Understanding clause
- 1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR EASY TO UNDERSTAND; EASY TO LEARN Class I to XII By Gopal Krushna Panda “Clause”
- 2. Clause • A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. • A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. • A clause functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. What is a Clause?
- 3. Clause Types
- 4. Clause Types Simple sentences consist of one clause, in which the verb is finite. •Ann went to the bank. •She withdrew £100. Two or more clauses can be joined to make a compound sentence or a complex sentence. Complex sentences are those that contain a subordinate clause as well as a main clause. •When he arrives, I’ll phone you. •He stayed at home because he felt ill.
- 5. Clause Types A subordinate clause is one that contains special information about the main clause. It will usually be introduced by a linking word such as when, if, because, or that. • The linking words are called subordinating conjunctions. • Most subordinate clauses can come before, after, or within the main clause.
- 6. Clause Types • Usually, when one clause is of principal importance and the other clause gives information about the principal one, we have a complex sentence with one main clause and one subordinate clause. • The position that a subordinate clause is placed in is determined largely by what is felt to be the main message of a sentence. •Since you seem to have made up your mind, I’ll say no more. •I stopped seeing her because she moved to Liverpool.
- 7. Clause Types A compound sentence is one that consists of two main clauses, joined by a word such as and, but, or or, called a coordinating conjunction. Each clause is of equal importance and gives information of equal value. The order of the clauses can be very important for the meaning. For example, the timing of an action can be described by the order in which the clauses follow each other. • He picked it up and ran over to her. • He ran over to her and picked it up. • I drove to Coatbridge and went on to Stirling. These have more than one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. • Angie came over and we decided to use my car because hers was playing up. • He ran over to Julie, who was sitting at the end of the bench, and grabbed her handbag. Compound-complex sentences
- 8. Joining clauses coordination The process called coordination joins two short clauses of equal importance with a conjunction. Each clause becomes a main clause in the new sentence. • Ann went to the bank and withdrew £100. • Sally goes to work but Ann doesn’t have a job. • Ann (either) stays at home or visits her family. The clauses are linked by words called coordinating conjunctions, such as and, but, (either) or, neither, nor, or yet. Conjunctions come at the beginning of a clause. If the subject of both clauses is the same, it does not have to be repeated in front of the second verb. • She came over and she gave me a hug. • The conjunction and is used:to join clauses where there is no contrast or choice.
- 9. Joining clauses coordination To join more than two clauses; the earlier clauses can be joined by a comma, but the last two must be joined by and. • Ann got into the car, drove to the bank, withdrew £100, and went shopping. The conjunction but is used to join clauses where there is a contrast. • She wanted to buy a new dress but she couldn’t find one she liked. The conjunction yet is used, mainly in written English, to join clauses where there is a contrast that is of a surprising nature. • He’s a quietly spoken man, yet he still manages to command attention. • She was suffering from a knee injury yet she still won the match.
- 10. Joining clauses coordination The conjunctions and, but, or, neither, and nor are also used to join two phrases of the same kind, •This book is useful for planning and carrying out research. •The former President and his wife were there. or two words of the same class. • I use this chair when I am reading and working. • Do you undertake detailed or intricate work? • Jack and Jill fell down the hill. • This is a complicated but intriguing film. In particular, and and but are used to coordinate pairs of adjectives in a predicative position. When there is a positive choice between the subjects of two clauses, you use the pair of words either and or to join the clauses. Either you come to my place or I’ll meet you at work. Which do you prefer?
- 11. Joining clauses coordination If the subject of the joined clauses is the same, the subject is used in the first of the joined clauses only. This is often also true of any auxiliary verbs that may be present. • Martin said he would either meet them for lunch or take them to tea When it is used in this way either must come in one of these places: before the subject in the first clause of the group. in front of the main verb and after any auxiliary verb. You can use either…or to join more than two clauses. Or is mandatory at the beginning of the final clause, and optional at the beginning of the previous clause. • Colin said he would (either) meet them for lunch, (or) take them to tea, or have them over for a coffee. • Ian can (either) come with us or take a taxi later.
- 12. Joining clauses coordination The use of either…or emphasizes that the two clauses are alternatives and cannot both be true. Compare and/or. • Colin said he would meet them for lunch, and/or have them over for a coffee. The word either can be left out if the sentence meaning is clear. Some writers treat all but the final or as optional. You can use or on its own to join two or more clauses, but either cannot be used on its own. When there is a negative choice between the subjects of two clauses, you can use the pair of words neither and nor to join the clauses. • It is neither possible nor desirable that they should be invited. • Jane was not a fool; neither/nor was she prepared to be blamed for the error.
