UNIT 2 HIST 1012 PP.pdf aau university..

UNIT TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Sub-topics
- Introduction
2.1. Human Evolution
2.2. Neolithic Revolution
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
2.3.3. Economic Formations
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
2.4.2. Judaism
2.4.3. Christianity
2.4.4. Islam

Introduction
❑ Ethiopia and the Horn Region is referred to as the cradle of
humankind.
❑ It is also a region where early civilizations including food
production, making tools and religious practices were
initiated.
❑ These developments contributed to the social evolutions,
economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
❑ The region is home to diverse peoples, cultures and economic
activities.

2.1. Human Evolution
➢ Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of
the globe that had been formed through gradual
natural process since about (circa) 4. 5 billion years B.
P.
➢The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion
years B. P.
▪ Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other
small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.
▪ Primates branched of placental mammal stream as
of 200-170 million years B. P.
▪ Then some primates developed into:
▪Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, gibbon etc.
▪Hominidae (human ancestors)
Kingdom -
Animal
Phylum -
Chordates
Class –
Mammals
Order –
Primates
Family –
Hominids
Genus –
Homo
Species –
Homo
Sapiens

➢Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is
the cradle of humanity.
➢Evidences related to both biological and cultural
evolution have been discovered in
- the Lower Omo and
- Middle Awash River valleys

Fossil Name Age (mil.
Y.B.P. )
Place of
Discovery
Remarks
Chororapithecus 10 Anchar (West
Hararghe)
Discovered in
2007
Ardipithicus ramidus
kadabba
5.8 - 5.2 Middle
Awash
Ardipithicus ramidus 4. 2 Aramis in
Afar
Discovered in
1994
Australopithecines 3.6 Middle
Awash
3 yrs. old
child’s fossil,
Discovered in 2000
Australopithecus afarensis,
Selam
3.3 Dikika, Mille,
Afar
2000
Australopithecus afarnesis
(Lucy/Dinknesh)
3.18 Hadar in Afar Discovered in
1974
Australopithecus
anamensis
Around Lake
Turkana
Bouri, Middle
Some Archaeological Discoveries

Lucy (Dinknesh)
- 40% complete body parts
- 30kg weight
- 1.07m. height
- a pelvis looks like bipedal female
- BY: Donald Johanson and Tom Gray
Nov., 1974

➢The development of the human brain was the main
feature of the next stage of human evolution,
▪Produced the genus Homo, believed to have
emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
➢Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered
in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
➢Genus Homo: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homosapiens
➢Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and
then spread out to the rest of the world.
Genus Homo

Genus Homo Age
(B.P.)
Place Remarks
Homo habilis
(skillful use of
hands)
1.9 mil. Lower Omo partial skull
Homo erectus
(walking upright)
1. 6 mil. Melka Kunture,
Konso Gardula &
Gadeb
900-1100 cc brain size.
Archaic Homosapiens
(named Bodo)
400, 000 Middle Awash brain size of 1300-1400cc
Homo sapiens sapiens 100, 000 Porc Epic near Dire
Dawa &
Kibish around
Lower Omo (in
1967)
In 2004, Kibish fossils were
re-dated to 195, 000 B. P.
(the oldest date in the
world for modern Homo
sapiens)
Homo sapiens idaltu 160, 000 Middle Awash 1997
Some archaeological discoveries of Genus Homo

Cultural Evolution
➢Cultural evolution is related to technological changes
that brought socio-economic transformation on human
life.
➢It can be conventionally grouped into:
1. Stone Age
2. Bronze Age
3. Iron Age
➢Stone tools had been the first technologies to be
developed by human beings.

➢By taking their features, ways and period of
production, stone tools can be grouped into:
▪Mode I: (Olduwan, which was named based on the
first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania)
▪Mode II: (Acheulean, named after the first report
at St. Acheul, France)
▪Mode III: (Sangoon)

Characteristics
➢Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude
and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the
direct percussion.
➢Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect
percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and
mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex
features.
➢Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and
fine form of production by the use of obsidian.

➢Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
▪ Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were
discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in
1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
Homo erectus:
1/ produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7
million years B.P
2/ invented fire and
3/ started burial practice.

▪ Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at
Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
▪ Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back
up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site has been dated
back to 200, 000 B. P.
▪ Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia
and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered
information about Stone Age communities.

➢The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods.
1. The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
▪3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.
▪human being sheltered in caves, developed language,
and used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to
prepare food and clothing.
▪there was sex-age labor division (males as hunters of
fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora)
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was
transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic

2.2. Neolithic Revolution
➢During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to
sedentary way of life.
▪ This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and
gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
How did it begin?
➢Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population
resulted in the declining number of animals and availability of
plants.
➢Gatherers were aware of growing cycle of most grass types
➢They began to grow those, which were most common and yielded
seeds that are more edible.
➢The big animals were reduced by hunting while smaller animals
that were easy to domesticate were easily domesticated.

➢The process of domestication took place independently
in the various parts of the world.
▪ In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated
and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including
Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug
(Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.

What are the most important discoveries
about Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia?

Discoveries
➢ The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like
Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as
Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea shows the existence of
Neolithic material culture.
➢ The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided
us agricultural stone tools.
➢ Remains associated with domesticated cattle,
chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated from
Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.

✓ Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as
well as rock paintings of domesticated animals have
been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
✓ Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around
Lake Basaqa near Matahara.
✓ Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in
Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among known
places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and
Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle

2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and
linguistic diversity.
There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia
and the Horn.
Under this apparent diversity, there is some degree of unity.
Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two
major language super families. These are:
- Afro-Asiatic and
- Nilo-Saharan.

