammad Bin Qasim. After that Turk Sabukt agin
invaded India in 1192 A.D. Even the rule of Turks were not long (1192- 1206),
the impact of Turkish language can be seen even today in Indian languages.
Various Turkish words have mingled so much in our language that it is hard
to say it is not a word of our language. Also a new language was introduced
i.e., Persian. In 1001 A.D came Mahmud of Ghazni, the elder son of
Sabuktagin. He came with the aim of spreading Islam until then no one paid
attention on the spread of Islam. After that many Sufis came to preach the
Gospel of love, faith and dedication to the one God.
Firoz shah Tughlaq was the first ruler who made efforts to get Hindu religious
works translated from Sanskrit to Persian. Although Arabic was the main
language of literature among Muslims but a lot was done in the field of
Sanskrit-Persian translation. Many great works like Kok Shastra,
Mahabharata, Rajatarangini, Tuti Nama etc were translated. Thus Sanskrit
and Persian were the link languages for politics, religion and philosophy.
Mughals too invaded India and there stay is significant in the Indian history.
Baber (AD 1484-1530) was the founder of Mughal Dynasty in India. The
Mughal rulers equally gave space to all languages and races to flourish.
Multilingualism in Colonial India:

After the Eighteenth century the modern era started. The very interest
towards Indian languages of the British world is a different story. This
interest developed when many scholars like Herodotus, Ptolemy, John Holwell
etc, wrote about the greatness of India‟ s past and the Indian philosophy,
logic on origin of the universe, human race etc. By their writing, these ideas
started gaining acceptance. By this people of Christian faith started worrying
about the Bible story of Creation. Thus to know more and to save the
foundation of their faith they started learning Sanskrit and other Indian
languages. People like Sir William Jones, Friedrich Max Muller and many
more translated and interpreted Indian religious texts in English. Their first
interest to know Indian languages was basically to retain their faith and
afterwards they used this knowledge for economic exploitation. The time
when East India company over took the Indian Territory, there were many
kingdoms and princely states who had different languages for administration.
And thus it was not possible for them to administer the whole country via one
language. So they felt the need to learn the local vernacular and thus
promoted the Indian languages In spite of being in favor of English, the
British Raj did many things for the development of Indian languages. So the
British Raj was keen to preserve the linguistic diversity of India.
The British were in need of languages to bridge the gap between them
and their subjects. For communicating with the local populace and for smooth
governance they tried to communicate with them in their languages. They saw
the importance of local languages and thus made the learning of these
languages compulsory for the civil servants. Thus, emphasized the learning of
some major oriental languages in England by the candidates selected for the
India civil service. So on 12th August,1881, Her Majesty‟ s under Secretary of
State for India, India office, London wrote a letter to the Secretary, Civil

Service Commission, London mentioning The reference made to the
Government of India, which was communicated in the Government of India
dispatch no.21 of 17th
April 1881, it was decided that in future selected
candidates should be required before leaving England to qualify in the
following languages.
For Madras: Tamil and Telugu.
For Bombay: Marathi and Guajarati
For North Western provinces, Oudh and the Punjab: Hindi and Hindustani.
For lower provinces of Bengal: Bengali and Hindustani.
For British Burma: Burmese and Hindustani.
The British had the appetite to learn Indian languages. “Some of them
argued that we ought to renew our endeavours to install the popular language
in the courts and offices of the Government.” But contrary to this many of
the Indian elite have acknowledged the importance of English. They saw
many job prospects in learning English and also they saw a way of fighting
with the British system by being a part of the system. Soon more were
interested in learning English in order to join the administration. Thus
demands from Indian side were made in favour of teaching and learning
English. This hampered the development of their own languages. Even the
Indian National Congress too did not recognize the importance of the
vernaculars in its first two consecutive meetings. But afterwards they too
recognized the importance of Indian languages. Afterwards they might have
felt that without considering the local mass they cannot achieve their goal of
„Swaraj‟ . So in the third Congress held at Madras in December 1887
thirteen thousand copies of „Congress- Question & Answer‟ in Tamil
language were sold. Thus language has always been a tool of political