- 13. Joining clauses coordination •The word neither can be used on its own to connect two clauses if the first clause contains a word with broad negative meaning such as not, barely or scarcely. If there is a subject in the second clause, question order must be used. •There was barely enough meat for the children; neither did they have any bread. •Eric hardly saw the fight; nor did he remember much about the incident later. •The words either and neither can also be used as a pronoun or as a determiner. Each can then be used on its own; it does not then have a joining function. •Either book will do. It doesn’t matter. •Neither book is at all suitable, I’m sorry. •Either, or, neither, and nor can be used as conjunctions inside a noun phrase or a verb phrase. •You can choose to study either Shakespeare or Keats. •Neither Vimala nor Katie knew the answer.
- 14. Joining clauses Subordination When two or more clauses are joined by a conjunction other than and, but, or, or yet, one of the clauses is the main clause; the other clauses are subordinate clauses. The different types of subordinate clause include noun clauses, • What matters most is that you treat everyone fairly. •adverbial clauses, •They went outside as soon as the rain stopped. •relative clauses, •This is the problem that we’re facing at the moment. •We stayed in Inverness, which is in the Scottish Highlands. •conditional clauses, •Maureen plans to live in Australia if she can get a job there. •reported clauses. •She told me that Philip was in France.
- 15. Joining clauses Subordination •Each of the subordinate clauses is associated with an introductory word that signals what type of clause it is that follows. •After she had read the diary, she returned it to the drawer. •As they were going downstairs, the phone rang. •They aren’t coming because they’ve had an argument. •These words are called subordinating conjunctions. They include: the WH- words. words like since, if, when, because, the word that, either on its own or used with another word e.g. so that or supposing that a phrase ending in as, e.g. as soon as, as long as •Each of the subordinating clauses has a preferred position. e.g. most adverbial clauses usually follow the main clause, although they can also come before the main clause. •Shall I do the shopping when I finish work? •When I finish work, I could do the shopping for you.
- 16. Joining clauses Subordination Noun clauses •These are clauses that can be used as either the subject or the object of a sentence or in other places where a noun phrase is usually found. They are introduced by that •What I like about him is that he always tries his best. •or by a WH- word, e.g. who, when, where •.I don’t know where you live. •How the thief got in is a mystery. •Why she acts like this is beyond me. Word order after a WH- word is the same as in a statement. •The subordinating conjunction that can often be omitted. •I think that he’ll succeed. •I think he’ll succeed.
- 17. Joining clauses Adverbial clauses Adverbial clauses generally follow the main clause unless otherwise stated. The following are the main types of adverbial clause: Time: sets the timing for the main clause. • We should go as soon as you are ready. • I’ll call for you whenever you like. may come before or after the main clause. •introduced by after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, till, the moment (that), until, whenever, when, while. Place: sets where the action of the main clause takes place. • I put it where nobody would find it. • He made an impact everywhere that he went. introduced by where, wherever, or everywhere. Manner: sets out how the main clause was carried out. introduced by as, as if, as though, how, just as, or the way that. • Mandy looked as if she had seen a ghost. • Cameron wandered in, the way that he does..
- 18. Joining clauses Adverbial clauses Reason: sets out the thinking behind the action of the main clause. • I don’t want to go because I’m not keen on old movies. • Since no one was ready, I sat down and turned on the TV. •may come before or after the main clause. •introduced by as, because, or since. Purpose: sets out what it was hoped would be achieved by carrying out the action of the main clause. • Put it just there so that it holds the door open. • Leave a bit for Becky in case she’s hungry when she gets in. •introduced by so that, in order that, in case, or lest. •Purpose can also be indicated by so as to, in order to followed by the base form of a verb. •I’m living with my mum and dad so as to save money. •He put the chair against the door in order to hold it open.
- 19. Joining clauses Adverbial clauses Result: sets out what happened when the main clause was carried out. • Ben was so angry that he kicked the wall hard. • Nina is such a generous person that she’s often short of money. •introduced by so + adj/adv + that or by such a + noun phrase + that. Contrast: suggests that something else may need to be taken into account regarding the main clause. • However much you may want to spend your money, try to save a little each month. • Although it had rained, the ground was still very dry. •may come before or after the main clause. introduced by although, even though, even if, however, much as, or while.
- 20. Joining clauses Relative clauses Relative clauses tell us more about nouns. They function rather like adjectives, and are found as postmodifiers in a noun phrase. The noun that is modified is called the antecedent. Relative clauses normally begin with who, whom, whose, or that. These words are called relative pronouns. Note that some of them also function as interrogative pronouns.. A relative pronoun can be the subject • The people who live upstairs are having a party. • The dog that bit me had to be put down. •or object • I don’t like the music that they are playing. • A man whom I met on holiday phoned last might.
