Visualizing biodiversity through the lens of ecoregions

Editor's Notes

• #2: In this presentation, we examine biodiversity in the American West and beyond by looking through the lens of ecoregions, which are like ecological neighborhoods.
• #3: Narrative: Ecoregions are the unit of analysis in The Nature Conservancy’s Atlas of Global Conservation and TNC is the source for the data presented in these slides.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes:
• #4: Narrative: Before we get to ecoregions, lets first talk briefly about another way to classify the natural world: biomes. An area’s climate more or less determines what types of plants can grow there. At the broadest level, we can classify the planet’s land masses according to the predominant vegetation, or lack thereof. There are 16 terrestrial biomes, ranging from snow and tundra to tropical forests. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Biomes group ecoregions that have similar vegetation. Although each ecoregion has its distinctive features,ecoregions can be grouped into larger units based on their similar climate and habitat structure and ecological similarity.”
• #5: Narrative: Here’s a close-up of the U.S. Much of the interior West is dominated by desert and xeric (dry) shrublands, but the higher elevations support temperate conifer forests. California has Mediterranean forests along much of its coast and the Sierra Foothills. There’s a bit of subtropical forest in the mountains of Southeast Arizona and temperate broadleaf forest in Oregon’s Coastal Range. As with temperature, rainfall, and elevation, there is more uniformity in the East than the West. Look, for example, at how many different types of communities are found in California, or how isolated mountains in Great Basin create little biome islands. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Biomes group ecoregions that have similar vegetation. Although each ecoregion has its distinctive features, ecoregions can be grouped into larger units based on their similar climate and habitat structure and ecological similarity.”
• #6: Narrative: There are big disparities among biomes in terms of their level of human exploitation around the globe. This graphic shows what percent of each biome has been protected and what percent has been converted from its natural state. Much more land in tundra, boreal forests and taiga has been protected than converted, but most other biomes have seen far more land developed than conserved. The authors of this study argue that the ratio of percent protected to percent converted can be used as an index for biome vulnerability.Source: Hoekstra, J. M., T. M. Boucher, et al. (2005). "Confronting a biome crisis: global disparities of habitat loss and protection." Ecology Letters8(1): 23-29.URL: http://protectedareas.info/upload/document/ele_hoekstraetal.pdfNotes: Human impacts on the natural environment have reached such proportions that in addition to an extinction crisis, we now also face a broader biome crisis. Here we identify the world’s terrestrial biomes and, at a finer spatial scale, ecoregions in which biodiversity and ecological function are at greatest risk because of extensive habitat conversion and limited habitat protection. Habitat conversion exceeds habitat protection by a ratio of 8 : 1 in temperate grasslands and Mediterranean biomes, and 10 : 1 in more than 140 ecoregions. These regions include some of the most biologically distinctive, species rich ecosystems on Earth, as well as the last home of many threatened and endangered species. Confronting the biome crisis requires a concerted and comprehensive response aimed at protecting not only species, but the variety of landscapes, ecological interactions, and evolutionary pressures that sustain biodiversity, generate ecosystem services, and evolve new species in the future.
• #7: Narrative: This graphic looks not only at historical losses of habitat in the biomes but also projects out to 2050. By that time, tundra and boreal forests will still be largely intact, but in most biomes, at least half of their original habitat will have been converted. The biggest losses, as a percentage of the biome, are expected in tropical and subtropical coniferous forests. However, in temperate forests and woodlands, reforestation will lead to a net decrease in habitat converted.Source: Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentURL: http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspxNotes: A biome is the largest unit of ecological classification that is convenient to recognize below the entire globe. Projected loss by 2050 is according to the four MEA scenarios. For 2050 projections, the average value of the projections under the four scenarios is plotted and the error bars (black lines) represent the range of values from the different scenarios.
• #8: Narrative: This graphic, from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, summarizes how various threats have impacted biomes around the world over the past century and the current trends for the driver. The only case in which a driver’s impact on biodiversity is decreasing is habitat change in temperate forests, where countries are now doing a better job of managing forestry and other land uses. Over-exploitation is only increasing in a few biomes but is steady in the others. For all biomes, the impacts of climate change and pollution are rapidly increasing. Source: Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentURL: http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx
• #9: Narrative: The U.S. leads the world in the number of biomes and smaller ecoregions within its borders, even exceeding countries that are much larger in size. Source: Stein, Bruce A., Lynn S. Kutner, Jonathan S. Adams, Nature Conservancy (U.S.), and Association for Biodiversity Information. Precious Heritage : The Status of Biodiversity in the United States. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.URL: http://www.natureserve.org/publications/preciousHeritage.jsp
• #10: Narrative: So it’s no surprise that the U.S. also ranks high in species diversity. In this graphic, blue bars show the number of species that are found in the U.S., broken down by species type. Orange diamonds show what percent of the world’s species are found in the U.S. and the number in parenthesis in the labels indicate the U.S. ranking worldwide. The highest levels of diversity for several groups are found in the U.S., including freshwater mussels, freshwater snails, and crayfishes; several other groups, such as freshwater fishes and gymnosperms, are also well represented in the U.S.Source: Stein, Bruce A., Lynn S. Kutner, Jonathan S. Adams, Nature Conservancy (U.S.), and Association for Biodiversity Information. Precious Heritage : The Status of Biodiversity in the United States. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.URL: http://www.natureserve.org/publications/preciousHeritage.jsp Notes: Several species groups have their highest levels of diversity in the U.S., including freshwater mussels, freshwater snails, and crayfishes; several other taxonomic groups, such as freshwater fishes and gymnosperms, are also well represented in the U.S.U.S. figures refer to accepted, described species and are from Natural Heritage Central Databases 1999; world figures are estimates of described species and are from various sources. Flowering plants have been removed from graphic due to scale issues.
• #11: Narrative: Let’s take a closer look at ecoregions, which are a helpful unit of analysis for examining the incredible diversity of species and ecosystems that inhabit the world and the West.
• #12: Narrative: A more fine-grained view than biomes classifies the terrestrial world into 825 unique ecoregions. These areas are sort of like ecological neighborhoods with similar habitat. The slides that follow are based on The Nature Conservancy’s Atlas of Global Conservation, which analyzes the global environment using terrestrial and freshwater ecoregions.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Ecoregions divide the world into regions of similar habitat. Terrestrial ecoregions draw boundaries that approximate where one set of similar habitats blends with another. Each of the world’s 825 terrestrial ecoregions bounds a natural area in which a unique collection of ecosystems, natural communities, and species is found.”
• #13: Narrative: You can see that there are dozens of terrestrial ecoregions just in the U.S. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Ecoregions divide the world into regions of similar habitat. Terrestrial ecoregions draw boundaries that approximate where one set of similar habitats blends with another. Each of the world’s 825 terrestrial ecoregions bounds a natural area in which a unique collection of ecosystems, natural communities, and species is found.”
• #14: Narrative: Here’s a close-up of the West. If you were to drive through several ecoregions on an interstate road trip, you’d notice the differences simply by looking out the window. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Ecoregions divide the world into regions of similar habitat. Terrestrial ecoregions draw boundaries that approximate where one set of similar habitats blends with another. Each of the world’s 825 terrestrial ecoregions bounds a natural area in which a unique collection of ecosystems, natural communities, and species is found.”
