![4 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
of advanced network applications and new venture of creativity. The 5th
generation networking withholds the new opportunities in the era of future
technology like IoT, virtualization, big data, and virtual reality services. It
involves the massive deployment of networking devices which will cross
more than 75 billion by 2025 [1]. In contrast to the present technologies, 3G,
4G, and 5G networks support high frequencies and high spectrum efficiency.
The evolution of 1G to 5G is shown in Table 1.1. There is a need of new
procedure and policies for managing, signaling to support new application.
5G networks can provide extensive connectivity to the massive heteroge-
neous networking devices.
The objectivity of the 5G networks is to provide scalability and high
speed for next generation technologies like IoT, AI and virtual reality,
autonomous driving, smart cities in a sustainable and economical fashion.
It requires the architectural modifications, new communication platforms,
algorithms for proper utilization of the network function virtualization
(NFV), edge computing, software-defined networking (SDN), and big data
analytics. Some researchers have shown their promising result to support 5G
networking requirements in Refs. [2–8]. The ongoing transactional changes
in various domains originate new perspective for technical and management
for 5G networks.
This chapter mainly addresses the challenges of 5G networks in different
applications. We can demystify the challenges of 5G architectural changes in
support of smart cities, IoT, big data, and so on. Some research work on the
new opportunities for 5G to support the future prospective of technologies
in various application domains can enlighten the path for development of
5G networking. The main objective of this chapter is to classify the new
application domains for 5G. It may include the low latency, bandwidth
requirement, communication range, better reliability, security, and privacy
measures. We also discuss the challenges and ongoing experimental testbeds
among different universities, network companies, government organizations,
and so on. The remaining article provides the structure of 5G networking in
Section 1.2. Section 1.3 provides the requirements and demands of the 5G
networking. Section 1.4 provides the challenges and innovative projects with
the conclusion and future prospective.
1.2 THE FUTURE GENERATION NETWORKS: 5G NETWORKING
The recent advancement in networks has created a multifarious application to
enhance the lifestyle and include better mobility, social networking, e-health,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-27-320.jpg)
![6 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
and so on. Nowadays, Internet services have seen a rapid development over
past times. The emerging technologies, for example, IoT, mobile and social
network, fog computing, big data, and so much, are completely dependent
on Internet application. This exhibits requirement of technological evolution
in the present Internet services.
The evidence forms the conventional data exchange among p2p, www,
social, and mobile networks with the emerging technologies and forth-
coming tactile Internet [9–11]. 5G networks involve integration of physical
devices and the digital data, covering the use case of many IoT devices. So
the required service of 5G networking demands the high available speed,
reliability, security, ultra-low latency, context aware services, and so on [12].
Further, the smart cities concept linked with the context of 5G networking.
The smart cities integrate existing information sources with modern informa-
tion sources and support the communication network for the unified access to
services for the smart city administration and their residents. Thus, the main
focus is associated with the enhancement of the use of current resources
with the improvement in quality of services and reducing operational cost,
for example, smart cities, automation vehicular network, IOTs, big data,
and so on. Table 1.2 represents the requirements, application areas, and the
proposed solutions for the prospective of 5G networks.
TABLE 1.2 Describes the Requirements, Proposed Solutions, and Application Areas of 5G
Networks
Requirements Proposed Solutions Application Areas
High Network Capacity
with Data Rate
Ultra-Low Latency
Densification FDD, CRN,
mMIMO,D2D, FULL DUPLEX
Cache management, D2D
connectivity, self-heal, smart
reduced cells
Better connectivity, usages,
virtualized homes, smart grids,
better health care services,
IoTs, industrial services
Better Handoff SIC, CRN, detection and
decoding, multi-rat handoff
QoS Delayed bound QoS, Quality
service management
Scalability NFV, SDN, C-RAN, CONCERT
Environment Friendly C-RAN, VLC, mMIMO, D2D
Communication etc
Connectivity Multi-Rat, CRN, CONCERT,
RAN, densification
More Secure and Better services and advanced
Reliable encryption and decryption](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-29-320.jpg)
![7
Intelligent 5G Networks
1.2.1 THE CHALLENGES AND ADVANCEMENTS FOR 5G
The four technology advancement that can focus our interest in 5G, including
lightweight virtualization, software-defined network, blockchain inspired
distributed ledger, and mobile edge computing, are shown in Figure 1.1
FIGURE 1.1 Architectural View for 5G networking [40]
1.2.1.1 BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY-BASED DISTRIBUTION LEDGER
Beyond keeping user privacy on the Internet, General Data Protection Regu-
lation (GDPR) is also accelerating the development of distributed ledger
technologies (i.e., blockchain technology [BCT] based protocol design). So,
it gives rise to the strong demand nowadays to unify the data management
across companies, government, and end users. Here it provides the congruous
meaning to fulfill user request, for example, receive, track, and update the
data when requested by user.
BCT enables us to store historical record for each transaction in a tamper
proof format to enhance data security. So it has more visible role in the
various data driven services in 5G. BCT also keeps information at different
locations and the history cannot be removed and further information can be](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-30-320.jpg)
![8 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
accessed when the node possess it [13]. The main concept used in BCT and
distributed ledger technology enables each participated node that has access
to shared ledger at distributed locations [14]. All the transactions stored in
ledger and information are copied to all the participated nodes. The blocks are
timestamped in batches to validate the transactions and each block contains
the information of hash value of previous block. Mining means generation
of new blocks given by Ref. [15]. The blocks are linked by chain, formed
blockchain [16]. So, BCT empowers 5G and merges novel blockchain and
IoT security solutions [17–19], for better cryptocurrency design and enhance
privacy in future networks.
1.2.1.2 VIRTUALIZATION AND SOFTWARE-DEFINED NETWORKING
The NFV is the base for organizing network-related reckoning in 5G. It utilizes
virtualization to decouple networking equipment from the programs executed
on their machine [20]. The light weight virtualization technique, for example
Docker and Unikernels given in Ref. [9], will facilitate 5G networks to support
various application domains like IoT, cloud computing, fog computing, low
power consumption, better resource utilization, and so on. This technique
also facilitates various data centers with another tool SDN. It decouples the
data and control plane to control all the functions using centralized network
controller. It eliminated the need of vender-based hardware and its designs
based on software to control all network functioning. SDN also supports large-
scale distribution of 5G services [20]. The main application will be visible in
smart cities, IoT, fog computing, and many more [21, 22].
1.2.1.3 MOBILE EDGE COMPUTING
Emerging of 5G technologies provides solution to many recourse hungry
applications, broad paradigm application like IoT, big data, and huge
computation applications. The border term mobile edge computing envi-
sioned challenges to bring the cloud resources closer to IoT devices and
highly optimistic technology to benefit potential of IoT. This will help in
visualizing the emerging technologies’ real-time video/audio surveillance,
smart city, smart e-health, smart transport management system, IoT, Internet
of Vehicles. Multi-access mobile edge computing (MA-MEC) explores the
integration of wireless technologies in 5G. The design of MA-MEC evolves
the deployment of ultra-dense small cells—femto/pico/micro cells—to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-31-320.jpg)
![9
Intelligent 5G Networks
increase the capacity of mobile network connections [23, 24] facilitating
the dual connectivity in future 5G networks to communicate with traditional
macro cells and manage data between macro and small cells, respectively
[25–27]. They provide the existing edge offloading techniques with further
improvements with respect to speed and low communication latency.
