Understanding punctuations

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
EASY TO UNDERSTAND; EASY TO LEARN
Class I to XII
By Gopal Krushna Panda
Punctuation
Marks

Punctuation
Punctuation marks are symbols or signs that indicate where pauses,
stops, questions, omissions, introductions, and other forms of expression
occur in our writing.

Punctuation
• Punctuation is the use of spacing, conventional
signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to
the understanding and correct reading of written
text, whether read silently or aloud.
• Another description is, "It is the practice action or
system of inserting points or other small marks into
texts in order to aid interpretation; division of text
into sentences, clauses, etc., by means of such
marks.

Various Punctuation Marks
• The apostrophe ( ’ )
• The comma ( , )
• Quotation marks (‘ ’) or (“ ”)
• Capital letters
• The full stop ( . )
• The question mark ( ? )
• The exclamation mark ( ! )
• The colon ( : )
• The semicolon ( ; )
• Brackets ( )
• Square brackets [ ]
• The hyphen ( - )
• The dash ( – )
• The slash ( / )
• Punctuation in numbers

Punctuations The apostrophe ( ’ )
•The apostrophe ( ’ ) is used to show that something belongs to
someone. It is usually added to the end of a word and followed
by an -s.-’s is added to the end of singular words.
•a baby’s pushchair
•Hannah’s book
•a child’s cry
•-’s is added to the end of plural words not ending in -s.
•children’s games
•women’s clothes
•people’s lives
•An apostrophe alone (’) is added to plural words ending in -s.
•Your grandparents are your parents’ parents.
•We’re campaigning for workers’ rights.
•They’ve hired a new ladies’ fashion guru
Showing possession

Punctuation The apostrophe ( ’ )
•’-s is added to the end of names and singular words ending in -s.
•James’s car
•the octopus’s tentacles.
•-’s is added to the end of certain professions or occupations to
indicate workplaces.
•She’s on her way to the doctor’s.
•James is at the hairdresser’s.
•-’s is added to the end of people or their names to indicate that
you are talking about their home.
•I’m going over to Harry’s for tea tonight.
•I popped round to Mum’s this afternoon, but she wasn’t in.

•Note that if the word is a classical Greek name, or a historical
figure or building, an apostrophe only is sometimes preferred.
•Dickens’ novels
•St Giles’ Cathedral
•-’s can also be added to: whole phrases
•My next-door neighbour’s dog was barking away like mad.
•John and Cath’s house was on TV last night.
•indefinite pronouns such as somebody or anywhere
•Is this anybody’s pencil case?
•It’s nobody’s fault but mine.
•each other
•We’re getting used to each other’s habits.
•We kept forgetting each other’s names.

Note that:An apostrophe is not used to form possessive pronouns
such as its, yours, or theirs.
An apostrophe is not used to form the plurals of words such
as potatoes or tomatoes.
•When the possessor is an inanimate object (rather than a living
thing), the apostrophe is not used and the word order is changed.
the middle of the street (not the street’s middle)
•the front of the house (not the house’s front)
•To test whether an apostrophe is in the right place, think about
who the owner is. the boy’s books [= the books belonging to the
boy]
•the boys’ books [= the books belonging to the boys]

An apostrophe is used in shortened forms of words to show that one or
more letters have been missed out. Contractions are usually shortened
forms of auxiliary verbs be have
I’m I/we/they’ve (have)
We/you/they’re (are) He/she/it/one’s (has)
He/she/it/one’s (is) I/we/you/he/she/it/one/they’d (had)
•I/we/they haven’t
•He/she/it/one hasn’t
In order to work out what the contracted forms ’s and ’d represent,
you need to look at what follows it:If ’s is followed by an -ing form, it
represents the auxiliary is.
• She’s reading a book about the ancient Egyptians.
• He’s going to Ibiza for his holidays.
Contracted forms
•or the negative not.not
•We/you/they aren’t
•He/she/it/one isn’t

Punctuation Contracted forms
•If ’s is followed by an adjective or a noun phrase, it represents the
main verb is.
•She’s nervous about meeting my parents.
•He’s brilliant at maths.
•If ’s is followed by a past participle, it can represent is as it is used
in the passive,
• He’s portrayed by the media as a kindly old grandfather.
• It’s often said that rock stars are frustrated actors.
•or has as it is used in the present perfect.
•She’s broken her wrist.
•It’s been ages since we last saw you.
•If ’s is followed by got, it represents the auxiliary has.
•She’s got two brothers and one sister.
•It’s got everything you could want.

Punctuation Contracted forms
•If ’d is followed by a past participle, it represents the
auxiliary had.
•I’d raced against him before, but never in a marathon.
•She couldn’t believe what she’d done.
•If ’d is followed by a base form, it represents the modal
auxiliary would.
•I’d give up now, if I were you.
•When we were kids we’d spend hours out on our bikes.
•If ’d is followed by rather or better, it represents the modal
auxiliary would.
•We’d better go home soon.
•I’d rather not talk about that.

