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CHAPTER 7
DESIGNING ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
CHAPTER OUTLINE
New Manager Self-Test: What Are Your Leadership Beliefs?
I. Organizing the Vertical Structure
A. Work Specialization
B. Chain of Command
New Manager Self-Test: Authority Role Models
C. Span of Management
D. Centralization and Decentralization
II. Departmentalization
A. Vertical Functional Approach
B. Divisional Approach
C. Matrix Approach
D. Team Approach
E. The Virtual Network Approach
III. Organizing for Horizontal Coordination
A. The Need for Coordination
B. Task Forces, Teams, and Project Management
C. Relational Coordination
IV. Factors Shaping Structure
A. Structure Follows Strategy
B. Structure Fits the Technology
ANNOTATED LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the fundamental characteristics of organizing and explain as work specialization,
chain of command, span of management, and centralization versus decentralization.
Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals. Organizing
is important because it follows the management function of planning. Planning and strategy
define what to do; organizing defines how to do it. Organization structure is a tool that managers
use to harness resources for getting things accomplished. The deployment of resources is
reflected in the organization's division of labor into specific departments and jobs, formal lines of
authority, and mechanisms for coordinating diverse organization tasks.
Work specialization, sometimes called division of labor, is the degree to which organizational
tasks are subdivided into separate jobs. When work specialization is extensive, employees
specialize in a single task. Jobs tend to be small, but they can be performed efficiently.
The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that links all employees in an

Designing Organization Structure 
organization and shows who reports to whom.
The span of management is the number of employees reporting to a supervisor. Sometimes
called the span of control, this characteristic of structure determines how closely a supervisor can
monitor subordinates. The average span of control used in an organization determines whether
the structure is tall or flat. A tall structure has an overall narrow span and more hierarchical
levels. A flat structure has a wide span, is horizontally dispersed, and has fewer hierarchical
levels.
Centralization and decentralization pertain to the hierarchical level at which decisions are made.
Centralization means that decision authority is located near the top of the organization. With
decentralization, decision authority is pushed downward to lower organization levels.
2. Describe functional and divisional approaches to structure.
Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on similar skills,
expertise, work activities, and resource use. A functional structure can be thought of as
departmentalization by organizational resources because each type of functional activity such as
accounting, human resources, engineering, and manufacturing, represent specific resources for
performing the organization's task. People and facilities representing a common organizational
resource are grouped together into a single department.
Divisional structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on similar
organizational outputs. In the divisional structure, divisions are created as self-contained units
for producing a single product. Each functional department resource needed to produce the
product is assigned to one division. In a functional structure, all engineers are grouped together
and work on all products, whereas in a divisional structure, separate engineering departments are
established within each division. Each department is smaller and focuses on a single product
line. Departments are duplicated across product lines.
3. Explain the matrix approach to structure and its application to both domestic and
international organizations.
The matrix structure uses functional and divisional structures simultaneously in the same part of
the organization. The matrix structure has dual lines of authority. The functional hierarchy of
authority runs vertically, and the divisional hierarchy of authority runs horizontally. The matrix
approach to structure provides a formal chain of command for both the functional and divisional
relationships. The matrix structure is typically used when the organization experiences
environmental pressure for both a strong functional departmentalization and a divisional
departmentalization. Global corporations often use the matrix structure. The problem for global
companies is to achieve simultaneous coordination of various products within each country or
region and for each product line. The two lines of authority typically are geographic and
product, and the matrix provides excellent simultaneous coordination. It is an organizational
structure that deliberately violates Fayol’s principle of unity of command.
4. Describe the contemporary team and virtual network structures and why they are being
adopted by organizations.

The implementation of team concepts has been a widespread trend in departmentalization. The
vertical chain of command is a powerful means of control, but moving decisions through the
hierarchy takes much time and keeps responsibility at the top. The trend is to delegate authority,
push responsibility to the lowest possible levels, and create participative teams that engage the
commitment of workers. This approach enables organizations to be more flexible and responsive
in a competitive global environment. The dynamic network organization is another approach to
departmentalization. Using the network structure, the organization divides major functions into
separate companies that are brokered by a small headquarters organization. The network
approach is revolutionary because it is difficult to answer the question, “Where is the
organization?” This organizational approach is especially powerful for international operations.
5. Explain why organizations need coordination across departments and hierarchical levels,
and describe mechanisms for achieving coordination.
Coordination refers to the quality of collaboration across departments. It is required whether
there is a functional, divisional, or team structure. Coordination problems are amplified in the
global arena, because units differ not only by goals and work activities but by distance, time,
culture, and language. Coordination is the outcome of information and cooperation; managers
can design systems and structures to promote horizontal coordination. The vertical structure is
flattened, with perhaps only a few senior executives in traditional support functions such as
finance or human resources. A task force is a temporary team or committee designed to solve a
short-term problem involving several departments. Task force members represent their
departments and share information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-
functional teams for coordination. Companies also use project managers, responsible for
coordinating the activities of several departments on a full-time basis for the completion of a
specific project. Reengineering is the radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic
improvements in cost, quality, service, and speed. Because the focus of reengineering is on
process rather than function, reengineering generally leads to a shift away from a strong vertical
structure.
6. Identify how structure can be used to achieve an organization’s strategic goals.
Structure depends on a variety of contingencies. The right structure is “designed to fit” the
contingency factors of strategy, environment, and technology. These three areas are changing
for organizations, creating a need for stronger horizontal coordination. Two strategies proposed
by Porter are differentiation and cost leadership; these strategies require different structural
approaches. The pure functional structure is appropriate for achieving internal efficiency goals.
The vertical functional structure uses task specialization and a chain of command. It does not
enable the organization to be flexible or innovative. Horizontal teams are appropriate when the
primary goal is innovation and flexibility. The firm can differentiate itself and respond quickly
to change. Other forms of structure represent intermediate steps on the firm’s path to efficiency
or innovation. The functional structure with cross-functional teams and project teams provides
greater coordination and flexibility than the pure functional structure. The divisional structure
promotes differentiation because each division can focus on specific products and customers.
7. Define production technology and explain how it influences organization structure.
Technology includes the knowledge, tools, techniques, and activities used to transform

organizational inputs into outputs. Joan Woodward described three types of manufacturing
technology.
a. Small-batch and unit production. Small-batch production firms produce goods in batches
of one or a few products designed to customer specification. Examples include custom
clothing, special-order machine tools, space capsules, satellites, and submarines.
b. Large-batch and mass production. Mass production technology is distinguished by
standardized production runs in which a large volume of products is produced and all
customers receive identical products. This technology makes greater use of machines
than does small-batch production. Examples include automobiles, tobacco products, and
textiles.
c. Continuous process production. In continuous process production, the entire workflow is
mechanized in a sophisticated and complex form of production technology. The process
runs continuously and therefore has no starting or stopping. Human operators are not part
of actual production because machinery does all the work. Examples include chemical
plants, distilleries, petroleum refineries, and nuclear power plants.
Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses, airlines,
hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational organizations. Service
technology also characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market
research in large corporations. Service technology involves:
 intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike physical products, cannot be stored
in inventory; and
 direct contact with customers—employees and customers interact directly to provide and
purchase the service. Production and consumption are simultaneous.
LECTURE OUTLINE
NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: WHAT ARE YOUR LEADERSHIP BELIEFS?
The fit between a new manager and the organization is often based on personal beliefs about the
role of leaders. Things work best when organization design matches a new manager’s beliefs
about his or her leadership role. This exercise helps students identify whether their leadership
beliefs are primarily position based or nonhierarchical.
I. ORGANIZING THE VERTICAL STRUCTURE Exhibit 7.1
Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals.
It is important because it follows from strategy. Strategy defines what to do, and organizing
defines how to do it. The organizing process leads to the creation of organization structure,
which defines how tasks are divided, resources are deployed, and departments are coordinated.
Organization structure refers to:
 Formal tasks assigned to individuals and departments;
 Formal reporting relationships, including lines of authority, decision responsibility, number
of hierarchical levels, and span of managers' control; and