1.2.1.4 EDGE COMPUTING 5G NETWORK SERVICE FRAMEWORK
The new edge-enabled platform proposed to merge new technology with 5G
to manage huge amount of data along with the cyber-physical network deploy-
ment. The mobile edge computing brings us benefits with 5G networks.
Fast processing of data with IoT devices.
Ultra-low latency for real-time data sharing between cloud and IoT
network management.
It enhances the better privacy and security.
The edge computing platform provides efficient access to the upcoming
computing style for real-time data management. Some researchers exhibit
the better utilization of SDN framework [20], Kafka framework, and IoT
management [28, 29].
1.2.2 RESEARCH CHALLENGES FOR 5G NETWORKS
The SDN, NFV, and edge computing are the promising techniques to fulfill
the requirement for new applications. While the implementation of 5G
undergoes many other challenges,
The major concern deals with the privacy and security, Ref. [30] has
discussed the pervasive encryption and also discussed the issue with
ISPs, cloud service provider, standardization units like ETSI6 and
IETF5.
Issue related to the troubleshooting and management at various
network layers in 5G networks. This also focuses on the unencrypted
data management to provide high data privacy on the Internet [31].
Operational challenge related to the management of existing technolo-
gies and creates a balance between both convectional system data and
real-time web traces [32].
Less response time in 5G is required to support new emerging tech-
nologies like IoT, edge computing, fog computing, big data, and so on.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-32-320.jpg)
![10 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
Provide efficient computational and storage resources at the applica-
tion domain, mobile edge devices, radio resource allocation, and so on.
Combine optimization between the convectional technology and
5G technology with the minimal cost, for example, adequate use of
wireless channels when user move across the cells with respect to the
storage and computation resources.
1.2.3 CHALLENGES BY THE GOVERNANCE POLICIES
With the growing demand of the Internet, it becomes the common pool
resource. So the requirement to efficiently regulate the services ensures fair
usage of bandwidth, scalability, interoperability to different applications. So
the standard regulation is required in 5G future. Back and recovery plans are
also regularized. Ultra-low latency application will be developed to handle
run-time vehicular network in 5G. Governance policies are required to ensure
the proper functioning of 5G components with the restriction limits. Proper
allocation of the spectrum is required as the failures are critical in certain
applications. Proper fault tolerance is needed in mobile edge computing to
avoid network failure. Strong security measures are required so that the secu-
rity cannot be breached by the hacker. Major governance is required related
to the interoperability between different computing and platforms. Handoff
management at very small cells is required for the proper functioning of
the vertical applications in multiple 5G providers [33, 34] that discuss on
the data protection laws. They discuss the GDPR for the management of
the huge amount of data collected at the cloud and user applications. So
the major concern is related to the privacy of the data and standardization
needed for implementing 5G network in smart cities [35].
1.3 AI IN 5G NETWORKING
AI support the 5G mobile network to provide knowledge to get self-admin-
istrative techniques for network, for example, to configure 4G network
hyperbolic to 1500 from 500 hubs at network in 2G and 1000 hubs required
in the 3G network [36]. So the AI imparts intelligent support system to 5G
network with previous knowledge that is used to train the 5G standard hub
network with more parameters at least 2000.
The application of 5G network, that is, eMBB (enhanced Mobile Broad-
band), URLLC (Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communication), and mMTC](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-33-320.jpg)
![11
Intelligent 5G Networks
(massive Machine Type Communication), required new sort of advance
services for system administration. The new services continually evolve and
the existing services also change to support the technology change. In this
manner, 5G network required services for self-configuration, self-healing,
and self-optimization to intelligently take decision and administrate, and to
appropriate supply system to proper provisioning mechanism and provide
new network slice.
Another issue, in emerging cellular network systems in 5G, is that it
depend intensely on SDN, and still need more flexibility and robustness
under the evolution of new heterogeneous and progressively complex
cellular 5G networks. To self-regulate these networks, automated built-in
network slice for the future networking services, network management,
environment variations, identify uncertainties, particular response action
plan, and proper network configuration are required. The desired features
for the future networks solved the emerging of AI with 5G network because
this solves the problem of classifying issues, interaction with environment
variations, and many other uncertainties.
Today AI is evolved as the future technology and also support multidis-
ciplinary techniques, for example, machine learning, meta-heuristics, theory
optimization, game theory, control theory, and so on. [37]. The AI learning
technique is classified as three main categories.
1.3.1 SUPERVISED LEARNING
The supervised learning is based on training the system by the existing inputs
and their desired outputs and also specifies the rules to determine the desired
output using inputs. So the supervised learning had widely been applied to
solve the uncertain network issue, and effective channel utilization. Thus, the
supervised learning assumes to be using the probabilistic methods to solve
the characteristic equations and take the advantage of well-known Bayes
learning methods. For example, Kalman filtering is used for optimizing
cellular networks.
1.3.2 UNSUPERVISED LEARNING
Here the system has the prior inputs but not fed with the desired outputs.
Therefore, the leaning agents were made self-capable by embedding the
intelligent system or pattern in its input. They work on by finding out the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-34-320.jpg)
![12 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
hidden patterns and resolve it by correlating this with the input data. This
layer of AI has wide scope to estimate the hidden layer using the neural
networks. They enhance the importance of deep learning methods in AI.
Here, the 5G nonorthogonal multiple access receivers perform on the same
graph-based factors to achieve low-bit error rate. It also uses the K-means
algorithms to detect the uncertain network anomalies.
1.3.3 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING
The controlled theory and the lean psychology, the new evolved technique
is reinforcement learning. Here, the agent is trained to attain the intelligence
by interacting in the dynamic environment. The agent should take action
according to the situation. This learning enhances through the strong pattern
recognition ability. Few researchers that show the evidence of cognitive
radio usually method for dynamic transition of spectrum [38, 39].
Table 1.3 provides the detail of AI support for intelligent networks and
Table 1.4 summarizes the AI algorithms for cellular networks. It supports the
AI for various tasks in cellular networks, network traffic management, user
demands, resource utilization, coordination between the base stations (BSs),
and other network entities.
Figure 1.2 presents the architecture for intelligent 5G networks empow-
ered with AI. It contains the AI controller on the top of Open Network
Operating System and it is independent entity; it can convey with the radio
accessed network (RAN), global SDN controller, and core networks (CNs).
The role of AI center is to keep the record of service level agreements and
also keep check on the requirement rate, area coverage, failure policies,
data redundancy, and so on. The User Equipment (UE) level information in
AI center handles the receiver category, network level information, quality
of service, schedule maintenance, the in-fracture level information, that
is, CPU, memory, storage, and so on, from the global controller. The AI
center manages the embedded modules (sensing, mining, prediction, and
reasoning) for the network management and provides feedback result for
traffic management. The AI center, sensing module, keeps the track of local
UEs and focuses on the mobility patterns in the networks. The reasoning and
proactive module records the UEs to track the location and prepares handover
functions with managing the mobility cost. Thus, the merging of AI in the
working of 5G networks helps in controlling the uncertainties and maintains
normal working of networks under non-normal conditions.AI center helps in
periodically exchanging the information between the global controllers and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-35-320.jpg)
![22 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
need to be charged after some time. In mobile terminals, option of charging is
available but the problem becomes tedious in case of wireless sensor networks
(WSNs). In WSN, nodes are deployed in an area where human intervention
is generally not feasible. In that case, replacement of battery or time to time
charging is not possible. Moreover, batteries also place a limitation on the
miniaturization of micro electro-mechanical systems. So, energy harvesting
techniques have drawn the attention of researchers in the past few years to
improve the performance of the network in terms of energy efficiency. It is
also suggested as a major technique for improving energy efficiency in the
development of the fifth generation of wireless mobile networks [1, 9].