consensus. Again the concern regarding languages came in the main stream
and thus multilingualism was again favoured.
Multilingualism in Post-Independent India:
In 1947 British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan. At that
time there were in India nine provinces and about 460 princely states. After
that many Indian leaders started demanding the formation of linguistic states.
The idea of linguistic state was there in the mind of many leaders even before
independence. In 1928 in the Report of the Nehru Committee stated that the
present multilingual State and Provinces would create political difficulties
while the homogeneous linguistic States will encourage greater political
cohesion, administrative efficiency and economic development. Thus
expressed the view: Partly geographical and partly economic and financial,
but the main considerations must necessarily be the wishes of the people and
the linguistic unity of the area concerned. It becomes essential therefore to
conduct the business and politics of a country in a language, which is
understood by the masses. So far as the provinces are concerned, this must be
the provincial language.
If a province has to educate itself and do its daily work through the
medium of its own language, it must necessarily be a linguistic area. If it
happens to be a polyglot area difficulties will continually arise and the media
of instruction and work will be two or even more languages. Hence, it becomes
most desirable for provinces to be regrouped on a linguistic basis. Language,
as a rule corresponds with a variety of culture, of traditions, and literature. In
a linguistic area all these factors will help in the general progress of the
province.
But there were others who opposed this fearing this would break the
unity of the country. People like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel were against this

reorganization of states. Patel said that, the first and last need of India at the
present moment is that it should be made a nation. Everything which helps
the growth of nationalism has to go forward and everything which throws
obstacles in its way has to be rejected…We have applied this test to linguistic
provinces also, and by this test, in our opinion [they] cannot be supported.
When On January 1950 the Constitution was framed, it categorized the
Indian states into three parts: part A, part B, part C. Part A states were the
former governors' provinces of British India, part B states were former
princely states or groups of princely states and part C states included both the
former chief commissioners' provinces and princely states. But with the
formation of States Reorganization Commission the distinction between part
A, part B and part C was erased and steps were taken to reorganize state
boundaries on linguistic lines. Some seen this reorganization as a process of
homogenization and for some it was an effort to develop the regional
languages by giving them power and thus eradicating the roots of English. But
this reorganization of states on linguistic basis did not succeeded in creation of
homogeneous regions because in every state some speakers of other languages
were there, which constituted the minority group. And because of this reason
there is no one official language in one state. All the states recognize some
other languages also in way of recognizing heterogeneity and multilingualism.
Features of Indian Multilingualism
As a multilingustic country India poses lots of features . They are as
follows:
1. Multilingualism is sustained in India by social institutions.
2. Linguistic features transcend genetic boundaries.
3. Multilingualism is the result of nationalism and nationism.

4. Change in linguistic codes or their mixing in communication does not create
problems of identity, conflict and crisis.
5. It is possible to become multilingual without being multicultural.
6. Language boundaries because of regular contact are fuzzy.
7. Indian multilingualism is bifocal, existing both at mass and elite levels.
8. The functional relation between languages is not linear but hierarchical.
THEORY OF RAMA KANT AGNIHOTRI
Rama Kant Agnihotri, is Professor of Linguistics at the University of
Delhi, Delhi. He is interested in and has taught and written extensively about
Applied Linguistics, Morphology, Sociolinguistics and Research Methods for
several years. He has lectured in Germany, UK, USA, Canada, Yemen, Sri
Lanka, and Pakistan, among other countries. He has also been working with
several NGOs across India in the area of primary school education. He co-
edits, with A.L.Khanna, the Sage series on Applied Linguistics. His books
include:
 Crisis of Identity: A Sociolinguistic Study of Sikh Children in Leeds
 Second Language Acquisition: Socio-cultural and Linguistic Aspects of
English in India
 Hindi: An Essential Grammar
 Indian English: Towards a New Paradigm
 English Language Teaching In India: Issues And Innovations
 Hindi: Essential Grammar
 Problematizing English in India
 Knowledge, Language and Learning
 Tense In Indian English: A Sociolinguistic Perspective (Sell Series In
English Language And Linguistics)

