Unit 2

UNIT II MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
GSM – Architecture – Protocols – Connection Establishment – Frequency Allocation – Routing
– Mobility Management – Security –GPRS- UMTS- Architecture
GSM
INTRODUCTION
GSM was formally known as Groupe Speciale Mobile (found in1982) and now it is
abbreviated as Global System for mobile communications. It is a standard set developed by the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe protocols for second
generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile phones. It became the de facto global
standard for mobile communications with over 80% market share. The GSM standard was
developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks, and originally
described a digital, circuit switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. Further
improvements were made when the 3GPP developed third generation (3G) UMTS standards
followed by fourth generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards.
The primary goal of GSM was to provide a mobile phone system that allows user to roam
throughout Europe and provides voice services compatible to ISDN and other PSTN systems.
GSM has initially been deployed in Europe using 890-915MHz for uplinks and 935-960 for
downlinks.
GSM 1800: Otherwise called as Digital cellular Systems DCS 1800
Uplink -- >
1710 to 1785 MHz
Downlink
1805 to 1880 MHz
GSM 1900 : Otherwise called as Personal Communication Service PLS 1900
Uplink -- > 1850 to 1910 MHz
Downlink -- > 1930 to 1990 MHz
GSM 400: Uplink -- > 450.4 to 478 MHz
Downlink -- > 460 to 496 MHz
GSM Rail is used in European Countries and railroad systems.
FEATURES OF GSM RAIL
It offers 19 exclusive channels for voice and data traffic. The special features like
emergency calls, voice group call service etc. are available. Calls are prioritized. Mostly used to
control the trains, switches, signals, gates.
GSM SERVICES
GSM allows the integration of voice and data services and also the internetworking with the
existing network.
There are three types of services offered by GSM

 Bearer Service
 Tele Service
 SupplementaryService
REFERENCE MODEL FOR GSM SERVICES
EXPLANATION:
A mobile station MS is connected to the GSM public land mobile network PLMN via
Um interface. PLMN is the infrastructure needed for the GSM networks. This network is
connected to transit networks(eg.)PSTN,ISTN,etc. There will be additional network the source/
destinations network before another terminal TE is connected.
BEARER SERVICES:
Bearer Services comprises of all the services that enables the transparent transmission of
data between the interface to the network. It permits transparent/non transparent , synchronous
and asynchronous data transmission.
TRANSPARENT BEARER SERVICES:
This services uses the functions of physical layer to transmit data. Data
transmission has a constant delays and throughout if no error occurs but not in real time. FEC is
used to increase the transmission quality. It does not try to recover the lost data in case of
handover.
NON TRANSPARENT BEARER SERVICES:
It uses the protocols of layers data link and network to transmit data. These
services uses transparent bearer service radio link protocol (RLP). RLP has mechanisms of high

level data link control HDLC. It allows retransmission of erroneous data by using elective reject
mechanisms.
TELE SERVCIES:
Tele services are application specific and need all the 7 layers of ISO/OSI
reference model. Services are specified end to end. There tele services are voice oriented tele
service. They are encrypted voice transmission, message services and data communication with
terminals from PSTN/ISDN.
There are some important services:
Telephony services: It has high quality digital voice transmission.
Emergency Number: Mandatory service for all service providers. Its of free of charge. This
connection has the highest priority with pre-emption.
Short Message Service: It is used for simple message transfer with the maximum of 160
characters. SMS does not use the standard data channels of GSM uses the signaling channels.
Sending andg receiving SMS is possible during the data/ voice transmission.
Enhanced Message Service : It is used for large message size with 760 characters, animated
pictures, small images can be transmitted.
Multimedia Message Service : It is used to transmit large pictures of GIF/ JPEG , video clips.
Group 3 fax : Fax data is transmitted as digital data over analog telephone network using
modem.
SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES:
 User Identification
 Call Redirecting / Forwarding
 Closed User Group
 Multiparty communication
GSM ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of GSM comes in hierarchy, consisting of many entities, interfaces and
subsystems.
The GSM system consist of three subsystems namely,
 The Radio Subsystems(RSS)
 Network and Switching Subsystems(NSS)
 Operation Subsystem(OSS)
The customer is able to notice few components of the network viz. Mobile Station and Antenna
of the Base Transceiver Station(BTS). Remaining entities are not visible.
1. RADIO SUBSYSTEM:
As the name implies, the radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio
specific entities. i.e. the mobile stations(MS) and the base station subsystem(BSS).

As they are in same frequency they form a cell . The components of RSS are
Mobile station
Base Transceiver Station
Base Station Subsystem
Base Station Controller
MOBILE STATION: (MS)
MS has all user equipment and software needed for mobile communications. It has user
independent hardware and software. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) stores all user specific
data. Mobile Station can be identified as International Mobile equipment identity (IMEI). The
sim card Authentication key k, International Mobile subscriber identity (IMSI). It also has
Identifiers and tables. The current location of MS is found using Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity(TMSI) . With TMSI and Location Area Identification (LAI) the current location can be
identified.

