Unit 4 Data collection and presentation.pptx

MET ATA
HODS OF D
E T N
COLL C IO
Dr. P. Srinivasa Rao
MBA, PGDHHM, M.Phil., Ph.D., UGCPDF
Faculty, Dept. of MBA (Hospital Administration)
Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna Nagar
Email: sreenupallekonda@gmail.com

ontents o resentation
C f P
 Introduction about Data
 What are Data
 Quantitative vs Qualitative
 Why Data
 5 w’s of Data Collection
 Types of Data
 Primary Data
 Secondary Data
 Data Collection methods
 Questionnaire
 Designing Questionnaire
 Pretesting Questionnaire
 Conclusion

N N
I TRODUCTIO
 Data is one of the most important and vital
aspect of any research studies.
 The task of data collection begins after a
research problem has been defined and research
design plan chalked out.
 Social studies apply different methods of data
collection.
 It is the process which researcher collects the
information needed to answer the research
problem

WHAT ARE DATA
 Data means collection of Raw Facts
 The term data refers to any kind of raw facts or
information researchers obtain on the subjects,
respondents or particulars of the study.
 In research, data are collected and used to
answer the research questions or objectives of
the study
 Examples: occupation , sex , income , literacy.

N N
QUA TITATIVE A D QUALITTATIVE DATA
 Quantitative data and qualitative data , a study may be intended to
generate precise quantitative findings or to produce qualitative
descriptive information or both.
 Quantitative data : Which can be counted or expressed in numerical
values
 example : age , income , number of children
 Qualitative data : Attitude or perception towards something, process used
in accomplishing an activity

Wh ata
y D ????
 Making Meaning out of Data
 Data is a new oil/Power
 Data Dividend
 To make decision about important issues
 To obtain information.
 To keep on record
 To pass information on the others
 Data is Sacrosanct (Holy)
 Data Culture
Thus Data isn’t units of information ….it’s a story of

The W s o ata olle tion
5 ’ f D C c
 What data is to be collected?
 From Whom data is to be collected?
 Who will collect the data?
 From Where data will be collected?
 When is data collected?

T E ATA
YP S OF D
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion, this enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypothesis and evaluate outcomes.
Primary data : The primary data are those which are collected
a fresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original in
character. It is collected by the Researcher for the purpose of
the project immediately at hand.
Secondary data :The secondary data are those which have
already been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through statistical process, it is available
in the form of books or journals or reports and company
websites. Etc.

M
PRI ARY DATA
 Primary data : The primary data are those which are collected afresh and
for the first time and thus happen to be original in character. It is collected
by the Researcher for the purpose of the project immediately at hand.
For example: An Investigator wants to know about the level of job
satisfaction enjoyed by the teachers in a university.
He can prepare questionnaire and meet a sample number of teachers and ask
for their opinions. This is going to be the data collected for the purpose of this
study and hence becomes primary in character. Similarly a study may
conduct Patient satisfaction in OPD, or laboratory etc.
 job satisfaction among nurses,
 patient satisfaction in radiology & laboratory department in citizen
hospitals
 A study on bio medical waste (BMW) disposal management practices at
Ankura Hosptial, Hyderabad
 A study on patient care standards with NABH guidelines at Citizen Hospital
 health insurances schemes claims and procedures in apollo hospital
 a study on various Training Programmes to hospital staff as per NABH,

 A study on Case Sheet audit to ensure care of patients
 Hospital Management Information System (HMIS) practices at
Medicover Hospital, Hyderabad
 a study on time taken to discharge patients under various
modes of payment
 knowledge and practice of vulnerable patient care
 study on Post Discharge Care services in yashoda hospital
 a study on medical equipment breakdown and its effects on
patient care delivery in critical areas
 A study on Marketing Strategies of a Apollo (corporate)
hospital Chennai
 a study on work Place safety for employees in the radiology
department / waste disposal department / lab / housekeeping /
etc
 hospital emergency codes awareness among employees
 a study on turnaround time in laboratory
 a study on international patients care and services at yashodha
hospital

