Using Mysql.pptx

USING MYSQL A Summary By Samuel
Ukwesa

In this chapter, we will cover the
following recipes.
Connecting to
MySQL using the
command-line
client
Creating
databases
Creating tables
Inserting,
updating, and
deleting rows
Loading sample
data
Selecting data
Sorting results
Grouping results
(aggregate
functions)
Creating users
Granting and
revoking access
to users
Selecting data
into a file and
table
Loading data into
a table
Joining tables
Stored
procedures
Functions Triggers Views Events
Getting
information about
databases and
tables

Introduction
We are going to learn a lot of things in the following recipes. Let's look at each one in
detail.
Connecting to MySQL using the
command line client
So far, you have learned how to install MySQL 8.0 on various platforms. Along with the
installation, you will get the command-line client utility called mysql, which we use to connect to any
MySQL server.

Getting ready
First you need to know to which server you need to connect. If you have the MySQL server installed on
one host and you are trying to connect to the server from a different host (usually called client), you
should specify the hostname or IP address of the server and the mysql-client package should be installed
on the client. In the previous chapter, you installed both MySQL server and client packages. If you are
already on the server (through
SSH), you can specify localhost, 127.0.0.1, or ::1.
Second, since you are connected to the server, the next thing you need to specify is to which port you
want to connect on the server. By default, MySQL runs on port 3306. So, you should specify 3306.
Now you know where to connect. The next obvious thing is the username and password to log in to the
server. You have not created any users yet, so use the root user to connect. While installing, you would
have supplied a password, use that to connect. In case you
changed it, use the new password.

How to do it...
Connecting to the MySQL client can be done with any of the following commands:
shell> mysql -h localhost -P 3306 -u <username> -p<password>
shell> mysql --host=localhost --port=3306 --user=root --password=<password>
shell> mysql --host localhost --port 3306 --user root --password=<password>
But the most commonly used is: mysql –u root –p

It is highly recommended not to give the password in the command line, instead you can leave the
field blank; you will be prompted for a password:
shell> mysql --host=localhost --port=3306 --user=root --password
Enter Password:
1. The -P argument (in uppercase) is passed for specifying the port.
2. The -p argument (in lowercase) is passed for specifying the password.
3. There is no space after the -p argument.
4. For the password, there is no space after =.
By default, the host is taken as localhost, the port is taken as 3306, and the user is taken
as the current shell user.
1. To know the current user:
shell> whoami
2. To disconnect, press Ctrl + D or type exit:
mysql> ^Dbye, mysql> exit;
shell> q

3. After connecting to the mysql prompt, you can execute statements followed by the delimiter. The
default delimiter is a semicolon (;).
4. To cancel a command, press Ctrl + C or type c:
mysql> SELECT ^C or mysql> SELECT c

Creating databases
Well, you have installed MySQL 8.0 and connected to it. Now it is time to store some data in
it, that's what the database is meant for, after all. In any relational database management
system (RDBMS), data is stored in rows, which is the basic building block of the database.
Rows contain columns in which we can store several set of values.
For example, if you want to store information about your customers in a database.
To create a data base, you will have to run this command.
Mysql> create database Company;
Instead of switching, you can directly connect to the database you want by specifying it in
the command line:
shell> mysql -u root -p company

To find which database you are connected to, use the following:
mysql> SELECT DATABASE();
To find all the databases you have access to, use:
mysql> SHOW DATABASES;

The database is created as a directory inside data directory. The default data directory is /var/lib/mysql for
repository-based installation and /usr/local/mysql/data/ for installation through binaries. To know your current
data directory, you can execute: mysql> SHOW VARIABLES LIKE 'datadir’;

Creating tables
While defining columns in a table, you should mention the name of the column, datatype
(integer, floating point, string, and so on), and default value (if any). MySQL supports
various datatypes.
Here is an overview of all datatypes.
1. Numeric: TINYINT, SMALLINT, MEDIUMINT, INT, BIGINT, and BIT.
2. Floating numbers: DECIMAL, FLOAT, and DOUBLE.
3. Strings: CHAR, VARCHAR, BINARY, VARBINARY, BLOB, TEXT, ENUM, and SET.
4. Spatial datatypes are also supported.
5. The JSON datatype - The JSON datatype is a new extension and will not be discussed here.

How to do it...
The table contains the column definition:
mysql> CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `company`.`customers` (
`id` int unsigned AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
`first_name` varchar(20),
`last_name` varchar(20),
`country` varchar(20)
) ENGINE=InnoDB;

The options are explained as follows:
• Dot notation: Tables can be referenced using database name dot table name (database.table). If you
are connected to the database, you can simply use customers instead of company.customers.
• IF NOT EXISTS: If a table with the same name exists and you specify this clause,
MySQL simply throws a warning that the table already exists. Otherwise, MySQLwill throw an error.
• id: It is declared as an integer since it contains only integers. Along with that,
there are two key words: AUTO_INCREMENT and PRIMARY KEY.
• AUTO_INCREMENT: A linearly incremental sequence is automatically generated, so
you do not need to worry about assigning id to each row.
• PRIMARY KEY: Each row is identified by a UNIQUE column that is NOT NULL.
Only one of these columns should be defined in a table. If a table contains
an AUTO_INCREMENT column, it is taken as PRIMARY KEY.
• first_name, last_name, and country: They contain strings, so they are
defined as varchar.
• Engine: Along with the column definition, you should mention the storage
engine. Some types of storage engines include InnoDB, MyISAM, FEDERATED,
BLACKHOLE, CSV, and MEMORY. Out of all the engines, InnoDB is the only
transactional engine and it is the default engine.