BASE TRNSCEIVER STATION: (BTS)
BTS contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving of radio signals,antennas and
equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications with the Base station controller(BSC).
A BTS is controlled by apparent BSC via the base station control function(BSCF). The BCFis
implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF
provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the Network Management
System(NMS)and manage operational state of each TRX as well as soft handling and alarm
collection.
The function of BTS vary depending on the cellular technology used and cellula
telephone provider. There are vendors in which the BTS is a plain transceiver which receives
information from MS through Um(Air Interface) and then it converts into TDM based interface,
the Abis and it sends it towards the BSC. A GSM cell can measure between some 100m and
35km depending on the environment.
BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM: (BSS)
The base station subsystem is the section of traditional cellular telephone network
which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network
switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio
channels to mobile phones, paging, quality management of transmission and reception over the
Air interface and many other tasks related to the radio network.
BASE STATION CONTROLLER : (BSC)
The BSC basically manages the BTSs. It reverses radio frequencies and handles
the handover from one BTS to another within BSS, and performs paging of the MS. The BSC
also multiplexes the radio channels onto the fixed network connections at A interface.
b) NETWORK AND SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM:
This network and switching subsystem is the heart of GSM. Their function are to connect
wireless network with standard public network, performs handover between different BSS,
localization (to locate the mobile station),Charging, Accounting and roaming of users.The NSS
contains the following switches and databases.
MOBILE SERVIES SWITCHING CENTER(MSC):
MSC are digital ISDN switches. It establishes connection qith other MSC
and BSC via A interfacet Gateway MSC connects to fixed networks(eg.) PSTN, ISDN. With the
help of Internet Working Functions, MSC can connect to public data Network PDN. It handles
all signaling needed for connection setup, connection release and handover.

HOME LOCATION REGISTER : (HLR)
It is an important database. It stores user relevant information and also has static
information and dynamic information.
Static Information:
Mobile subscriber ISDN number is available. It has subscribed services for a
particular number. It is also an international mobile subscriber identity.
Dynamic Information :
It is a current location area(LA) of MS. It consist of Mobile subscriber roaming
number (MSRN), VLR and MSC in it. When MS leaves the current LA, then the information is
updated in HLR. The Usage of the information is to locate the user.
VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER: (VLR)
The VLR is associated to each MSC. It is a dynamic database. It stores all the
information needed for the MS currently in LA. If new MS comes to LA then the VLR is
responsible for copying the information needed from HLR.
c) OPERATION SUBSYSTEM :
The third part of a GSM system is operation subsystem (OSS) which contains the necessary
functions for network operation and maintenance. The OSS possesses network entities of its own
and accesses other entities via SS7 signaling. The following entities have been defined:
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CENTER (OMC):
The OMC monitors and controls all other network entities via the O interface
(SS7 with X.25). Typical OMC management functions are traffic monitoring, status reports of
network entities, subscriber and security management, or accounting and billing. OMCs use the
concept of telecommunication management network (TMN) as standardized by the ITU-T.
Authentication centre (AuC): As the radio interface and mobile stations are particularly
vulnerable, a separate AuC has been defined to protect user identity and data transmission. The
AuC contains the algorithms for authentication as well as the keys for encryption and generates
the values needed for user authentication in the HLR.
EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR):
The EIR is a database for all IMEIs, i.e., it stores all device identifications
registered for this network. As MSs are mobile, they can be easily stolen. With a valid SIM,
anyone could use the stolen MS. The EIR has a blacklist of stolen (or locked) devices. In theory
an MS is useless as soon as the owner has reported a theft. Unfortunately, the blacklists of
different providers are not usually synchronized and the illegal use of a device in another

operator‟s network is possible (the reader may speculate as to why this is the case). The EIR also
contains a list of valid IMEIs (white list), and a list of malfunctioning devices (gray list).
GSM PROTOCOL SUITES :
The layers are
PHYSICAL LAYER:
The physical layer handles all radio specific functions.
Functions :
1. Creation of burst in any one of 5 format.
2. Multiplexing burst into a TDMA frame.
3. Synchronization with BTS.
4. Detection of idle channel.
5. Channel Quality measurement.
6. Channel coding and error detection and correction.
The Um interfaces use GMSK for modulation and perform encryption and decryption.
The protocol architecture of GSM is shown below:

LAYER 2 :
For signaling between entitites in GSM network this layer is used. The
protocol used is LAPDM. LAPD stands for link access procedure for D channel. LAPDM has no
buffers has to follow Um interface patterns. The functions of the layer are namely:
Reliable data transfer
Reseqeuncing of data
3. Flow control
LAYER 3 : NETWORK LAYER
The network layer has sublayers. They are,
1. RADIO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
This is the lowest sub layer and it‘s a part of RR and RR‘ is implemented by
BSC. The function of RR are Setup, Maintenance, Release of radio channels. RR directly access