• #15: Narrative: The Nature Conservancy’s atlas also analyzes the Earth according to its 426 freshwater ecoregions. Each of the regions has a unique collection of fish species, other aquatic species, and freshwater habitats.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Freshwater ecoregions divide the world into regions that contain similar freshwater species. Each of the world’s 426 freshwater regions contains a distinctive suite of fish species, other aquatic species, and freshwater habitats.”
• #16: Narrative: Here are U.S.freshwater ecoregions, which generally correspond to the boundaries of important river basins. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Freshwater ecoregions divide the world into regions that contain similar freshwater species. Each of the world’s 426 freshwater regions contains a distinctive suite of fish species, other aquatic species, and freshwater habitats.”
• #17: Narrative: This close-up of the West shows its two-dozen or so freshwater ecoregions. The geographic definitions don’t always line up with the boundaries of river basins. The Colorado River Basin, for example, includes the Colorado, Bonneville, Vegas-Virgin, and Gila freshwater ecoregions. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlNotes: “Freshwater ecoregions divide the world into regions that contain similar freshwater species. Each of the world’s 426 freshwater regions contains a distinctive suite of fish species, other aquatic species, and freshwater habitats.”
• #18: Narrative: There are 11 types of freshwater ecoregions in the world. Some areas are dominated by lakes, others by rivers and their deltas. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml
• #19: Narrative: The U.S. is home to a variety of freshwater systems. There are subtropical river systems in Florida, temperate rivers in the midsection of the country and along the coasts, lake-dominated ecoregions around the Great Lakes, and warm water desert rivers and closed basins in the intermountain West. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml
• #20: Narrative: One way to summarize biodiversity is to look at the evolutionary distinctiveness of species in a given location. This map shows the phylogenetic diversity of terrestrial vertebrate species (animals with a backbone). Phylogenetics is a measure of how closely related a group of species is. An ecoregion with high phylogenetic diversity has species that are more distinct from one another. The measure is calculated by using something called a cladogram, which is what most people know as the “tree of life,” a diagram showing how species have branched out due to evolution. Phylogenetics takes measurements of the cladogram to calculate the evolutionary distinctiveness of species, which is greatest around the tropics. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4c0ab10592b14a7fb29588eda42a0d42Notes: We calculated the phylogenetic diversity of vertebrate species by terrestrial ecoregion using Faith’s (1992) statistical model of PD = ?Dij, where PD is a phylogenetic diversity score, and ?Dij, is the sum of the pairwise distances for the minimum spanning distance among a selected set of species (i.e., the species occurring in an ecoregion) on a taxic cladogram of all vertebrate species worldwide, using WWF’s WildFinder database. Data derived using:Faith, D. P. 1992. Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity. Biological Conservation 61: 1–10.World Wildlife Fund. 2006. WildFinder: Database of species distributions, ver. Jan-06. Available at gis.wwf.org/WildFinder. Digital media.
• #21: Narrative: In the West, phylogenetic diversity of vertebrate species tends to be highest in the desert Southwest. In general, measures of species diversity are greater at lower latitudes due to the past effects of Ice Age glaciation at higher latitudes and the configuration of landforms on the Earth, both past and present.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4c0ab10592b14a7fb29588eda42a0d42Notes: We calculated the phylogenetic diversity of vertebrate species by terrestrial ecoregion using Faith’s (1992) statistical model of PD = ?Dij, where PD is a phylogenetic diversity score, and ?Dij, is the sum of the pairwise distances for the minimum spanning distance among a selected set of species (i.e., the species occurring in an ecoregion) on a taxic cladogram of all vertebrate species worldwide, using WWF’s WildFinder database. Data derived using:Faith, D. P. 1992. Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity. Biological Conservation 61: 1–10.World Wildlife Fund. 2006. WildFinder: Database of species distributions, ver. Jan-06. Available at gis.wwf.org/WildFinder. Digital media.
• #22: Narrative: Another high-level measure of biodiversity is the number of species that are found in one area but no other place on Earth—what’s known as endemism. This mapshows the number of endemic vertebrate species, by terrestrial ecoregion. Endemic species of birds, mammals, and reptiles have typically evolved in isolated habitat, such as islands. Endemism tends to be greatest in the tropics and in places with many islands.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=87b2386f92a84e30aa91f90be086c73aNotes: The number of terrestrial endemic species refers to the number of endemic mammals, birds, and reptiles in each terrestrial ecoregion. We compiled data on these endemic species by querying the WWF WildFinder database for their occurrences by ecoregion. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #23: Narrative: In the U.S., the number of endemic vertebrate species is highest in the Southwest and Gulf Coast states. Even arid areas have “islands” of isolated habitat, such as mountaintop forests surrounded by deserts, that can give rise to endemism.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=87b2386f92a84e30aa91f90be086c73aNotes: The number of terrestrial endemic species refers to the number of endemic mammals, birds, and reptiles in each terrestrial ecoregion. We compiled data on these endemic species by querying the WWF WildFinder database for their occurrences by ecoregion. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #24: Narrative: Global hotspots for endemic freshwater amphibians, turtles, crocodiles, and fish include coastal rivers of the high Andes, western India, and East African Rift Valley Lakes.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=c36f49c00c8d4494986befe0ec1e39d3Notes: The map of the number of freshwater endemic species shows the number of endemic fish, freshwater turtles, crocodiles, and amphibians found in each freshwater ecoregion. To calculate the total number of endemic species by ecoregion, we simply added the number of endemic species in these four taxonomic groups. Fish endemics are from Abell et al. (2008). Extirpated fish species are included in these tallies, but resolved extinct species, as determined by the Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms, and introduced species are excluded. Data on amphibian species were generated from distribution maps for 5,640 amphibian species gathered by the Global Amphibian Assessment (IUCN et al. 2006). Data on freshwater turtles were generated from species distribution maps provided by Dr. Kurt A. Buhlmann, the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, U.S.; and the International Union for Conservation of Nature–Species Survival Commission (IUCN-SSC) and Conservation International/Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CI/CABS) Global Reptile Assessment (preliminary results). For both amphibians and turtles, species distribution maps were used to determine endemism by ecoregion. If at least 90 percent of a species’ range occurred in only one ecoregion, that species was said to be endemic. Some ecoregions with a long and narrow shape may have an overestimation of species given the way the range polygons were drawn. This is particularly true for the Amazonas High Andes ecoregion (312), where the mountain range has been used as a range boundary for hundreds of species. The two ecoregional endemic crocodiles were the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) in the Cuba–Cayman Islands ecoregion (211), and the Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis) in the Lower Yangtze ecoregion (766). These were added to the total tally for the respective ecoregions. Our primary data sources for the maps were the following:Abell, R., M. L. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, et al. 2008. Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioScience 58, no. 5: 403–414.Buhlmann, K. A., T. B. Akre, J. B. Iverson, D. Karapatakis, R. A. Mittermeier, A. Georges, A. G. J. Rhodin, P. P. van Dijk, and J. W. Gibbons. 2007. A global analysis of tortoise and freshwater turtle distributions. Data from the preliminary results of the Global Reptile Assessment. International Union for Conservation of Nature–Species Survival Commission (IUCN-SSC), Conservation International/Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CI/CABS), and Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment. Available at www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians. Digital media.