Advantages of Primary Data
1. Primary data are the first hand account of the situation;
2. There is a great scope for reliability of the information, because the
investigator collects the data for himself so he can take all precautions
to ensure the reliability of data;
3. primary data are the logical starting point for research in several
discipline
4. For the purpose of knowing opinions, personal qualities, attitudes etc.
primary data are the only source.
Disadvantage of Primary Data.
5. Collection of Primary Data is expensive in terms of both time and
money;
6. There is a great scope for bias of the researcher. Unless the
researcher/investigator is fair to the respondents and methods of data
collection ;
7. Sample selection is yet another problem in the collection of primary
data.

Methods o rimar ata olle tion
f P y D C c
1. Observation Method
2. Interview method
3. Through questionnaire
4. Through schedule
5. Other methods
a) warranty cards;
b) Distributors or store audit;
c) Consumer Panel;
d) Projective technique (psychologists/market
experts);
e) Depth interviews.

bser ation Metho
O v d.
Observation is way of gathering data by watching behavior, events,
or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting.
Observations can be overt (everyone knows they are being
observed) or covert (no one knows they are being observed and
the observer is covered). The benefit of covert observation is that
people are more likely to behave naturally if they do not know they
are being observed. However, you will typically need to conduct
overt observations because of ethical problems related to concealing
your observation.
Observations can also be either direct or indirect. Direct
observation is when you watch interactions, processes, or behaviors
as they occur; for example, observing a teacher teaching a lesson
from a written curriculum to determine whether they are delivering
it with commitment. Indirect observations are when you watch the
results of interactions, processes, or behaviors; for example,
measuring the amount of plate waste left by students in a school
cafeteria to determine whether a new food is acceptable to them

nter ie method
I v w
This method of collecting data involves presentation or oral –
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral and verbal responses
A. Personal interviews : Personal interview method
requires a person as the interviewer. The interviewer asks
questions generally in a face to face contact to the other
person or persons
B. Telephonic interview : When it is not possible to contact
the person directly then interview is conducted in
telephone
C. Structured interviews :In this case a set of pre decided
questions and highly standardized techniques of
recording. Thus the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a
from and order prescribed.

D. Un structured interviews : In this case ,we don’t follow a system of pre –
determined questions (or) unstructured interviews are characterized by a
flexibility approach to questioning, un structured interviews do not follow a
system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording
information. In a unstructured interview the interviewer is allowed much greater
freedom to ask, in case of need supplementary questions or at times he may omit
certain questions. If the situation so requires.
E. Focused interviews : Attention is focused on the given experience of the
respondent and its possible effects. Here the interviewer has the freedom to
decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has
also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main task of interviewer in
case of a focused interview is to continue the respondent to a discussion of issues
with which he seeks conversance.
F. Clinical Interview: it is concerned with broad underlying feelings (or)
motivations (or) with the courses of individuals life experiences.
G. Group interviews : A group of 6 to 8 will be interviewed
H. Individual interviews : Interviewer meets a single person and interviews him
I. Non-Directive Interview: Interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the
respondent to talk about the given topic with a base of minimum direct
questioning

E MET Thro h estionnaire
SURV Y HOD/ ug Qu
 Survey research is used to asses thoughts,
opinions and feelings
 Literal meaning of the survey is to see over some
thing from the high place
 The term is used to technique of investigation by
direct observation of a phenomena or collection of
data
 In social science research, survey is more popular
through which quantitative facts are collected
about the social aspect of a community’s
composition, activities and its perception

 A survey consists of a pre determined set of
question that is given to a sample
 With a representative sample, that is one that is
representative of the larger population of
interest one can describe the attitudes of the
population from which the sample was drawn
 These type of information are invaluable in
planning and evaluating government polices and
program