 Design of systems for coordination of employees across departments.
The organization chart is the visual representation of an organization's structure that portrays
the characteristics of vertical structure. It delineates the chain of command, indicates
departmental tasks and how they fit together, and provides order and logic for the organization.
There are several important features of the vertical structure.
A. Work Specialization
1. A fundamental principle is that work can be performed more efficiently if employees
are allowed to specialize. Work specialization, sometimes called division of labor,
is the degree to which organizational tasks are subdivided into separate jobs.
Production is efficient because employees perform small, well-defined tasks.
2. Organizations are moving away from this principle because too much specialization
leads to employees being isolated and doing only a single boring job. Many
companies are enlarging jobs to provide greater challenges or assigning teams to tasks
so employees can rotate among the jobs performed by the team.
B. Chain of Command
1. The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that links all persons in an
organization and shows who reports to whom. It is associated with two underlying
principles. Unity of command means that each employee is held accountable to only
one supervisor. The scalar principle refers to a clearly defined line of authority in the
organization that includes all employees.
2. Authority, Responsibility, and Delegation
a. The chain of command illustrates the authority structure of the organization.
Authority is the formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions, issue
orders, and allocate resources to achieve organizational outcomes. Authority is
distinguished by three characteristics.
 Authority is vested in organizational positions, not people. People in the same
position have the same authority because of the position they hold.
 Authority flows down the vertical hierarchy. Positions at the top have more
formal authority than those at the bottom.
 Authority is accepted by subordinates. The acceptance theory of authority
argues that a manager has authority only if subordinates choose to accept the
commands.
b. Responsibility is the duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been
assigned. Managers are assigned the authority commensurate with responsibility.
Accountability is the mechanism through which authority and responsibility are
brought into alignment. Those with authority and responsibility are subject to
justifying task outcomes to those above them in the chain of command.

c. Delegation is another concept related to authority; it is the process managers use
to transfer authority and responsibility to positions below them in the hierarchy.
Organizations encourage managers to delegate authority to the lowest possible
level to gain flexibility to meet customer needs and adapt to the environment.
NEW MANAGER SELF TEST: AUTHORITY ROLE MODELS
Expectations about authority for a new manager are often based on experiences with their first
authority figures and role models—Mom and Dad. To understand authority role models, students
think about each statement as it applies to the parent or parents who made primary decisions
about raising them. .Authoritarian expectations fit in a traditional vertical structure with fixed
rules and a clear hierarchy of authority. Flexible authority expectations typically would fit with
horizontal organizing, such as managing teams, projects, and reengineering.
Discussion Question #1: If you wanted to add a group of big data scientists to a large
organization such as PepsiCo, would you centralize the scientists in a central pool at
headquarters or decentralize them to separate divisions? Discuss your reasons.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Line and Staff Authority
a. Line departments perform tasks that reflect the organization's primary goal and
mission. In a software company, line departments make and sell the product.
Line authority means that managers have formal authority to direct and control
immediate subordinates.
b. Staff departments include all those who provide specialized skills in support of
line departments. The finance department of a software firm has staff authority.
Staff authority is narrower than line authority and includes the right to advise,
recommend, and counsel in the staff specialists' area of expertise.
C. Span of Management
1. The span of management, or span of control, is the number of employees reporting
to a supervisor. This characteristic of structure determines how closely a supervisor
can monitor subordinates.
2. Factors that determine the span of management include:
a. Work performed by subordinates is stable and routine.
b. Subordinates perform similar work tasks.
c. Subordinates are concentrated in a single location.

d. Subordinates are trained and need little direction in performing tasks.
e. Rules and procedures defining task activities are available.
f. Support systems and personnel are available for the manager.
g. Little time is required in nonsupervisory activities such as coordination with other
departments or planning.
h. Managers' personal preferences favor a large span.
3. The average span of control used in an organization determines whether the structure
is tall or flat. A tall structure has an overall narrow span of management and more
levels in the hierarchy. A flat structure has a wide span, is horizontally dispersed,
and has fewer hierarchical levels. The trend is toward wider spans of control as a
way to facilitate delegation. Exhibit 7.2
D. Centralization and Decentralization
1. Centralization and decentralization pertain to the hierarchical level at which decisions
are made. Centralization means that decision authority is located near the top of the
organization. With decentralization, decision authority is pushed down the chain of
command to lower organization levels. The trend is toward decentralization, which
uses workers' skills, relieves top managers, has well-informed people make decisions,
and permit rapid response. Factors that influence centralization versus
decentralization include:
a. Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with
decentralization.
b. The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy.
c. In times of crisis or risk of company failure, authority may be centralized at the
top.
Discussion Question #8: Experts say that organizations are becoming increasingly
decentralized, with authority, decision-making responsibility, and accountability being pushed
farther down into the organization. How will this trend affect what will be asked of you as a new
manager?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
II. DEPARTMENTALIZATION Exhibit 7.3
Departmentalization is the basis for grouping individuals into departments and departments
into the total organization. Managers make choices about how to use the chain of command to

group people together to perform their work. Five approaches to structural design reflect
different uses of the chain of command in departmentalization.
A. Vertical Functional Approach
1. What It Is
a. Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on
similar skills, expertise, work activities, and resource use. People, facilities, and
other resources representing a common organizational resource are grouped
together into a single department.
2. How It Works
a. The major departments under the president are groupings of similar expertise and
resources, such as accounting, human resources, production, and marketing. Each
of the functional departments is concerned with the organization as a whole. The
functional structure is a strong vertical design. Information flows up and down
the vertical hierarchy, and the chain of command converges at the top of the
organization.
b. People in a department communicate primarily with others in the same
department to coordinate work and accomplish tasks or implement decisions.
Managers and employees are compatible because of similar training and
expertise.
Discussion Question #3: An organizational consultant was heard to say, “Some aspect of
functional structure appears in every organization.” Do you agree? Explain.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
B. Divisional Approach Exhibit 7.4
1. What It Is
a. The divisional structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on
organizational outputs. Diverse departments are brought together to produce a
single organizational output. The divisional structure is sometimes called a
product structure, program structure, or self-contained unit structure. Most large
corporations have separate divisions that perform different tasks, use different
technologies, or serve different customers.
2. How It Works
a. Divisions are created as self-contained units with separate functional departments
for each division. For example, separate engineering departments are created