Punctuation The comma ( , )
The comma marks a short pause between elements in a sentence.
Separating main clauses
•Main clauses that are joined together with and or but do not normally
have a comma before the conjunction unless the two clauses have
different subjects.
•You go out of the door and turn immediately left.
•It was cold outside, but we decided to go out for a walk anyway.
Separating subordinate clauses from main clauses
•Commas are normally used if the subordinate clause comes before the
main clause.
•If you have any problems, just call me.
•Just call me if you have any problems.
•Sometimes a comma is used even when the main clause comes first, if
the clauses are particularly long.
•We should be able to finish the work by the end of the week,
•if nothing unexpected turns up between now and then.

Separating relative clauses from main clauses
•Commas are used to mark off non-defining relative clauses
•This is the type of clause that adds to information about a noun or
noun phrase.
•My next-door neighbour, who works from home, is keeping an eye on
the house while we’re away.
•She moved to Los Angeles, where she was immediately signed as a
singer songwriter.
•Commas are not required in defining relative clauses
• since these simply postmodify the noun.
•Let’s make sure the money goes to the people who need it most.
•The computer (that) I borrowed kept on crashing.
Separating items in a list
•Commas are used to separate three or more items in a list or series.
•She got out bread, butter, and jam (but bread and butter).
•Note that the comma is often not given before the final and or or.
•They breed dogs, cats, rabbits and hamsters.
•We did canoeing, climbing and archery.

Separating adjectives
•Commas are used between adjectives, whether they come before
the noun (i.e. used attributively) or after a linking verb (i.e. used
predicatively).
•It was a hot, dry and dusty road.
•It’s wet, cold and windy outside.
A comma is not usually used before an adjective i.e. followed
by and.
With adverbials
•When an adverbial such
as however, therefore or unfortunately modifies a whole sentence, it is
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
•However, police would not confirm this rumour.
•Therefore, I try to avoid using the car as much as possible.

In reported speech
•Commas are used to follow direct speech (if there is no question or
exclamation mark after the quotation), or to show that it comes next.
•‘I don’t understand this question,’ said Peter.
•Peter said, ‘I don’t understand this question.’
With question tags and short responses
•Commas are used before question tags and after yes or no in short
responses.
•It’s quite cold today, isn’t it?
•He’s up to date with all his injections, isn’t he?
•Are you the mother of these children? – Yes, I am.
With vocatives
•Commas are used to separate the name of a person or group being
addressed from the rest of the sentence.And now, ladies and
gentlemen, please raise your glasses in a toast to the happy couple.
•Come on, Olivia, be reasonable.
•Dad, can you come and help me, please?

Punctuation Quotation marks (‘ ’) or (“ ”)
Direct speech
•Direct speech gives the actual words that a speaker used. It is common
in novels and other writing where the actual words of a speaker are
quoted. The words spoken are enclosed in single or double quotation
marks.
•‘Have you been to the new shopping precinct yet?’ enquired Shona.
“I’ve already seen it,” John replied.
•The comma comes inside the quotation marks, unless the reporting verb
is positioned inside a reported sentence that itself does not require a
comma.
•‘There is’, Monica said, ‘nothing we can do about it.’
Other uses
•Single quotation marks are sometimes used:to draw attention to a word
•The word ‘book’ can be used as a noun or a verb.
•to indicate an unusual use of a word
•She pointed out that websites used for internet voting could be ‘spoofed’.
•to suggest that the writer want to be distanced from a word.
•I don’t agree with this ‘mercy killing’ business.
•Note that the full stop comes after the quotation marks in such cases.

Punctuation With letters and numbers
•An apostrophe is used in front of two figures referring to a year or
decade.
•French students rioted in ’68 [short for ‘1968’].
•He worked as a schoolteacher during the ’60s and early ’90s.
•An apostrophe can be used in plurals of letters and numbers to
make them more readable.Mind your p’s and q’s.
•His 2’s look a bit like 7’s.
•She got straight A’s in her exams.
REMEMBERit’s = it is, e.g. It’s a holiday today.
its = belonging to it, e.g. The dog was scratching its ear.

Punctuation Capital letters
A capital (or ‘upper case’) letter is used to mark the beginning of a sentence
•When I was 20, I dropped out of university and became a model.
•Capital letters are also used for the first letter in proper nouns.
•These include:
•people’s names
•days of the week
•month of the year
•public holidays
•Nationalities
•Languages
•geographical locations
•company names
•religions
Capital letters are also used for the first letter in titles of books,
magazines, newspapers, TV shows, films, etc. Where there are several
words, a capital letter is usually used for all the main content words in the
title (i.e. not the prepositions or the determiners – unless they are the first
word in the title).