 Unlike a census, where all members of a
population and studied sample survey gather
information from only a portion of a population
of interest.
 From these samples they infer the characteristics
and perception of the defined population or
universe.
 Survey can be classified with a personal
interview, mail questionnaire, questionnaire
schedule and controlled observation.

e ondar ata
S c y D
The secondary data are those which have already been collected
by someone else. Or the data that are already available collected
by others.
Sources of secondary Data
Internal : data available with in the organisation
External : data available out side the organisation
External
Personal source Public source Autobiographies
Diaries
Letters
memories

Public source: it is having two source.
Unpublished source
Published source:
 Books
 Journals
 New papers
 Reports of the government departments
 Reports of the govt. bodies and autonomous organs
 Reports prepared by research scholars, universities.
Secondary data
Merits Demerits
 Quick and cheap source of data Not fulfil our specific research
needs
 Wider geographical area Poor accuracy when compared to
primary data
 Longer orientation period Data are not upto date
 Leading to find primary data Poor accessibility in some cases

o r es o se ondar data
S u c f c y
Sources of secondary data include books, personal sources, journals, newspapers,
websites, government records etc. Secondary data are known to be readily available
compared to that of primary data. It requires very little research and needs for manpower
to use these sources.
With the advent of electronic media and the internet, secondary data sources
have become more easily accessible. Some of these sources are highlighted below.
 Books: Books are one of the most traditional ways of collecting data. Today, there are
books available for all topics you can think of. When carrying out research, all you
have to do is look for a book on the topic being researched, then select from the
available repository of books in that area. Books, when carefully chosen are an
authentic source of authentic data and can be useful in preparing a literature review.
 Published Sources: There are a variety of published sources available for different
research topics. The authenticity of the data generated from these sources depends
majorly on the writer and publishing company. Published sources may be printed or
electronic as the case may be. They may be paid or free depending on the writer and
publishing company’s decision.
 Journal: Journals are gradually becoming more important than books these days when
data collection is concerned. This is because journals are updated regularly with new
publications on a periodic basis, therefore giving to date information. Also, journals are
usually more specific when it comes to research. For example, we can have a journal
on, “Secondary data collection for quantitative data” while a book will simply be titled,
“Secondary data collection”.

ist o o rnals in ospital Administration
L f J u H
List of journals in Hospital Administration
Subscribed
 Journal of Academy of Hospital Administration - (JAHA).
 Journal of Healthcare Management (JHM), Sage Publication.
 Healthcare Management Review.
Need to be subscribed
 Indian journal of Research foundation of Hospital and Healthcare Administration
 Asian Hospital and Healthcare Management
 Journal of Hospital Administration
 Marketing of Healthcare services
 Indian Journal of Public Health
 Healthcare financial Management
 WHO periodicals and Bulletins
 Express Healthcare
 The Healthcare Manager
 International journal of Quality in Healthcare
 Quality management in Healthcare
 Journal of Hospital Management and Health policy
 Journal of Hospital and Healthcare Administration
 Indian Society of Hospital waste Management Journal
 Journal of Healthcare Management (SAGE Journals)
 RFP Journal of Hospital Administration
 CAHO News Letter
 ISWAM

 Newspapers: In most cases, the information passed through a newspaper is usually
very reliable. Hence, making it one of the most authentic sources of collecting
secondary data. The kind of data commonly shared in newspapers is usually more
political, economic, and educational than scientific. Therefore, newspapers may not
be the best source for scientific data collection.
 Websites: The information shared on websites is mostly not regulated and as such
may not be trusted compared to other sources. However, there are some regulated
websites that only share authentic data and can be trusted by researchers. Most of
these websites are usually government websites or private organizations that are
paid, data collectors.
 Blogs: Blogs are one of the most common online sources for data and may even be
less authentic than websites. These days, practically everyone owns a blog, and a lot
of people use these blogs to drive traffic to their website or make money through
paid ads. Therefore, they cannot always be trusted. For example, a blogger may
write good things about a product because he or she was paid to do so by the
manufacturer even though these things are not true.
 Diaries: They are personal records and as such rarely used for data collection by
researchers. Also, diaries are usually personal, except for these days when people
now share public diaries containing specific events in their life.
 Government Records: Government records are a very important and authentic
source of secondary data. They contain information useful in marketing,
management, humanities, and social science research. Some of these records
include; census data, health records, education institute records, etc. They are
usually collected to aid proper planning, allocation of funds, and prioritizing of
projects.