within each division, and each department is similar and focuses on a single
product. The primary difference between divisional and functional structures is
that in divisional structures, the chain of command from each function converges
lower in the hierarchy and differences of opinion would be resolved at the
divisional level rather than by the president.
3. Geographic- or Customer-Based Divisions Exhibit 7.5
a. Grouping company activities by geographic region or customer group is an
alternative for assigning divisional responsibility. In this structure, all functions
in a specific country or region report to the same division manager. The structure
focuses company activities on local market conditions; competitive advantage
comes from the selling a product adapted to a given country.
C. Matrix Approach Exhibit 7.6, Exhibit 7.7
1. What It Is
a. The matrix approach combines aspects of both functional and divisional
structures simultaneously in the same part of the organization. The matrix has
dual lines of authority. The functional hierarchy of authority runs vertically,
providing traditional control within functional departments. The divisional
hierarchy runs horizontally, providing coordination across departments. The
matrix structure supports a formal chain of command for both the functional
(vertical) and divisional (horizontal) relationships.
2. How It Works
a. The dual lines of authority make the matrix structure unique. The success of the
matrix structure depends on the abilities of people in key matrix roles.
 Two-boss employees report to two supervisors simultaneously and must
resolve conflicting demands from the matrix bosses.
 The matrix boss is the product or functional boss who is responsible for one
side of the matrix.
 The top leader oversees both the product and functional chains of command
and is responsible for the entire matrix.
Discussion Question #4: Some people argue that the matrix structure should be adopted only as
a last resort because the dual chains of command can create more problems than they solve.
Discuss. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

D. Team Approach
1. What It Is
a. The team approach is probably the most widespread trend in
departmentalization. The vertical chain of command is a powerful means of
control, but passing all decisions up the hierarchy takes too long and keeps
responsibility at the top. Managers can delegate authority, push responsibility to
lower levels, and be more flexible and responsive in the competitive global
environment.
2. How It Works
a. Cross-functional teams consist of employees from various functional
departments, responsible to meet as a team and resolve mutual problems. Team
members report to their functional departments, but also to the team. These teams
provide needed horizontal coordination to complement existing functional or
divisional structures.
b. Permanent teams are groups of employees brought together in a way similar to a
formal department. Emphasis is on horizontal communication and information
sharing because representatives from all functions coordinate to complete a
specific task. Authority is pushed down to lower levels, and front-line employees
are given the freedom to make decisions and take action on their own.
c. With a team-based structure, the entire organization is made up of horizontal
teams that coordinate their work with customers to accomplish the organization’s
goals.
Discussion Question #2: How does relational coordination differ from teams and task forces?
Do you think relational coordination seems more valuable for a service technology or a
manufacturing technology? Explain your answer.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
E. The Virtual Network Approach
1. What It Is
a. The most recent approach to departmentalization extends the idea of horizontal
coordination beyond the boundaries of the organization. Outsourcing, which
means farming out certain activities, has become a significant trend. Partnerships,
alliances, and other collaborative forms are now a leading approach to
accomplishing strategic goals.
b. Some organizations take this networking approach to the extreme to create a new

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kind of structure. The virtual network structure disaggregates major functions
to separate companies that are brokered by a small headquarters organization.
2. How It Works Exhibit 7.8
a. The organization may be viewed as a central hub surrounded by a network of
outsider specialists. Services such as accounting are outsourced to separate
organizations that are connected electronically to the central office. Networked
computer systems, collaborative software, and the Internet enable organizations to
exchange data and information rapidly and seamlessly. Networks allow a
company to concentrate on what it does best and contract out other activities to
companies with distinctive competence in those areas.
b. In similar networking approach called the modular approach, a manufacturing
firm uses outside suppliers to provide large chunks of a product, which are then
assembled into a final product by a few workers.
Discussion Question #5: What is the virtual network approach to structure? Is the use of
authority and responsibility different compared with other forms of departmentalization?
Explain.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
F. Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Structure Exhibit 7.9
1. Functional Approach
a. Grouping employees by common task permits efficient resource use and
economies of scale. Departments enhance in-depth skill specialization and
development, and centralized decision making at the top provides unified
direction.
b. Disadvantages include barriers that exist across departments resulting in poor
communication and coordination and slow response to changes. Innovation and
change require involvement of several departments, and decisions pile up at the
top of the hierarchy creating delay.
2. Divisional Approach
a. The organization is flexible and responsive to change because each unit is small
and tuned in to its environment. Concern for customers’ needs is high and
coordination across functional departments is better because employees are
grouped and committed to a product.
b. Coordination across divisions is often poor. Duplication of resources and the high
cost of running separate divisions is a major disadvantage. The organization loses

efficiency and economies of scale, and there may be a lack of technical depth and
specialization.
3. Matrix Approach
a. The matrix can be highly effective in a complex, rapidly changing environment in
which flexibility and adaptability are important. Conflict and frequent meetings
allow new issues to be raised and resolved. The matrix makes efficient use of
human resources because specialists can be transferred from one division to
another.
b. Frustration and confusion arising from the dual chain of command can be a
significant problem, as can high conflict between the two sides of the matrix, and
time lost in meetings. Managers spend a great deal of time coordinating
meetings, taking time away from core work activities.
4. Team Approach
a. The team approach eliminates barriers across departments, increases cooperation
and compromise, and enables the firm to quickly adapt to requests and
environmental changes which speeds up decision making. Another advantage is
better morale and enthusiasm as a result of increased employee involvement.
b. Disadvantages include dual loyalties and conflict, time and resources spent on
meetings, and too much decentralization. Team members can often lose sight of
the big picture of the organization.
5. Virtual Network Approach
a. The biggest advantages are flexibility and competitiveness on a global scale,
drawing on resources and expertise worldwide. The virtual network structure is
the leanest of all because little supervision is required. There may only be two or
three levels of hierarchy, if that many, compared to ten or more in traditional
firms.
b. Lack of hands-on control is a significant disadvantage. Each partner in the
network acts in its own self-interest. Weak and ambiguous boundaries create
higher uncertainty and greater demands on managers for defining shared goals,
coordinating activities, managing relationships, and keeping people focused.
Employee loyalty can weaken and employees may feel concerned that they can be
replaced by contract services.
III. ORGANIZING FOR HORIZONTAL COORDINATION
A. The Need for Coordination Exhibit 7.10
1. As organizations grow and evolve, new positions and departments are added, and
senior managers have to find a way to tie all of these departments together.