• #25: Narrative: In the U.S., freshwater endemism is greatest in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia; out West, hotspots include California, Oregon, Utah, and Arizona.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=c36f49c00c8d4494986befe0ec1e39d3Notes: The map of the number of freshwater endemic species shows the number of endemic fish, freshwater turtles, crocodiles, and amphibians found in each freshwater ecoregion. To calculate the total number of endemic species by ecoregion, we simply added the number of endemic species in these four taxonomic groups. Fish endemics are from Abell et al. (2008). Extirpated fish species are included in these tallies, but resolved extinct species, as determined by the Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms, and introduced species are excluded. Data on amphibian species were generated from distribution maps for 5,640 amphibian species gathered by the Global Amphibian Assessment (IUCN et al. 2006). Data on freshwater turtles were generated from species distribution maps provided by Dr. Kurt A. Buhlmann, the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, U.S.; and the International Union for Conservation of Nature–Species Survival Commission (IUCN-SSC) and Conservation International/Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CI/CABS) Global Reptile Assessment (preliminary results). For both amphibians and turtles, species distribution maps were used to determine endemism by ecoregion. If at least 90 percent of a species’ range occurred in only one ecoregion, that species was said to be endemic. Some ecoregions with a long and narrow shape may have an overestimation of species given the way the range polygons were drawn.Our primary data sources for the maps were the following:Abell, R., M. L. Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, et al. 2008. Freshwater ecoregions of the world: A new map of biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioScience 58, no. 5: 403–414.Buhlmann, K. A., T. B. Akre, J. B. Iverson, D. Karapatakis, R. A. Mittermeier, A. Georges, A. G. J. Rhodin, P. P. van Dijk, and J. W. Gibbons. 2007. A global analysis of tortoise and freshwater turtle distributions. Data from the preliminary results of the Global Reptile Assessment. International Union for Conservation of Nature–Species Survival Commission (IUCN-SSC), Conservation International/Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CI/CABS), and Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment. Available at www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians. Digital media.
• #26: Narrative: The analysis—and conservation—of biodiversity often focuses on those species most at risk of extinction. This map shows the number of globally threatened animals, by terrestrial ecoregion. Threatened species are those listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered. Globally, some of the greatest concentrations of threatened vertebrates are in South America and Southeast Asia. About half of the threatened animals are reptiles and amphibians, one quarter are mammals, and one quarter are birds.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=190e424f4b62481985f5fa6776668628Notes: We compiled a vertebrate species list for each ecoregion from WWF’s WildFinder database (WWF 2006). This list was then compared against the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2008) to determine the number of species per ecoregion that are threatened. Threatened species are those listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (www.redlist.org).Data derived from:World Wildlife Fund (WWF). 2006. WildFinder: Database of species distributions, ver. Jan-06. Available at www.gis.wwf.org/WildFinder.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species summary statistics. Available at www.redlist.org.
• #27: Narrative: In the U.S., the Southwest, the foothills around California’s Central Valley, the Southeast, and Appalachians have the most threatened animals. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=190e424f4b62481985f5fa6776668628Notes: We compiled a vertebrate species list for each ecoregion from WWF’s WildFinder database (WWF 2006). This list was then compared against the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2008) to determine the number of species per ecoregion that are threatened. Threatened species are those listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (www.redlist.org).Data derived from:World Wildlife Fund (WWF). 2006. WildFinder: Database of species distributions, ver. Jan-06: www.gis.wwf.org/WildFinder. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species summary statistics: www.redlist.org.
• #28: Narrative: Thenumber of globally threatened freshwater mammal, bird, and crocodilian species is highest in the Lower Amur River in northern Asia; the Lower Parana River in South America; the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irrawady rivers in southern Asia; and Indonesia’s coastal rivers. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=3c8bdda34373467ab17b8b86cf4d183eNotes: We generated the map of number of freshwater mammals, birds, and crocodilian species per ecoregion that are threatened with extinction from multiple sources, including species range maps, as well as geographic range descriptions from literature and online sources (our primary sources are listed below). Threatened species refer to those listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (www.redlist.org). We added together the numbers of threatened species for each of the taxonomic groups by ecoregion. When species range maps were used and a range overlapped several ecoregions, species were counted as present in all those ecoregions that had part of the range. Some ecoregions with long and narrow shape may have an overestimation of species given the way the range polygons were drawn. This is particularly true of the Amazonas High Andes ecoregion (312), where the mountain range has been used as a range boundary for hundreds of species. We determined threatened freshwater birds by first selecting freshwater obligates—those birds that need freshwater habitats to breed (e.g., swamps) or feed (e.g., fish, aquatic invertebrates). (See technical notes for “Birds” for more details.) We then compared this list of freshwater species to the list of threatened bird species and range maps from the Threatened Birds of the World 2004 by BirdLife International. Information on threatened crocodilian species is from the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. Presence/absence in ecoregions was assessed visually from online range maps. Threatened freshwater mammals include aquatic or semiaquatic species that spend a considerable amount of time in freshwater to feed and that usually live in the riparian vegetation close to rivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, and so forth. (See the “Mammals” technical notes for more details.) Threatened status was from the IUCN Red List. Both range species maps and visual assessment of locations were used to assign mammals to ecoregions. Distribution data on threatened fish and freshwater turtles were not available at the global level at the time of publication. The following were our primary data sources:BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona: Lynx; and Cambridge: BirdLife International.———. 2004 Threatened Birds of the World [CD]. Cambridge: BirdLife International.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at www.redlist.org.IUCN–Species Survival Commission (SSC) Crocodile Specialist Group. 2008. Web site. Available at http://iucncsg.org/ph1/modules/Home/.
• #29: Narrative: There aren’t many globally threatened freshwater mammal, bird, and crocodilian species in the American West—just a handful along the Southern California coast.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=3c8bdda34373467ab17b8b86cf4d183eNotes: We generated the map of number of freshwater mammals, birds, and crocodilian species per ecoregion that are threatened with extinction from multiple sources, including species range maps, as well as geographic range descriptions from literature and online sources (our primary sources are listed below). Threatened species refer to those listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (www.redlist.org). We added together the numbers of threatened species for each of the taxonomic groups by ecoregion. When species range maps were used and a range overlapped several ecoregions, species were counted as present in all those ecoregions that had part of the range. Some ecoregions with long and narrow shape may have an overestimation of species given the way the range polygons were drawn. We determined threatened freshwater birds by first selecting freshwater obligates—those birds that need freshwater habitats to breed (e.g., swamps) or feed (e.g., fish, aquatic invertebrates). (See technical notes for “Birds” for more details.) We then compared this list of freshwater species to the list of threatened bird species and range maps from the Threatened Birds of the World 2004 by BirdLife International. Information on threatened crocodilian species is from the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. Presence/absence in ecoregions was assessed visually from online range maps. Threatened freshwater mammals include aquatic or semiaquatic species that spend a considerable amount of time in freshwater to feed and that usually live in the riparian vegetation close to rivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, and so forth. (See the “Mammals” technical notes for more details.) Threatened status was from the IUCN Red List. Both range species maps and visual assessment of locations were used to assign mammals to ecoregions. Distribution data on threatened fish and freshwater turtles were not available at the global level at the time of publication. The following were our primary data sources:BirdLife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona: Lynx; and Cambridge: BirdLife International.———. 2004 Threatened Birds of the World [CD]. Cambridge: BirdLife International.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at www.redlist.org.IUCN–Species Survival Commission (SSC) Crocodile Specialist Group. 2008. Web site. Available at http://iucncsg.org/ph1/modules/Home/.
• #30: Narrative: This map shows the number of plant species by terrestrial ecoregion. Worldwide, there are more than 420,000 of the so-called higher order plants: trees, vines, grasses, fruits, vegetables, and legumes. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=43478f840ac84173979b22631c2ed672Notes:Kier et al. (2005) estimated the number of plant species in each terrestrial ecoregion.