A Tools in e ie in esear h apers
I R v w g R c P
 Google Scholar
 Semantic scholar
 Scite.ai
 Elicit
 Typeset.io
 Quillbot (for reducing plagiarism)
 Research rabbit
 Chat pdf (it gives summary of papers)
 Chat gpt
 Consensus
 Trinka (0nline sentence structure and catches grammar mistakes)
 Open read
 Scihub
 Bingchat
 Bing ai
 Paper digest

N N M N
DIFFERE CE BETWEE PRI ARY A D
S N
ECO DARY DATA
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
•Real time data
•Sure about sources of data
•Help to give results finding
•Costly and time consuming
process
•Avoid biasness of response
data
•More flexible
•Past data
•Not sure about sources of
data
•Refining the problem
•Cheap and no time
consuming process
•Can not known data
biasness or not
•Less flexible

S NN
QUE TIO AIRE
 A Questionnaire is a tool or device for securing answer to the set
of questions by the respondent who fill in the form of
questionnaire himself.
It is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted
to a sampling of population from which information is desired, the
questions are normally arranged in a sequence depending on the
nature of the study.
In this process a questionnaire is normally cyclostyled (or)
printed with details of object or purpose of investigation. The
respondents would be asked to complete the questionnaire and
post it to the address given with in a specified time period.
 A questionnaire is sent post or by mail to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire
 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a
definite order on a form

Importance of the Questionnaire/Advantages
 Low cost
 Avoid Bias
 Anonymity (person not an important)
 Less pressure
 Coverage
Types of Questions.
 Open ended question : this gives the respondents the ability to
respond in their own words
 Close ended questions : this allows the respondents to choose one of
the given alternatives (or) Multiple choice Questions
 Dichotomous Questions : These are also known as two-way
questions. It is an extreme form of multiple questioning. The idea is
to offer only two choices i.e. Yes/No. however the two principles
alternatives are often by an additional possibility of the don’t
know/no opinion.
 Example: Do you like TV Programmes of Doordarshan?
 Yes No No opinion
 Do you favour 5 day work?

S S N S NN
TEP TO A EFFECTIVE QUE TIO AIRE
Prepare questions
Select respondents
( random/selected)
Administer the question
(date/venue/time)

E ENT A E T NNA E W N
SS I LS OF GOOD QU S IO IR / ORDI G OF
E T NNA E
QU S IO IR
 It should be short and simple questions should
arranged in logical sequence;
 Avoiding suggestive answer (smoking is injurious)
 Technical terms should be avoided
 Questions affecting the sentiments of the
respondents
 Avoiding ambiguity
 Avoiding questions involving generalization
 Make sure sequence of questions
 Meeting the questionnaire
 Final draft of the questionnaire

S S
CHEDULE
 Very similar to questionnaire method
 The main difference is that a schedule is filled by
the investigator
 Investigator goes to the respondents asks them
the question from the schedule in the order
listed and records the responses in the space
provided

S NN s S
QUE TIO AIRE V CHEDULE
QUESTIONNAIRE SCHEDULE
Generally send to through mail
Cheaper method
Non response is high
Incomplete and wrong
information is more
Depends on the quality on the
questionnaire
Very slow method
No personal contact
Educated only cooperate.
Schedule is filled by the
investigator
Costly requires field workers
Non response is low
Depends on honesty of the
investigator
Relativity is more collect and
complete
Identity of the person is known
Information is collected well in
time
Direct personal contact