Coordination refers to the task of collaborating across departments. It is required
whether there is a functional, divisional, or team structure.
2. Coordination problems are amplified in the global arena because units differ not only
by goals and work activities but by distance, time, culture, and language.
Coordination is the outcome of information and cooperation. Managers can design
systems and structures to promote horizontal coordination and collaboration.
B. Task Forces, Teams, and Project Management Exhibit 7.11
1. A task force is a temporary team or committee designed to solve a problem involving
several departments. Task force members represent their departments and share
information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-functional teams
for coordination which work with continuing rather than temporary problems that
might exist for several years.
2. A project manager is responsible for coordinating the activities of several
departments for the completion of a specific project. A distinctive feature of a project
manager is that the person is not a member of one of the departments being
coordinated. Project managers need excellent people skills. They use expertise and
persuasion to achieve coordination among various departments.
C. Relational Coordination
1. Relational coordination refers to frequent, timely, problem-solving communication
carried out through employee relationships of shared goals, knowledge, and mutual
respect. It is not based on formal coordination roles or mechanisms.
IV. FACTORS SHAPING STRUCTURE
A. Structure Follows Strategy Exhibit 7.12, Exhibit 7.13
1. Porter’s strategies of differentiation and cost leadership typically require different
structural approaches. A simplified continuum illustrates how structural approaches
are associated with strategic and environmental goals. The terms mechanistic and
organic refer to organizations where efficiency is the goal in a stable environment
and organizations where innovation is the goal in a rapidly-changing environment,
respectively.
2. The pure functional structure is appropriate for achieving internal efficiency goals,
but it does not enable the organization to be flexible or innovative. A horizontal team
structure is appropriate when the primary goal is innovation and flexibility. The firm
can differentiate itself and respond quickly to change.
3. Other forms of structure represent intermediate steps on the firm’s path to efficiency
or innovation. The functional structure with cross-functional teams and project teams
provides greater coordination and flexibility than the pure functional structure. The
divisional structure promotes differentiation because each division can focus on

specific products and customers.
B. Structure Fits the Technology
Technology includes the knowledge, tools, techniques, and activities used to transform
organizational inputs into outputs.
1. Woodward’s Manufacturing Technology Exhibit 7.14
a. Small-batch and unit production. Small-batch production firms produce goods
in batches of one or a few products designed to customer specification. Examples
include custom clothing, special-order machine tools, space capsules, satellites,
and submarines.
b. Large-batch and mass production. Mass production technology is distinguished
by standardized production runs in which a large volume of products is produced
and all customers receive identical products. Examples include automobiles,
tobacco products, and textiles.
c. Continuous process production. In continuous process production, the entire
work flow is mechanized in a sophisticated and complex form of production
technology. The process runs continuously and therefore has no starting or
stopping. Examples include chemical plants, distilleries, petroleum refineries,
and nuclear power plants.
2. Service Technology
a. Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses,
airlines, hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational
organizations. Service technology also characterizes departments such as legal,
human resources, finance, and market research in large corporations. Service
technology involves:
 Intangible output. Services are perishable and, unlike physical products,
cannot be stored in inventory.
 Direct contact with customers. Employees and customers interact directly to
provide and purchase the service. Production and consumption are
simultaneous. Service firm employees have direct contact with customers.
SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER DISCUSSION
QUESTIONS
1. If you wanted to add a group of big data scientists to a large organization such as PepsiCo,
would you centralize the scientists in a central pool at headquarters or decentralize them to

separate divisions? Discuss your reasons.
I would decentralize the big data scientists to separate divisions. With decentralization,
decision authority is pushed down the chain of command to lower organization levels. The
trend is toward decentralization, which would use the big data scientists’ skills, relieves top
managers, allows the scientists to make decisions, and permits rapid response. Factors that
influence centralization versus decentralization include:
 Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with
decentralization.
 The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy.
2. How does relational coordination differ from teams and task forces? Do you think relational
coordination seems more valuable for a service technology or a manufacturing technology?
Explain your answer.
Relational coordination refers to frequent, timely, problem-solving communication carried out
through employee relationships of shared goals, knowledge, and mutual respect.
Teams, which are the most widespread trend in departmentalization, consist of the vertical chain
of command as the powerful means of control; however, passing all decisions up the hierarchy
takes too long and keeps responsibility at the top. A task force is a temporary team or committee
designed to solve a problem involving several departments. Task force members represent their
departments and share information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-
functional teams for coordination, which work with continuing rather than temporary problems
that might exist for several years.
As an organization grows and evolves, new positions and departments are added to meet the
changing needs, and it grows more complex performing incredibly diverse activities. This leads
to a need for coordination among these departments.
Relational coordination, which is the highest level of horizontal coordination, seems more
valuable for a service technology than for a manufacturing technology. Service technology
characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market research in large
corporations. Service technology involves intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike
physical products, cannot be stored in inventory; and direct contact with customers—employees
and customers interact directly to provide and purchase the service. And also, production and
consumption are simultaneous. Therefore, relational coordination would prove to be more
valuable in such an organization as it is not based on formal coordination roles or mechanisms;
rather it is part of the very fabric and culture of the organization. People can share information
freely across departmental boundaries, and interact on a continuous basis to share knowledge and
solve problems.
3. An organizational consultant was heard to say, “Some aspect of functional structure appears
in every organization.” Do you agree? Explain.
The consultant is probably correct. In all organizations, people who do similar jobs are grouped
together in functional departments. For example, functional departments exist in a divisional
structure, although they are smaller than if the organization had a functional structure. The

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Variety of things
done by the hand.
Variety of shapes
which the hand
takes in the deaf
and dumb
alphabet.
But the difference in the work of the hand is not
merely in coarseness and fineness. It can do a
great many different kinds of coarse work and a
great many different kinds of fine work. The hand
works very differently with different things. See how differently it
manages a rope, a hammer, a spade, a hoe, a knife and fork, etc. It
takes hold of them in different ways to work them. And then, as to
fine work, how differently it manages a pen, an engraver’s tool, a
thread, a needle, etc.
If you watch people as they do different things, you can get some
idea of the variety of the work that the hand can perform. See how
differently the fingers are continually placed as one is playing on an
instrument. You can see very well what a variety of shapes the hand
can be put into if you observe a deaf and dumb person talking with
his fingers. On the following page is a representation of the different
ways in which the letters are made.

The most
common things
that it does
wonderful.
A buttoning
machine.
The most common things that we do with our
hands are really wonderful. Watch one as he is
buttoning up his coat: how easily his fingers do it;
and yet it is a wonderful performance. Suppose a
man should try to make a machine, shaped like the
hand, that would do the same thing, do you think
that he would succeed? It would be very strange if
he did. Suppose, however, that, after working a
long time, he did really succeed, and that you saw his machine, with
its fingers and thumb, put a button through a button-hole in the
same way that you do it with your fingers. Do you think that it could
manage buttons of all sizes, large, middle-sized, and small? No; it
could only button those that are of one size. The different sized
buttons would require different machines; and, besides, a machine