Punctuation The full stop ( . )
•Full stops are used:
•to mark the end of a sentence
•Let’s have some lunch.
•I have to catch a bus in ten minutes.
•to mark the end of a sentence fragment
•Are you cold? – Yes, a bit.
•Do you like this sort of music? Not really.
•in initials for people’s names, although this practice is becoming less frequent
•after abbreviations, although this practice is becoming less frequent.
• When an abbreviation consists of a shortened word such
as Re. or Prof., a full stop is needed.
•When an abbreviation contains the last letter of the shortened word,
a full stop is not needed.

Punctuation The full stop ( . )
•Note that full stops are not used in many common sets of initials,
•Did you see that programme on BBC 2 last night?
•The government has promised more funding for the NHS.
•or at the end of headlines, headings and titles.Fear grips global
stock markets
•Teaching grammar as a liberating force
•Wuthering Heights
•Remember that a full stop, and not a question mark, is used after
an indirect question or a polite request.He asked if the bus had left.
•Will you open your books on page 14.
•I wonder what’s happened.
•She asked him where he was going.
In American English, the full stop is called a period.

Punctuation The question mark ( ? )
•The question mark marks the end of a question.
•When will we be arriving?
•Why did you do that?
•Does any of this matter?
•He’s certain to be elected, isn’t he?
•Question marks are used in direct questions, i.e. when the actual
words of a speaker are used. A reported question should end with
a full stop.
•The lady said, ‘Where are you going?’
•The lady asked where she was going.
Note that you put a question mark at the end of a question, even if
the words in the sentence are not in the normal question order, or
some words are omitted. Care is needed here as such a sentence
can look, at first sight, like a statement rather than a question.

Punctuation The exclamation mark ( ! )
The exclamation mark is used after
exclamations and emphatic expressions.
I can’t believe it!
Oh, no! Look at this mess!
The exclamation mark loses its effect if it is overused. It is
better to use a full stop after a sentence expressing mild
excitement or humour.
It was such a beautiful day.
I felt like a perfect banana.

Punctuation The colon ( : )
•The colon indicates a break between two main clauses which is
stronger than a comma but weaker than a full stop. A colon is used:
•in front of a list
•I used three colours: green, blue and pink.
•Make sure you wear clothes made from natural fibres: cotton, silk and
wool.
•in front of an explanation or a reason
•Nevertheless, the main problem remained: what should be done with
the two men?
•I decided against going away this weekend: the weather forecast was
dreadful.
•after introductory headings
•Cooking time: about five minutes.
•Start time: 10 o’clock.
•in more formal writing, between two main clauses that are
connected
•It made me feel claustrophobic: what, I wonder, would happen to
someone who was really unable to tolerate being locked into such a
tiny space?
•Be patient: the next book in the series has not yet been published.

Punctuation The semicolon ( ; )
•Compare:
•The engine roared into life. The propellers began to turn.
•The plane taxied down the runway ready for takeoff.
•with:
•The engine roared into life; the propellers began to turn; the plane
taxied down the runway ready for takeoff.
•A useful test to work out when to use a semicolon is to ask yourself
whether the two clauses could be written instead as separate sentences.
If the answer is ‘yes’, then you can use a semicolon.
•Note that it is quite acceptable to use a full stop in these cases, but a
semicolon is preferable if you wish to convey the sense of a link or
continuity between the clauses in your narrative.
•I’m not that interested in jazz; I prefer classical music.
•He knew everything about me; I had never even heard of him.
•A semicolon is also used to separate items in a list, especially if the
listed items are phrases or clauses, which may already contain commas.
•The holiday was a disaster: the flight was four hours late; the hotel, which
was described as ‘luxury’, was dirty; and it rained for the whole fortnight.
The semicolon is used to mark a break between two main clauses
when there is a balance or a contrast between the clauses.

Punctuation Brackets ( )
•Brackets (also called parentheses) are used to enclose a word or
words which can be left out and still leave a meaningful sentence.
•The wooded area is approximately 4,000 hectares.
•This is a process which Hayek (a writer who came to rather different
conclusions) also observed.
•Brackets are also used to show alternatives or options.
•Any student(s) interested in taking part should e-mail me.
•A goat should give from three to six pints (1.7 to 3.4 litres) of milk a day.
•Note that when the structure of the sentence as a whole demands
punctuation after a bracketed section, the punctuation is
given outside the brackets.
•I haven’t yet spoken to John (I mean John Maple, my boss), but I have a
meeting with him on Friday.
•For lunch we had sandwiches (pastrami on rye and so on), salami,
coleslaw, fried chicken, and potato salad.
•Punctuation is given before the closing brackets only when it applies
to the bracketed section rather than to the sentence as a whole.
•He’s very handsome (positively gorgeous in fact!) and still single.