the physical layer. It supports BTS management. The function of RR‘ are supported by BSC via
BSTM.
2. MOBILITY MANAGEMENT:
The main function of Mobility management are Registration, Authentication,
Identification, Location Updating, Providing TMSI, IMSI.
LAYER 4 : CALL MANAGEMENT:
This layer contains three entities. They are Call control, SMS, Supplementary
services. Call control provides point to point connection between two terminals and also used for
call clearance, change of call parameters. SMS allows messages transfer using control channels.
The supplementary services discussed already is to be reproduced here.
CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT:
The number dialed to reach a mobile subscriber (MSISDN) contains no information at all about
the current location of the subscriber. In order to establish a complete connection to a mobile
subscriber, however, one must determine the current location and the locally responsible switch
(MSC). In order to be able to route the call to this switch, the routing address to this subscriber
(MSRN) has to be obtained. This routing address is assigned temporarily to a subscriber by its
currently associated VLR. At the arrival of a call at the GMSC, the HLR is the only entity in the
GSM network which can supply this information, and therefore it must be interrogated for each
connection setup to a mobile subscriber. An ISDN switch recognizes from the MSISDN that the
called subscriber is a mobile subscriber, and therefore can forward the call to the GMSC of the
subscriber's home PLMN based on the CC and NDC in the MSISDN. This GMSC can now
request the current routing address (MSRN) for the mobile subscriber from the HLR using the
MAP . By way of the MSRN the call is forwarded to the local MSC, which determines the TMSI
of the subscriber and initiates the paging procedure in the relevant location area . After the MS
has responded to the paging call, the connection can be switched through.Several variants for
determining the route and interrogating the HLR exist, depending on how the MSRN was
assigned and stored, whether the call is national or international and depending on the
capabilities of the associated switching centers.
To locate a MS and to address the MS, several numbers are needed:
MOBILE STATION INTERNATIONAL ISDN NUMBER (MSISDN):
The only important number from the user of GSM is phone number. Remember that the
phone number is not associated with certain device but with the SIM, which is personalized for
user. The number consist of country code(CC) as eg.+49 179 1234567 with 49 for germany.
National Destination Code (NDC) is used to locate the network provider and Subscriber number.
INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY(IMSI):

GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique identification of a subscriber. IMSI consist of a mobile
country code (MCC) and mobile network code(MNC) and finally the mobile subscriber
identification number(MSIN).
TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBE IDENTITY(TMSI):
To hide the IMSI, which would give away the exact identity of user signaling over the air
interface, GSM uses the 4 byte.TMSI is selected by current VLR and is only valid temporarily
and within location area of VLR.
MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER (MSRM):
Another temporary address which hides the identity and location of a subscriber is
MSRN. The VLR generates this address on request from MSC, and the address is stored in the
HLR . MSRN contains current visitory and visitor national destination code(VNDC).
MESSAGE TERMINATED CALL (MTC):
This figure shows the basic steps needed to connect the calling station with the mobile user.

Step 1: A user dials the phone number of GSM subscriber. The fixed network PSTN notices that
the number belongs to the user in the GSM network and forwards the call setup to the Gateway
MSC .
Step 2: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the call setup to the HLR.
Step 3: The HLR now checks whether the number exists and whether the user has subscribed to
the requested services, and the requests an MSRN from the current VLR.
Step 4 : After receiving the request from MSRN
Step 5 : HLR can determine the MSC responsible for the MS and forwards this information to
GMSC
Step 6 : GMSC can now forward the call setup request to MSC indicated.
Step 7: From this, MSC is responsible for all further steps. First it requests the current status of
MS from VLR.
Step 8 : If MS is available, then MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible for as searching
for the right cell would be too time consuming.
Step 9: This approach puts some load on signalling channels so optimization exist.
Step 10 : Location area (LA) can be determined.
Step 11 : The BTSs of all BSSs transmit this paging signal to MS.
Step 12 & 13 : If MS answers ( 12 and 13) the VLR has to perform security checks set up be
encryption techniques.
Steps 14 to 17 : The VLR signals to MSC to setup a connection to MS.
MESSAGE ORIGINATED CALL (MOC):
It is simpler to perform message originated call(MOC)
compared to MTC.

The basic steps for MOC are,
Step 1: MS transmits a request for a new connection.
Step 2: BSS forwards the request to MSC.
Steps 3 & 4 : MSC then checks if the user is allowed to set up a call with the requested service(3
and 4) and checks the availability of resources through GSM network into PSTN.
Steps 5to 8 : If all resources are available, MSC sets up a connection between MS and fixed
network.
Steps 9 & 10 : Its set up a call with the help of BSS and MS.
MESSAGE FLOW FOR MTC AND MOC :
In addition to the above steps mentioned above , the other messages are exxchanged between an
MS and BTS during connection setup. These messages can be quite often heard in radios or
badly sheileded speakers as crackling noise before the phone rings. Figure shows the message for
an MTC and MOC. Paging is only necessary for an MTC, then similar message exchanges
follow. The next step which are needed for a communication security comprises the
authentication of MS and switching to encrytpted communication
The following steps which are mentioned in the figure denotes th euse of MSC and MOC. If
someone is calling the MS, it answers now with ‗alerting‘ that MS is ringing and with ‗connect‘

that the user has pressed the connect button. The same actions happen the other way round if MS
has initiated the call. Af.ter connection acknowledgement both parties are exchanged.
FREQUENCY ALLOCATION:
Radio transmission can take place using many different frequency bands. Each frequency band
exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages. Figure gives a rough overview of the frequency
spectrum that can be used for data transmission. The figure shows frequencies starting at 300 Hz
and going up to over 300 THz. Directly coupled to the frequency is the wavelength λ via the
equation: λ = c/f, where c ≅ 3·108 m/s (the speed of light in vacuum) and f the frequency. For
traditional wired networks, frequencies of up to several hundred kHz are used for distances up to
some km with twisted pair copper wires, while frequencies of several hundred MHz are used
with coaxial cable (new coding schemes work with several hundred MHz even with twisted pair
copper wires over distances of some 100 m).