The hand an
instrument of
feeling.
The hand guided
by the touch.
that could button up could not unbutton. But your hand is a machine
that, besides buttoning and unbuttoning buttons of various sizes, is
doing continually a great variety of things that machines can not do.
No machine can take up a pen and write, or even move a stick about
as your hand can. When some ingenious man makes a machine that
can do any one thing like what the hand does, it excites our wonder,
and we say, How curious! how wonderful! how much like a hand it
works!
But the hand is not merely a machine that
performs a great many motions; it is also an
instrument with which the mind feels things. And
what a delicate instrument it is for this purpose!
How small are the things that you sometimes feel
with the point of the finger! As you pass it over a smooth surface,
the slightest roughness is felt. A great deal of knowledge, as I told
you in Chapter XIV., gets into your mind through the tips of your
fingers. Messages are going from them continually by the nerves to
the mind in the brain. The blind, I have told you, read with their
fingers. They pass them over raised letters, and the nerves of the
fingers tell the mind what the letters are, just as the nerves of your
eyes are now telling your mind what the letters are in this book.
Now, while the hand is performing its different
motions as a machine, it is generally very much
guided by this sense of touch. If your hand had no
feeling in it, it would make awkward business even
in such a simple operation as buttoning; and it could not do it at all
if you did not look on all the time that it was doing it. Your eye-
nerves would have to take the place of your finger-nerves, as in the
reading of the blind the finger-nerves take the place of the eye-
nerves. As it is, you need not look at your fingers while they are
buttoning, for they are guided by the feeling that is in them.
There was once a woman who lost the use of one arm, and at the
same time lost all her feeling in the other. She had a baby to take
care of. She could hold it with the arm that had no feeling, because

How it differs
from machines
made by man.
How to get an
idea of the variety
of things which
the hand can do.
she could work the muscles in that arm, but she could not do it
without looking at it all the time. If she looked away, the arm would
stop holding the baby and let it fall, for it could not feel that it was
there. In her case the eye-nerves had to keep watch in place of the
arm-nerves that could not feel.
You see that the hand is different from the
machines that man makes in two things—in the
variety of things that it can do, and in the
connection which it has with the mind by the
nerves. While the mind, by the nerves, makes it do
things, it knows by other nerves all the time whether it is doing
them right.
See, now, what are the parts of this wonderful set of machinery.
There are in the hand and arm thirty bones. There are about fifty
muscles, and all these are connected with the brain by nerves. It is
by them that the mind makes the muscles perform all the various
motions of the hand and fingers, and then there are other nerves
that tell the mind what is felt in any part of this machinery.
I have mentioned in this chapter a few of the
things that are done by the hand, but there is no
end to the things that can be done by this set of
machinery. You can get some idea of this in two
ways—by moving your hands and fingers about in
all sorts of ways, and by thinking of as many as you can of the
different things that people, in work or in play, do with their hands.
And observe in how many more ways the hand is useful than the
foot is. The foot has but a few things to do compared with the
multitude of things done by the hand.
Questions.—What animal has something like a hand?
How does it compare with your hand? Why would you call
the hand a set of machinery rather than an instrument?
What is said about the fingers doing heavy and light
work? Tell about the rope and the thread. What is said
about the different kinds of both coarse and fine work that

the hand can do? What is said about playing on an
instrument? What is said of the alphabet of the deaf and
dumb? What is said about the common things done
continually by the hand? What is said of the hand as an
instrument for feeling? If your hand had no feeling, what
would happen? Tell about the woman who lost the power
of motion in one arm and feeling in the other. In what two
things is the hand different from the machines made by
man? What are the parts of the machinery of the hand? In
what two ways can you get an idea of the variety of things
that this machinery can do?

How teeth can
serve in place of
hands.
CHAPTER XXII.
WHAT ANIMALS USE FOR HANDS.
Though animals do not have hands, they have different parts
which they use to do some of the same things that we do with our
hands. I will tell you about some of these in this chapter.
You see this dog dragging along a rope which he
holds in his mouth. He is making his teeth answer
in place of hands. Dogs always do this when they
carry things. They can not carry them in any other
way. You carry a basket along in your hand, but the dog takes it
between his teeth, because he has no hand as you have.
I have told you, in another chapter, how the cow and the horse
crop the grass. They do it, you know, with their front teeth. They
take up almost any kind of food—a potato, an apple—with these
teeth. These teeth, then, answer for hands to the cow and horse.
Their lips answer also the same purpose in many cases. The horse

Cropping grass.
Anecdotes of
horses.
gathers his oats into his mouth with the lips. The lips are for hands
to such animals in another respect. They feel things with their lips
just as we do with the tips of our fingers.
My horse once, in cropping some grass, took
hold of some that was so stout and so loose in the
earth that he pulled it up by the roots. As he ate it
the dirt troubled him. He therefore knocked the
grass several times against the fence, holding it
firmly in his teeth, and thus got the dirt out, just as
people do out of a mat when they strike it against
any thing. I once knew a horse that would lift a latch or shove a bolt
with his front teeth as readily as you would with your hand. He
would get out of the barnyard in this way. But this was at length
prevented by a very simple contrivance. A piece of iron was fixed in
such a manner at the end of the bolt that you could not shove the
bolt unless you raised the iron at the same time. Probably this
puzzled the horse’s brain. Even if he understood it, he could not
manage the two things together. I have heard about a horse that
would take hold of a pump-handle with his teeth and pump water
into a trough when he wanted to drink. This was in a pasture where
there were several horses; and what is very curious, the other
horses, when they wanted to drink, would, if they found the trough
empty, tease this horse that knew how to pump; they would get
around him, and bite and kick him till he would pump some water
for them.
Monkeys have four things like hands. They are half way between
hands and feet. With these they are very skillful at climbing. There
are some kinds of monkeys, as the one represented here, that use
their tails in climbing as a sort of fifth hand.
The cat uses for hands sometimes her paws, with their sharp
claws, sometimes her teeth, and sometimes both together. She
climbs with her claws. She catches things with them—mice, rats, or
any thing that you hold out for her to run after. She strikes with her
paws, just as angry children and men sometimes do with their

Monkeys great
climbers.
What cats use in
place of hands.
The dormouse.
The humming-
bird’s bill.
The bill of a duck.
hands. When the cat
moves her kittens from
one place to another,
she takes them up with
her teeth by the nape of
the neck. There is no
other way in which she
can do it. She can not walk on her hind
feet and carry them with her fore paws. It
seems as if it would hurt a kitten to carry
it in the way that she does, but it does
not.
When a
squirrel nibbles
a nut to make a
hole in it, he holds it between his
two fore paws like hands. So also
does the dormouse, which you
see here.
The bill of a
bird is used as its hand. It gathers with it its food
to put into its crop. When you throw corn out to
the hens, how fast they pick it up, and send it
down into their crops to be well soaked! The humming-bird has a
very long bill, and in it lies a long, slender, and very delicate tongue.
As he poises himself in the air before a flower, his wings fluttering so
quickly that you can not see them, he runs his bill into the bottom of
the flower where the honey is, and puts his little long tongue into it.
The bill of the duck is
made in a peculiar way.
You know that it gets its
food under water in the mud. It can not
see, therefore, what it gets. It has to work altogether by feeling, and
it has nerves in its bill for this purpose. Here is a picture of its bill,

The power of the
elephant’s trunk
and the variety of
things it can do.
The elephant’s
trunk can do little
things as well as
great.
showing the nerves branching out on it. You see, too, a row of
pointed things all around the edge. They look like teeth, but they are
not teeth. They are used by the duck in finding its food. It manages
in this way: it thrusts its bill down, and as it takes it up it is full of
mud. Now mixed with the mud are things which the duck lives on.
The nerves tell the duck what is good, and it lets all the rest go out
between the prickles. It is a sort of sifting operation, the nerves in
the sieve taking good care that nothing good shall pass out.
One of the most remarkable things used in place
of a hand is the trunk of the elephant. The variety
of uses to which the elephant puts this organ is
very wonderful. It can strike very heavy blows with
it. It can wrench off branches of trees, or even pull
up trees by the roots, by winding its trunk around them to grasp
them, as you see it is doing here. It is its arm with which it carries
its young. It is amusing to see an old elephant carefully wind its
trunk around a new-born elephant, and carry it gently along.
But the elephant can also do some
very little things with his trunk. You see
in this picture that there is a sort of
finger at the very end of the trunk. It is a
very nimble finger, and with it this
monstrous animal can do a great variety of little things. He will take
with it little bits of bread, and other kinds of food that you hand to