 Prashika: Eklavya's Innovative Experiment in Primary Education
Multilinguality And The Teaching Of English In India
Language has traditionally been seen (by both lay persons and
professionals) either as a mere ‘means of communication’ or as an external
object, or as an innate capacity for careful systematic enquiry by linguists. Its
diversity, iconicity, symbolic power and its association with ethnicity, cultural
practices and socio-political dynamics have often been ignored. The most
celebrated of our politicians including Gandhi and Nehru, though using
language with great skill and intense emotion themselves, could not appreciate
the symbolic and iconic aspects of Indian multilingualism. Multilinguality
thus defined subsumes not only linguistic resources but also cultural practices
and the local knowledge systems.
One of the major reasons for ignoring multilinguality, in addition to the
linguist’s obsession with ‘a system’, has been the emergence of the concept of
nation-state in which a territorial identity has to be, even if by force, coupled
with linguistic and religious identity. Agnihotri suggest that language be
conceptualised as multilinguality seen as a verbal repertoire which is
constitutive of being human. India of course has always been an example of
multilinguality par excellence. As early as the 13th
century, Amir Khusro
(1253-1325) counted over 10 major Indian languages; later Abu’l Fazal (1551-
1602) counted over 12. Today we know that these must have been substantial
underestimations. Today the estimates vary from about 400 to 1652
languages.
India is often described as a linguistic and a sociolinguistic area because
languages here travel across all kinds of boundaries without any passports. It
is not inconceivable that a group of people develop a secret argot with a new

lexicon and frame it in the morphology and syntax of an existing language.
Multilinguality then is a default human situation and every classroom is
inherently multilingual.
In a variety of ways, recent research (Cummins and Swain 1986,
Edwards 1998, Agnihotri 1995, 1997, 2005, 2007) has established how this
multilinguality can be used as a resource, a teaching strategy and a goal. We
need to do this because it correlates positively with cognitive growth,
divergent thinking and social tolerance. It is also now well established that
levels of language proficiency enhance significantly with metalinguistic
awareness which is most eminently achieved if multilinguality is maintained at
the centre of language teaching activities.
The Role Of English In India
The number of people wishing to learn English has been multiplying
exponentially given the forces of market economy and globalization. The fact
that most states in the country have decided to introduce English from Classes
1 or 2 (even though trained teachers, suitable materials and innovative
methods that would inevitably be needed are not available) and the rapid
mushrooming of ‘English-medium’ schools across the country. Indian English
was an integral part of the language ecology of India, a variety in its own right
which need not look at any external norms and secondly, it is no longer
possible to ignore the socio-political matrix in which English functions. We do
need to reformulate the curriculum, syllabus, materials, teaching methods and
evaluation systems of English. However, even before that what we need is a
common school system.
A Common School System
Noticing the widening social distance between the different classes, the

Kothari Commission (1964-66), over forty years ago, recommended a common
school system based on the concept of a neighbourhood school. This is
obviously the most rational and humane thing to do. All children, whatever be
their background, must have access to comparable schools and education.
There is no doubt that irrespective of their political ideology most successful
countries including Russia, Japan, Germany or Canada have a common
school system. It also seems obvious that such a system will have to be run by
the State and the right to education will be a fundamental right. One major
advantage of the common school system would be that it is the multilinguality
of the neighbourhood that would get reflected in the classroom and the school.
Languages available in the classroom will no longer be strange objects. This
multilinguality will also receive automatic support from the community
outside. It will be far easier to build bridges between the knowledge systems
that children bring to school and the ones they are expected to acquire
through formal education.
Curricular Objectives
We do need to remind ourselves of some of the basic facts about the
nature and acquisition of language before we formulate the objectives of
English language teaching. Some of these are:
 Every child is born with a Language Faculty that enables her to acquire
as many languages as she needs.
 Languages can’t be taught; they are acquired. They are acquired as the
child’s Language Faculty interacts with processes of socialisation and
language becomes inextricably linked with the social, political, gender
and power structures of society.

 It is not possible for teachers to teach the rules of language simply
because they don’t know them (not their fault at all; what is available in
the name of school grammars and what is taught as grammar is often
inadequate and wrong). The child has the potential to acquire the most
complex rules at the levels of sounds, words, sentence and discourse on
her own.
 No amount of formal teaching of grammar can promote the levels of
creativity and fluency and accuracy that a child so effortlessly displays
at a very young age without any formal intervention. In fact, most
parents enjoy and celebrate the ‘errors’ children make in the process of
learning.
 There is no reason to believe that what works in the acquisition of first
languages in childhood will not work, with some careful effort, in the
acquisition of additional languages.
 The role of the teacher is not to teach the rules of grammar or
paraphrase texts but to facilitate maximal exposure to languages being
used in different domains in anxiety-free situations. The tasks that
children undertake should have the message at their centre and children
should feel engaged in activities that would challenge their thinking
abilities; as thought is not divorced from language, language proficiency
will automatically develop.
 Languages flourish in each other’s company; their nature is
fundamentally porous; they tend to wither away if they are isolated
from other languages.
 ‘Errors’ are necessary stages in the path of language acquisition; they
automatically disappear in due course. The amount of time a teacher
spends on ‘correcting errors’ (they are not errors if seen in terms of the