Different energy sources existing in the environment around a system
such as solar, wind, tidal energy geothermal energy, and other mechanical
vibration can be the options for energy harvesting. Ease of availability, reli-
ability, mobility, lesser cost, and their eco-friendly nature are other important
advantages of these sources.
Withtheimprovementsinintegratedcircuits,thesizeandpowerconsump-
tion of current electronics has dramatically decreased. So, energy harvesting
from the ambient natural environment has received great interest and has
been investigated by many researchers. Other sources of ambient energies
include the flow of liquids or gases, the energy produced by the human body,
and also the action of gravitational fields produces ambient energy. These
ambient energies are in the form of vibrations. Energy harvesting can be
done by converting these vibrations into electrical energy.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows: Section 2.2 describes
various techniques of vibrational energy harvesting. Section 2.3 explains the
model of electromagnetic energy harvester used in this work, Section 2.4
provides simulation setup for performance evaluation of the model of energy
harvester, Section 2.5 provides results obtained and Section 2.6 concludes
the work with future remarks.
2.2 TYPES OF VIBRATIONAL ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNIQUES
Depending on the availability and environment of the vibrational energy,
energy harvesting techniques can be categorized as:
Electromagnetic energy harvester: In this type of energy harvesting,
electrical energy is produced by using a magnetic field. According to
Faraday’s law, the rate of change of magnetic flux linkages with a coil
results in induced emf in it. So, in electromagnetic energy harvester, a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-45-320.jpg)
![23
Energy Harvesting Implementation
coil wrapped around a mass is allowed to oscillate in a magnetic field
whichresultsintheproductionofvoltageacrossit.Theproducedvoltage
is generally very small (~0.1 V) so an amplifier circuit is attached to
obtain the desired output voltage. Moreover, the induced voltage can be
varied by change in magnetic field strength, number of turns in the coil,
mass or diameter of the coil as well. This method of energy harvesting
has the advantage that it needs no external voltage source for its opera-
tion. Wind vibration and mechanical vibration-based cantilever systems
are examples of electro-magnetic energy harvesting methods.
Electrostatic (capacitive) energy harvester:As its name indicates, this
type of harvesting is based on changing the capacitance of vibration-
dependent variable capacitors. Vibrations from the ambient atmo-
sphere separate the plates of an initially charged variable capacitor
(varactor), resulting in a change in its capacitance. Now, for a fixed
charge value, a change in capacitance results in a change in induced
voltage across it. So, this method requires an external voltage source
and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy as both the
plates move up and down (mechanical constraints are needed). The
produced voltage is relatively high (2–10 V). It can be easily worked
with MEMS. The system can be placed in a car near to the shock
absorber, where the vibration is maximum.
Piezoelectric energy harvester: Piezoelectric or electromechanical
energy harvester, harvests vibrational energy from stress and
compression and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
A piezoelectric material is strained and deformed by applying
mechanical energy resulting in equivalent electrical energy (voltage
drop) as defined by the phenomenon of piezoelectric effect. In these
harvesters, oscillating system is typically a cantilever beam structure
with a mass (piezoelectric material) at one end of the lever. Piezo-
electric materials are used in systems where it is subjected to stress or
compression, producing a voltage of about 2–10 V [2, 10].
Vibration energy harvesting devices can be either electromechanical or
piezoelectric. Due to the lack of availability of piezoelectric material, mostly
electromagnetic harvester is used.
2.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY HARVESTER FOR WSN
Figure 2.1 shows the model of electromagnetic harvester used in this work.
It consists of a cantilever beam supported on a fixed support. A permanent](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-46-320.jpg)
![24 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things
magnet with mass “m” is mounted on the cantilever beam on which a coil
is wrapped around. The vibrations applied to the cantilever beam move the
magnet up and down resulting in a change of magnetic flux linked with the
coil. Hence the voltage is induced in it which is applied to the load attached
with the coil.
FIGURE 2.1 Cantilever-beam-based energy harvester.
Source: Reprinted from Ref. [8]. Open access.
For a given mass of cantilever, maxim stress “σmax
” imposed depends
upon its length “L,” thickness “t,” and moment of inertia “I” as given by
˜max = Maximum stress =
FLt
(2.1)
2I
Here F = mg N.
Maximum allowable deflection of the cantilever beam is given by
Y =
2L2
˜ (2.2)
max max
3Et
where Ymax
= maximum allowable deflection,
L = length of cantilever (11 mm)
E = Young’s modulus,
t = thickness of cantilever (0.2 mm).
So, the maximum power generated by the cantilever beam-based energy
harvester shown in Figure 2.1 is given by [2]
mY 2
˛n3
Rload
PLmax = ( ) (2.3)
16˝ R + R
p load coil
where PLmax
= maximum power generated,
m = mass of cantilever beam (mg),](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-47-320.jpg)
![25
Energy Harvesting Implementation
εp
= damping factor,
Y = maximum allowable deflection,
= load resistance,
Rload
= coil resistance.
Rcoil
The produced energy being very small is then amplified and applied to
WSN as shown in Figure 2.2.
FIGURE 2.2 Electromagnetic energy harvester-based WSN.
2.4 SIMULATION SETUP
The proposed model of electromagnetic energy harvester is implemented on
the MATLAB platform. Table 2.1 provides the simulation set up used in this
work. Mass of cantilever is varied from 490 to 530 mg. The proposed model
is implemented with a fixed value of thickness and width of the cantilever
as 0.2 and 0.3 mm, respectively. The performance of the energy harvester
model used in this work is evaluated in terms of maximum power generated
” with variation in mass and length of the cantilever beam. The gener-
“PLmax
ated power is applied as initial energy to WSN consisting of 100 nodes. Low
energy adaptive clustering hierarchical routing algorithm has been used for
routing in WSN [4].
The performance of WSN is evaluated in terms of the number of alive
nodes, dead nodes, and remaining energy.