Fiber optics are used for frequency ranges of several hundred THz, but here one
typically refers to the wavelength which is, e.g., 1500 nm, 1350 nm etc. (infra red). Radio
transmission starts at several kHz, the very low frequency (VLF) range. These are very long
waves. Waves in the low frequency (LF) range are used by submarines, because they can
penetrate water and can follow the earth‟s surface. Some radio stations still use these
frequencies, e.g., between
148.5 kHz and 283.5 kHz in Germany. The medium frequency (MF) and high frequency
(HF) ranges are typical for transmission of hundreds of radio stations either as amplitude
modulation (AM) between 520 kHz and 1605.5 kHz, as short wave (SW) between 5.9 MHz and
26.1 MHz, or as frequency modulation (FM) between 87.5 MHz and 108 MHz. The frequencies
limiting these ranges are typically fixed by national regulation and, vary from country to country.
Short waves are typically used for (amateur) radio transmission around the world, enabled by
reflection at the ionosphere
. Transmit power is up to 500 kW – which is quite high compared to the 1 W of a
mobile phone. As we move to higher frequencies, the TV stations follow. Conventional analog
TV is transmitted in ranges of 174–230 MHz and 470–790 MHz using the very high
frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF) bands. In this range, digital audio
broadcasting (DAB) takes place as well (223–230 MHz and 1452–1472 MHz) and digital TV is
planned or currently being installed (470– 862 MHz), reusing some of the old frequencies for
analog TV. UHF is also used for mobile phones with analog technology (450–465 MHz), the
digital GSM (890–960 MHz, 1710–1880 MHz), digital cordless telephones following the DECT
standard (1880–1900 MHz), 3G cellular systems following the UMTS standard (1900–1980
MHz, 2020–2025 MHz, 2110–2190 MHz) and many more. VHF and especially
UHF allow for small antennas and relatively reliable connections for mobile telephony. Super
high frequencies (SHF) are typically used for directed microwave links (approx. 2–40 GHz) and
fixed satellite services in the C-band (4 and 6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14 GHz), or Ka-band (19
and 29 GHz). Some systems are planned in the extremely high frequency (EHF) range which
comes close to infra red. All radio frequencies are regulated to avoid interference, e.g., the
German regulation covers 9 kHz–275 GHz. The next step into higher frequencies involves
optical transmission, which is not only used for fiber optical links but also for wireless
communications. Infra red (IR) transmission is used for directed links, e.g., to connect different
buildings via laser links. The most widespread IR technology, infra red data association (IrDA),
uses wavelengths of approximately 850–900 nm to connect laptops, PDAs etc. Finally, visible
light has been used for wireless transmission for thousands of years. While light is not very
reliable due to interference, but it is nevertheless useful due to built-in human receivers. Powered
by
ROUTING :
A satellite system together with gateways and fixed terrestrial networks as shown
in Figure 5.1 has to route data transmissions from one user to another as any other network does.
Routing in the fixed segment (on earth) is achieved as usual, while two different solutions exist
for the satellite network in space. If satellites offer ISLs, traffic can be routed between the
satellites. If not, all traffic is relayed to earth, routed there, and relayed back to a satellite.

Assume two users of a satellite network exchange data. If the satellite system supports ISLs, one
user sends data up to a satellite and the satellite forwards it to the one responsible for the receiver
via other satellites. This last satellite now sends the data down to the earth. This means that only
one uplink and one downlink per direction is needed. The ability of routing within the satellite
network reduces the number of gateways needed on earth. If a satellite system does not offer
ISLs, the user also sends data up to a satellite, but now this satellite forwards the data to a
gateway on earth. Routing takes place in fixed networks as usual until another gateway is
reached which is responsible for the satellite above the receiver. Again data is sent up to the
satellite which forwards it down to the receiver. This solution requires two uplinks and two
downlinks. Depending on the orbit and the speed of routing in the satellite network compared to
the terrestrial network, the solution with ISLs might offer lower latency. The drawbacks of ISLs
are higher system complexity due to additional antennas and routing hard- and software for the
satellites.
MOBILITY MANAGEMENT:
Mobility management is one of the major functions of a GSM or a UMTS
network that allows mobile phones to work. The aim of mobility management is to track where
the subscribers are, allowing calls, SMS and other mobile phone services to be delivered to them.
Location update procedure.
A GSM or UMTS network, like all cellular networks, is a radio network of
individual cells, known as base stations. Each base station covers a small geographical area
which is part of a uniquely identified location area. By integrating the coverage of each of these
base stations, a cellular network provides a radio coverage over a much wider area. A group of
base stations is named a location area, or a routing area.