system a child has at that point of time) could be more usefully spent on
carefully planned language exposure and innovative activities.
 Language is not a set of skills. It is not a sum of LSRW (Listening,
Speaking, Reading and Writing). As stated above, it is constitutive of us;
it is at once an instrument and a product and it is difficult to
conceptualise a disjunction between the two at any point. If anything, it
needs to be seen as a system of unique knowledge.
 Language is best acquired in a holistic context where a total text (it
could be a picture, a couplet, a story or an advertisement) is at the
centre of classroom activity.
The teaching of English therefore has to be planned far more carefully.
It is on the one hand the language of opportunity, social status and upward
social mobility and on the other hand, in glove with the processes that
consistently enlarge the distance between the elite and the marginalized. We
therefore need to ensure that every child attains a high level of proficiency in
English without losing any of her own languages; and also exploit the teaching
of English as a space for generating subversive discourses. A socially sensitive
discourse to examine and evaluate rational propositions can most effectively
be generated through the site of English. The main purpose of English
language teaching as in the case of teaching any other language is to sustain
multilinguality and encourage critical thinking. The whole English language
programme should encourage the ability to speak effortlessly, listen and
understand patiently, read with comprehension and sensitivity, write with
confidence, clarity and precision, and learn to respect other languages.
English Learning Materials
It is extremely important to grow out of the obsession with ‘a textbook’.

We are increasingly becoming used to a package that consists of an MCB
(Main Course Book), a WB (Work Book) and a TM (Teachers’ Manual). In
higher classes, it is sometimes supplemented with a literature reader. More
often than not, these materials have a text followed by questions on
comprehension, vocabulary, speaking and writing and sometimes a small
project. This kind of a strait jacket imprisons the teacher and the pupil
completely and even in the Primary and Upper Primary classes where total
freedom is in principle available, both teachers and children function like
slaves of the MCB-WB-TM package. That there is a whole world of material
available both inside and outside the classroom does not even strike the
teachers. This is the kind of material that would engage children, raise their
interest and motivational levels, and encourage them to think critically. First
of all, the languages and cultural practices available in the classroom can be
most effectively used to promote proficiency levels in English. With some
professional training in linguistics (a must for all teachers), a teacher can
easily elicit data from children in different languages, provide equivalents in
English and then break the class into small groups to analyze that data to
come up with rules that can be tested against more data. Advantages: new
English expressions are learnt in a context that children understand, children
engage in the scientific method of data collection, classification, categorization
and rule formation, the teacher also becomes a learner, children feel that their
languages and cultural practices have a place in the classroom and hence do
not feel alienated dropping out of school and they begin to realize, as they
discover systems of different languages present in the class, that English is
linguistically not superior to what they speak. There are materials available
from the other content areas including Science, Social Science, and

Mathematics. Consider the following set of materials: hoardings, wrappers,
tetra packs, newspaper clips, cartoon, etc.
Role Of The Teacher
In case materials such as the above have to be transacted in some of the
ways indicated above, it is imperative that a teacher must undergo a rigorous
training programme. There is no short cut to this and this cannot be achieved
by short in-service training programmes which must continue as updating,
sharing and content enrichment activities. Any teacher who proposes to teach
English must undergo a basic but intensive programme in linguistics with
special reference to English not because she would teach grammar better to
her students but because she can avoid all grammar teaching and organize
different activities and tasks in such a way that they lead to simultaneous
content enrichment and grammar discovery. For example, at the level of
sounds, a teacher should know what the sounds of human language look like,
how they are produced and what kind of combinations are generally allowed.
She should also know the structure of RP (Received Pronunciation). However,
she should be made aware that there is now a fairly well-established General
Indian English Pronunciation and that is all we can use as a reference point
and that in addition to that, as in all other countries, ‘native/ non-native’,
there is a multiplicity of varieties of English and that it is a legitimate normal
thing to happen.
So we have Tamil English, Telugu English, Panjabi English etc. just as
we have Canadian English, Texan English, Yorkshire English, Australian
English etc. Similarly, at the level of lexicon, it is important to realize that
words travel rather freely across languages and that it is a good idea to let
that happen rather than interrupt fluency. At the level of syntax, teachers will
soon discover, there is not much to write about. The syntactic differences