To list all the storage engines, execute the following:
mysql> SHOW ENGINESG

You can create many tables in a database.
Create one more table to track the payments:
mysql> CREATE TABLE `company`.`payments`(
`customer_name` varchar(20) PRIMARY KEY,
`payment` float
);

To list all the tables, use:
mysql> SHOW TABLES;
To see the structure of the table, execute the following:
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE customersG

Or use this:
mysql> DESC customers;
Cloning table structure
You can clone the structure of one table into a new table:
mysql> CREATE TABLE new_customers LIKE customers;

You can verify the structure of the new table:
mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE new_customersG

Inserting, updating, and deleting rows
The INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and SELECT operations are called Data Manipulation
Language (DML) statements. INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE are also called write
operations, or simply write(s). SELECT is a read operation and is simply called read(s).
How to do it...
Let's look at each of them in detail. I am sure you will enjoy learning this. I would suggest
that you try a few things on your own as well, later. By the end of this recipe, we will also
have gotten to grips with truncating tables.
Inserting
The INSERT statement is used to create new records in a table:
mysql> INSERT IGNORE INTO `company`.`customers`(first_name,
last_name,country)
VALUES
('Mike', 'Christensen', 'USA'),
('Andy', 'Hollands', 'Australia'),
('Ravi', 'Vedantam', 'India'),
('Rajiv', 'Perera', 'Sri Lanka');

Or you can explicitly mention the id column, if you
want to insert the specific id:
mysql> INSERT IGNORE INTO
`company`.`customers`(id, first_name,
last_name,country)
VALUES
(1, 'Mike', 'Christensen', 'USA'),
(2, 'Andy', 'Hollands', 'Australia'),
(3, 'Ravi', 'Vedantam', 'India'),
(4, 'Rajiv', 'Perera', 'Sri Lanka');

IGNORE: If the row already exists and the IGNORE clause is given, the new data is ignored
and the INSERT statement still succeeds in producing a warning and a number of
duplicates. Otherwise, if the IGNORE clause is not given, the INSERT statement produces an
error. The uniqueness of a row is identified by the primary key:
mysql> SHOW WARNINGS;

Updating
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table:
mysql> UPDATE customers SET first_name='Rajiv', country='UK' WHERE id=4;
WHERE: This is the clause used for filtering. Whatever condition(s) are issued after the WHERE
clause are evaluated and the filtered rows are updated.
The WHERE clause is mandatory. Failing to give it will UPDATE the whole table.
It is recommended to do data modification in a transaction, so that you can
easily rollback the changes if you find anything wrong.
Deleting
Deleting a record can be done as follows:
mysql> DELETE FROM customers WHERE id=4 AND first_name='Rajiv';
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03 sec)
The WHERE clause is mandatory. Failing to give it will DELETE all the rows
of the table.
It is recommended to do data modification in a transaction, so that you can
easily rollback the changes if you find anything wrong.

REPLACE, INSERT, ON DUPLICATE KEY
UPDATE
There are many cases where you need to handle the duplicates. The uniqueness of a row is
identified by the primary key. If a row already exists, REPLACE simply deletes the row and
inserts the new row. If a row is not there, REPLACE behaves as INSERT.
ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE is used when you want to take action if the row already
exists. If you specify the ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE option and the INSERT statement
causes a duplicate value in the PRIMARY KEY, MySQL performs an update to the old row
based on the new values.
Suppose you want to update the previous amount whenever you get payment from the
same customer and concurrently insert a new record if the customer is paying for the first
time. To do this, you will define an amount column and update it whenever a new payment
comes in:
mysql> REPLACE INTO customers VALUES (1,'Mike','Christensen','America');

mysql> REPLACE INTO customers VALUES (1,'Mike','Christensen','America’);
You can see that two rows are affected, one duplicate row is deleted and a new row is
inserted:
mysql> INSERT INTO payments VALUES('Mike Christensen', 200) ON DUPLICATE
KEY UPDATE payment=payment+VALUES(payment);
mysql> INSERT INTO payments VALUES('Ravi Vedantam',500) ON DUPLICATE KEY
UPDATE payment=payment+VALUES(payment);

When Mike Christensen pays $300 next time, this will update the row and add this
payment to the previous payment:
mysql> INSERT INTO payments VALUES('Mike Christensen', 300) ON DUPLICATE
KEY UPDATE payment=payment+VALUES(payment);
VALUES (payment): refers to the value given in the INSERT statement. Payment refers to the
column of the table.
Truncating tables
Deleting the whole table takes lot of time, as MySQL performs operations row by row. The
quickest way to delete all of the rows of a table (preserving the table structure) is to use
the TRUNCATE TABLE statement.
Truncate is a DDL operation in MySQL, meaning once the data is truncated, it cannot be
rolled back:
mysql> TRUNCATE TABLE customers; # I didn’t run this command otherwise I’ll delete my customers table
and I don’t want to do that now.

Loading sample data
You have created the schema (databases and tables) and some data (through INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE). To explain the further chapters, more data is needed. MySQL has
provided a sample employee database and a lot of data to play around with. In this
chapter, we will discuss how to get that data and store it in our database.
How to do it...
1. Download the zipped file:
shell> wget
'https://codeload.github.com/datacharmer/test_db/zip/master' -O
master.zip
2. Unzip the file:
shell> unzip master.zip
3. Load the data:
shell> cd test_db-master

shell> mysql -u root -p < employees.sql

mysql -u root -p employees -A
SHOW TABLES;

Selecting data
You have inserted and updated data in the tables. Now it is time to learn how to retrieve
information from the database. In this section, we will discuss how to retrieve data from the
sample employee database that we have created.
There are many things that you can do with SELECT. The most common use cases will be
discussed in this section. For more details on syntax and other use cases

How to do it...
Select all data from the departments table of the employee
database. You can use an asterisk (*) to select all columns
from a table. It is not recommended to use it, you should
always select only the data you need:
mysql> SELECT * FROM departments;
• Selecting columns
• Suppose you need emp_no and
dept_no from dept_manager:
• mysql> SELECT emp_no, dept_no
FROM dept_manager;

Count
Find the count of employees from the employees table:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;
Filter based on condition
Find emp_no of employees with first_name as Georgi and last_name as Facello:
mysql> SELECT emp_no FROM employees WHERE first_name='Georgi' AND
last_name='Facello';