A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following
families:
1. Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
• Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea
bordering the Sudan.
• Central: Awign, Hamtanga, Bilen…
• Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale,
Arbore, Gidicho, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Oromo, Sidama, Somali etc.
• Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in
Tanzania

2. Semitic: is divided into two:
• North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese
border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in
highland Eritrea and Tigray).
• South: is further divided into two
✓ Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay
✓ Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage...
3. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Dawuro, Gamo,
Gofa, Hamer, Male, Wolayta, Yem… etc.

B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz,, Komo, Kunama,
Majang, Mi'en, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Suri and
Uduk.
Language classification did not remain static.
Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have
resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced
languages to be affected.
In this process, some languages died out or have been in
danger of extinction while others thrived off the social
phenomenon that is evidently observed.

2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the
landscape, is the results of long historical processes in northeast
Africa.
- In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse.
- Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the
lowlands.
Environmental,
socio-economic, and
political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the
spatial distribution of peoples in the region.

• Similarly, theIn due course, the Cushites have evolved to be
the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the Horn and have
also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
• Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled
the northern, north central, northeastern, south central and
eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
✓Except the Shinasha, and the South Mao the majority of
Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along
the Omo River basin.
✓ In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-
Sudanese border

2.3.3. Economic Formations:
➢ The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity
two interdependent modes of life: agriculture and
pastoralism.
✓ While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think
of a farmer without a head of cattle or two.
✓ Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of
livelihood have coexisted and quite often interrelated.
✓ Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the
eastern lowland region since early periods.

Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and
cattle has been the most common economic practice among the
Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
➢ The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of
years supporting sizable populations.
➢ Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming.
➢ Sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least
since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic
groups.

➢ The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed
farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo
have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing.
➢ Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in
metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.
➢ The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers
have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a
staple food.
➢ Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values.

2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
▪ This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which
are native to the region
▪ A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one
Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural
phenomena, which are considered sacred.
▪ Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate
divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries
between the society and spirits.

Some Examples of Indigenous Religion
1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one
Supreme Being called Waqa.
✓ Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
The major spirits include:
✓ Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit),
✓ Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),
✓ Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit),
✓ Balas (victory spirit),
✓ Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
✓ Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit),
✓ Jaricha (peace spirit),
✓ Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.
There is thanks giving festival called Irrecha

2. Fandanano (sing. Fandancho): among the Hadiya the Supreme
Being is known as Waa, whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun)
and agana (moon).
Spirits like:
➢ Jara (male’s protector),
➢ Idota (female’s guard)
3. The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious
officials known as Magnancho.
4. The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks
giving ceremony called Deraro.
5. The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
6. The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
7. Among the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit (health goddess).

8. The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
9. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
10. The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including:
➢ Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit),
➢ Sawuna (justice spirit),
➢ Wombo (rain spirit),
➢ Micho (goat spirit),
➢ Nago (sheep spirit),
➢ Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit),
➢ Gomashera (war spirit) etc.
11. The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven)

****The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the
prevention of:
✓ drought,
✓ flooding,
✓ erosion,
✓ disease and
✓ starvation within the community and their surrounding
environment.
➢ An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its
practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This
phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as
syncretism.

2.4.2. Judaism
➢ Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that
Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established with the ancient Jewish
(Hebrew).
➢ Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia
and the Horn since early times.
Different accounts about the Bete-Israel:
1 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they
stem from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of
Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the
time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).

➢ Alternative timelines include:
1. perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern
Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the
death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
2. Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to
Ethiopia of Menilek I
3. Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by
Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
4. Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with
the Agaws.
5.Scholars such as Taddesse Tamrat and Kay Shelmay argue that the Bete-
Israel are remnants of Old Testament followers of Orthodox Christianity
rather than Jews who migrated from abroad.

2.4.3. Christianity
➢ Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
➢ Instrumental in conversion of king Ezana (r. 320-360) were Syrian
brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos).
➢ When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria,
Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of
Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
➢ Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until
1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

Name Origin Church/Monast
ery
Location of the
Church
Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za
Mika’el)
Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa
)
Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre
Pentelwon
Asbo (North East of
Aksum)
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of
Aksum)
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre
Haleluya
Biheza (Northeast of
Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre
Yima’ata
Ger’alta
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of
fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints:

✓ The nine saints translated Bible and other religious books into
Geez.
✓ Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-
1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early
Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and
monasteries were constructed. These include:
➢ Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela
➢ Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea
➢ Debra-Hayiq in Wollo,
➢ Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam
➢ Debra-Libanos in Shewa
➢ Birbir Mariam in Gamo and
➢ Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.

From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried
to convert EOC to Catholic.
✓ Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of
the Jesuits.
✓ However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies
within EOC
European Missionaries
✓ As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the
dominant themes of treaties concluded between European
diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. These include:
➢ The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder),
➢ Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder),
➢ Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie.

➢ Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary
Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led
Protestant missionaries and their major leaders were Samuel
Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
- They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
- Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
- They also provided medical facilities.

2.4.4. Islam
When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since
610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
➢ The Prophet sent some of them to Aksum.
➢ The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
➢ In his advice, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under
whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness,
where God will give relief from what you are suffering."
✓ Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa.
✓ Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the
Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century.

✓ In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate
✓ In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast.
✓ It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread
among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior,
largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.
• The port of Zeila served as an important gateway for the introduction
of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
• Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and
ninth centuries.

• It should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale played
very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale,
Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
• Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
• Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.
• The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have
been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature
of local Muslims.

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