MERITS DEMERITS
•Quick and cheap
source of data
•Wider geographical
area
•Longer orientation
period
•Leading to find
primary data
• Not fulfill our
specific research
needs
•Poor accuracy
•Data are not up to
date
•Poor accessibility in
some cases

ase Stud Method
C y
 Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single
person ,group, event or community
 Data will be collected through observations and
interviews
Method
 Qualitative techniques
( unstructured interviews ,participant observation
diaries)
 Personal notes
(letters ,photographs or official document)

 It is essentially an intensive investigation of the
particular unit under consideration
 Researcher can take one single social unit or
more of such units for study purpose
 Selected unit is studied intensively

S S SS N
FOCU GROUP DI CU IO
 A focus group discussions (FGD) is an in-depth
field method that brings together a small
homogeneous group usually six to twelve
persons to discuss topics on a study agenda
 The purpose of their discussion is to use social
dynamics of the group with the help of
moderator/facilitator ,to encourage participants
to disclose opinions ,attitudes and reason for
their behavior

 Focus group discussion are a data collection
method through semi structured group
interviewed process
 Focus group are generally used to collect data on
a specific topic

conclusion
 Meticulous steps to be taken to collect field data
based on nature, scope and object of enquiry
 Time factor
 Availability of budget
 Time schedule/planning/systematic approach

ATA E ENTAT N
D PR S IO
 Editing of Primary Data
 Classification of data
 Guidelines for class selection
 Objectives and types of classification
 Frequency distribution
 Charting of data
 Bar charts and histograms
 Two dimensional graphs
 Mean, median, mode
 Correlation and regression
 Conclusion.

Editing of Primary data: Editing of data is a process of
examining the collected raw data. (specially in surveys) to
detect the errors and omissions (gap/blanks) and to correct
these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a
careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires/schedules.
editing is done to assure that the data are accurate
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
complete as possible and have been well arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.
Editing: it can be done on two ways
1) Field editing
2) Central editing

Classification and Tabulation
Meaning and Definition: Classification is a process of condensation.
Prof. L.R. connor has defined classification in the following words.
“classification is the process of arranging things –either actually (or)
notionally … in a groups or classes according to their resemblances
and affinities…”
According to Prof. Elhance. It is the process of arranging data in
groups (or) classes according to resemblances and similarities .
Classification: It is the process of arranging data in group (or)
classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a
common characteristics are placed in one class and in this way the
entire data get divided into a number of groups (or) classes.
For example: letters in the post office are classified according to their
destinations. Vijayawada, Delhi, Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad. Etc.

Objectives of classification:
1. Converting from raw data into some meaningful data;
2. It eliminates unnecessary details;
3. It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant
aspect of data;
4. It enables one to get a mental picture of the information
and helps in drawing inferences;
5. It helps in the statistical treatment of the information
collected;
6. To identify independent and dependent variables and
establishes their relationship;
7. To maintain clarity and simplicity of complex data and
8. To make logical and effective quantification.
A good classification should have the characteristics of clarity,
homogeneity and equality of scale, purposefulness, accuracy,
stability, flexibility and unambiguity.

Types of classification.
1. Classification according to attributes (Qualitative
classification): Here the data are classified on the basis of
common characteristics which can be either descriptive
(such as literacy sex, religion, employment etc. Descriptive
characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which can
not be measured quantitatively, only their presence or
absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data as
statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be
classification according to attributes.
For example Gender (sex)
Male Female
Single Married