All the filtering conditions are given through the WHERE clause. Except integers and floating
points, everything else should be put inside quotes.
Operators
MySQL supports many operators for filtering results. I will discuss a few operators here.
LIKE and RLIKE are explained in detail in the next examples:
Equality: Refer to the preceding example where you have filtered using =
IN: Check whether a value is within a set of values.
For example, find the count of all employees whose last name is either
Christ, Lamba, or Baba:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE last_name IN ('Christ',
'Lamba', 'Baba');

BETWEEN...AND: Check whether a value is within a range of values.
For example, find the number of employees who were hired in December 1986:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE hire_date BETWEEN
'1986-12-01' AND '1986-12-31’;
NOT: You can simply negate the results by preceding with the NOT operator.
For example, find the number of employees who were NOT hired in December
1986:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE hire_date NOT BETWEEN
'1986-12-01' AND '1986-12-31';

Simple pattern matching
You can use the LIKE operator. Use underscore (_) for matching exactly one character. Use
% for matching any number of characters.
Find the count of all employees whose first name starts with Christ:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE 'christ%’;
Find the count of all employees whose first name starts with Christ and ends
with ed:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE
'christ%ed';

Find the count of all employees whose first name contains sri:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE '%sri%’;
Find the count of all employees whose first name ends with er:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE '%er';

Find the count of all employees whose first name starts with any two
characters
followed by ka and then followed by any number of characters:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE first_name LIKE
'__ka%’;
Regular expressions
You can use regular expressions in the WHERE clause by
using the RLIKE or REGEXP
operators. There are many ways to use REGEXP

Find the count of all employees whose first name starts with Christ:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE first_name RLIKE '^christ’;

Find the count of all employees whose last name ends with ba:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE last_name REGEXP 'ba$’;
Find the count of all employees whose last name does not contain vowels (a, e, i,
o, or u):
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE last_name NOT REGEXP
'[aeiou]';

Limiting results
Select the names of any 10 employees whose hire_date is before 1986. You can get this by
using the LIMIT clause at the end of the statement:
mysql> SELECT first_name, last_name FROM employees WHERE hire_date <
'1986-01-01' LIMIT 10;

Using the table alias
By default, whatever column you have given in the SELECT clause will appear in the
results. In the previous examples, you have found out the count, but it is displayed as
COUNT(*). You can change it by using the AS alias:
mysql> SELECT COUNT(*) AS count FROM employees WHERE hire_date BETWEEN
'1986-12-01' AND '1986-12-31’;
Sorting results
You can order the result based on the column or aliased column. You can be specify DESC
for descending order or ASC for ascending. By default, ordering will be ascending. You can
combine the LIMIT clause with ORDER BY to limit the results.
How to do it...
Find the employee IDs of the first five top-paid employees.
mysql> SELECT emp_no,salary FROM salaries ORDER BY salary DESC LIMIT 5;

Grouping results (aggregate functions)
You can group the results using the GROUP BY clause on a column and then use AGGREGATE
functions, such as COUNT, MAX, MIN, and AVERAGE. You can also use the function on a
column in a group by clause. See the SUM example where you will use the YEAR() function.
How to do it...
Each of the previously-mentioned aggregate functions will be introduced to you here in
detail.
COUNT
1. Find the count of male and female employees:
mysql> SELECT gender, COUNT(*) AS count FROM employees GROUP BY
gender;

2. You want to find the 10 most common first names of the employees. You can use
GROUP BY first name to group all the first names, then COUNT(first_name)
to find the count inside the group, and finally the ORDER BY count to sort the
results. LIMIT these results to the top 10:
mysql> SELECT first name, COUNT(first_name) AS count FROM employees
GROUP BY first_name ORDER BY count DESC LIMIT 10;

You want to find the 10 most common first names of the employees. You can use
GROUP BY first_name to group all the first names, then COUNT(first_name)
to find the count inside the group, and finally the ORDER BY count to sort the
results. LIMIT these results to the top 10:
mysql> SELECT first_name, COUNT(first_name) AS count FROM employees
GROUP BY first_name ORDER BY count DESC LIMIT 10;

SUM
Find the sum of the salaries given to employees in each year and sort the results by salary.
The YEAR() function returns the YEAR of the given date:
mysql> SELECT '2017-06-12', YEAR('2017-06-12');

mysql> SELECT YEAR(from_date), SUM(salary) AS sum
FROM salaries GROUP BY YEAR(from_date) ORDER BY
sum DESC;

AVERAGE
Find the 10 employees with the highest average salaries:
mysql> SELECT emp_no, AVG(salary) AS avg FROM salaries GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY avg DESC LIMIT 10;
DISTINCT
You can use the DISTINCT clause to filter the distinct
entries in a table:

mysql> SELECT DISTINCT title FROM titles;
Filtering using HAVING
You can filter results of the GROUP BY clause by adding
the HAVING clause.
For example, find the employees with an average
salary of more than 140,000:
mysql> SELECT emp_no, AVG(salary) AS avg FROM
salaries GROUP BY emp_no
HAVING avg > 140000 ORDER BY avg DESC;

mysql> SELECT emp_no, AVG(salary) AS avg FROM
salaries GROUP BY emp_no
HAVING avg > 140000 ORDER BY avg DESC;
Creating users
So far, you have used only the root user to connect to MySQL and execute statements. The
root user should never be used while accessing MySQL, except for administrative tasks
from localhost. You should create users, restrict the access, restrict the resource usage,
and so on. For creating new users, you should have the CREATE USER privilege that will be
discussed in the next section. During the initial set up, you can use the root user to create
other users.

How to do it...
Connect to mysql using the root user and execute CREATE USER command to create new users.
mysql> CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS 'company_read_only'@'localhost’ IDENTIFIED BY ‘Victory9##’;
You might get the following error if the password is not strong.
The preceding statement will create users with:
* Username: company_read_only.
* access only from: localhost.
You can restrict the access to the IP range. For example: 10.148.%.%. By giving
%, the user can access from any host.
* password: Victory9##.
* Not using mysql_native_password (default) authentication.
You can also specify any pluggable authentication, such
as sha256_password, LDAP, or Kerberos.
The underlisted options can also be added
The * maximum number of queries the user can execute in an hour is 500.
The * maximum number of updates the user can execute in an hour is 100.