The location update procedure allows a mobile device to inform the cellular
network, whenever it moves from one location area to the next. Mobiles are responsible for
detecting location area codes. When a mobile finds that the location area code is different from
its last update, it performs another update by sending to the network, a location update request,
together with its previous location, and its Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI).
There are several reasons why a mobile may provide updated location information to the
network. Whenever a mobile is switched on or off, the network may require it to perform an
IMSI attach or IMSI detach location update procedure. Also, each mobile is required to regularly
report its location at a set time interval using a periodic location update procedure. Whenever a
mobile moves from one location area to the next while not on a call, a random
location update is required. This is also required of a stationary mobile that reselects coverage
from a cell in a different location area, because of signal fade. Thus a subscriber has reliable
access to the network and may be reached with a call, while enjoying the freedom of mobility
within the whole coverage area.
When a subscriber is paged in an attempt to deliver a call or SMS and the
subscriber does not reply to that page then the subscriber is marked as absent in both the Mobile
Switching Center / Visitor Location Register (MSC/VLR) and the Home Location Register
(HLR) (Mobile not reachable flag MNRF is set). The next time the mobile performs a location
update the HLR is updated and the mobile not reachable flag is cleared.
TMSI
The Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) is the identity that is most commonly sent
between the mobile and the network. TMSI is randomly assigned by the VLR to every mobile in
the area, the moment it is switched on. The number is local to a location area, and so it has to be
updated each time the mobile moves to a new geographical area.
The network can also change the TMSI of the mobile at any time. And it normally does so, in
order to avoid the subscriber from being identified, and tracked by eavesdroppers on the radio
interface. This makes it difficult to trace which mobile is which, except briefly, when the mobile
is just switched on, or when the data in the mobile becomes invalid for one reason or another. At
that point, the global "international mobile subscriber identity" (IMSI) must be sent to the
network. The IMSI is sent as rarely as possible, to avoid it being identified and tracked.
A key use of the TMSI is in paging a mobile. "Paging" is the one-to-one
communication between the mobile and the base station. The most important use of broadcast
information is to set up channels for "paging". Every cellular system has a broadcast mechanism
to distribute such information to a plurality of mobiles. Size of TMSI is 4 octet with full hex
digits and can't be all 1 because the SIM uses 4 octets with all bits equal to 1 to indicate that no
valid TMSI is available.
ROAMING

Roaming is one of the fundamental mobility management procedures of all cellular networks.
Roaming is defined as the ability for a cellular customer to automatically make and receive voice
calls, send and receive data, or access other services, including home data services, when
travelling outside the geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a
visited network. This can be done by using a communication terminal or else just by using the
subscriber identity in the visited network. Roaming is technically supported by mobility
management, authentication, authorization and billing procedures.
LOCATION AREA
A "location area" is a set of base stations that are grouped together to optimise signalling.
Typically, tens or even hundreds of base stations share a single Base Station Controller (BSC) in
GSM, or a Radio Network Controller (RNC) in UMTS, the intelligence behind the base stations.
The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones,
controls handovers from base station to base station.
To each location area, a unique number called a "location area code" is assigned.
The location area code is broadcast by each base station, known as a "base transceiver station"
BTS in GSM, or a Node B in UMTS, at regular intervals. In GSM, the mobiles cannot
communicate directly with each other but, have to be channeled through the BTSs. In UMTS
networks, if no Node B is accessible to a mobile, it will not be able to make any connections at
all.
If the location areas are very large, there will be many mobiles operating
simultaneously, resulting in very high paging traffic, as every paging request has to be broadcast
to every base station in the location area. This wastes bandwidth and power on the mobile, by
requiring it to listen for broadcast messages too much of the time. If on the other hand, there are
too many small location areas, the mobile must contact the network very often for changes of
location, which will also drain the mobile's battery. A balance has therefore to be struck.
ROUTING AREA
The routing area is the PS domain equivalent of the location area. A "routing area" is
normally a subdivision of a "location area". Routing areas are used by mobiles which are GPRS-
attached. GPRS is optimized for "bursty" data communication services, such as wireless
internet/intranet, and multimedia services. It is also known as GSM-IP ("Internet Protocol")
because it will connect users directly to Internet Service Providers (ISP).
The bursty nature of packet traffic means that more paging messages are expected per mobile,
and so it is worth knowing the location of the mobile more accurately than it would be with
traditional circuit-switched traffic. A change from routing area to routing area (called a
"Routing Area Update") is done in an almost identical way to a change from location area to
location area. The main differences are that the "Serving GPRS Support Node" (SGSN) is the
element involved.

TRACKING AREA
The tracking area is the LTE counterpart of the location area and routing area. A
tracking area is a set of cells. Tracking areas can be grouped into lists of tracking areas (TA
lists), which can be configured on the User equipment. Tracking area updates are performed
periodically or when the UE moves to a tracking area that is not included in its TA list.
Operators can allocate different TA lists to different UEs. This can avoid signaling peaks in
some conditions: for instance, the UEs of passengers of a train may not perform tracking area
updates simultaneously. On the network side, the involved element is the Mobility Management
Entity.
HANDOVER
Handover means handing over the mobile from one cell to another cell. There
are two reasons for handover.
They are,
(1)
When a mobile station moves out of the range of BTS the signal level decreases continuously
and falls below the minimal requirements for communication.
The error rate increases due to interference.
The quality of radio link decrease.
(2)
The traffic in one cell is too high, shifting of some MS to other cells with lower load.
This is called load balancing.
The number of handover will be more when the cell size is small.
Due to handover the calls should not get to cutoff which is called as call drop.
TYPES OF HANDOVER :
(1) INTRA CELL HANDOVER:
With in a cell, narrow band interference can cause transmission at a certain frequency
impossible.
The BSC decides to change the carrier frequency.
(2) INTER CELL, INTRA BSC HANDOVER:
The mobile station moves from one cell to another but remains with in the same BSC.
The BSC performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in the new cell and releases the old
one.