2.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2.3 shows the variation of maximum allowable deflection and natural
frequency with variation in the length and mass of the beam. It is observed
that the natural frequency tends to decrease with an increase in the length
of the beam and mass of the cantilever beam. It is also observed that the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16675959-250601141006-992c217d/85/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-And-The-Internet-Of-Things-Future-Directions-And-Applications-1st-Edition-Bhagirathi-Nayak-48-320.jpg)
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- 5. www.appleacademicpress.com Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things Future Directions and Applications This new volume explores a wide range of important and real-time issues and applications in this ever-advancing field. Various types of WSN and IoT technologies are discussed in order to provide a strong framework of reference. The volume places an emphasis on solutions to the challenges of protection, conservation, evaluation, and implementation of WSN and IoT that lead to low-cost products, energy savings, low carbon usage, higher quality, and global competitiveness. The volume is divided into four sections that cover • wireless sensor networks and their relevant applications • smart monitoring and control systems with the Internet of Things • attacks, threats, vulnerabilities, and defensive measures for smart systems • research challenges and opportunities ABOUT THE EDITORS Bhagirathi Nayak, PhD, has experience of 25 years of experience in computer science and engineering, academics, administration, database design and development, and pedagogical activities. He is presently associated with Sri Sri University, India, as Head of the Department of Information and Communication Technology and Professor in-charge of the Enterprise Resource Planning System. To date he has published more than 40 articles in reputed international journals and has written four books. Subhendu Kumar Pani, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering and also Research Coordinator at Orissa Engineering College, Bhubaneswar, India. He has more than 15 years of teaching and research experience. He has published over 50 international journal papers as well as books and book chapters. His professional activities include roles as associate editor, editorial board member, and reviewer of various international journals. Tanupriya Choudhury, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at UPES Dehradun, India. He has received the Global Outreach Education Award for Excellence and Best Young Researcher Award at the Global Outreach Education Conference and Awards. He has filed 14 patents to date and received 16 copyrights from the Indian Ministry of Human Resource Development for his own software. He has authored more than 85 research papers and has delivered invited talks and guest lectures. Suneeta Satpathy, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the College of Engineering Bhubaneswar, India. She is an editorial board member and/or reviewer of the Journal of Engineering Science, Advancement of Computer Technology and Applications, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, and Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal. Sachi Nandan Mohanty, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education Hyderabad, India. He has published 20 journal papers and has edited four books. He is currently a reviewer of many journals, including Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Computational and Structural Biotechnology, Artificial Intelligence Review, and Spatial Information Research. Nayak Pani Choudhury Satpathy Mohanty Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things Future Directions and Applications Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things Future Directions and Applications Editors Bhagirathi Nayak | Subhendu Kumar Pani | Tanupriya Choudhury Suneeta Satpathy | Sachi Nandan Mohanty APPLE ACADEMIC PRESS
- 6. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET OF THINGS Future Directions and Applications
- 8. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET OF THINGS Future Directions and Applications Edited by Bhagirathi Nayak Subhendu Kumar Pani Tanupriya Choudhury Suneeta Satpathy Sachi Nandan Mohanty
- 9. First edition published 2022 Apple Academic Press Inc. 1265 Goldenrod Circle, NE, Palm Bay, FL 32905 USA 4164 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, ON, L7L 1A4 Canada © 2022 Apple Academic Press, Inc. CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 USA 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN UK Apple Academic Press exclusively co-publishes with CRC Press, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors, editors, and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. 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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Title: Wireless sensor networks and the Internet of things : future directions and applications / edited by Bhagirathi Nayak, Subhendu Kumar Pani, Tanupriya Choudhury, Suneeta Satpathy, Sachi Nandan Mohanty. Names: Nayak, Bhagirathi, 1963- editor. | Pani, Subhendu Kumar, 1980- editor. | Choudhury, Tanupriya, 1986- editor. | Satpathy, Suneeta, 1978- editor. | Mohanty, Sachi Nandan, editor. Description: First edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20210124822 | Canadiana (ebook) 20210124881 | ISBN 9781771889612 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781774637951 (softcover) | ISBN 9781003131229 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Wireless sensor networks. | LCSH: Internet of things. | LCSH: Internet—Security measures. Classification: LCC TK7872.D48 W57 2021 | DDC 681/.2—dc23 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Nayak, Bhagirathi, 1963- editor. | Pani, Subhendu Kumar, 1980- editor. | Choudhury, Tanupriya, editor. | Satpathy, Suneeta, editor. | Mohanty, Sachi Nandan, editor. Title: Wireless sensor networks and the internet of things : future directions and applications / edited by Bhagirathi Nayak, Subhendu Kumar Pani, Tanupriya Choudhury, Suneeta Satpathy, Sachi Nandan Mohanty. Description: First edition. | Palm Bay, FL, USA : Apple Academic Press Inc., 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things: Future Directions and Applications explores a wide range of important and real-time issues and applications in this ever-advancing field. Different types of WSN and IoT technologies are discussed in order to provide a strong framework of reference, and the volume places an emphasis on solutions to the challenges of protection, conservation, evaluation, and implementation of WSN and IoT that lead to low-cost products, energy savings, low carbon usage, higher quality, and global competitiveness. The volume is divided into four sections that cover Wireless sensor networks and their relevant applications Smart monitoring and control systems with the Internet of Things Attacks, threats, vulnerabilities, and defensive measures for smart systems Research challenges and opportunities This collection of chapters on an important and diverse range of issues presents case studies and applications of cutting-edge technologies of WSN and IoT that will be valuable for academic communities in computer science, information technology, and electronics, including cyber security, monitoring, and data collection. The informative material presented here can be applied to many sectors, including agriculture, energy and power, resource management, biomedical and health care, business management, and others”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2021003363 (print) | LCCN 2021003364 (ebook) | ISBN 9781771889612 (hbk) | ISBN 9781774637951 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003131229 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Internet of things. | Wireless sensor networks. Classification: LCC TK5105.8857 .W576 2021 (print) | LCC TK5105.8857 (ebook) | DDC 006.2/5--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021003363 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021003364 ISBN: 978-1-77188-961-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-77463-795-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-00313-122-9 (ebk)
- 10. About the Editors Bhagirathi Nayak, PhD, is a highly results- oriented professional with experience of 25 years from IIT Kharagpur, India, in the areas of computer science and engineering, academics, administration, database design and development, and pedagogical activities. He is presently associated with Sri Sri University, Cuttack, India, as Head of the Department of Information and Communication Technology and Professor in-charge of the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) System. To date he has published more than 40 articles in reputed international journals and has written four books. He has holds five patents in the area of computer science and engineering. Dr. Nayak won the prestigious Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Professional Excellence Award in Data Science from the Dr. A.P. J. Abdul Kalam Research Centre. He was also honored with the Best Professor of Data Science in Odisha, India Education Award 2019 at Bangalore. For his significant contribution to the field of data science, he awarded a Best Researcher Award by the Technological Conclave 2019, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. He also received the Research and Innovation Award of the Year on the occasion of the National Summit 2020 on 17th January 2020 at New Delhi in the august presence of Shri Nitin Jairam Gadkari (Honorable Minister of MSME). Four PhD scholars have been awarded and presently six PhD scholars are working under him. He did many more projects in the works, such as on bioinformatics with the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India, MSME & Paradip Port, Odisha, India.