When a client connects to the MySQL server, it undergoes two stages:
1. Access control—connection verification
2. Access control—request verification
During the connection verification, the server identifies the connection by the username and
the hostname from which it is connected. The server invokes the authentication plugin for
the user and verifies the password. It also checks whether the user is locked or not.
During the request verification stage, the server checks whether the user has sufficient
privileges for each operation.
In the preceding statement, you have to give the password in clear text, which can be
recorded in the command history file, $HOME/.mysql_history. To avoid that, you can
compute the hash on your local server and directly specify the hashed string. The syntax for
it is the same, except mysql_native_password BY 'company_pass' changes to
mysql_native_password AS 'hashed_string’: mysql> SELECT PASSWORD('company_pass’);
mysql> CREATE USER IF NOT EXISTS 'company_read_only'@'localhost'
IDENTIFIED WITH mysql_native_password AS '*EBD9E3BFD1489CA1EB0D2B4F29F6665F321E8C18'
WITH MAX_QUERIES_PER_HOUR 500
MAX_UPDATES_PER_HOUR 100;

Granting and revoking access to users
You can restrict the user to access specific databases or tables and also only specific
operations, such as SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE. For granting privileges to other users,
you should have the GRANT privilege.
How to do it...
During the initial setup, you can use the root user to grant privileges. You can also create an
administrative account to manage the users.
Granting privileges
Grant the READ ONLY(SELECT) privileges to the company_read_only user:
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON company.* TO 'company_read_only'@'localhost';
Grant the INSERT privilege to the new company_insert_only user:
mysql> GRANT INSERT ON company.* TO 'company_insert_only'@'localhost’ IDENTIFIED BY 'xxxx';

mysql> SHOW WARNINGSG
GRANT INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE ON company.* TO 'company_write'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'Victory9##';
Restrict to a specific table. Restrict the employees_read_only user to SELECT
only from the employees table:
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON employees.employees TO
'employees_read_only'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'Victory9##’;

You can further restrict to specific columns. Restrict the employees_ro user to
the first_name and last_name columns of the employees table:
mysql> GRANT SELECT(first_name,last_name) ON employees.employees
TO 'employees_ro'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY ‘Victory9##’; Extending grants. You can extend the grants by executing the
new grant. Extend
the privilege to the employees_col_ro user to access the salary of the salaries
table:
mysql> GRANT SELECT(salary) ON employees.salaries TO 'employees_ro'@'%';
Creating the SUPER user. You need an administrative account to manage the
server. ALL signifies all privileges expect the GRANT privilege:
mysql> CREATE USER 'dbadmin'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY Victory9##';
Granting the GRANT privilege. The user should have the GRANT OPTION privilege
to grant privileges to other users. You can extend the GRANT privilege to the dbadmin super user:
mysql> GRANT GRANT OPTION ON *.* TO 'dbadmin'@'%';

Checking grants
You can check all the user's grants. Check grants for the employee_col_ro user:
mysql> SHOW GRANTS FOR 'employees_ro'@'%’G
mysql> select host, user from mysql.user;

This command is to display the grants assigned to all users in a database
mysql> SHOW grants;
Revoking grants
Revoking grants has the same syntax as creating grants. You grant a privilege TO the user
and revoke a privilege FROM the user.
Revoke the DELETE access from the 'company_write'@'%' user:
mysql> REVOKE DELETE ON company.* FROM 'company_write'@'%’;

Revoke the access to the salary column from the employee_ro user:
mysql> REVOKE SELECT(salary) ON employees.salaries FROM
'employees_ro'@'%';

Query the mysql.user table to find out all the entries for the dbadmin user:
mysql> SELECT * FROM mysql.user WHERE user='dbadmin'G

You can see that the dbadmin user can access the database from any host (%). You can
restrict them to localhost just by updating the mysql.user table and reloading the grant
tables:
mysql> UPDATE mysql.user SET host='localhost' WHERE user='dbadmin';
mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

Setting password expiry for users
You can expire the passwords of users for a specific interval; after this, they need to change
their password.
When an application developer asks for database access, you can create the account with a
default password and then set it to expire. You can share the password with the developers,
then they have to change the password to continue using MySQL.
All the accounts are created with a password expiry equal to
the default_password_lifetime variable, which is disabled by default:
Create a user with an expired password. When the developer logs in for the first
time and tries to execute any statement, ERROR 1820 (HY000): is thrown. The
password must be reset using the ALTER USER statement before executing this
mysql> CREATE USER 'developer'@'%' IDENTIFIED WITH
mysql_native_password AS
'*EBD9E3BFD1489CA1EB0D2B4F29F6665F321E8C18' PASSWORD EXPIRE;

shell> mysql -u developer -pcompany_pass
mysql> SHOW DATABASES;
ALTER USER 'developer'@'%' IDENTIFIED WITH BY ‘Victory9##';

Manually expire the existing user:
mysql> ALTER USER 'developer'@'%' PASSWORD EXPIRE;
Require the password to be changed every 180 days:
mysql> ALTER USER 'developer'@'%' PASSWORD EXPIRE INTERVAL 90 DAY;
Locking users
If you find any issues with the account, you can lock it. MySQL supports locking while
using CREATE USER or ALTER USER.
Lock the account by adding the ACCOUNT LOCK clause to the ALTER USER statement

Lock the account by adding the ACCOUNT LOCK clause to the ALTER USER statement:
mysql> ALTER USER 'developer'@'%' ACCOUNT LOCK;
The developer will get an error saying that the account is locked:
shell> mysql -u developer -p
You can unlock the account after confirming:
mysql> ALTER USER 'developer'@'%' ACCOUNT UNLOCK;