• #31: Narrative: Deserts and arid lands typically have fewer plant species, while tropical rainforests have the most. But in North America, some drier parts of the inland West actually have more plant species than wetter climes along the coast. Compare, for example, the Great Basin in Nevada to Washington State.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=43478f840ac84173979b22631c2ed672Notes:Kier et al. (2005) estimated the number of plant species in each terrestrial ecoregion.
• #32: Narrative: The number of mammal species, shown here by terrestrial ecoregion, is highest in the rainforests of the Amazon, Africa, and Asia. Mammals tend to do better in warmer climates, though even polar regions have their share.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=863c20b7776d41d68612fa181b50e10aNotes: We compiled data on terrestrial mammals by querying the WWF WildFinder database for species occurrences by ecoregion. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #33: Narrative: In the U.S., the number of mammal species is greatest in the inland West and highest in the archipelago of “sky island” mountain ranges in southeast Arizona and southwest New Mexico, plus some higher elevation areas in West Texas.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=863c20b7776d41d68612fa181b50e10aNotes: We compiled data on terrestrial mammals by querying the WWF WildFinder database for species occurrences by ecoregion. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #34: Narrative: The greatest concentrations of freshwater mammal species are in regions with tropical forests and lots of flowing water.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=fe75950e6b524b548d30053861d884beNotes: Freshwater mammals include aquatic or semiaquatic species that spend a considerable amount of time in fresh water to feed and that usually live in the riparian vegetation close to rivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, and other freshwater habitats. We used species range maps, visual assessment of locations based on literature descriptions, and expert opinion to assign mammal species presence to ecoregions. Range species maps and distribution information for individual species were obtained from multiple sources and literature sources were used to determine whether a species is considered a freshwater mammal. Rodents make up at least 50 percent of all mammal species, and this percentage is probably underestimated given that every year more than thirty to forty new rodent species are recognized. In general, rodents are a poorly studied group; therefore, the number of species considered “freshwater rodents” in this data set is underestimated, and the species numbers are likely to be much higher.
• #35: Narrative: In the U.S., most areas have between four and eight freshwater mammal species, but there are upwards of 20 in the Pacific Northwest, parts of the Midwest, and along the eastern seaboard. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=fe75950e6b524b548d30053861d884beNotes: Freshwater mammals include aquatic or semiaquatic species that spend a considerable amount of time in freshwater to feed and that usually live in the riparian vegetation close to rivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, and other freshwater habitats. We used species range maps, visual assessment of locations based on literature descriptions, and expert opinion to assign mammal species presence to ecoregions. Range species maps and distribution information for individual species were obtained from multiple sources and literature sources were used to determine whether a species is considered a freshwater mammal. Rodents make up at least 50 percent of all mammal species, and this percentage is probably underestimated given that every year more than thirty to forty new rodent species are recognized. In general, rodents are a poorly studied group; therefore, the number of species considered “freshwater rodents” in this data set is underestimated, and the species numbers are likely to be much higher.
• #36: Narrative: Birds are found in virtually every terrestrial ecosystem, but more than one-third of species have been documented in Central and South America. Other hotspots include the tropical rainforests of Africa and Asia. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=798de47afddb48df9458338b04c995a4Notes: We compiled data on terrestrial birds by querying the WWF WildFinder database for species occurrences by ecoregion. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #37: Narrative: In the U.S., the diversity of bird species is highest in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, with many tropical and subtropical species at the northern extent of their ranges. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=798de47afddb48df9458338b04c995a4Notes: We compiled data on terrestrial birds by querying the WWF WildFinder database for species occurrences by ecoregion. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #38: Narrative: There are more than 800 freshwater bird species in the world. The East African wetlands have the greatest diversity, with more than 150 species.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=eb185e881fe54f3ea40977cfac8bf927Notes: Freshwater obligate birds include those species that need freshwater habitats for breeding (e.g., ducks, herons) or feeding (i.e., birds that depend almost exclusively on food found in freshwater habitats, such as freshwater fish, mollusks, and crustaceans). In all, 815 bird species were found to meet this criterion, with almost all bird families represented. We mapped freshwater bird species to freshwater ecoregions with the following procedures: for North and South America, NatureServe GIS data were summarized by freshwater ecoregion; for Africa, distribution maps presented in Birds of Africa (Brown et al. 1982–1997) were used to assign species to freshwater ecoregion by hand; for Asia and Australia, data were summarized using a grid system of bird species derived from the terrestrial ecoregion WildFinder data set. Literature sources were used to determine whether a species was considered a freshwater bird.
• #39: Narrative: In the U.S., Texas has the most freshwater bird species, but virtually all other parts of the country have at least 60 species.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=eb185e881fe54f3ea40977cfac8bf927Notes: Freshwater obligate birds include those species that need freshwater habitats for breeding (e.g., ducks, herons) or feeding (i.e., birds that depend almost exclusively on food found in freshwater habitats, such as freshwater fish, mollusks, and crustaceans). In all, 815 bird species were found to meet this criterion, with almost all bird families represented. We mapped freshwater bird species to freshwater ecoregions for North and South America using NatureServe GIS databy freshwater ecoregion.Literature sources were used to determine whether a species was considered a freshwater bird.
• #40: Narrative: The number of amphibian species is highest in warm, humid climates, including the Andes, Brazil, West Africa, and Borneo. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=08a1ba612a744b88bb5c37c7da4d6975Notes: We calculated the number of amphibian species per freshwater ecoregion using species range maps of the Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA, www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians) (IUCN et al. 2006). The 2006 GAA assessed 5,918 amphibian species and provided distribution maps for 5,640 of those species. When a range overlapped several ecoregions, we counted species as present in all those ecoregions that had part of the range. This may have resulted in an overestimate of species numbers in some ecoregions, especially those that are long and narrow in shape. This is particularly true for the Amazonas High Andes ecoregion (312), where the mountain range has been used as a range boundary for hundreds of species. Distribution maps from the GAA represent the “extent of occurrence” for each species—that is, the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary, which can be drawn to encompass all the known, inferred, or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon. Because of the conservative approach taken in the GAA to mapping species, the ranges for many species are likely to be minimum estimates. The GAA followed a rule of allowing interpolation of occurrence between known locations if the ecological conditions seem appropriate, but not permitting extrapolation beyond known locations. Some species are therefore almost certain to occur much more widely than the GAA has mapped. Because of this, some regions were recorded as having much lower numbers. Finally, the percentage of data-deficient species (23.4 percent) were very high compared to other taxa in the GAA.Data derived from: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment. www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians. Digital media.
• #41: Narrative: The Southeast U.S. has the greatest number of amphibian species and an especially large number of salamanders. There aren’t as many amphibian species out West, but there are still plenty in places that aren’t especially wet, such as the Colorado Plateau and Mojave Desert. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=08a1ba612a744b88bb5c37c7da4d6975Notes: We calculated the number of amphibian species per freshwater ecoregion using species range maps of the Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA, www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians) (IUCN et al. 2006). The 2006 GAA assessed 5,918 amphibian species and provided distribution maps for 5,640 of those species. When a range overlapped several ecoregions, we counted species as present in all those ecoregions that had part of the range. This may have resulted in an overestimate of species numbers in some ecoregions, especially those that are long and narrow in shape.Distribution maps from the GAA represent the “extent of occurrence” for each species—that is, the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary, which can be drawn to encompass all the known, inferred, or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon. Because of the conservative approach taken in the GAA to mapping species, the ranges for many species are likely to be minimum estimates. The GAA followed a rule of allowing interpolation of occurrence between known locations if the ecological conditions seem appropriate, but not permitting extrapolation beyond known locations. Some species are therefore almost certain to occur much more widely than the GAA has mapped. Because of this, some regions were recorded as having much lower numbers. Finally, the percentage of data-deficient species (23.4 percent) were very high compared to other taxa in the GAA.Data derived from: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment. www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians. Digital media.