- 11. vi About the Editors Subhendu Kumar Pani, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering and also Research Coordinator at Orissa Engi- neering College (OEC) Bhubaneswar, India. He has more than 15 years of teaching and research experience. His research interests include data mining, big data analysis, web data analytics, fuzzy decision-making, and computa- tional intelligence. He is the recipient of five researcher awards. In addition to research, he has guided two PhD students and 31 MTech students. He has published over 50 international journal papers (25 Scopus indexed). His professional activities include roles as associate editor, editorial board member, and/or reviewer of various international journals. He is associated with a number of conferences and societies. He has more than 100 international publications, five authored books, two edited books, and ten book chapters to his credit. He is a fellow in Scientific Society ofAdvance Research and Social Change and a life member in many other professional organizations, including IE, ISTE, ISCA, OBA. OMS, SMIACSIT, SMUACEE, and CSI. He received his PhD from Utkal University, Odisha, India, in the year 2013. Tanupriya Choudhury, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at UPES Dehradun, India. He has nine years of experience in teaching. Recently he has received the Global Outreach Education Award for Excellence and Best Young Researcher Award at the Global Outreach Education Conference and Awards 2018. His areas of interests include human computing, soft computing, cloud computing, data mining, etc. He has filed
- 12. vii About the Editors 14 patents to date and received 16 copyrights from the Indian Ministry of Human Resource Development for his own software. He has been associated with many conferences in India and abroad. He has authored more than 85 research papers and has delivered invited talks and guest lectures at several universities in India and elsewhere. He has been associated with many conferences throughout India as TPC member and session chair, etc. He is a lifetime member of IETA, member of IEEE, and member of IET (UK) and other renowned technical societies. He is associated with corporate, and he is Technical Adviser of Deetya Soft Pvt. Ltd. Noida, IVRGURU, and Mydigital 360, etc. received his bachelor’s degree in CSE from the West Bengal University of Technology, Kolkata, India, and master’s degree in CSE from Dr M.G.R. University, Chennai, India. He has received his PhD degree in the year 2016. Suneeta Satpathy, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the College of Engineering Bhubaneswar (CoEB), Bhubaneswar, India. Her research interests include computer forensics, cyber security, data fusion, data mining, big data analysis, and decision mining. In addition to research, she has guided many postgraduate and graduate students. She has published papers in many international journals and conferences in repute. She has two Indian patents in her credit. She is an editorial board member and/or reviewer of the Journal of Engineering Science, Advancement of Computer Technology and Applications, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, and Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal. She is a member of CSI, ISTE, OITS, ACM, and IE. She received her PhD from Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, in the year 2015, with a Directorate of Forensic Sciences, MHA scholarship from the Government of India.
- 13. viii About the Editors Sachi Nandan Mohanty, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the College of Engineering Pune. Pune, India. He has published 94 journal papers and has edited and authored fifteen books. He is actively involved as a fellow of the Indian Society Technical Education, the Insti- tute of Engineering and Technology, the Computer Society of India, and as member of the Institute of Engineers and senior IEEE Computer Society. He is currently a reviewer of many journals, including Robotics and Autonomous Systems, Computational and Structural Biotech- nology, Artificial Intelligence Review, and Spatial Information Research. He has been awarded a Best Researcher Award from Biju Pattnaik University of Technology in 2019, Best Thesis Award (first prize) from the Computer Society of India in 2015, and an Outstanding Faculty in Engineering Award from the Dept. of Higher Education, Government of Odisha in 2020. He has also received international travel funds from SERB, Dept. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, for chairing several sessions at international conferences (USA in 2020). Dr. Mohanty received several best paper awards during his PhD at IIT Kharagpur from the International Conference at Bejing, China, and the International Conference on Soft ComputingApplica- tions, organized by IIT Rookee, India, in 2013. Prof. Mohanty’s research areas include data mining, big data analysis, cognitive science, fuzzy deci- sion- making, brain-computer interface, and computational intelligence. Dr. Mohanty received his postdoctoral degree from IIT Kanpur in the year 2019 and PhD from IIT Kharagpur in the year 2015, with an MHRD scholarship from Government of India.
- 14. Contents Contributors.............................................................................................................xi Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xv Preface ..................................................................................................................xvii PART I: Wireless Sensor Networks and Their Relevant Application ....1 1. Intelligent 5G Networks: Challenges and Realization Insights..................3 Upinder Kaur and Harleen Kaur 2. Energy Harvesting Implementation for Wireless Sensor Networks ........21 Jaspreet Kaur and Silki Baghla 3. An Approach to Enhance the Wireless Sensor Network Efficiency Through Coverage and Energy Utilization Technique..............................31 Karandeep Singh and Satnam Singh Sekhon 4. A Modified Track Sector Clustering Scheme for Energy Efficiency in Wireless Sensor Networks........................................................................37 Divjot Kaur, Abhilasha Jain, and Swati Jindal 5. A Comprehensive Survey of RFID-Based Localization Techniques for Wireless Networks ..............................................................53 Manpreet Kaur and Sukhwinder Singh Sran 6. Mitigating collision in Multihop Wireless Networks – A Survey..............71 R. Radha, K. Vinuthna Reddy, and K. Kathiravan PART II: Smart Monitoring and Control System with the Internet of Things ............................................................................109 7. Internet of Things and Smart Homes: A Review ..................................... 111 Rajat Verma, Prashant Kumar Mishra, Vishal Nagar, and Satyasundara Mahapatra 8. Employment of the IoT Toward Energy Efficient Home Automation: State of the Art...........................................................129 Monika Mangla, Rajeshri Aneesh, and Archana Arudkar 9. IoT-Based Home Electronic Appliances Control System with Voice Control.......................................................................................145 Pulkit Jain, Aman Gupta, Mayank Verma, and Vivek Chauhan
- 15. x Contents 10. Real-Time Data Communication with IoT Sensors and Thing Speak Cloud .....................................................................................157 Amit Sundas and Surya Narayan Panda 11. Value Creation Model for Waste Management in Smart Cities Ecosystems.............................................................................175 Pankaj Deep Kaur, Varinder Kaur Attri, and Shivani Chaudhary 12. Safeguarding Location Privacy in the Internet of Things.......................189 Jashanpreet Kaur and Jyotsna Sengupta 13. IoT-RFID Sensing System for Monitoring Corrosion .............................203 Maninder Pal and Tarun Gulati 14. Blockchain in the IoT: Use-Case and Challenges.....................................219 Parmpreet Singh, Abhinav Bhandari, and Gurpreet Singh 15. Participation of 5G with Wireless Sensor Networks in the Internet of Things (IoT) Application.........................................................229 Arun Kumar and Sharad Sharma PART III: Attacks, Threats, Vulnerabilities and Defensive Measures for Smart Systems and Research Challenges...............245 16. Internet of Things (IoT): Vulnerability, Attacks, and Security ..............247 Gurinder Pal Singh and Parveen K. Bangotra 17. Latest Trend of IoT Threats and Defense .................................................263 Komal Saxena, Alka Chaudhary, and Riya Sharma 18. Latest Techniques Used to Detect the Botnet ...........................................293 Komal Saxena, Alka Chaudhary, and Ajay 19. SDN-Enabled IoT Management Architectures and Security Solutions: A Review .....................................................................319 Sarabjeet Kaur, Amanpreet Kaur, and Abhinav Bhandari 20. A Survey of DDoS Defense Mechanisms in Software-Defined Networks (SDN) .........................................................................................331 Jasmeen Kaur Chahal and Abhinav Bhandari 21. Internet of Things: Challenges and Research Opportunities .................343 Mandeep Kaur and Manminder Singh Index.....................................................................................................................351
- 16. Contributors Ajay Amity Institute of Information Technology, Amity University, Noida, India Rajeshri Aneesh Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty, PHCET, Navi Mumbai 400705, India Archana Arudkar Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty, PHCET, Navi Mumbai 400705, India Varinder Kaur Attri Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CT Group of Institutes, Jalandhar, Punjab Silki Baghla JCDM College of Engineering, Sirsa, Haryana 125055, India Parveen K. Bangotra Department of Space, Semi-Conductor Laboratory, Mohali, Punjab, India Abhinav Bhandari Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India Jasmeen Kaur Chahal Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India Alka Chaudhary Amity Institute of Information Technology, Amity University Noida, Noida, India Shivani Chaudhary Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CT Group of Institutes, Jalandhar, Punjab Vivek Chauhan Department of Mechatronics Engineering,Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India Tanupriya Choudhury Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India, Email: tanupriya1986@gmail.com Tarun Gulati MMEC, MM (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India Aman Gupta Department of Mechatronics Engineering,Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India Abhilasha Jain PTU GZS Campus, Bathinda, 151001 Punjab, India Pulkit Jain Department of ECE, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India