Creating roles for users
A MySQL role is a named collection of privileges. Like user accounts, roles can have
privileges granted to and revoked from them. A user account can be granted roles, which
grants to the account the role privileges. Earlier, you created separate users for reads,
writes, and administration. For write privilege, you have granted INSERT, DELETE, and
UPDATE to the user. Instead, you can grant those privileges to a role and then assign the user
to that role. By this way, you can avoid granting privileges individually to possibly many
user accounts.
Creating roles:
mysql> CREATE ROLE 'app_read_only', 'app_writes', 'app_developer’;
Assigning privileges to the roles using the GRANT statement:
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON employees.* TO 'app_read_only’;
mysql> GRANT INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON employees.* TO 'app_writes’;
mysql> GRANT ALL ON employees.* TO 'app_developer’;
NOTE: The above doesn’t appears compactable with mysql 5.7

Creating users. If you do not specify any host, % will be taken:
mysql> CREATE user emp_read_only IDENTIFIED BY 'emp_pass’;
mysql> CREATE user emp_writes IDENTIFIED BY 'emp_pass’;
mysql> CREATE user emp_developer IDENTIFIED BY 'emp_pass’;
mysql> CREATE user emp_read_write IDENTIFIED BY 'emp_pass’;
Assigning the roles to the users using the GRANT statement. You can assign
multiple roles to a user. For example, you can assign both read and write access to the emp_read_write
user:
mysql> GRANT 'app_read_only' TO 'emp_read_only'@'%’;
mysql> GRANT 'app_writes' TO 'emp_writes'@'%’;
mysql> GRANT 'app_developer' TO 'emp_developer'@'%’;
mysql> GRANT 'app_read_only', 'app_writes' TO 'emp_read_write'@'%';

Selecting data into a file and table
You can save the output into a file using the SELECT INTO OUTFILE statement.
You can specify the column and line delimiters, and later you can import the data into other
data platforms.
How to do it...
You can save the output destination as a file or a table.
Saving as a file
To save the output into a file, you need the FILE privilege. FILE is a global
privilege, which means you cannot restrict it for a particular database. However,
you can restrict what the user selects:
mysql> GRANT SELECT ON employees.* TO 'user_ro_file'@'%' IDENTIFIED
BY ‘XXXXXX’;
mysql> GRANT FILE ON *.* TO 'user_ro_file'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY ‘XXXXXX’;

Saving as a table
You can save the results of a SELECT statement into a table. Even if the table does not exist,
you can use CREATE and SELECT to create the table and load the data. If the table already
exists, you can use INSERT and SELECT to load the data.
You can save the titles into a new titles_only table:
mysql> CREATE TABLE titles_only AS SELECT DISTINCT title FROM titles;
If the table already exists, you can use the INSERT INTO SELECT statement:
mysql> INSERT INTO titles_only SELECT DISTINCT title FROM titles;
To avoid duplicates, you can use INSERT IGNORE. However, in this case, there is no
PRIMARY KEY on the titles_only table. So the IGNORE clause does not make any
difference.

Loading data into a table
The way you can dump a table data into a file, you can do vice-versa, that is, load the data
from the file into a table. This is widely used for loading bulk data and is a super fast way to
load data into tables. You can specify the column delimiters to load the data into respective
columns. You should have the FILE privilege and the INSERT privilege on the table.
How to do it...
Earlier, you have saved first_name and last_name to a file. You can use the same file to
load the data into another table. Before loading, you should create the table. If the table
already exists, you can directly load. The columns of the table should match the fields of the
file.
Create a table to hold the data:
mysql> CREATE TABLE employee_names (
`first_name` varchar(14) NOT NULL,
`last_name` varchar(16) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB;

MAKE SURE THAT
THE FILE IS
PRESENT:
SHELL> SUDO LS -
LHTR
/VAR/LIB/MYSQL/EM
PLOYEES

Load the data using the LOAD DATA INFILE statement:
mysql> LOAD DATA INFILE 'result.csv' INTO TABLE employee_names
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ','
OPTIONALLY ENCLOSED BY '"'
LINES TERMINATED BY 'n’;
NOTE: Change the location to what is below
Load the data using the LOAD DATA INFILE statement:
mysql> LOAD DATA INFILE 'result.csv' INTO TABLE employee_names
NOTE: Change the directory to what you have in –secure-file-server

Joining tables
So far you have looked at inserting and retrieving data from a single table. In this section,
we will discuss how to combine two or more tables to retrieve the results.
A perfect example is that you want to find the employee name and department number of a
employee with emp_no: 110022:
The department number and name are stored in the departments table
The employee number and other details, such as first_name and last_name,
are stored in the employees table
The mapping of employee and department is stored in the dept_manager table
If you do not want to use JOIN, you can do this:
1. Find the employee name with emp_no as 110022 from the employee table:
mysql> SELECT emp.emp_no, emp.first_name, emp.last_name
FROM employees AS emp WHERE emp.emp_no=110022;

Find the department number from the departments table:
mysql> SELECT dept_no FROM dept_manager AS dept_mgr WHERE
dept_mgr.emp_no=110022;
Find the department name from the departments table:
mysql> SELECT dept_name FROM departments dept WHERE
dept.dept_no='d001';

How to do it...
To avoid look ups on three different tables using three statements, you can use JOIN to club
them. The important thing to note here is to join two tables, you should have one, or more,
common column to join. You can join employees and dept_manager based on emp_no,
they both have the emp_no column. Though the names don't need to match, you should
figure out the column on which you can join. Similarly, dept_mgr and departments have
dept_no as a common column.
Like a column alias, you can give table an alias and refer columns of that table using an
alias. For example, you can give employees an alias using FROM employees AS emp and
refer columns of the employees table using dot notation, such as emp.emp_no:
mysql> SELECT
emp.emp_no,
emp.first_name,
emp.last_name,
dept.dept_name
FROM
employees AS emp
JOIN dept_manager AS dept_mgr
ON emp.emp_no=dept_mgr.emp_no AND emp.emp_no=110022
JOIN departments AS dept
ON dept_mgr.dept_no=dept.dept_no;

Let's look at another example—you want to find out the average salary for each
department. For this you can use the AVG function and group by dept_no. To find out the
department name, you can join the results with the departments table on dept_no:
mysql> SELECT
dept_name,
AVG(salary) AS avg_salary
FROM
salaries
JOIN dept_emp
ON salaries.emp_no=dept_emp.emp_no
JOIN departments
ON dept_emp.dept_no=departments.dept_no
GROUP BY dept_emp.dept_no
ORDER BY
avg_salary
DESC;