• #42: Narrative: Scores of amphibian species have already gone extinct and scientists consider them among the most endangered types of animals. This map shows that the greatest number of threatened amphibians are found in the headwaters of the Amazon, in rivers and wetlands in South America’s Andes, and along major rivers in southern Mexico, India, and China. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=461e58214aa54ad79382066ab829c05fNotes: We generated the map of the number of freshwater amphibian species per ecoregion that are threatened with extinction using data from the Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA) (IUCN et al. 2006). The GAA assessed the conservation status of 5,918 amphibian species, and we analyzed the subset of 4,035 that depend on freshwater during some stage of their life cycle. Strictly arboreal species that do not require freshwater for their larval stage, species that develop directly from eggs without a larval stage, as well as few live-bearing species were excluded from this analysis. As of 2006, 1,356 freshwater amphibians were considered threatened. It is important to note, however, that for 1,427 amphibian species, there were insufficient data to assess their conservation status—these are classified by the GAA as “data deficient.” Therefore, these estimates for threat are conservative. Data derived from: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment. Available at www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians. Digital media.
• #43: Narrative: In the U.S., Texas has the most threatened amphibians. There are three to seven such species in California, Oregon, and the Four Corners states.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=461e58214aa54ad79382066ab829c05fNotes: We generated the map of the number of freshwater amphibian species per ecoregion that are threatened with extinction using data from the Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA) (IUCN et al. 2006). The GAA assessed the conservation status of 5,918 amphibian species, and we analyzed the subset of 4,035 that depend on freshwater during some stage of their life cycle. Strictly arboreal species that do not require freshwater for their larval stage, species that develop directly from eggs without a larval stage, as well as few live-bearing species were excluded from this analysis. As of 2006, 1,356 freshwater amphibians were considered threatened. It is important to note, however, that for 1,427 amphibian species, there were insufficient data to assess their conservation status—these are classified by the GAA as “data deficient.” Therefore, these estimates for threat are conservative.Data derived from: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Conservation International, and NatureServe. 2006. Global Amphibian Assessment. Available at www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians. Digital media.
• #44: Narrative: Scientists believe a number of factors are at play in the decline of amphibians. This graphic color-codes the declines according to the key in the lower left. In Asia, where there are many blue dots, the decline is primarily due to overexploitation, whereas in Europe and the U.S., many of the population decreases can be attributed to habitat loss. But in Central and South America, Australia, and parts of the U.S., the decline is still “enigmatic.” That is, habitat conditions are generally good and the species are not being overexploited, yet their numbers are shrinking. Another major factor in amphibian declines is the spread of the Chytrid fungus, which has been linked to local and global extinctions. Source: Stuart, S. N., J. S. Chanson, et al. (2004). "Status and Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide." Science 306(5702): 1783-1786.URL: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/306/5702/1783 http://people.nnu.edu/jocossel/Stuart%20et%20al%202004.pdfNotes: The first global assessment of amphibians provides new context to the well-publicized phenomenon of amphibian declines. Amphibians are more threatened, and are declining more rapidly, than either birds or mammals. Although many declines are due to habitat loss and overutilization, other, unidentified processes threaten 48%of rapidly declining species, and are driving species most quickly to extinction. Declines are non-random in terms of species’ ecological preferences, geographic ranges and taxonomic associations, and are most prevalent among Neotropical montane, stream-associated species. The lack of conservation remedies for these poorly understood declines means that hundreds of amphibian species now face extinction.
• #45: Narrative: The number of snake and lizard species is especially high in the tropical rainforests of Meso America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=c4755297e4074a0cb1c550d9263498a3Notes: We compiled data on terrestrial lizards and snakes by querying the WWF WildFinder database for species occurrences by ecoregion of the following taxonomic groups: Sauria, Serpentes, Amphisbaenia, and Rhynchocephalia. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #46: Narrative: The number of snake and lizard species in the U.S. is highest in Arizona and New Mexico.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=c4755297e4074a0cb1c550d9263498a3Notes: We compiled data on terrestrial lizards and snakes by querying the WWF WildFinder database for species occurrences by ecoregion of the following taxonomic groups: Sauria, Serpentes, Amphisbaenia, and Rhynchocephalia. The WWF WildFinder database is a spatially explicit online database of vertebrate species occurrences by ecoregion.
• #47: Narrative: The number of turtle and crocodilian species is highest in warmer, more humid ecoregions, such as the Southeastern U.S. and Southeast Asia. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4d31febd58db4fcc878a6fbe745a3101Notes: We generated the map of freshwater turtle and crocodilian species richness—the number of species present in each ecoregion—from species distribution maps, primarily drawing on the sources listed below.Distribution maps for 260 freshwater turtle species were provided by Buhlmann et al. (2007). The original distribution maps represented coarse ranges of where species were thought to be present in the wild; however, they were not exact ranges. Buhlmann et al. compiled data from museum and literature records. They correlated verified locality points with GIS-defined hydrologic unit codes (HUCs) and subsequently created “projected” distribution maps for each species by selecting additional HUCs that were representative of similar habitats, elevations, and physiographic regions as the HUCs with the verified point localities. The amount of information available varied by species, as some species and regions are better studied than others. In addition, many species names, especially in the tropics, actually represent complexes of several turtle species that have not yet been disaggregated. In developing our map, when a range overlapped several ecoregions, we counted species as present in all those ecoregions that had part of the range. Some ecoregions with a long and narrow shape may have an overestimation of species in our map given the way the range polygons were drawn.For crocodilians, species range maps are from the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group and Britton (2007). Species range maps were assessed visually, and species presence was assigned to ecoregions. When a range overlapped several ecoregions, we counted the species as present in all ecoregions of range overlap.The following were our primary data sources:Britton, A. 2007. Information on crocodilian species distributions. Available at www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csl.html.Buhlmann, K. A., T. B. Akre, J. B. Iverson, D. Karapatakis, R. A. Mittermeier, A. Georges, G. J. Rhodin, P. P. van Dijk, and J. W. Gibbons. 2007. A global analysis of tortoise and freshwater turtle distributions. Data from the preliminary results of the Global Reptile Assessment. International Union for Conservation of Nature–Species Survival Commission (IUCN-SSC), Conservation International/Center for Applied Biological Science (CI/CABS), and Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, South Carolina, USA.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)–SSC Crocodile Specialist Group Web site. 2008. Available at http://iucncsg.org/ph1/modules/Home/.