across the varieties of English, if any, are perhaps minor. In addition to being
trained in the nature, and structure, of language and its acquisition and
change, a teacher also needs to be aware of the psychological and social
aspects of language. She should be able to see what role language can play in
steps towards creating a just society.
Method of Language Teaching
The multiplicity of language teaching methods (mostly ELT or English
Language Teaching methods) from the Grammar-Translation Method to the
more recent communicative approaches have all assumed that there is ‘a
language’ to be taught to ‘a homogeneous group’ of students. As we have
shown above, all these assumptions are wrong. We do need an approach that
is rooted in multilinguality and that keeps the multiplicity of languages and
cultural practices available among children at the centre of classroom
transaction. As a teacher of English, our first task should be to draw up a
sociolinguistic profile of our class and to examine how the multiplicity of
voices present in the classroom can be most effectively used for teaching
English. The fact that all of us learnt our English through our own languages
is evidence enough that there is no need for ‘English only’ classes. Secondly, it
is important to realize that except for an overall shared approach, every
situation, every class will dictate its own method and sequence of steps. That is
another reason why a teacher needs to receive rigorous training. Just to give a
few examples of some of the techniques that could be used, translation, genre
transformation and setting questions on texts could be used in a holistic
manner. Translation ensures that you understand the text and you use more
than one language and often feel compelled to appreciate that there is no
choice but to mix languages. It also provides legitimacy to one’s version; all
translations though different are in some way acceptable. According to Baker

in this conflict-ridden world, translation is central to the ability of all parties
to legitimise their version of events, especially in view of the fact that political
and other types of conflict today are played out in the international arena and
can no longer be resolved by appealing to local constituencies alone. Similarly,
changing a story into a play in any language could be a very rewarding
activity; children could then act out the play.
Techniques In The Multilingual Classroom
A teacher who recognises multilingualism as an asset will inevitably
think of ways of creatively exploiting the different languages available in a
given language classroom. Accuracy and fluency in the target language or
acquisition of specific skills to negotiate social encounters ceases to be the goal
of language learning.
Discourses already available to children and the interaction of these
with the new and non-linguistic discourses , will be at the heart of a new
language teaching methodology. As childrens attempt to render articles ( may
be poem /story) of other languages in their own language or in a second
language , they begin to appreciate the similarities and difference between
languages.
This could subsequently form the basis of discussions about the nature
and structure of the language. The advantages of such an exercise are indeed
manifold. Children play an active role in the process of learning. The focus is
not on language, even though an enormous amount of language learning is
taking place. Grammar , an otherwise hated aspect, could become both
interesting and essential.
Language of children are not just tolerated , they are creatively used in
the classroom. Teachers themselves are learning as well . Several activities
involving cognitively challenging tasks could easily be planned. Instead of

teaching rules for making plurals in English , the teacher could plan an
activity which examines the whole phenomenon of marking plurality across
languages.
Teacher Training For Multilingual Classrooms
In this sociologically – sensitive perspective on the multilingual
classroom, the teacher has an increasingly participatory role to play. First of
all the , the authoritarian posture and overt presence in the classroom will
have to be minimised. The teacher does more than just impart knowledge to
students he or she also listen to them. The first target is to break the barriers
of inhibitions among children and make every possible effort to create
opportunities in which children can say and do what they wish. Linguistic and
cultural differences are not seen as deviations from a standard form. The
teaching – training modules correspondingly will have to undergo radical
changes. A teacher comes to a teacher – training camp with a rich experience
of teaching and learner responses, a teacher training programme must
capitalise on this solid base.
Secondly, the modules should clearly demonstrate how multilingualism
in the classroom can be used as a resource. Comparative grammar, theories of
language learning, critical reading of texts of all kinds, intertextual reading,
role play, socio linguistic aspects of language, development of writing systems
and relationship between speech and writing , translation and the analysis of
the translation process , data elicitation and analysis techniques in a
multilingual classroom ,etc will be essential components of such teacher –
training modules.
DEFICIT THEORY
Robin Tolmach Lakoff is a professor of linguistics at the University of
California, Berkeley. Her 1975 book Language and Woman's Place is often