Identifying Duplicates using SELF JOIN
You want to find the duplicate rows in a table for specific columns. For example, you want
to find out which employees have the same first_name, same last_name, same gender,
and same hire_date. In that case, you can join the employees table with itself while
specifying the columns where you want to find duplicates in the JOIN clause. You need to
use different aliases for each table.
You need to add an index on the columns you want to join. The indexes will be discussed in
Chapter 13, Performance Tuning. For now, you can execute this command to add an index:
mysql> ALTER TABLE employees ADD INDEX name(first_name, last_name);

Using SUB queries
A subquery is a SELECT statement within another statement. Suppose you want to find the
name of the employees who started as a Senior Engineer on 1986-06-26.
You can get the emp_no from the titles table, and name from the employees table. You
can also use JOIN to find out the results.
To get the emp_no from titles:
mysql> SELECT emp_no FROM titles WHERE title="Senior Engineer" AND
from_date="1986-06-26";

To find the names through employees number:
Other clauses such as EXISTS and EQUAL are also supported in MySQL. Refer to the
reference manual,
mysql> SELECT
first_name,
last_name
FROM
employees
WHERE
emp_no
IN (SELECT emp_no FROM titles WHERE title="Senior Engineer" AND
from_date="1986-06-26");

Find the employee making the maximum salary:
mysql> SELECT emp_no FROM salaries WHERE salary=(SELECT MAX(salary) FROM
salaries);

Finding mismatched rows between tables
Suppose you want to find rows in a table that are not in other tables. You can achieve this in
two ways. Using the NOT IN clause or using OUTER JOIN.
To find the matched rows, you can use normal JOIN, if you want to find mismatched rows,
you can use OUTER JOIN. Normal JOIN means A intersection B. OUTER JOIN gives
matching records of both A and B and also gives unmatched records of A with NULL. If you
want the output of A-B, you can use the WHERE <JOIN COLUMN IN B> IS NULL clause.
To understand the usage of OUTER JOIN, create two employee tables and insert some
values:
mysql> CREATE TABLE employees_list1 AS SELECT * FROM employees WHERE
first_name LIKE 'aa%’;
mysql> CREATE TABLE employees_list2 AS SELECT * FROM employees WHERE emp_no
BETWEEN 400000 AND 500000 AND gender='F';

To find out the employees who exist in employees_list1 but not in employees_list2:
mysql> SELECT * FROM employees_list1 WHERE emp_no NOT IN (SELECT emp_no
FROM employees_list2);

Or you can use OUTER JOIN:
mysql> SELECT l1.* FROM employees_list1 l1 LEFT OUTER JOIN employees_list2
l2 ON l1.emp_no=l2.emp_no WHERE l2.emp_no IS NULL;
The outer join creates NULL columns of the second table in the join list for each unmatched
row. If you use RIGHT JOIN, the first table will get NULL values for the unmatched rows.
You can also use OUTER JOIN to find matched rows. Instead of WHERE l2.emp_no IS
NULL, give WHERE emp_no IS NOT NULL
mysql> SELECT l1.* FROM employees_list1 l1 LEFT OUTER JOIN employees_list2
l2 ON l1.emp_no=l2.emp_no WHERE l2.emp_no IS NOT NULL;

Stored procedures
Suppose you need to execute a series of statements in MySQL, instead of sending all SQL
statements every time, you can encapsulate all the statements in a single program and call it
whenever required. A stored procedure is a set of SQL statements for which no return value
is needed.
Apart from SQL statements, you can make use of variables to store results and do
programmatical stuff inside a stored procedure. For example, you can write IF, CASE
clauses, logical operations, and WHILE loops.
Stored functions and procedures are also referred to as stored routines.
• For creating a stored procedure, you should have the CREATE ROUTINE privilege.
• Stored functions will have a return value.
• Stored procedures do not have a return value.
• All the code is written inside the BEGIN and END block.
• Stored functions can be called directly in a SELECT statement.
• Stored procedures can be called using the CALL statement.
• Since the statements inside stored routines should end with a delimiter (;), you
have to change the delimiter for MySQL so that MySQL won't interpret the SQL
statements inside a stored routine with normal statements. After the creation of
the procedure, you can change the delimiter back to the default value.

How to do it...
For example, you want to add a new employee. You should update three tables, namely
employees, salaries, and titles. Instead of executing three statements, you can
develop a stored procedure and call it to create a new employee.
You have to pass the employee's first_name, last_name, gender, and birth_date, as
well as the department the employee joins.

To use the stored procedure, grant the execute privilege to the emp_read_only user:
mysql> GRANT EXECUTE ON employees.* TO 'emp_read_only'@'%’;
Invoke the stored procedure using the CALL stored_procedure(OUT variable, IN
values) statement and name of the routine.
Connect to MySQL using the emp_read_only account:
shell> mysql -u emp_read_only -pemp_pass employees –A
Pass the variable where you want to store the @new_emp_no output and also pass the
required input values:
mysql> CALL create_employee(@new_emp_no, 'John', 'Smith', 'M',
'1984-06-19', 'Research', 'Staff’);

Functions
Just like stored procedures, you can create stored functions. The main difference is
functions should have a return value and they can be called in SELECT. Usually, stored
functions are created to simplify complex calculations.
How to do it...
Here is an example of how to write a function and how to call it. Suppose a banker wants to
give a credit card based on income level, instead of exposing the actual salary, you can
expose this function to find out the income level:
shell> vi function.sql;
DROP FUNCTION IF EXISTS get_sal_level;
DELIMITER $$
CREATE FUNCTION get_sal_level(emp int) RETURNS VARCHAR(10)
DETERMINISTIC
BEGIN
DECLARE sal_level varchar(10);
DECLARE avg_sal FLOAT;