Punctuation Square brackets [ ]
•Square brackets are used, usually in books and articles, when
supplying words that make a quotation clearer or that comment
on it, although they were not originally said or written.
•Mr Runcie concluded: ‘The novel is at its strongest when
describing the dignity of Cambridge [a slave] and the
education of Emily [the daughter of an absentee landlord].’

Punctuation The hyphen ( - )
The hyphen joins words or parts of words. Hyphens are used at the ends
of lines where a word has been split, to warn the reader that the word
continues on the next line. If the word you need to split is clearly made up
of two or more smaller words or elements, you should put the hyphen afte
the first of these parts. Otherwise, you put the hyphen at the end of a
syllable.
wheel-barrow inter-national
listen-ing compli-mentary
infor-mation
It is best not to add a hyphen if the word is a short one, or if it would
mean writing just one or two letters at the end or beginning of a line. For
example, it would be better to write ‘unnatural’ on the line below, rather
than writing ‘un-’ on one line and ‘natural’ on the next.
Prefixes that are used in front of a word beginning with a capital letter
always have a hyphen after them.
• a wave of anti-British feeling
• a neo-Byzantine cathedral

Punctuation The hyphen ( - )
A hyphen is used to join two or more words that together form an
adjective, where this adjective is used before the noun it describes.
• an up-to-date account
• a last-minute rush
• a six-year-old boy
The hyphen is omitted when the adjective so formed comes after the
noun or pronoun it describes.
• The accounts are up to date.
• It was all rather last minute.
• He’s six years old.
Some common compound nouns are usually written with hyphens.
mother-in-law great-grandmother
Hyphens can be used to split words that have been formed by adding
a prefix to another word, especially to avoid an awkward combination
of letters or confusion with another word
• .re-elect
• re-covering furniture
• re-creation

Punctuation The dash ( – )
A spaced dash (i.e. with a single space before and after it) is used:
at the beginning and end of a comment that interrupts the flow of a
sentence.
• Now children – Kenneth, stop that immediately! – open your books
on page 20.
to separate off extra information.
• Boots and shoes – all shapes, sizes and colours – tumbled
out.
An unspaced dash (i.e. with no space before or after it) is used:to
indicate a range.
• pages 26–42
between two adjectives or noun modifiers that indicate that two
countries or groups are involved in something or that an individual
has two roles or aspects.
• Swedish–Norwegian relations improved, the United States–
Canada free trade pacta mathematician–philosopher
to indicate that something such as a plane or a train goes between
two places.
• the Anguilla–St Kitts flight
• the New York–Montreal train

Punctuation The slash ( / )
•The slash separates letters, words or
numbers.
•It is used to indicate
•alternatives, ratios and ranges, and in
website addresses. he/she/it
•200 km/hr
•the 2001/02 accounting year
•http://www.abcdefg.com

Punctuation Ellipsis ( … )
An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots.
An ellipsis is a set of three dots ( . . . ) indicating an omission. Each dot
should have a single space on either side, except when adjacent to a
quotation mark, in which case there should be no space.
Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or
more from a quoted passage.
Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant. They are
useful in getting right to the point without delay or distraction:
Full quotation:
"Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."
With ellipsis:
"Today … we vetoed the bill."
Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the
simplest. Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction
use various approaches that they find suitable.
Some writers and editors feel that no spaces are necessary.
Example: I don't know…I'm not sure.

Punctuation Ellipsis ( …. ) 4 dot
This elusive punctuation mark is used at the end of a sentence, often in
dialogue, when it follows a grammatically complete sentence. It usually
indicates that you’re omitting a sentence and skipping to the next.
For example, here's an excerpt from President Barack Obama's 2009
Inaugural Address.
"My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us,
grateful for the trust you've bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne
by our ancestors. ... Forty-four Americans have now taken the
presidential oath."
In this example, I left out a sentence that reads, "I thank President
Bush for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and
cooperation he has shown throughout this transition."
According to the Associated Press Style Book, the four-dot ellipsis is
really comprised of a full stop and an ellipsis, rather than four dots in a
row. A space separates the two marks.

Punctuation in numbers
Dates
Full stops or slashes are often
used in dates.
Indan Usage American usage
12.3.09 3/12/09
2.28.15 2/28/15
Times
Full stops and occasionally
colons are used in times.
4.15 p.m. 21.15
3:30 a.m. 20:30
Long numbers
Commas are used in numbers to mark
off units of thousands and millions.
1,359 2,543,678
Decimals
Full stops indicate decimal points. 1.5 25.08

COMING UP NEXT…
“Clause…”
By Gopal Krushna Panda

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