credited with establishing language and gender as an object of study
in linguistics and other disciplines. While an undergraduate at Radcliffe
College (in Cambridge, MA), Lakoff audited Noam Chomsky's classes at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and became connected to the
MIT Linguistics Department. During this time, as Chomsky and students
were creating Transformational Generative Grammar, Lakoff and others
explored ways in which outside context entered the structure of language.
Lakoff's work Language and Woman's Place introduces to the field
of sociolinguistics many ideas about women's language that are now often
commonplace. It has inspired many different strategies for studying language
and gender, across national borders as well as across class and race lines. Her
work is noted for its attention to class, power, and social justice in addition to
gender.
Lakoff proposes that women's speech can be distinguished from that of
men in a number of ways . Lakoff developed the "Politeness Principle," in
which she devised three maxims that are usually followed in interaction.
These are: Don't impose, give the receiver options, and make the receiver feel
good. She stated that these are paramount in good interaction. By not
adhering to these maxims, a speaker is said to be "flouting the maxims."
Lakoff argues that women’s manner of speaking, which is different to
men, reflects their subordinate status in society. Thus, women’s language is
marked by powerlessness and tentativeness, expressed through the use of
mitigators and inessential qualifiers, which effectively disqualifies women
from positions of power and authority. In particular, Lakoff argues that
women’s language style is deficient, lacking in authority and assertiveness.
Lakoff also makes the interesting observation that women face a ‘double bind’
where they are criticized or scolded for not speaking like a lady but, at the

same time, speaking like a lady systematically denies the female speaker
access to power on the grounds that she is not capable of holding the ground
based on her linguistic behaviour .
Lakoff’s ideas on women’s language divided into three categorizes , the
first which refers to the lack of resources that would enable women to express
themselves strongly ; secondly, language that encourages women to talk about
trivial subjects and finally, language that requires women to speak tentatively.
Lakoff claims that ;
Use of expletives while women use weaker ones
Women’s speech is more polite than men’s
Trivial, unimportant topics are considered to be women’s domain
Women use empty adjectives
Women use tag questions more often than men
Women express uncertainty through the use of the question intonation
pattern
Women tend to speak in ‘ italics’ ( women use more intensifiers )
Hedges are used more often by woman
Hyper – correct grammar is a feature of women’s speech
Women don’t tell jokes
Women’s way of speech is often connected with tentativeness and the
reason for this might be their way of using hedges. These hedges are linguistic
forms such as for instance I think, you know, I’m sure, sort of, perhaps. Lakoff
appears to be rather convinced that women’s speech contains more hedges
than men’s speech. She explains that it is because ‘women are socialized to
believe that asserting themselves strongly is not nice or ladylike, or even
feminine’ .
DIFFERENCE THEORY

In sociolinguistics, difference theory is a theory in the area of language
and gender which examines the effect that gender has on language use. A
main proponent of the theory is sociolinguist Deborah Tannen, whose work,
especially her 1990 book You Just Don't Understand, is often cited in the
discussion of the theory and is considered to be the main reason for its
popularisation. Difference theory is often compared to the earlier theories of
deficit and dominance theory, and like these theories has been subject to a
number of criticisms.
Difference theory has roots in the studies of John Gumperz, who
examined the differences in cross-cultural communication. While difference
theory deals with cross-gender communication, the male and female genders
are often presented as being two separate cultures, hence the relevance of
Gumperz's studies. In her development on the difference theory Deborah
Tannen in particular drew on the work of Daniel Maltz and Ruth Borker and
their 1982 paper A Cultural Approach to Male-Female Miscommunication,
which itself drew on the work of Gumperz. Mary Talbot makes reference to
the term "gender-specific culture" in her critique of the difference theory,
and this idea of genders being culturally separated is embodied by the 1992
publication Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. Difference theory is
often compared with dominance theory and deficit theory, and together with
the more contemporary dynamic theory they make up four of the theories
most widely referred to and compared in the study of language and gender.
The reason for the popularity of Tannen's book You Just Don't
Understand, and the resultant popularisation of difference theory, is generally
attributed to the style of Tannen's work, in which she adopts a neutral
position on difference in genderlect, making no value-judgements about use of
language by either gender. Talbot comments that this means the book