SELECT AVG(salary) INTO avg_sal FROM salaries WHERE emp_no=emp;
IF avg_sal < 50000 THEN
SET sal_level = 'BRONZE';
ELSEIF (avg_sal >= 50000 AND avg_sal < 70000) THEN
SET sal_level = 'SILVER';
ELSEIF (avg_sal >= 70000 AND avg_sal < 90000) THEN
SET sal_level = 'GOLD';
ELSEIF (avg_sal >= 90000) THEN
SET sal_level = 'PLATINUM';
ELSE
SET sal_level = 'NOT FOUND';
END IF;
RETURN (sal_level);
END
$$
DELIMITER ;
To create the function:
mysql> SOURCE function.sql;

To list all the stored functions in a database, execute SHOW FUNCTION STATUSG. To check
the definition of the existing stored function, you can execute SHOW CREATE FUNCTION
<function_name>G.
It is very important to give the DETERMINISTIC keyword in the function
creation. A routine is considered DETERMINISTIC if it always produces
the same result for the same input parameters, and NOT DETERMINISTIC
otherwise. If neither DETERMINISTIC nor NOT DETERMINISTIC is given
in the routine definition, the default is NOT DETERMINISTIC. To declare
that a function is deterministic, you must specify DETERMINISTIC
explicitly.
Declaring a NON DETERMINISTIC routine as DETERMINISTIC might lead
to unexpected results, by causing the optimizer to make incorrect
execution plan choices. Declaring a DETERMINISTIC routine as NON
DETERMINISTIC might diminish performance, by causing available
optimizations not to be used.
Inbuilt functions
MySQL provides numerous inbuilt functions. You have already used the CURDATE()
function to get the current date.

You can use the functions in the WHERE clause:
mysql> SELECT * FROM employees WHERE hire_date = CURDATE();
For example, the following function gives the date from exactly one week ago:
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD(CURDATE(), INTERVAL -7 DAY) AS '7 Days Ago’;
Add two strings:
mysql> SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) FROM employees
LIMIT 1;

Events
Just like a cron on a Linux server, MySQL has EVENTS to handle the scheduled tasks.
MySQL uses a special thread called the event schedule thread to execute all scheduled
events. By default, the event scheduler thread is not enabled (version < 8.0.3), to enable it,
execute:
mysql> SET GLOBAL event_scheduler = ON;
Howto do it...
Suppose you no longer need to keep salary audit records that are more than a month old,
you can schedule an event that runs daily and deletes the records from the salary_audit
table that are a month old.
mysql> DROP EVENT IF EXISTS purge_salary_audit;
DELIMITER $$
CREATE EVENT IF NOT EXISTS purge_salary_audit
ON SCHEDULE
EVERY 1 WEEK
STARTS CURRENT_DATE
DO BEGIN
DELETE FROM salary_audit WHERE date_modified < DATE_ADD(CURDATE(),
INTERVAL -7 day);
END $$
DELIMITER ;

Triggers
A trigger is used to activate something before or after the trigger event. For example, you
can have a trigger activate before each row that is inserted into a table or after each row
that is updated.
Triggers are highly useful while altering a table without downtime and also for
auditing purposes. Suppose you want to find out the previous value of a row, you can
write
a trigger that saves those rows in another table before updating. The other table serves
as an
audit table that has the previous records.
The trigger action time can be BEFORE or AFTER, which indicates whether the trigger
activates before or after each row to be modified.
Trigger events can be INSERT, DELETE, or UPDATE:
INSERT: Whenever a new row gets inserted through INSERT, REPLACE, or LOAD
DATA, the trigger gets activated
UPDATE: Through the UPDATE statement
DELETE: Through the DELETE or REPLACE statements
From MySQL 5.7, a table can have multiple triggers at the same time. For example, a
table
can have two BEFORE INSERT triggers. You have to specify which trigger should go first
using FOLLOWS or PRECEDES.

How to do it...
For example, you want to round off the salary before inserting it into the salaries table.
NEW refers to the new value that is being inserted:
shell> vi before_insert_trigger.sql
DROP TRIGGER IF EXISTS salary_round;
DELIMITER $$
CREATE TRIGGER salary_round BEFORE INSERT ON salaries
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
SET NEW.salary=ROUND(NEW.salary);
END
$$
DELIMITER ;
Create the trigger by sourcing the file:
mysql> SOURCE before_insert_trigger.sql;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.06 sec)
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)
Test the trigger by inserting a floating number into the salary:
mysql> INSERT INTO salaries VALUES(10002, 100000.79, CURDATE(),
'9999-01-01');

Note that the following trigger precedes the salary_round trigger, which is specified by
PRECEDES salary_round:
shell> vi before_insert_trigger.sql
DELIMITER $$
CREATE TRIGGER salary_audit
BEFORE INSERT
ON salaries FOR EACH ROW PRECEDES salary_round
BEGIN
INSERT INTO salary_audit VALUES(NEW.emp_no, USER(), CURDATE());
END; $$
DELIMITER ;
Insert it into salaries:
mysql> INSERT INTO salaries VALUES(10003, 100000.79, CURDATE(),
'9999-01-01');

In case the salary_audit table is dropped or is not available, all the
inserts on the salaries table will be blocked. If you do not want to do
auditing, you should drop the trigger first and then the table.
Triggers can make overhead on the write speed based on the complexity
of it.
To check all the triggers, execute SHOW TRIGGERSG.
To check the definition of an existing trigger, execute SHOW CREATE
TRIGGER <trigger_name>.
Views
View is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. It will also have rows
and columns just like a real table, but few restrictions, which will be discussed later. Views
hide the SQL complexity and, more importantly, provide additional security.
How to do it...
Suppose you want to give access only to the emp_no and salary columns of the salaries
table, and from_date is after 2002-01-01. For this, you can create a view with the SQL
that gives the required result.
mysql> CREATE ALGORITHM=UNDEFINED
DEFINER=`root`@`localhost`
SQL SECURITY DEFINER VIEW salary_view
AS
SELECT emp_no, salary FROM salaries WHERE from_date > '2002-01-01';
Now the salary_view view is created and you can query it just like any other table:
mysql> SELECT emp_no, AVG(salary) as avg FROM salary_view GROUP BY emp_no
ORDER BY avg DESC LIMIT 5;