The elephant and
the tailor.
him, and put them into his mouth. He will take up a piece of money
from the ground as easily as you can with your fingers. It is with this
finger, too, that he feels of things just as you do with your fingers. I
once saw an elephant take a whip with this fingered end of his
trunk, and use it as handily as a teamster, very much to the
amusement of the spectators.
The elephant can reach a considerable distance with his trunk.
And this is necessary, because he has so very short a neck. He could
not get at his food without his long trunk. Observe, too, how he can
turn this trunk about in every direction, and twist it about in every
way. It is really a wonderful piece of machinery. Cuvier, a great
French anatomist, says that there are over thirty thousand little
muscles in it. All this army of muscles receive their orders by nerves
from the mind in the brain, and how well they obey them!
You see that there are two holes in the end of
the trunk. Into these he can suck water, and thus
fill his trunk with it. Then he can turn the end of
his trunk into his mouth and let the water run
down his throat. But sometimes he uses the water in his trunk in
another way; he blows it out through his trunk with great force. He
does this when he wants to wash himself, directing his trunk in such
a way that the water will pour over him. He sometimes blows the
water out in play, for even such great animals have sports like
children. Sometimes, too, he blows the water on people that he does
not like. You perhaps have read the story of the tailor who pricked
the trunk of an elephant with his needle. The elephant, as he was
passing, put his trunk into the shop window, hoping that the tailor
would give him something to eat. He was angry at being pricked,
and was determined to make the man sorry for doing such an
unkind act. As his keeper led him back past the same window, he
poured upon the tailor his trunk full of dirty water, which he had
taken from a puddle for this purpose.
Questions.—What is said about the dog? What answer
for hands to the cow and the horse? Tell the anecdotes

about horses. What does the cat use for hands, and how?
What is said about the squirrel and dormouse? What is the
bird’s hand? Tell about feeding the hens. Tell about the bill
of the duck. What is told of the humming-bird? Mention
some of the variety of uses to which the elephant can put
his trunk. What is said about the finger on the end of it?
Why does the elephant need so long a trunk? What is said
about the muscles in it? How does the elephant drink?
How does he wash himself? Tell about the tailor.

Man alone makes
tools.
Animals have
some kinds of
tools ready made.
The tail of a fish a
sculling-oar.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE TOOLS OF ANIMALS.
Man is the only animal that makes tools to use.
God has given him a mind that can contrive tools,
and he has also given him hands by which he can
use them. But he has given no such mind to other
animals, and therefore he has not given them hands. They do not
know enough to make tools, and so hands are not needed by them.
But, though other animals do not make tools,
they have tools which they use. God has given
them ready made, as we may say, such tools as
they need. Let us look, then, at some of the tools
that we find in different animals.
You
see a
man in
the
stern or hinder end of a
small boat. He is
sculling, as it is called.
He is making the boat
go by working the oar to
the one side and the
other. The oar is the tool
or instrument by which
he does it. Now a fish
has an instrument like this, by which he goes through the water. His
tail is like the sculling-oar that man has contrived, and which he uses
with his hands. If you watch the fish as he goes through the water,
you will see that he moves it to one side and the other as the man
does his oar; and while he goes ahead by means of his tail, he uses

The drill of the
woodpecker.
his fins mostly as balancers to guide his motion. He moves them
rather gently except when he wants to change his course quickly.
When he is moving along fast, and wants to stop, he makes his fins
stand out straight on each side. This is just as rowers in a boat use
their oars when they want to stop the boat.
You see a man drilling a hole in a rock, and you hear the sound of
the tool as it goes click, click, all the while. The woodpecker has a
drill that works in the same way. With his bill he drills holes in the
trees, and you hear the sound of his tool as you do that of the tool
of the rock-blaster. It is a sort of knocking sound repeated many
times very quickly.
What do you think that the woodpecker drills
holes for? It is to get at worms and insects, which
he eats. These are in the bark and wood of dead
trunks and branches of trees. The woodpecker
knows this, and so drills to find them. He does not drill into live bark
and wood, for he knows that there are generally no worms or
insects there.
But the woodpecker’s instrument is something more than a drill. It
is a drill with another instrument inside of it. This instrument is for
pulling out the insect or worm that he finds in drilling. It is shown in
the following figure. It is a very long, straight tongue, and ends in a
bony thorn. This is, as you see, armed with sharp teeth pointing
backward, like the barbs of a fish-hook. Here are, then, two
instruments or tools together. And the way that the woodpecker
manages them is this: while he is drilling, the two parts of the bill
are closed together, making a good wedge-pointed drill, and at the
same time a snug case for the insect-catcher. As soon as he comes
to an insect he opens the drill, and pushes the barbed end of his
long tongue into the insect, and draws him into his mouth.
As the woodpecker has to strike so hard in drilling, the bones of
his skull are made very heavy and strong. If this were not so, his
drilling would jar his brain too much. And another thing is to be
observed: while he is drilling he needs to stand very firmly. He must

Tongue and claws
of the
woodpecker.
Digging tools of
the elephant, the
hen, and the pig.
The mole’s
plowing and
digging tool.
His habitation.
hold on tightly to the
tree, or he will slip as
soon as he begins to
drill. He has, therefore,
such claws as you see
here to hold on with.
Some animals have
tools to dig with. The
elephant, you know, has
long, strong tusks. These
he uses in digging up
roots of different kinds from the ground to eat. The hen digs in a
small way with the claws of her feet, to find grains and other kinds
of food that happen to be mingled with the earth. The pig can dig
with its snout. It does not have much use for this when shut up in its
pen; but let it out, and see how it will root, as we say. It does this to
find things in the ground that it can eat. When the pig runs wild, it
roots to get acorns and other things that become mixed up with the
earth.
The mole has a similar
contrivance to work in the
earth with. This animal also
has heavy claws with which it
plows and digs. Here is a
figure showing the bones of one of its fore paws. They are very
heavy and strong, and are worked by large muscles. The claws on
its fingers, you see, are very powerful. The mole does great
execution with this digging and plowing machine in making his
tunnels and galleries in the ground.
The mole’s
habitation is a
singular affair. It
consists of a large circular room,
with several galleries and passages.