- 21. Joining clauses Relative clauses of the verb in the relative clause. If it is the object, it can be left out in ordinary informal speech and writing. • I don’t like the music they are playing. • A man I met on holiday phoned last night. •Subject and object relative pronouns come at the beginning of the relative clause. • A relative pronoun can also be the object of a preposition. • It was definitely Diana to whom she was referring. • It’s a great game at which anyone can excel. •In informal English a relative clause can end in a preposition, especially if the relative pronoun is omitted. • It was definitely Diana (that) she was referring to. • It’s great game (which) anyone can excel at.
- 22. Joining clauses Relative clauses Some relative clauses act rather like an adjective by providing more information about a particular noun. • The people who live upstairs are having a party. • I don’t like the music that they’re playing. •These are called defining relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses. A defining relative clause is never separated from the noun by a comma. The other type of relative clause adds extra information to the whole of the main clause. These are non-defining relative clauses This type of clause is separated from the main clause by commas. • The man next door, who works from home, kept an eye on the house for us. • Thomas went home early, which was a relief to us all. •Compare: • Defining. •My brother who lives in Canada is a lawyer. •(There are several brothers. The Canadian one is a lawyer.) •Non-defining. •My brother, who lives in Canada, is a lawyer. •(There is only one brother. He is a lawyer. He happens to live in Canada.) Defining and non-defining
- 23. Joining clauses Conditional clauses 3 Types Conditional sentences consist of a main clause and a conditional clause (sometimes called an if-clause). The conditional clause usually begins with if or unless. The conditional clause can come before or after the main clause. • We’ll be late if we don’t leave now. • We’ll be late unless we leave now. Type 1 The main clause uses will, can, may, or might + the base form of a main verb. The if-clause uses the present simple tense. • If you take the first bus, you’ll get there on time. • She’ll be cold if she doesn’t wear a coat. • If you need more helpers, I can try and get some time off work. Type 1 sentences refer to the future. They suggest that the action in the main clause is quite likely to happen. • They will not finish their homework unless they start now. • If you book early, you will get a seat. •The use of the modal verb may or might in the main clause suggests that there is some doubt whether the main verb action will be achieved. • If you book early, you may get a seat. • Mary might deliver your parcel, if you ask her.
- 24. Joining clauses Conditional clauses 3 Types Type 2 The main clause uses would, could, or might + the base form of a main verb. The if-clause uses the past simple tenseIf • Jim lent us his car, we could go to the party. • We would save £3.50 a day if we didn’t eat any lunch. • If burglars broke into my house, they wouldn’t find any money. • Would you be very angry if I failed my exam? •or the past subjunctive. •If I were you, I’d phone her straight away. Type 2 sentences refer to an imaginary situation. They imply that the action in the if-clause will probably not happen • If I won the lottery, I would buy a house in France. (…but I don’t think I’ll win the lottery.) • If you didn’t spend all your money on lottery tickets, you could afford a holiday. (…but you do spend all your money on lottery tickets.) •The past subjunctive is often used when giving advice to someone, especially about what the person should do. •If I were you, I’d tell them the truth.
- 25. Joining clauses Conditional clauses 3 Types Type 3 The main clause uses would, could, or might + have + the past participle of a main verb. The if-clause uses the past perfect tense. • We could have had a longer holiday, if we hadn’t spent so much money on the house. • If I had known about the exam, I would have paid more attention in class. In Type 3 sentences the speaker is looking back from the present to a past time and event. The speaker is talking about what might have happened but did not, either because the wrong thing was done or because nothing was done. This type of sentence is used when making excuses, showing regret, blaming, or giving an explanation. Conditional clauses can also be used to talk about consequences, or to give an opinion about a situation in the following ways: The if-clause uses the present simple tense and the main clause uses the present simple tense. This is used to refer to universal truths. • If you heat water to 100°C, it boils. • Plants die if they don’t get enough water.
- 26. Joining clauses Conditional clauses 3 Types Type 3 The if-clause uses the present simple tense and the main clause is in the imperative. This is used to give advice or orders for particular situations or sets of circumstances. • If the alarm goes off, make your way outside to the car park. • If a red light shows here, switch off the machine. •The if-clause uses the present continuous or present simple tense and the main clause uses a modal verb. This is used to make suggestions and give advice. • If you’re thinking of buying a lawnmower, you could try mine first. • You should turn down his radio if you don’t want the neighbours •to complain. •The if-clause uses will/would and the main clause uses a modal verb. •This is used to make a request or to give a polite order. • If you’ll wait a minute, the doctor can see you. • If you would sign here, please, I’ll be able to send you the books. •Note that a ’d in the main clause is the contracted form of would. However, a ’d in an if-clause is the contracted form of had. • I’d have gone if he’d invited me. • I would have gone if he had invited me. • I would’ve gone if he’d invited me.
- 27. COMING UP NEXT… “REPORTED SPEECH” By Gopal Krushna Panda