(3) INTER BSC, INTRA MSC HANDOVER:
The BSC controls only limited cells.
Handover needs to be done between different BSC.
This is controlled by MSC.
(4) INTER MSC HANDOVER:
A handover is needed between 2 cells which belong to Difference MSC.
Both MSC performs the handover together.
SECURITY :
GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in
the AuC and in the individual SIM (which is plugged into an arbitrary MS). The SIM stores
personal, secret data and is protected with a PIN against unauthorized use. (For example, the
secret key Ki used for authentication and encryption procedures is stored in the SIM.) The
security services offered by GSM are explained below:
● ACCESS CONTROL AND AUTHENTICATION: The first step includes the authentication
of a valid user for the SIM. The user needs a secret PIN to access the SIM. The next step is the
subscriber authentication .
● CONFIDENTIALITY: All user-related data is encrypted. After authentication, BTS and MS
apply encryption to voice, data, and signaling. This confidentiality exists only between MS and
BTS, but it does not exist end-to-end or within the whole fixed GSM/telephone network.
● ANONYMITY: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and
user identifiers (which would reveal an identity) are not used over the air. Instead, GSM
transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is newly assigned by the VLR after each location
update. Additionally, the VLR can change the TMSI at any time. Three algorithms have been
specified to provide security services in GSM. Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5 for
encryption, and A8 for the generation of a cipher key. In the GSM standard only algorithm A5
was publicly available, whereas A3 and A8 were secret, but standardized with open interfaces.
Both A3 and A8 are no longer secret, but were published on the internet in 1998. This
demonstrates that security by obscurity does not really work. As it turned out, the algorithms are
not very strong. However, network providers can use stronger algorithms for authentication – or
users can apply stronger end-to-end encryption. Algorithms A3 and A8 (or their replacements)
are located on the SIM and in the AuC and can be proprietary. Only A5 which is implemented in
the devices has to be identical for all providers.
AUTHENTICATION
Before a subscriber can use any service from the GSM network, he or she must
be authenticated. Authentication is based on the SIM, which stores the individual authentication
key Ki, the user identification IMSI, and the algorithm used for authentication A3.
Authentication uses a challenge-response method: the access control AC generates a random
number RAND as challenge, and the SIM within the MS answers with SRES (signed response)
as response. The AuC performs the basic generation of random values RAND, signed responses

SRES, and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI, and then forwards this information to the HLR. The
current VLR requests the appropriate values for RAND, SRES, and Kc from the HLR.
For authentication, For authentication, the VLR sends the random value
RAND to the SIM. Both sides, network and subscriber module, perform the same operation with
RAND and the key Ki, called A3. The MS sends back the SRES generated by the SIM; the VLR
can now compare both values. If they are the same, the VLR accepts the subscriber, otherwise
the subscriber is rejected.
ENCRYPTION :
To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in GSM over
the air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption by applying the
cipher key Kc (the precise location of security functions for encryption, BTS and/or BSC are
vendor dependent). Kc is generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying
the algorithm A8. Note that the SIM in the MS and the network both calculate the same Kc based
on the random value RAND. The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air interface.

MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the
cipher key Kc. As Figure shows, Kc should be a 64 bit key which is not very strong, but is at
least a good protection against simple eavesdropping. However, the publication of A3 and A8 on
the internet showed that in certain implementations 10 of the 64 bits are always set to 0, so that
the real length of the key is thus only 54 consequently, the encryption is much weaker.
GPRS
INTRODUCTION:
General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service available to
users of the 2G cellular communication systems, 3G systems and GSM. GPRS re-use the
existing GSM infrastructure. It interworked with existing circuit-switched services. It is based on
standardized open interfaces.
GPRS usage is typically charged based on volume of data transferred, contrasting with
circuit switched data, which is usually billed per minute of connection time. 5 GB per month for
a fixed fee or on a pay-as-you-use basis. Usage above the bundle cap is either charged per
megabyte or disallowed.
GPRS is a best effort service, implying variable throughput and latency that depend on
the number of other users sharing the service concurrently, as opposed to circuit switching,
where a certain quality of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection. In 2G systems,
GPRS provides data rates of 56–114 kbit/second. 2G cellular technology combined with GPRS is

sometimes described as 2.5G, that is, a technology between the second (2G) and third (3G)
generations of mobile telephony. It provides moderate-speed data transfer, by using unused time
division multiple access (TDMA) channels in, for example, the GSM system. GPRS is integrated
into GSM Release 97 and newer releases.
GPRS provides two services:
1. Point-to-point (PTP)
2. Point-to-multipoint (PTM)
In point-to-point packet delivery service, in which packet is transfer between two users and in
point-to-multipoint (PTM) service, in which packet is delivering to multiple destinations within
one service request.
In PTP versions are PTP Connection oriented Network service (PTP-CONS), which
establish a logical relation in between users. Multiple packets are sent between single source and
a single destination. Other version is the PTP Connectionless Network Service (PTP-CLNS),
which does not require a logical link between users. Packets are sent between a single source and
a single destination. Each packet is independent of its predecessor and successor.
QoS-profile can be specified by the users of the GPRS. It is maintained in the PDP
context. PDP Context is nothing but which is created in each communication session. QoS-
profile is used to indicate the network and radio resources required for data transmission. It has
the attributes such as service precedence (high,normal,low),reliability class, delay class, peak
throughput class, mean throughput class. GPRS must allocate radio resources to fulfill these user
specifications. GPRS network is suffered by the following delays such as channel access delay,
coding for error correction and transfer delay in the fixed part and wireless part of the network.
GPRS also includes several security services namely authentication, user identity confidentiality,
access control and user information confidentiality.
Main benefits
Resources are reserved only when needed and charged accordingly. Connection setup times
are reduced. It will enable new service opportunities. It has High Speed (Data Rate 14.4 – 115
kbps). It uses the efficient radio bandwidth (Statistical Multiplexing).Circuit switching & Packet
Switching can be used in parallel. It has Constant connectivity.
Characteristics of GPRS:
1. GPRS uses packet switched resource allocation.
2. Flexible channel allocation.
3. Support for leading internet communication protocols.
GPRS Terminal Classes:

1. Class A
It can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using both at the same
time. Such devices are known to be available today.
2. Class B
It can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one or the
other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended, and
then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most
GPRS mobile devices are Class B.
3. Class C
They are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be switched
manually between one or the other service.
GPRS ARCHITECTURE
In order to understand the GPRS network architecture, some fundamental GSM terminology
is necessary. This section describes some of the main components of the GSM network.
GPRS Networks
GPRS architecture has two network elements, which are called as GPRS support
nodes (GSN).They are,
1. Gateway GPRS Support Node(GGSN)
2. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
All GSNs are integrated into the standard GSM architecture and many interfaces (see figure 1).
The network elements are gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) is provisioned by router,
which supports traditional gateway functionality. It is the interworking unit between the GPRS
network and external packet data networks (PDN). This node contains routing information for
GPRS users. It performs address conversion and tunnels data to a user via encapsulation.

The other element is the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) which connects BSS and GGSN.
It supports the MS via the Gb interface. It requests the user address from the GPRS register
(GR). It keeps track of the individual MSs‘ location, is in charge for collecting billing
information. It performs many security functions.
Packet Control Unit (PCU)
The PCU separates the circuit switched and packet switched traffic from the user and
sends them to the GSM and GPRS networks respectively. It also performs most of the radio
resource management functions of the GPRS network. The PCU can be either located in the
BTS, BSC, or some other point between the MS and the MSC. There will be at least one PCU
that serves a cell in which GPRS services will be available. Frame Relay technology is being
used at present to interconnect the PCU to the GPRS core.
GPRS interfaces
Um between an MS and the GPRS fixed network part. The Um is the access interface the MS
uses to access the GPRS network. The radio interface to the BTS is the same interface used by
the existing GSM network with some GPRS specific changes.
Gb between a SGSN and a BSS. The Gb interface carries the GPRS traffic and signaling
between the GSM radio network (BSS) and the GPRS network. Frame Relay based network
services is used for this interface.
Gn between two GSNs within the same PLMN. The Gn provides a data and signalling interface
in the Intra -PLMN backbone. The GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) is used in the Gn (and in
the Gp) interface over the IP based backbone network.

Mobile Station
A GSM subscriber needs a terminal called Mobile Station (MS). It is used to
connect to the network using the radio interface Um. In idle mode an MS is not reachable and all
contexts will be deleted. In the standby state there is only movement across routing areas which
is updated to the SGSN. Before sending any data over the GPRS network, an MS must attach to
it, following the procedures of the mobility management. The attachment procedure includes
assigning a temporal identifier, called a temporary logical link identity (TLLI), and
a ciphering key sequence number (CKSN) for data encryption.
GPRS BSS
Base Station Subsystem (BSS) which performs radio-related functions. BSS contains Base
Transceiver Stations (BTS) and Base Station Controllers (BSC).
BTS which provides new GPRS channel coding schemes through Channel Codec Unit (CCU).
The BTS handles the radio interface to the MS. It consists of radio equipment (transceivers and
antennas) required to service each cell in the network.
BSC forwards the Circuit-switched calls to MSC and the Packet-switched data to SGSN.
The BSC provides the control functions and physical links between the MSC and the BTS. A
number of BSCs are served by one MSC while several BTSs can be controlled by one BSC.
The Network Switching Subsystem
The NSS is responsible for call control, service control and subscriber mobility manage
a) Mobile Switching center (MSC)
MSC is in charge for telephony switching functions of the network. It also performs
authentication to verify the user‘s identity. It ensures the confidentiality of the calls. The
Authentication Center (AuC) provides the necessary parameters to the MSC to perform the
authentication procedure. The AuC is shown as a separate logical entity but is generally
integrated with the HLR. The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is on the other hand a database
that contains information about the identity of the mobile equipment. It prevents calls from
unauthorized or stolen MSs.
b)Home Location register (HLR)
HLR is a database used to store and manage permanent data of subscribers. HLR is used
to map an MS to one or more GGSNs. It is used to update the SGSN of the MS. It is also used to
store the fixed IP address and QoS profile for a transmission path.
c) Visitor location register (VLR)