• #48: Narrative: There aren’t many crocodiles outside of Florida, but even in drier areas, such as the Southwest and Northern plains, there are plenty of turtles. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4d31febd58db4fcc878a6fbe745a3101Notes: We generated the map of freshwater turtle and crocodilian species richness—the number of species present in each ecoregion—from species distribution maps, primarily drawing on the sources listed below.Distribution maps for 260 freshwater turtle species were provided by Buhlmann et al. (2007). The original distribution maps represented coarse ranges of where species were thought to be present in the wild; however, they were not exact ranges. Buhlmann et al. compiled data from museum and literature records. They correlated verified locality points with GIS-defined hydrologic unit codes (HUCs) and subsequently created “projected” distribution maps for each species by selecting additional HUCs that were representative of similar habitats, elevations, and physiographic regions as the HUCs with the verified point localities. The amount of information available varied by species, as some species and regions are better studied than others. In addition, many species names, especially in the tropics, actually represent complexes of several turtle species that have not yet been disaggregated. In developing our map, when a range overlapped several ecoregions, we counted species as present in all those ecoregions that had part of the range. Some ecoregions with a long and narrow shape may have an overestimation of species in our map given the way the range polygons were drawn.For crocodilians, species range maps are from the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group and Britton (2007). Species range maps were assessed visually, and species presence was assigned to ecoregions. When a range overlapped several ecoregions, we counted the species as present in all ecoregions of range overlap.The following were our primary data sources:Britton, A. 2007. Information on crocodilian species distributions. Available at www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csl.html.Buhlmann, K. A., T. B. Akre, J. B. Iverson, D. Karapatakis, R. A. Mittermeier, A. Georges, G. J. Rhodin, P. P. van Dijk, and J. W. Gibbons. 2007. A global analysis of tortoise and freshwater turtle distributions. Data from the preliminary results of the Global Reptile Assessment. International Union for Conservation of Nature–Species Survival Commission (IUCN-SSC), Conservation International/Center for Applied Biological Science (CI/CABS), and Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Aiken, South Carolina, USA.International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)–SSC Crocodile Specialist Group Web site. 2008. Available at http://iucncsg.org/ph1/modules/Home/.
• #49: Narrative: The greatest number of fish species are found along large rivers in temperate and tropical regions, including the Amazon in South America, the Ganges in India, and the Yangtze in China. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlhttp: //app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4f8f2f8e3ace42dca7141ca7781c0e4fNotes: The map of freshwater fish species richness—the number of species present in each ecoregion—was generated from a variety of sources by Abell et al. (2008). Only species using freshwater for at least a portion of their life cycles, as identified using the habitat assignments in FishBase, are included. For the U.S., NatureServe provided presence/absence data for individual species, coded to eight-digit hydrologic unit codes (HUCs); these HUC occurrences were then translated into ecoregions, and the data were manually cleaned of erroneous occurrences derived from species introductions and problematic records. For all other ecoregions, species lists were provided by experts based on published literature as well as from gray literature and unpublished sources. Abell et al. (2008) generated data on fish species for some small islands using FishBase and then augmented where possible with information from published literature. For a small number of ecoregions, it was impossible to generate species lists; therefore, richness estimates are provided instead. Extirpated species are included in these tallies, but confirmed extinct species, as determined by the Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms (data provided by Ian Harrison), and introduced and undescribed species are excluded.
• #50: Narrative: In the U.S., the ecoregions around the Mississippi and its tributaries harbor many freshwater fish species, in some cases five times as many as in Western ecoregions.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xmlhttp: //app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4f8f2f8e3ace42dca7141ca7781c0e4fNotes: The map of freshwater fish species richness—the number of species present in each ecoregion—was generated from a variety of sources by Abell et al. (2008). Only species using freshwater for at least a portion of their life cycles, as identified using the habitat assignments in FishBase, are included. For the U.S., NatureServe provided presence/absence data for individual species, coded to eight-digit hydrologic unit codes (HUCs); these HUC occurrences were then translated into ecoregions, and the data were manually cleaned of erroneous occurrences derived from species introductions and problematic records. For all other ecoregions, species lists were provided by experts based on published literature as well as from gray literature and unpublished sources. Abell et al. (2008) generated data on fish species for some small islands using FishBase and then augmented where possible with information from published literature. For a small number of ecoregions, it was impossible to generate species lists; therefore, richness estimates are provided instead. Extirpated species are included in these tallies, but confirmed extinct species, as determined by the Committee on Recently Extinct Organisms (data provided by Ian Harrison), and introduced and undescribed species are excluded.
• #51: Narrative: This map shows the number of migratory fish speciesby freshwater ecoregion. Japan’s salmon and the Amazon’s catfish help make them centers of fish migration. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=61528bc77dce4fada2a7610dbc1ca2fcNotes: We derived the map of long-distance migrant (LDM) fish—the number of LDM species per ecoregion—from published literature, online databases (NatureServe), and expert inquiries. Potadromous, anadromous, amphidromous, and catadromous fish species were judged to be LDMs if they made regular journeys (i.e., for breeding, dispersal, feeding) of at least a hundred kilometers or more in freshwater. These species were then assigned to ecoregions based on the fish species lists database from Abell et al. (2008). Although we used many resources, two key data sources for the map were the following:Carolsfeld, J., B. Harvey, C. Ross, and A. Baer, eds. 2003. Migratory Fishes of South America: Biology, Fisheries and Conservation Status. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the World Bank.Lucas, M. C., and E. Baras. 2001. Migration of Freshwater Fishes. London: Blackwell Science.
• #52: Narrative: In the U.S., there are more than a dozen migratory fish species in the Pacific Northwest and many parts of the East, but such species are relatively rare in the Great Basin and Arizona. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=61528bc77dce4fada2a7610dbc1ca2fcNotes: We derived the map of long-distance migrant (LDM) fish—the number of LDM species per ecoregion—from published literature, online databases (NatureServe), and expert inquiries. Potadromous, anadromous, amphidromous, and catadromous fish species were judged to be LDMs if they made regular journeys (i.e., for breeding, dispersal, feeding) of at least a hundred kilometers or more in freshwater. These species were then assigned to ecoregions based on the fish species lists database from Abell et al. (2008). Although we used many resources, two key data sources for the map were the following:Carolsfeld, J., B. Harvey, C. Ross, and A. Baer, eds. 2003. Migratory Fishes of South America: Biology, Fisheries and Conservation Status. Washington, DC: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the World Bank.Lucas, M. C., and E. Baras. 2001. Migration of Freshwater Fishes. London: Blackwell Science.
• #53: Narrative: This map classifies freshwater ecoregions by the degree of disruption of fish runs. Dams are the primary impediment to migratory fish.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=b8b04bdfd89b4647bf64c92e615cfea1Notes: The level of disruption of fish runs was determined by Reidy-Liermann, C. A., C. Nilsson, J. Robertson, and R. Ng (unpublished) by calculating the average proportion of undammed distance among the longest connected freshwater pathways (including lakes) in each ecoregion, regardless of stream order. This metric considered only the five longest water courses or river segments between or without dams. Depending on the confidence in the underlying dam and reservoir data, ecoregions without known dams may have been deemed either as fully free-flowing or as having insufficient data. When dams data were deemed unreliable for a river, those dams were excluded from the analysis, so results tend to underestimate actual river obstruction.
• #54: Narrative: In the U.S., which has nearly 80,000 dams, virtually all ecoregions have seen their fish runs significantly disrupted. In the West, the problem is especially bad along the Columbia and Colorado Rivers, both of which have major hydroelectric dams. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=b8b04bdfd89b4647bf64c92e615cfea1Notes: The level of disruption of fish runs was determined by Reidy-Liermann, C. A., C. Nilsson, J. Robertson, and R. Ng (unpublished) by calculating the average proportion of undammed distance among the longest connected freshwater pathways (including lakes) in each ecoregion, regardless of stream order. This metric considered only the five longest water courses or river segments between or without dams. Depending on the confidence in the underlying dam and reservoir data, ecoregions without known dams may have been deemed either as fully free-flowing or as having insufficient data. When dams data were deemed unreliable for a river, those dams were excluded from the analysis, so results tend to underestimate actual river obstruction.