provides explanation for domestic disputes without "pointing the finger" at
anyone. Difference theory as postulated by Tannen is generally summarised
into six categories, each of which pairs a contrasting use of language by males
and females.
Status V. Support
Tannen states that, for men, the world is a competitive place in which
conversation and speech are used to build status, whereas for women the
world is a network of connections, and that they use language to seek and
offer support. In demonstrating this, Tannen uses the example of her husband
and herself, who at one point had jobs in different cities. She remarks that
when people commented on this, she interpreted it as being offers of sympathy
or support. Her husband, on the other hand, took such comments as being
criticism and attempts to put him down. Tannen remarks that this displays
the different approaches that women and men take in terms of status and
support.
Advice V. Understanding
Women seek comfort and sympathy for their problems, whilst men will
seek a solution to the problem.
Information V. Feelings
Tannen states that men's conversation is message-oriented, based upon
communicating information. For women, conversation is much more
important for building relationships and strengthening social links.
Orders V. Proposals
Men will use direct imperatives ("close the door", "switch on the light")
when speaking to others. Women encourage the use of super polite forms,
however ("let's", "would you mind if ...?").

Conflict V. Compromise
Tannen asserts that most women avoid conflict in language at all costs,
and instead attempt to resolve disagreements without any direct
confrontation, to maintain positive connection and rapport. Men, on the other
hand, are more likely to use confrontation as a way of resolving differences
and thereby negotiating status. Tannen supports this view by making
reference to the work of Walter J. Ong, whose 1981 publication Fighting for
Life asserted that "expressed adversativeness" is more an element of male
culture than female culture. Tannen stresses that both forms of
communication are valid ways of creating involvement and forming bonds.
Independence V. Intimacy
Difference theory asserts that in general men favour independence,
while women are more likely to seek intimacy. Tannen demonstrates this with
the example of a husband making a decision without consulting his wife. She
theorises that he does so because he doesn't want to feel a loss of independence
that would come from saying, "Let me consult this with my wife first."
Women, on the other hand, like to demonstrate that they have to consult with
their partner, as this is seen to be proof of the intimacy of the relationship.
Tannen asserts that women, seeing the world as a network of connections and
relationships, view intimacy as key to achieving consensus and avoiding the
appearance of superiority, whereas men, who are more likely to view the
world in terms of status, see independence as being key to establishing their
status. Tannen also clarifies that while both men and women seek
independence and intimacy, men are more likely to be focused on the former,
while women are more likely to focus on the latter.
CONTINUITY & DISCONTINUITY THEORIES

Theories about the origin of language can be divided according to their
basic assumptions. Some theories are based on the idea that language is so
complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final
form, but that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among
our pre-human ancestors. These theories can be called continuity-based
theories. The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait
that it cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans and that it
must therefore have appeared fairly suddenly in the transition from pre-
hominids to early man. These theories can be defined as discontinuity-based.
Continuity theories of language evolution hold that it must have
developed gradually, starting among the earliest ancestors of humans, with
different features developing at different stages until people’s speech
resembled what we have today. Meanwhile, Discontinuity Theory suggests
that because there is nothing even remotely similar to compare human
language to, it is likely to have appeared suddenly within mankind’s history.
This may have been as a result of a genetic mutation within one individual,
which was passed on through their ancestors and eventually became a
dominant ability.
The first Continuity Theory is based on the conviction that there is no
fundamental difference between human communication and the
communication of animals. Both transmit messages to other members of their
species which can be understood by the receiver of the message. The need for
communication and the use of sounds, noises and signs is equally important
for humans and animals. Although there is a discrepancy in the quantity of
possible messages and although the sounds, noises and signs sound or look
different, they are all forms of a developed language or forms of language in

the constantly developing line of evolution. "Theorists of this persuasion
might picture the development of communication systems as a straight road
towards language."
There is a difference, however, in the form of intelligence of humans
and animals. The human intelligence can be called specific as humans are able
to increase the quantity of their language as well as to name abstract things,
events and situations. Animals lack this sort of intelligence, so their kind of
intelligence is called non-specific. Specific intelligence is a very important and
fundamental essence of language.
Discontinuity theory shows human language system as too complex than
any other languages on earth. Noam Chomsky is among the world’s leading
linguists and acknowledges that a possible genetic mutation in one of our
human ancestors gave them the ability to speak and understand language,
which was passed on to their offspring. Because of the usefulness of this
ability, Darwinist evolution meant that it became a dominant feature
throughout humanity.

Understanding language across curriculum

Understanding language across curriculum

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