VLR is a database used to store temporary information about the subscribers. It is needed by
the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The MSC and VLR are commonly integrated
into one single physical node and the term MSC/VLR is used instead. When a subscriber enters a
new MSC area, a copy of all the ne) cessary information is downloaded from the HLR into the
VLR. The VLR keeps this information so that calls of the subscriber can be processed without
having to interrogate the HLR (which can be in another PLMN) each time. The temporary
information is cleared when the mobile station roams out of the service area.
d)Equipment identity register (EIR)
EIR is also a database that encloses information about the identity of the mobile equipment. It
prevents calls from unauthorized or stolen MSs.
GPRS Mobility Management States
a)Idle State
A MS in the idle state is not traceable and can only receive PTM-M transmissions such as
general broadcast events destined to a specific geographical area. The MS needs to perform the
attach procedure in order to connect to the GPRS network and become reachable.
b)Ready State
Data is sent or received in this state. The MS informs the SGSN when it changes cells. The MS
may explicitly request (or can be forced by the network) to detach in which case it moves to Idle.
A timer monitors the Ready state and upon its expiry, the MS is put on Standby. The timer
insures that resources are not wasted by an inactive MS.
c)Standby State
A connected MS which is inactive is put in the Standby state. Moving back to Ready can be
triggered by sending data or signalling information from the MS to the SGSN. Upon arrival of
data destined to the MS, the SGSN pages the latter and a response to the page moves the MS
back to the Ready state. The MS may wish (or can be forced by the network) to terminate the
connection by requesting to detach in which case it returns to Idle. A timer is used by the SGSN
to monitor the tracking of the MS, and when it expires, the MS is detached and is considered
unreachable
GPRS PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
A GPRS network introduces many new protocols designed to convey user data in a reliable and
secure way. The protocol architecture is implemented for the transmission and signaling planes
in GPRS. Transmission plane protocols are used for the transmission of user data and control
functions. Signaling plane protocols are used to convey signaling information that controls and
supports the transmission plane functions. (See figure 2).

Transmission protocols in the Um interface
a) Physical layer
The physical layer can be divided into the Radio Frequency (RF) layer and the Physical
Link layer.

The Radio Frequency (RF) is the normal GSM physical radio layer. Among other things the
RF layer specifies the carrier frequency characteristics and GSM radio channel structures. It uses
the radio modulation scheme for the data. The GSM RF physical layer is used for GPRS with the
possibility for future modifications.
The Physical Link layer supports multiple MSs sharing a single physical channel and provides
communication between the MSs and the network. Network controlled handovers are not used in
the GPRS service. Instead, routing area updates and cell updates are used.
b)Medium Access Control (MAC)
MAC protocol handles the channel allocation and the multiplexing. The RLC and the MAC
together form the OSI Layer 2 protocol for the Um interface. The
radio interface at Um need GPRS which does not require changes compared to GSM.
c) Radio Link Control (RLC)
RLC protocol establishes a reliable radio link to the upper layers. It also works either in
acknowledged or unacknowledged modes.
Logical Link Control (LLC)
LLC layer establishes a secure and reliable logical link between the MS and the
SGSN for upper layer protocols. It works either in acknowledged or unacknowledged modes.
The data confidentiality is ensured by using ciphering functions.
Subnetwork dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP)
SNDCP is used to transfer data packets between SGSN and MS. It is used to
provide multiplexing of several connections of network layer onto one logical connection of
underlying LLC layer. It provides functions that help to improve channel efficiency. This is
achieved by means of compression techniques. Data Link layer is divided into LLC layer and
RLC/MAC Layer.
Transmission protocols in the Gb interface a)Physical Layer Protocol
Several physical layer configurations and protocols are possible at the Gb interface and the
physical resources are allocated by Operation & Maintenance (O&M) procedures. Normally a
G703/704 2Mbit/s connection is provided.
b) Network Services layer
The Gb interface Network Services layer is based on Frame Relay. Frame Relay virtual circuits
are established between the SGSN and BSS. LLC PDUs from many users are statistically
multiplexed onto these virtual circuits. These virtual circuits may traverse a network of Frame

Relay switching nodes, or may just be provided on a point to point link between the BSC and the
SGSN.
Base station subsystem GPRS protocol (BSSGP)
BSSGP is used to deliver routing and QoS-related information between the BSS and SGSN. It is
to enable two physically distinct nodes, the SGSN and BSS. It is to operate node management
control functions. There is a one-to-one relationship between the BSSGP protocol in the SGSN
and in the BSS. If one SGSN handles multiple BSSs, the SGSN has to have one BSSGP protocol
device for each BSS. BSSGP does not perform error correction and works on top of a frame
relay (FR) network.
Transmission protocols in the Gn interface
a)Layer 1 and Layer 2
The L1 and the L2 protocols are vendor dependent OSI layer 1 and 2 protocols. It carries the IP
datagrams for the GPRS backbone network between the SGSN and the GGSN.
b) Internet Protocol (IP)
The Internet Protocol (IP) datagram in the Gn interface is only used in the GPRS backbone
network. The GPRS backbone (core) network and the GPRS subscribers use different IP
addresses. This makes the GPRS backbone IP network invisible to the subscribers and vice
versa. The GPRS backbone network carries the subscriber IP or X.25 traffic in a secure GPRS
tunnel.
c) TCP or UDP
TCP or UDP are used to carry the GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) PDUs across the GPRS
backbone network. TCP is used for user X.25 data and UDP is used for user IP data and
signalling in the Gn interface.
d) GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP)
GTP is the basis for tunnel signaling. It uses two transport protocols such as reliable TCP and
non-reliable UDP. The GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP) allows multi-protocol packets to be
tunnelled through the GPRS backbone between GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs).
SIGNIFICANCE:
This unit is important for cellular telephone technique and GSM networks. and also
include security related techniques and recent technology in mobile computing

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