• #55: Narrative: Non-native species are one of the greatest threats to native biodiversity around the globe. The number of harmful species that have invaded freshwater habitats is highest in the temperate ecosystems of North America, Europe, and Australia. Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=11a22d0ce62142258baaa1cbaf520fb2Notes: The occurrence and ecological impact for freshwater invasive species were compiled in a geographically referenced database according to the methods of Molnar et al. (2008). Information about 550 species was systematically collected from a wide variety of global, regional, national, and subnational data sources. Non-native distributions were documented by freshwater ecoregion. The threat of each species to native biodiversity was scored using the following categories: 4, disrupts entire ecosystem processes with wider abiotic influences; 3, disrupts multiple species, some wider ecosystem function, and/or keystone species or species of high conservation value (e.g., threatened species); 2, disrupts single species with little or no wider ecosystem impact; 1, little or no disruption. Species in the top two categories (scores of 3 or 4) are considered “harmful invasive species” in this atlas (n=367), and the number of these are displayed in the map by ecoregion. The following work was used: Molnar, J. L., R. Gamboa, C. Revenga, and M. Spalding. 2008. Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity: Framing the big picture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, no. 9: 485–492.
• #56: Narrative: Virtually all of the country has at least some harmful invasive species, with the greatest number found around the Great Lakes and Northeast.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=11a22d0ce62142258baaa1cbaf520fb2Notes: The occurrence and ecological impact for freshwater invasive species were compiled in a geographically referenced database according to the methods of Molnar et al. (2008). Information about 550 species was systematically collected from a wide variety of global, regional, national, and subnational data sources. Non-native distributions were documented by freshwater ecoregion. The threat of each species to native biodiversity was scored using the following categories: 4, disrupts entire ecosystem processes with wider abiotic influences; 3, disrupts multiple species, some wider ecosystem function, and/or keystone species or species of high conservation value (e.g., threatened species); 2, disrupts single species with little or no wider ecosystem impact; 1, little or no disruption. Species in the top two categories (scores of 3 or 4) are considered “harmful invasive species” in this atlas (n=367), and the number of these are displayed in the map by ecoregion. The following work was used: Molnar, J. L., R. Gamboa, C. Revenga, and M. Spalding. 2008. Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity: Framing the big picture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, no. 9: 485–492.
• #58: Narrative: Area of mangrove forest (square kilometers), by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=244ddbd6ba7f4285bcc95530dc152c35Notes: We extracted mangrove forest extents from version 3.0 of the global polygon data set compiled by UNEP-WCMC in collaboration with the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) 1997 (for more information about the source data set, e-mail spatialanalysis@unep-wcmc.org). These are almost entirely the same data that were published in the first World Mangrove Atlas (Spalding et al. 1997). We updated this information to include eleven island ecoregions for which no mapped data were available, but where mangroves occur with low mangrove coverage. Information on these was drawn from new work to be included in the publication of a new World Mangrove Atlas (Spalding et al. Forthcoming). Data derived from:UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). 1997. Data on mangrove extent, v.3.0. Cambridge: Author. Digital media.A published version of these data was produced in the following work:Spalding, M. D., F. Blasco, and C. D. Field. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. Okinawa, Japan: International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems.
• #59: Narrative: Relative abundance of salt marsh habitat, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=d0d570175f7342c4a725fd3fbe93c737Notes: We compiled a global database on salt marshes in collaboration with UNEP-WCMC and with input from Paul Adam, University of New South Wales, Australia. In this database, habitat abundance was estimated using the array of point locations and GIS data holdings from this database and were broadly based on abundance as a proportion of the total coastline length in each ecoregion. Salt marshes were poorly covered in the literature for some parts of the Arctic coastline and from wide areas of the tropics where salt marshes were often overlooked or classified within mangrove areas. While efforts were made to target data searching for these regions, there may still be some underestimation.
• #60: Narrative: Area of coral reefs (square kilometers), by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=c93ff883826b4f9d85aa0e504034ae7cNotes: We extracted coral reefs from version 7.0 of the global one-kilometer raster data set compiled by the UNEP-WCMC update of 2003 (for more information about the source data set, e-mail spatialanalysis@unep-wcmc.org), which is almost entirely identical to the data published in the World Atlas of Coral Reefs (Spalding et al. 2001). They represent a combination of line and polygon information converted to a one-kilometer grid to smooth data originally drawn at different scales. We made minor modifications to the global map, by removing reef areas from West Africa and the Leeuwin and Southern California Bight ecoregions. The latter represents erroneous data, but other areas, while having some reef-building corals, lack true reef structures (original sources used by UNEP-WCMC were highly schematic sketches of possible locations for reef-building corals). A further modification we made was the addition of a nominal small reef area to the Marquesas ecoregion; limited areas of fringing reefs are found around these islands, but no maps were available when the global map was compiled (more information about corals in these modified regions can be found in Spalding et al. 2001).Data derived from:UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). 2003. Global 1 km raster data on coral reef locations, v.7.0. Cambridge: Author. Digital media.A published version of these data was produced in the following work:Spalding M. D., C. Ravilious, and E. P. Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• #61: Narrative: Percent of coral reefs at risk, by marine ecoregionSource: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=983be3aea8f345ab976adb895c94e689Notes: The original Reefs at Risk indicator was devised by Bryant et al. (1998) with considerable expert consultation and utilized multiple global data layers to develop separate threat layers measuring coastal development, marine-based pollution, overexploitation and destructive fishing, and inland pollution and erosion. There are areas where particular elements of the model were not as effective, but it has proved a valuable generic tool that has led to further regional studies for Southeast Asia and for the Caribbean that followed the same basic principles, with only minor amendments to the model. Bryant et al. (1998) used the combined threat layers to derive a simple three-point threat index (low, medium, or high) for each reef pixel (4 × 4 km). In the present map, we used these to generate the proportion of reefs threatened (medium or high threat) by ecoregion. Although data were available for a few ecoregions in temperate ecoregions and in West Africa, these were deliberately excluded because these are not true coral reefs and the findings would be misleading. Being based on proportions, the map gives equal weighting to regions with very few reefs and those where reefs are dominant ecosystems. For example, around the Gulf of Aden and much of the Indian subcontinent, coral reefs are relatively rare habitats. These are indeed areas of grave concern, but the relatively low total area of reefs in these regions makes them a marginally lower point of concern than the extensive and diverse areas that are singled out in the text.Data derived from:Bryant, D., L. Burke, J. McManus, and M. Spalding. 1998. Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World’s Coral Reefs. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre and United Nations Environment Programme.