How the
woodchuck digs.
How beavers build
their cabins.
He makes all this in this way. He first heaps a round hill or mound,
pressing the earth to make it very solid and firm; he then digs out
his round room, where he lives, and the passages. You can
understand how he arranges these by the figure. You can see that
there are two circular galleries, one above the other, and that these
are connected together by five passages. The circular room is
connected with the upper gallery by three passages. It also, you see,
has a deep passage out from it at the bottom, which opens into a
passage that goes out from the lower gallery; this passage, and
another like it on the other side, lead out into the open air. I suppose
that the use of all these winding passages is to enable the mole to
keep out of the way of those who want to catch it.
The marmot, or woodchuck, as he is commonly
called, is a great digger. He digs his hole where he
lives in this way. He loosens the dirt with his fore
paws, using his teeth also when the earth is very
hard, or where any roots happen to be in the way. He pushes back
the dirt as he loosens it. When he gets a considerable heap, what do
you think that he does with it? He shovels it out with his hinder feet,
for they are so shaped that he can use them as shovels. They have a
strong skin between the toes, so that when the toes are spread out
the feet answer very well to shovel dirt with.
Beavers are
very singular
animals. They
do not live
alone, but many of them live
together. They live in a sort of
cabin, which they build with
branches of trees and mud, the
mud answering for mortar. In
gathering the branches they often
gnaw them off with their sharp
and powerful teeth. They are great diggers. They dig up the earth
with their paws to use in building their cabin. It is said that they use

The arrangement
of the cabins and
dams of beavers.
their flat tails somewhat as masons do their trowels, spatting and
smoothing the coating of mud as they put it on. The tail, which you
see is very stout, answers another purpose. As the beaver builds the
wall of the cabin, when it gets rather high he props himself up on his
tail as he works.
The beavers build their cabin close to a stream
of water, and their entrance to it is below, so that
they have to go down under water to get to it; and
a dam is built to keep the water over this entrance
of the proper height. If it were not for this, the
door to the cabin might get closed up with ice if the water should
get low in the stream during the winter. This dam the beavers build
of branches of trees, and mud, and stones. The stones are used to
make the branches stay down. In the cabin there are two rooms: in
the upper one they live, and in the lower one they stow their food.
This is the arrangement of these animals for the winter. In the
summer they do not live together in companies, but each one makes
a burrow for itself. Every autumn they come together, and unite in
building their dams and cabins.
Questions.—Why does man make tools? Why do not
other animals make them? Do they have tools? How is the
swimming of a fish like sculling? What does the fish do
with his fins? What is said about the bill of the
woodpecker? What does he drill for? Tell about his tongue.
What is said about the bones of his head? What about his
claws? What is said about the digging of the elephant—of
the hen—of the pig? How does the mole dig? What is said
about his fore paws? Describe the arrangement of the
mole’s habitation. How does the woodchuck dig? How
does he shovel away the dirt that he digs? Tell about the
beavers. In what two ways do they use their tails? What is
the arrangement of the cabin? What is the dam for?

The saw-fly.
The bee that cuts
leaves so
curiously.
CHAPTER XXIV.
MORE ABOUT THE TOOLS OF ANIMALS.
Insects have various tools or instruments. There
is a fly called the saw-fly, because it really has a
saw. It is a very nice one, much nicer than any saw
that man ever made. The fly uses the saw to make a place to put its
eggs, where they will be secure. And what is very curious, it has a
sort of glue with which it fastens the eggs in their place.
There are some insects that have cutting
instruments, which will cut as well as you can with
scissors, if not better. There is a bee that is
remarkable in this respect. It has also a boring
tool. Its nest is commonly in old, half-decayed
wood. It clears out a space in it with its boring instrument; it then
sets itself to work with its cutting instrument to cut out pieces of
leaves to line the nest and make the cells in it. These are cut of
different shapes, as they are needed, as you may see in the next
engraving. Below the leaves you see the nest represented. It is
opened by taking off some of the wood, and there you see the lining
of leaves. Great pains is taken by the bees in getting each piece of
leaf of the right shape to fit well, and the pieces are very nicely
fastened together.[A2]
[A2]
A more full account of the operations of this little animal you
can find in a book published by Harper and brothers, entitled
Natural History, by Uncle Philip, which I recommend to my
young readers as a very interesting book about animals.

The spinning
machinery of the
silk-worm and the
spider.
Paper-making of
the wasp.
There are some animals that have machinery for making things.
All the silk that is used in the world is made by worms. The silk-
worm has a regular set of machinery for spinning silk. It winds it up
as it spins it. Then man unwinds it, and makes a great variety of
beautiful fabrics with this silk thread.
The spinning machinery
of the spider is much finer
than that of the silk-
worm. The thread which
he spins is made up of a
multitude of threads, each one of these
coming out from an exceedingly small hole
in the spider’s body. You know that there is
a large number of fibres or threads in a
rope. So it is with the spider’s rope, for his
thread that you see, small as it is, is a rope
to him. It is a rope that he walks on like a rope-dancer; and you may
sometimes see him swinging upon it. Sometimes, too, he lets
himself down from some height, spinning the rope that holds him as
he goes down. When he does this, his spinning machine must work
very briskly.
The wasp has a paper factory in him. He makes
his paper out of fibres of wood, which he picks off,
I suppose, with his teeth, and gathers them into a
bundle. He makes this into a soft pulp in some
way; then, from this, he makes the paper with which he builds his
nest. It is very much, you know, like the common brown paper that
man makes. The wasps work in companies, and though each one
can make but little paper, they all together make their nest in a very
little time. The pulp from which they make their paper is very much
like the pulp from which man makes paper, and which you may see
any time in the large tubs or vats of a paper factory. This pulp is
generally made from rags ground up fine, but lately wood has been
much used. Perhaps the hint was taken from the wasps, who were
the earliest paper-makers in the world.

Teeth.
Pumps of some
animals.
The proboscis in
some insects.
The proboscis of
the humming-
bird.
Animals can not use knives and forks, as we do,
in dividing up their food. They therefore have
instruments given them which do this very well.
Those long, sharp teeth that dogs, cats, tigers, etc., have, answer to
tear to pieces the flesh they eat, as thoroughly as we can cut it up.
We do not need such teeth, because with instruments contrived by
man’s mind for his hands to use we cut up the food sufficiently.
I have told you that the elephant can draw up
water into his trunk. His trunk is therefore like the
tube with which we suck up water or any liquid.
And it is like a pump too, for, as I shall show you in
Part Third, water is raised in the pump just as it is in a tube when
we suck through it. It is with a pump something like the elephant’s
that many insects get the honey from the flowers. This pump is
called a proboscis. It is with such an instrument that the musquito
sucks up your blood. At the end of his pump he has something with
which he pierces a hole in your skin, and then he pumps your blood
up into his stomach. In some insects the proboscis is very long, as
you see here. This is hollow, and with it the insect sucks up the
honey from very deep flowers, without being obliged to go to the
bottom of them.
The proboscis is
commonly coiled up
when it is not in use.
Here is the proboscis of
a butterfly coiled up. The two long things
above it are feelers.
The tongue of the humming-bird is
really a proboscis, and a very curious
one it is too. It has two tubes
alongside of each other, like the two
barrels of a double-barreled gun. At the tip of the
tongue these tubes are a little separated, and their ends are shaped
like spoons. The honey is spooned up, as we may say, and then it is