2. Classification according to class intervals: unlike
descriptive characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to
quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through some
statistical unit.
data relating to income, production, age, weight etc. come
under this category such data are known as statistics of variables
and are classified on the basis of class intervals.
For example: Persons whose income says are with in 2001 to 4000
can form one group 4001 -6000 one group, 6001 -8000 and so on, in
this way the entire data may be divided into number of group (or)
classes (or) what are usually called class intervals Each group (or)
class interval thus has an upper limit as well as a lower limit which
are known as class limits, the difference between the two class limits
is known as class magnitude.
We may have classes with equal class magnitudes (or) with
unequal class magnitudes. The number of items which fall in a given
class is known as the frequency of the given class all these classes are
together and put in the form of table, this can be classed as simple
frequency distribution.

hartin o ata
C g f D
There are usually three modes of presenting data: viz., textual,
tabular and graphic.
Textual presentation : the chapter on report writing covering the
style, the language, the style the words, paragraphs etc.
Tabular presentation of data is not always attractive and easy to
read. If the tables are long involving huge data, they become
cumbersome and the reader will have a tendency to skip the same.
Hence the diagram method attracting the attention of readers.
The following are some of the reasons for the use of
diagrams, vis-à-vis, the other forms of presentations.
1) Diagram have greater attraction than mere figures
2) Diagrams help in deriving the required information in less time
and without any mental strain;
3) They facilitate comparison and make the presentation more
effective;
4) They have great memorising value than mere figures.

les or ra in ia ram
Ru f D w g D g
Like the preparation of tables, the drawing of diagram has also
certain rules to be observed.
1. Selection of a proper scale (selection of a scale is a matter of
personal judgement, it should be appropriate to the situation);
2. The vertical and horizontal axes should be properly designed;
3. The diagram should be drawn with the aid of geometrical
instruments and neatness should have top priority;
4. The heading should be written on the top of these diagram in
bold letter;
5. Distinguish different colours.

A bar chart or bar graph is a chart or graph that presents
categorical data with rectangular bars with heights or
lengths proportional to the values that they represent.
The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.

A histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of
different heights. In a histogram, each bar groups numbers
into ranges. Taller bars show that more data falls in that
range. A histogram displays the shape and spread of
continuous sample data

Advantages of Histograms
 Visual Clarity: Histograms provide a clear visual summary of data
distribution.
 Identification of Patterns: They help identify patterns, such as
skewness, modality, and outliers.
 Data Analysis: Useful in statistical analysis for understanding data
behavior.
Limitations of Histograms
 Loss of Detail: Aggregating data into bins can result in a loss of
individual data points.
 Sensitivity to Bin Size: The appearance of the histogram can
change significantly with different bin sizes.
 Not Suitable for Categorical Data: Histograms are meant for
numerical data and not suitable for categorical data.
Histograms are powerful tools for exploratory data analysis, allowing
you to quickly assess the distribution and characteristics of your data.

o imensional ra hs
Tw D G p
A two-dimensional graph, or 2D graph, is a graphical representation
of data points in a two-dimensional space, usually using x and y
axes to show relationships or patterns between variables. 2D
graphs can also be called surface diagrams or area diagrams.
Two-dimensional (2D) graphs are visual representations of
data on a plane defined by two perpendicular axes, typically
labeled as the x-axis (horizontal) and y-axis (vertical). These graphs
are used to illustrate relationships between two variables, making it
easier to identify patterns, trends, and correlations.
Different types of 2D graphs can be used to display different types
of data:
 Scatter plots: Represent the relationship between two numerical
variables
 Bar charts: Display categorical data
 Line charts: Visualize changes in a numerical value over time
 Pie charts: Show proportional relationships between categories

Key Points
 Axes: The x-axis and y-axis are the foundation of 2D
graphs, representing the two variables being
compared.
 Scale: Proper scaling ensures accurate representation
of data.
 Labels and Titles: Clearly labeling axes and adding
titles helps interpret the graph.
 Legends: Useful in graphs with multiple data series to
differentiate between them.
 2D graphs are powerful tools for data analysis,
helping to communicate complex information in an
easily understandable visual format.

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