- 17. xii Contributors Swati Jindal PTU GZS Campus, Bathinda, 151001 Punjab, India K. Kathiravan Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Easwari Engineering College, Chennai, India Amanpreet Kaur University Institute of Computing, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran, Mohali, Punjab, India Divjot Kaur PTU GZS Campus, Bathinda, 151001 Punjab, India Harleen Kaur Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Baba Farid College of Engineering and Technology, Bathinda, Punjab, India Jashanpreet Kaur Punjabi University, Patiala Jaspreet Kaur JCDM College of Engineering, Sirsa, Haryana 125055, India Mandeep Kaur Computer Science and Engineering, SLIET Longowal, Punjab, India Manpreet Kaur Department of Computer Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India Pankaj Deep Kaur Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev University Regional Campus, Jalandhar, Punjab Sarabjeet Kaur University Institute of Computing, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Landran, Mohali, Punjab, India Upinder Kaur Department of Computer Science, Baba Farid College, Bathinda, Punjab, India Arun Kumar Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala, Haryana Satyasundara Mahapatra Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India Monika Mangla Department of Computer Engineering, LTCoE, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra 400709, India Prashant Kumar Mishra Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India Sachi Nandan Mohanty Department of Computer Science and Engineering, ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education Hyderabad, India, Email: sachinandan09@gmail.com Vishal Nagar Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
- 18. Contributors xiii Bhagirathi Nayak Department of Information and Communication Technology, Sri Sri University, Cuttack, India Email: bhagirathi.n@srisriuniversity.edu.in Maninder Pal Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom Surya Narayan Panda School of Engineering, Ajeenkya DY Patil University Pune, India 412105, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India Subhendu Kumar Pani Department of Computer Science and Engineering; Research Coordinator. Orissa Engineering College (OEC) Bhubaneswar, India, Email: skpani.india@gmail.com R. Radha School of Computer Science Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai. K. Vinuthna Reddy Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Hyderabad, India Suneeta Satpathy Department of Computer Science and Engineering, College of Engineering Bhubaneswar (CoEB), Bhubaneswar, India, Email: suneeta1912@gmail.com Komal Saxena Amity Institute of Information Technology, Amity University Noida, Noida, India Satnam Singh Sekhon Department of Mechanical Engineering, BFCET, Bathinda, Punjab, India Jyotsna Sengupta Punjabi University, Patiala Riya Sharma Amity Institute of Information Technology, Amity University Noida, Noida, India Sharad Sharma Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala, Haryana Gurpreet Singh Department of Computer Science and Engineering, PIT, MRSPTU, Rajpura, Punjab, India Gurinder Pal Singh Department of Space, Semi-Conductor Laboratory, Mohali, Punjab, India Karandeep Singh Department of Electronics and Communication, BFCET, Bathinda, Punjab, India Manminder Singh Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SLIET Longowal, Punjab, India Parmpreet Singh Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India Sukhwinder Singh Sran Department of Computer Engineering, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
- 19. xiv Contributors Amit Sundas School of Engineering, Ajeenkya DY Patil University Pune, India 412105, Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India Mayank Verma Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India Rajat Verma Pranveer Singh Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
- 20. Abbreviations ACL access control list AGVs automated guided vehicles AI artificial intelligence AODV ad-hoc on-demand distance vector API application programming interface API application performance indicator BCT blockchain technology BDP bandwidth delay product BEB binary Exponential back off BEMS building energy management system BS base station CA collision avoidance CH cluster head cIoT cloud IoT CNs core networks CoAP constrained application protocol CSMA carrier sense multiple access CTS clear to send DDoS distributed denial of service DER distributed energy resources DNS domain name system DoS denial of service EC eddy current EIoT enterprise IoT GDPR general data protection regulation HVAC heating ventilation and air conditioning IBC identity based cryptography ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol IDE integrated development environment iIoT industry IoT IoMT Internet of medical things IoT Internet of Things IRC Internet relay chat iTCP intelligent TCP
- 21. xvi Abbreviations LBCAR load balanced congestion adaptive routing LF-RFID low-frequency RFID LOS line of sight LPWAN low-power wide-area networking MAC media access control MA-MEC multi-access mobile edge computing MANET mobile ad hoc network MGDEV metric for garbage data evaluation MiTM man-in-the-middle MSW municipal solid waste NAV network allocation vector NDT nondestructive testing NFV network function virtualization PDR packet delivery ratio PEC pulsed eddy current RAN radio accessed network RF radiofrequency RFID radio frequency identification RTS request to send RTT round trip time SAW surface acoustic wave SDN software-defined networking SGS smart garbage system SSL secure socket layer SVM support vector machine TCP transmission control protocol TFRC TCP friendly rate control TLS transport layer security UDP user datagram protocol UE user equipment WCD weighted channel delay WoT Web of Things WSN wireless sensor network WXCP wireless explicit congestion protocol ZC zombie computer
- 22. Preface Today, the world has grown to be a smaller place with the maturity of the concept the “Internet of Things” (IoT), which makes use of sensors to firmly join digital communication expertise with smart physical devices such as smart grids, elegant homes, well-groomed water networks, and intelligent transportation. The number of Internet-connected objects grows, giving a paradigm shift in the digital age where smart embedded devices, people, and systems are connected. The junction of digital information technology, Internet, and digital communications fastened with modern engineering advances is making concrete the way for inexpensive sensors, capable of achieving a better accuracy. In such perspectives, wireless sensor network (WSN) technology consisting of an album of sensor nodes coupled with wireless channels and proficient in providing digital interfaces to the real- world things is becoming an indispensable constituent of IoT. With the IoT concept, one is able to shrewdly manage, monitor, and control the smart network devices. Wireless sensor networks are networks consisting of a substantial number of sensor nodes with each sensor node having the capability to sense different physical properties, like light, heat, and pressure etc. These sensor networks have brought a revolutionary change in the world of communication to assemble the heterogeneous information and fuse it to improve the reliability and efficiency of digital infrastructure systems. Further the WSNs having the characteristic features as infrastructure-less, fault-tolerant, and self-organizing capabilities has provided the opening for economical, easy-to-apply, rapid, and flexible installations in unattended and harsh environments in various prospective applications. Nowadays, WSN applications are also considered as IoT applications, forgetting the eminent new features that characterize the denomination because as it takes place in IoT. WSN networks are also ruling an extensive number of appliances in different domains, like healthcare, enhanced smart living scenarios, agriculture, logistics, wearable computing, industrial and production monitoring, control networks, and many other fields. Further the development of IPv6-enabled WSN protocols and their wide variety of applications have made it an integral component of IoT. So in today’s scenario, in contrast to wired systems, wireless systems providing better
- 23. xviii Preface flexibility is becoming the key factor for IoT. Hence, WSNs are amalgamated into the IoT, where sensor nodes are united with the Internet dynamically to cooperate with each other and carry out various tasks. The peculiar features and motivational factor for academics and industrial research work has enabled WSN to make revolutionary changes in digital information technology to play a vital part of our lives. This book describes the historical revolution of WSN along with the wider application of IoT. The book also investigates the technological characteristic features of WSN to be assembled with IoT, including data fusion, data association, correla- tion, and data aggregation. The application areas of WSN with an eye on its standard features enabling its design requirements for digital information infrastructure are also reviewed. Further, the mysterious ideas and concepts of wireless sensor networking along with IoT applications for modern living styles have always opened a pathway for cyber scammers to swindle the systems response, which leads to a variety of digital crimes that misuse the technology. The up-to-date view on the problem of security is also focused on in the book with an idea that protective mechanisms and corresponding technical enhancements must be integrated into it. Lastly the illustrations of various challenges and the corresponding design factors of WSNs along with their IoT applications can give a deep insight to explore work in the related areas in search of appropriate solutions. Though WSN is open to unlimited real-world application, on the other hand it poses many challenges for researchers to satisfy the rigorous constraints due to its weird characteristics, like scarcest energy sources, unattended and harsh deployment environments, insecure radio links, changing network topologies, heterogeneity of nodes, and multihop communications enabling the need of the development of new paradigms.