You can see that the view has access to particular rows (that is, from_date >
'2002-01-01') and not all of the rows. You can use the view to restrict user access to
particular rows.
To list all views, execute:
mysql> SHOW FULL TABLES WHERE TABLE_TYPE LIKE 'VIEW’;
To check the definition of the view, execute:
mysql> SHOW CREATE VIEW salary_viewG
You might have noticed the current_dept_emp and dept_emp_latest_date views,
which are there as part of the employee database. You can explore the definition and find
out their purpose.
Simple views that do not have sub-queries, JOINS, GROUP BY clauses, union, and so on, can
be updated. salary_view is a simple view that can be updated or inserted if the
underlying tables have a default value:
mysql> UPDATE salary_view SET salary=100000 WHERE emp_no=10001;
mysql> INSERT INTO salary_view VALUES(10001,100001);
ERROR 1423 (HY000): Field of view 'employees.salary_view' underlying table
doesn't have a default value

If the table has a default value, you could have inserted a row even if it does not match the
filter criteria in the view. To avoid that, and to insert rows that satisfy the view condition,
you have to provide WITH CHECK OPTION in the definition.
The VIEW algorithms:
• MERGE: MySQL combines the input query and the view definition into a single
query and then executes the combined query. The MERGE algorithm is allowed
only on simple views.
• TEMPTABLE: MySQL stores the results in the temporary table and then it executes
the input query against this temporary table.
• UNDEFINED (default): MySQL automatically chooses the MERGE or TEMPTABLE
algorithm. MySQL prefers the MERGE algorithm to the TEMPTABLE algorithm
because the MERGE algorithm is much more efficient.

To check the events, execute:
mysql> SHOW EVENTSG

To check the definition on the event, execute:
mysql> SHOW CREATE EVENT purge_salary_auditG
To disable/enable the event, execute the following:
mysql> ALTER EVENT purge_salary_audit DISABLE;
mysql> ALTER EVENT purge_salary_audit ENABLE;
Access control
All stored programs (procedures, functions, triggers, and events) and views have a
DEFINER. If the DEFINER is not specified, the user who creates the object will be chosen as
DEFINER.
Stored routines (procedures and functions) and views have an SQL SECURITY
characteristic with a value of DEFINER or INVOKER to specify whether the object executes in
the definer or invoker context. Triggers and events have no SQL SECURITY characteristic
and always execute in the definer context. The server invokes these objects automatically as
necessary, so there is no invoking user.

Getting information about databases
and
tables
You might have already noticed an information_schema database in the list of databases.
This is a collection of views that consist of metadata about all the
database objects. You can connect to information_schema and explore all the tables. You
either query the information_schema tables or use the SHOW command, which essentially does the
same. INFORMATION_SCHEMA queries are implemented as views over the data
dictionary tables. There are two types of metadata in the INFORMATION_SCHEMA tables:
Static table metadata: TABLE_SCHEMA, TABLE_NAME, TABLE_TYPE, and ENGINE.
These statistics will be read directly from the data dictionary.
Dynamic table metadata: AUTO_INCREMENT, AVG_ROW_LENGTH, and DATA_FREE.
Dynamic metadata frequently changes (for example, the AUTO_INCREMENT value
will advance after each INSERT). In many cases, the dynamic metadata will also
incur some cost to accurately calculate on demand, and accuracy may not be
beneficial for the typical query. Consider the case of the DATA_FREE statistic that
shows the number of free bytes in a table—a cached value is usually sufficient.

In MySQL 8.0, the dynamic table metadata will default to being cached. This is configurable
via the information_schema_stats setting (default cached), and can be changed to SET
@@GLOBAL.information_schema_stats='LATEST' in order to always retrieve the
dynamic information directly from the storage engine (at the cost of slightly higher query
execution).
As an alternative, the user can also execute ANALYZE TABLE on the table, to update the
cached dynamic statistics.
Most of the tables have the TABLE_SCHEMA column, which refers to the database name, and
the TABLE_NAME column, which refers to the table name.
How to do it...
Check the list of all the tables:
mysql> USE INFORMATION_SCHEMA;
mysql> SHOW TABLES;
TABLES
The TABLES table contains all the information about the table, such as which database
belongs to TABLE_SCHEMA, the number of rows (TABLE_ROWS), ENGINE, DATA_LENGTH,
INDEX_LENGTH, and DATA_FREE:
mysql> DESC INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES;

COLUMNS
This table lists all the columns and its definition for each table:
mysql> SELECT * FROM COLUMNS WHERE TABLE_NAME='employees’G
FILES
You have already seen that MySQL stores the InnoDB data in the .ibd files inside a
directory (with the same name as the database name) in the data directory . To get more
information about the files, you can query the FILES table:
mysql> SELECT * FROM FILES WHERE FILE_NAME LIKE
'./employees/employees.ibd’G
You should be keen at DATA_FREE, which represents the unallocated segments plus the data
that is free inside the segments due to fragmentation. When you rebuild the table, you can
free up bytes shown in DATA_FREE.

INNODB_SYS_TABLESPACES
The size of the file is also available in the INNODB_TABLESPACES table:
mysql> SELECT * FROM INNODB_TABLESPACES WHERE NAME='employees/employees’G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
SPACE: 118
NAME: employees/employees
FLAG: 16417
ROW_FORMAT: Dynamic
PAGE_SIZE: 16384
ZIP_PAGE_SIZE: 0
SPACE_TYPE: Single
FS_BLOCK_SIZE: 4096
FILE_SIZE: 32505856
ALLOCATED_SIZE: 32509952
You can verify the same in the filesystem:
shell> sudo ls -ltr /var/lib/mysql/employees/employees.ibd

INNODB_TABLESTATS
The size of the index and approximate number of rows is available in
the INNODB_TABLESTATS table:
mysql> SELECT * FROM INNODB_TABLESTATS WHERE NAME='employees/employees’G
PROCESSLIST
One of the most used views is the process list. It lists all the queries running on the server:
mysql> SELECT * FROM PROCESSLISTG

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