• #62: Narrative: Proportion of coral bleaching events that were high impact, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=05a37bdd3476473ca42ee40db8b3cf9dNotes: Data on coral bleaching is derived from ReefBase and represents bleaching from a single year (1998). This was the worst bleaching event on record, linked to an El Niño year. It was also very well monitored, partly because of its unprecedented nature. Bleaching has remained widespread since that time in locations around the world. The data was generously provided by Jamie Oliver from a subset that was prepared for another publication (Oliver et al. 2008), and we have only made minor corrections to errors for the Seychelles in this data set. Bleaching reports in ReefBase were derived from a broad range of sources, but each has been assigned a standardized bleaching score (none, low, medium, high). Because reports of no bleaching were rare within this data set, it was impossible to use it to assess presence or absence; however, we decided that a crude measure of the scale of intensity of bleaching could be gauged by looking at the proportion of “high”-intensity events in relation to the total reports.Data derived from:Oliver, J. K., R. Berkelmans, and C. M. Eakin. 2008. Coral bleaching in space and time. Pages 21–39 in Coral Bleaching: Patterns, Processes, Causes and Consequences, ed. M. van Oppen and J. M. Lough. Berlin: Springer.Tupper, M., A. Tewfik, M. K. Tan, S. L. Tan, L. H. Teh, M. J. Radius, and S. Abdullah. 2008. ReefBase: A global information system on coral reefs. Available at www.reefbase.org.
• #63: Narrative: Relative abundance of kelp forest habitat, by marine province.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=dc89edec08414976a061a3df3bac5ba9Notes: We developed estimates of abundance of kelp forests. Originally we gathered this information at an ecoregional scale, but we decided to summarize to province due to concerns about fine-scale accuracy. Where information was not readily available, provinces were labeled “no data.”We used the following data sources:Robinson, A. R., and K. H. Brink, eds. 1998. The Global Coastal Ocean, Regional Studies and Syntheses. New York: Wiley.———, eds. 2006. The Global Coastal Ocean: Interdisciplinary Regional Studies and Syntheses. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Sheppard, C., ed. 2000a. Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation, Volume 1: Regional Chapters: Europe, the Americas and West Africa. Oxford: Elsevier Science.———, ed. 2000b. Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation, Volume 2: Regional Chapters: The Indian Ocean to the Pacific. Oxford: Elsevier Science.———, ed. 2000c. Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation, Volume 3: Global Issues and Processes. Oxford: Elsevier Science.
• #64: Narrative: Relative abundance of seagrass habitat, by marine province.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=a26a265d8f1b4b92bef51ec44a078e0cNotes: We extracted seagrasses from version 2.0 of the global polygon and point data set that was compiled by UNEP-WCMC in 2005 (for more information about the source data set, e-mail spatialanalysis@unep-wcmc.org). These same data were originally published in the World Atlas of Seagrasses (Green and Short 2003; see, in particular, the chapter by Spalding et al. 2003). The source data for the habitat map were a mix of point and polygon information gathered from a major literature review as well as from national-level mapping programs. The habitat distribution information was of varying consistency, with likely gaps in information-poor regions. It was not possible to generate accurate area estimates from such data. Instead, we used the data, combined with expert knowledge of patterns of abundance and paucity, to develop a semiquantitative estimate of abundance by province that gives a broadly accurate picture of habitat abundance. Data derived from:Green E. P., and F. T. Short. 2003. World Atlas of Seagrasses. Berkeley: University of California Press.UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). 2005. Data on extent and location of seagrass beds, v.2.0. Cambridge: Author. Digital media.
• #65: Narrative: Number of mangrove species, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=28ab454e87d6403aa5179c51dfb4b19bNotes: We derived mangrove species diversity information from new maps of the individual ranges for sixty-five mangrove species that will be published in Spalding et al. (forthcoming). These range maps were overlain on ecoregion maps and species totals calculated for each. Data derived from:Spalding, M. D., M. Kainuma, L. Collins. Forthcoming. World Mangrove Atlas. London: Earthscan, with International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, UNEP-WCMC, The Nature Conservancy, United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organisation, United Nations University.
• #66: Narrative: Number of seabird species, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=86d4a71231c6498a9f71c2769d47e766Notes: Using the distribution maps for seabirds from Harrison (1983), we visually mapped each of the 312 seabirds to one or more marine ecoregions. Only breeding ranges (including breeding sites) were used; migration routes and casual or vagrant records were excluded. Data derived from:Harrison, P. 1983. Seabirds: An Identification Guide. London: Christopher Helm.
• #67: Narrative: Number of globally threatened seabird species, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=4dde10134afc448e9e793cc094a2fcb6Notes: Using the online IUCN resource, the threatened species for each ecoregion were filtered for marine species only. Threatened species refer to those listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (www.redlist.org). We downloaded the digital GIS data and summarized it by marine ecoregion to result in the number of threatened species per marine ecoregion. Data derived from:International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at www.redlist.org.
• #68: Narrative: Number of stony coral species, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=636b25e0e83a4a698377e7d1eb7eaf08Notes: Stony coral range maps have been drawn by Veron (2000), who kindly made available to us range maps for 794 species. We laid these range maps over the ecoregions to derive a species total for each ecoregion. Note that these stony corals have a wider range than coral reefs. The large physical structures of coral reefs only develop where such corals survive in sufficient densities (and usually diversity) over the long time scales it takes for such structures to form. Data derived from:Veron, J. E. N. 2000. Corals of the World. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science.
• #69: Narrative: Number of seagrass species, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=9765d84791364b0f935e4d20f23efbdcNotes: We extracted seagrasses from version 2.0 of the global polygon and point data set that was compiled by UNEP-WCMC in 2005 (for more information about the source data set, e-mail spatialanalysis@unep-wcmc.org). These same data were originally published in the World Atlas of Seagrasses (Green and Short 2003; see, in particular, the chapter by Spalding et al. 2003). The source data for the habitat map were a mix of point and polygon information gathered from a major literature review as well as from national-level mapping programs. We developed the species diversity map from range maps drawn for fifty-five species. The four species from the genus Ruppia were not mapped because these are not always reported and are often found outside seagrass habitat. Data derived from:Green E. P., and F. T. Short. 2003. World Atlas of Seagrasses. Berkeley: University of California Press.UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). 2005. Data on extent and location of seagrass beds, v.2.0. Cambridge: Author. Digital media.
• #70: Narrative: Number of globally threatened marine mammal species, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=e04d8e382f894b59b9ee5b5661c42339Notes: Using the online IUCN resource, the threatened species for each ecoregion were filtered for marine species only. Threatened species refer to those listed by IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (www.redlist.org). We downloaded the digital GIS data and summarized it by marine ecoregion to result in the number of threatened species per marine ecoregion. Data derived from:International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at www.redlist.org.
• #71: Narrative: Number of harmful species that have invaded marine habitats, by marine ecoregion.Source: Hoekstra et al. The Atlas Of Global Conservation: Changes, Challenges, and Opportunities to Make a Difference. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2010.URL: http://www.nature.org/ourscience/sciencefeatures/conservation-atlas.xml http://app.databasin.org/app/pages/datasetPage.jsp?id=96f2def1efee4565bf039a04b56d9a86Notes: The occurrence and ecological impact of marine invasive species were compiled in a geographically referenced database by Molnar et al. (2008). Information about 329 species was systematically collected from a wide variety of global, regional, national, and subnational data sources. Non-native distributions were documented by marine ecoregion. The threat of each species to native biodiversity was scored using the following categories: 4, disrupts entire ecosystem processes with wider abiotic influences; 3, disrupts multiple species, some wider ecosystem function, and/or keystone species or species of high conservation value (e.g., threatened species); 2, disrupts single species with little or no wider ecosystem impact; 1, little or no disruption. Species in the top two categories (scores of 3 or 4) are considered “harmful invasive species” in this atlas (n=187), and the number of these are displayed in the map by ecoregion. Data derived from:Molnar, J. L., R. Gamboa, C. Revenga, and M. Spalding. 2008. Assessing the global threat of invasive species to marine biodiversity: Framing the big picture. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6, no. 9: 485–492.