- 24. PART I Wireless Sensor Networks and Their Relevant Application
- 26. CHAPTER 1 Intelligent 5G Networks: Challenges and Realization Insights UPINDER KAUR1* , and HARLEEN KAUR2 1 Department of Computer Science, Baba Farid College, Bathinda, Punjab, India 2 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Baba Farid College of Engineering and Technology, Bathinda, Punjab, India * Corresponding author. E-mail: drupinder2016@gmail.com ABSTRACT 5G is the future generation network offering the variety of changes in the architecture of the core network. The network function virtualization and software-defined networking provide unconditional support to the emerging 5G network. This chapter highlights the evolutionary changes from 1G to 5G networks. Then it covers the important aspects for the realization of the 5G networks comprising the management of radio network, providing network service, mobility issue, and so on. This covers the complicated configuration issues and challenges for the future 5G network. Then it also creates a vision to solve the issue and overcome the challenges in 5G network by using the artificial intelligence (AI). Including the AI concepts to empower the 5G networks to meet the challenges of future generation networks. So, the main focus is to empower the 5G network with AI to acclaim intelligent 5G as a reality. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The emerging mobile network system from its pervasive coverage and fundamental Internet of Things (IoT) system provides innovation in terms
- 27. 4 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things of advanced network applications and new venture of creativity. The 5th generation networking withholds the new opportunities in the era of future technology like IoT, virtualization, big data, and virtual reality services. It involves the massive deployment of networking devices which will cross more than 75 billion by 2025 [1]. In contrast to the present technologies, 3G, 4G, and 5G networks support high frequencies and high spectrum efficiency. The evolution of 1G to 5G is shown in Table 1.1. There is a need of new procedure and policies for managing, signaling to support new application. 5G networks can provide extensive connectivity to the massive heteroge- neous networking devices. The objectivity of the 5G networks is to provide scalability and high speed for next generation technologies like IoT, AI and virtual reality, autonomous driving, smart cities in a sustainable and economical fashion. It requires the architectural modifications, new communication platforms, algorithms for proper utilization of the network function virtualization (NFV), edge computing, software-defined networking (SDN), and big data analytics. Some researchers have shown their promising result to support 5G networking requirements in Refs. [2–8]. The ongoing transactional changes in various domains originate new perspective for technical and management for 5G networks. This chapter mainly addresses the challenges of 5G networks in different applications. We can demystify the challenges of 5G architectural changes in support of smart cities, IoT, big data, and so on. Some research work on the new opportunities for 5G to support the future prospective of technologies in various application domains can enlighten the path for development of 5G networking. The main objective of this chapter is to classify the new application domains for 5G. It may include the low latency, bandwidth requirement, communication range, better reliability, security, and privacy measures. We also discuss the challenges and ongoing experimental testbeds among different universities, network companies, government organizations, and so on. The remaining article provides the structure of 5G networking in Section 1.2. Section 1.3 provides the requirements and demands of the 5G networking. Section 1.4 provides the challenges and innovative projects with the conclusion and future prospective. 1.2 THE FUTURE GENERATION NETWORKS: 5G NETWORKING The recent advancement in networks has created a multifarious application to enhance the lifestyle and include better mobility, social networking, e-health,
- 29. 6 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things and so on. Nowadays, Internet services have seen a rapid development over past times. The emerging technologies, for example, IoT, mobile and social network, fog computing, big data, and so much, are completely dependent on Internet application. This exhibits requirement of technological evolution in the present Internet services. The evidence forms the conventional data exchange among p2p, www, social, and mobile networks with the emerging technologies and forth- coming tactile Internet [9–11]. 5G networks involve integration of physical devices and the digital data, covering the use case of many IoT devices. So the required service of 5G networking demands the high available speed, reliability, security, ultra-low latency, context aware services, and so on [12]. Further, the smart cities concept linked with the context of 5G networking. The smart cities integrate existing information sources with modern informa- tion sources and support the communication network for the unified access to services for the smart city administration and their residents. Thus, the main focus is associated with the enhancement of the use of current resources with the improvement in quality of services and reducing operational cost, for example, smart cities, automation vehicular network, IOTs, big data, and so on. Table 1.2 represents the requirements, application areas, and the proposed solutions for the prospective of 5G networks. TABLE 1.2 Describes the Requirements, Proposed Solutions, and Application Areas of 5G Networks Requirements Proposed Solutions Application Areas High Network Capacity with Data Rate Ultra-Low Latency Densification FDD, CRN, mMIMO,D2D, FULL DUPLEX Cache management, D2D connectivity, self-heal, smart reduced cells Better connectivity, usages, virtualized homes, smart grids, better health care services, IoTs, industrial services Better Handoff SIC, CRN, detection and decoding, multi-rat handoff QoS Delayed bound QoS, Quality service management Scalability NFV, SDN, C-RAN, CONCERT Environment Friendly C-RAN, VLC, mMIMO, D2D Communication etc Connectivity Multi-Rat, CRN, CONCERT, RAN, densification More Secure and Better services and advanced Reliable encryption and decryption
- 30. 7 Intelligent 5G Networks 1.2.1 THE CHALLENGES AND ADVANCEMENTS FOR 5G The four technology advancement that can focus our interest in 5G, including lightweight virtualization, software-defined network, blockchain inspired distributed ledger, and mobile edge computing, are shown in Figure 1.1 FIGURE 1.1 Architectural View for 5G networking [40] 1.2.1.1 BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY-BASED DISTRIBUTION LEDGER Beyond keeping user privacy on the Internet, General Data Protection Regu- lation (GDPR) is also accelerating the development of distributed ledger technologies (i.e., blockchain technology [BCT] based protocol design). So, it gives rise to the strong demand nowadays to unify the data management across companies, government, and end users. Here it provides the congruous meaning to fulfill user request, for example, receive, track, and update the data when requested by user. BCT enables us to store historical record for each transaction in a tamper proof format to enhance data security. So it has more visible role in the various data driven services in 5G. BCT also keeps information at different locations and the history cannot be removed and further information can be