Cat’s tongue a
curry-comb.
How the heron
catches fish.
drawn into the mouth through the long tubes of the tongue. But the
bird uses its tongue in another way. It catches insects with it, for it
lives on these as well as on honey. It does it in this way: the two
spoons grasp the insect like a pair of tongs, and the tongue,
bending, puts it into the bird’s mouth. The tongue, then, of the
humming-bird is not merely one instrument, but it contains several
instruments together—two pumps, two spoons, and a pair of tongs.
The tongue of a cat is a singular instrument. It is
her curry-comb. For this purpose it is rough, as you
will find if you feel it. When she cleans herself so
industriously, she gets off the dirt and smooths her
coat just as the hostler cleans and smooths the horse’s coat with the
curry-comb. Her head she can not reach with her tongue, and so she
has to make her fore paws answer the purpose instead.
There are some
birds that live on
fishes. They have
instruments,
therefore, purposely for catching them.
The heron is a bird of this kind. He
manages in this way: when the light is
dim, either at dawn or when there is
moonlight, it is his time for going a
fishing. He will stand, as you see him
here, in shallow water, so stiff and so
still that he might be mistaken for a
stump of a tree or something else. He
is looking steadily and patiently down into the water, and the
moment a fish comes along, down goes his sharp bill, and off he
flies to his nest with his prey. The plumes of this singular bird are
beautiful, and are very highly prized as ornaments.
There is one bird that lives chiefly on oysters. It has a bill,
therefore, with which it can open an oyster-shell as skillfully as an
oysterman can with his knife.

The tailor-bird.
The wingless bird.
The fish that
shoots insects
with a squirt-gun.
Some birds can sew very well with
their beaks and feet. There is one
bird that sews so well that it is called
the tailor bird. Here is its nest hid in leaves which it
has sewed together. It does this with thread which it
makes itself. It gets cotton from the cotton-plant, and
with its long, delicate bill and little feet, spins it into a
thread. It then pierces the holes through the leaves
with its bill, and, passing the thread through the holes,
sews them together. I believe that in getting the
thread through the holes it uses both its bill and its
feet.
Here is a very strange-looking bird.
It has no wings. It has a very long bill, which it
uses in gathering its food, which
consists of snails, insects, and worms.
He uses his bill in another way. He
often, in resting, places the tip of his bill
on the ground, and thus makes the
same use of his bill that an old man
does of his cane when he stands leaning
upon it.
There is a fish that has a singular
instrument. It is a squirt-gun for
shooting insects. It can shoot them not
only when they are still, but when they
are flying. It watches them as they are
flying over the water, and hits one of them,
whenever it can get a chance, with a fine stream of
water from its little gun. The insect, stunned with
the blow, falls into the water, and the fish eats it.
I could give you a great many more examples of the different
tools that we find in animals, but these are sufficient. You can
observe other examples yourselves as you look at different animals.

Questions.—What is said about the saw-fly? Tell about
the boring and cutting instruments of a certain kind of
bee. What is said about silk-worms? What about spiders?
What about wasps? Why do some animals have such long,
sharp teeth? What kind of machine is an elephant’s trunk?
What is the proboscis of an insect? Tell about the tongue
of the humming-bird. How many instruments are there
together in his tongue? What is said about the cat’s
tongue? Tell about the heron. Tell about the bird that lives
on oysters. What is told about the tailor-bird? Tell about
the bird that has no wings. Tell about the fish that shoots
insects with water.

Fighting
instruments of
animals.
Why man has
none of them.
Claw and beak of
a cruel bird.
CHAPTER XXV.
INSTRUMENTS OF DEFENSE AND ATTACK.
Animals have various instruments for defending
themselves. Some have claws, some horns, some
hoofs, some spurs and beaks, some powerful
teeth, and some stings. These they use to defend
themselves when attacked.
But man has none of these things. Why is this?
It is because, as I have told you about tools, with
his mind he can contrive instruments of defense,
and with his hands he can use them. If men could
not contrive and use such things as spears, and swords, and guns,
they would stand a poor chance with some of the animals if obliged
to contend with them. A lion or tiger, you know, could tear the
stoutest man in pieces if he had nothing in his hands to defend
himself.
It would be well if men would use the fighting instruments which
they make only for defending themselves. But they often use them
in attacking others, just as beasts do their weapons, and sometimes
they even use their hands, and teeth, and nails in the same way that
beasts do. Hands were made for useful work and innocent play; but
they are often used to strike with. Teeth are given to us to eat with;
but children, and even men sometimes, bite with them like an angry
beast. Nails are given us for various useful purposes, but I have
known children to use them in fighting as beasts do their claws and
spurs.
The fighting
instruments of some
birds are very powerful.
Here are a claw and a
beak of a very cruel bird. How fast this

The vulture and
the lamb.
claw would hold the victim, and how would this beak tear it in
pieces! Very different are they from the slender claws and the light
beak of such birds as the canary.
Here is a very rapacious bird, the vulture. He is
on a rock, and has under his feet a lamb which he
found in the valley below. It had perhaps wandered
from the flock, and, as it was feeding, not thinking
of danger, the vulture espied it. Swiftly diving down, he caught it
with his strong claws and brought it up here. You see what a beak
he has to tear the lamb in pieces, that he may devour it.
The toucan, which you see here, has a larger bill than most other
birds. It uses it in crushing and tearing its food, which consists of
fruits, mice, and small birds. You see that its edges are toothed
somewhat like a saw, adapting it to tear in pieces the little animals
which this bird feeds on. But it can use its bill also for another
purpose. It is a powerful instrument of defense in fighting off the
animals that attack it. The toucan makes its nest in a hole of a tree,
which it digs out with its bill, if it does not readily find one already
made; and there it sits, keeping off all intruders with its big beak.
The mischievous monkeys are its worst enemies; but, if they get a
blow from that beak, they are very careful to keep out of the way of
it afterward. When the toucan sleeps, it manages to cover up this

The bill of the
toucan.
How it trims its
tail.
The cat’s paw and
its cushions.
large bill with its
feathers, and so it
looks as if it was
nothing but a
great ball of
feathers. There is
one curious use
which it makes of its bill: it uses it
to trim its tail, cutting its feathers
as precisely as a pair of scissors
would. It takes great care in doing
this, evidently thinking that it is
important to its beauty. It waits till
its tail is full grown before it begins to trim it.
The claws of the cat hold the rat very fast, while
her long, sharp teeth tear its flesh, and pull even
its bones apart. If you see a cat do this, you will
get some idea of the way in which a lion or tiger
tears in pieces any animal. As your cat lies quietly purring in your
lap, look at her paws. The claws are all concealed, and the paw, with
its cushions, seems a very gentle, peaceable thing; but wake her up
and let her play with a string, and as she tries to catch it with her
paw, the claws now thrust out make it look like a powerful weapon,
as it really is in the eyes of rats and mice. There are muscles that
work those claws when the cat’s mind tells them to do it. When the
claws are not thrust out these muscles are quiet, but they are ever
ready to act when a message comes to them from the brain.
Did you ever think what the use is of those springy cushions in the
cat’s foot? They are to keep her from being jarred when she jumps
down from a considerable height, as she often does. Other animals
that jump have them. There is another use for these cushions. They
are of assistance to animals in catching their prey. If the cat had
hard, horny feet, as she went pattering around the rats and mice
would take the alarm and get out of the way.

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