- 31. 8 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things accessed when the node possess it [13]. The main concept used in BCT and distributed ledger technology enables each participated node that has access to shared ledger at distributed locations [14]. All the transactions stored in ledger and information are copied to all the participated nodes. The blocks are timestamped in batches to validate the transactions and each block contains the information of hash value of previous block. Mining means generation of new blocks given by Ref. [15]. The blocks are linked by chain, formed blockchain [16]. So, BCT empowers 5G and merges novel blockchain and IoT security solutions [17–19], for better cryptocurrency design and enhance privacy in future networks. 1.2.1.2 VIRTUALIZATION AND SOFTWARE-DEFINED NETWORKING The NFV is the base for organizing network-related reckoning in 5G. It utilizes virtualization to decouple networking equipment from the programs executed on their machine [20]. The light weight virtualization technique, for example Docker and Unikernels given in Ref. [9], will facilitate 5G networks to support various application domains like IoT, cloud computing, fog computing, low power consumption, better resource utilization, and so on. This technique also facilitates various data centers with another tool SDN. It decouples the data and control plane to control all the functions using centralized network controller. It eliminated the need of vender-based hardware and its designs based on software to control all network functioning. SDN also supports large- scale distribution of 5G services [20]. The main application will be visible in smart cities, IoT, fog computing, and many more [21, 22]. 1.2.1.3 MOBILE EDGE COMPUTING Emerging of 5G technologies provides solution to many recourse hungry applications, broad paradigm application like IoT, big data, and huge computation applications. The border term mobile edge computing envi- sioned challenges to bring the cloud resources closer to IoT devices and highly optimistic technology to benefit potential of IoT. This will help in visualizing the emerging technologies’ real-time video/audio surveillance, smart city, smart e-health, smart transport management system, IoT, Internet of Vehicles. Multi-access mobile edge computing (MA-MEC) explores the integration of wireless technologies in 5G. The design of MA-MEC evolves the deployment of ultra-dense small cells—femto/pico/micro cells—to
- 32. 9 Intelligent 5G Networks increase the capacity of mobile network connections [23, 24] facilitating the dual connectivity in future 5G networks to communicate with traditional macro cells and manage data between macro and small cells, respectively [25–27]. They provide the existing edge offloading techniques with further improvements with respect to speed and low communication latency. 1.2.1.4 EDGE COMPUTING 5G NETWORK SERVICE FRAMEWORK The new edge-enabled platform proposed to merge new technology with 5G to manage huge amount of data along with the cyber-physical network deploy- ment. The mobile edge computing brings us benefits with 5G networks. Fast processing of data with IoT devices. Ultra-low latency for real-time data sharing between cloud and IoT network management. It enhances the better privacy and security. The edge computing platform provides efficient access to the upcoming computing style for real-time data management. Some researchers exhibit the better utilization of SDN framework [20], Kafka framework, and IoT management [28, 29]. 1.2.2 RESEARCH CHALLENGES FOR 5G NETWORKS The SDN, NFV, and edge computing are the promising techniques to fulfill the requirement for new applications. While the implementation of 5G undergoes many other challenges, The major concern deals with the privacy and security, Ref. [30] has discussed the pervasive encryption and also discussed the issue with ISPs, cloud service provider, standardization units like ETSI6 and IETF5. Issue related to the troubleshooting and management at various network layers in 5G networks. This also focuses on the unencrypted data management to provide high data privacy on the Internet [31]. Operational challenge related to the management of existing technolo- gies and creates a balance between both convectional system data and real-time web traces [32]. Less response time in 5G is required to support new emerging tech- nologies like IoT, edge computing, fog computing, big data, and so on.
- 33. 10 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things Provide efficient computational and storage resources at the applica- tion domain, mobile edge devices, radio resource allocation, and so on. Combine optimization between the convectional technology and 5G technology with the minimal cost, for example, adequate use of wireless channels when user move across the cells with respect to the storage and computation resources. 1.2.3 CHALLENGES BY THE GOVERNANCE POLICIES With the growing demand of the Internet, it becomes the common pool resource. So the requirement to efficiently regulate the services ensures fair usage of bandwidth, scalability, interoperability to different applications. So the standard regulation is required in 5G future. Back and recovery plans are also regularized. Ultra-low latency application will be developed to handle run-time vehicular network in 5G. Governance policies are required to ensure the proper functioning of 5G components with the restriction limits. Proper allocation of the spectrum is required as the failures are critical in certain applications. Proper fault tolerance is needed in mobile edge computing to avoid network failure. Strong security measures are required so that the secu- rity cannot be breached by the hacker. Major governance is required related to the interoperability between different computing and platforms. Handoff management at very small cells is required for the proper functioning of the vertical applications in multiple 5G providers [33, 34] that discuss on the data protection laws. They discuss the GDPR for the management of the huge amount of data collected at the cloud and user applications. So the major concern is related to the privacy of the data and standardization needed for implementing 5G network in smart cities [35]. 1.3 AI IN 5G NETWORKING AI support the 5G mobile network to provide knowledge to get self-admin- istrative techniques for network, for example, to configure 4G network hyperbolic to 1500 from 500 hubs at network in 2G and 1000 hubs required in the 3G network [36]. So the AI imparts intelligent support system to 5G network with previous knowledge that is used to train the 5G standard hub network with more parameters at least 2000. The application of 5G network, that is, eMBB (enhanced Mobile Broad- band), URLLC (Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communication), and mMTC
- 34. 11 Intelligent 5G Networks (massive Machine Type Communication), required new sort of advance services for system administration. The new services continually evolve and the existing services also change to support the technology change. In this manner, 5G network required services for self-configuration, self-healing, and self-optimization to intelligently take decision and administrate, and to appropriate supply system to proper provisioning mechanism and provide new network slice. Another issue, in emerging cellular network systems in 5G, is that it depend intensely on SDN, and still need more flexibility and robustness under the evolution of new heterogeneous and progressively complex cellular 5G networks. To self-regulate these networks, automated built-in network slice for the future networking services, network management, environment variations, identify uncertainties, particular response action plan, and proper network configuration are required. The desired features for the future networks solved the emerging of AI with 5G network because this solves the problem of classifying issues, interaction with environment variations, and many other uncertainties. Today AI is evolved as the future technology and also support multidis- ciplinary techniques, for example, machine learning, meta-heuristics, theory optimization, game theory, control theory, and so on. [37]. The AI learning technique is classified as three main categories. 1.3.1 SUPERVISED LEARNING The supervised learning is based on training the system by the existing inputs and their desired outputs and also specifies the rules to determine the desired output using inputs. So the supervised learning had widely been applied to solve the uncertain network issue, and effective channel utilization. Thus, the supervised learning assumes to be using the probabilistic methods to solve the characteristic equations and take the advantage of well-known Bayes learning methods. For example, Kalman filtering is used for optimizing cellular networks. 1.3.2 UNSUPERVISED LEARNING Here the system has the prior inputs but not fed with the desired outputs. Therefore, the leaning agents were made self-capable by embedding the intelligent system or pattern in its input. They work on by finding out the
- 35. 12 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things hidden patterns and resolve it by correlating this with the input data. This layer of AI has wide scope to estimate the hidden layer using the neural networks. They enhance the importance of deep learning methods in AI. Here, the 5G nonorthogonal multiple access receivers perform on the same graph-based factors to achieve low-bit error rate. It also uses the K-means algorithms to detect the uncertain network anomalies. 1.3.3 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING The controlled theory and the lean psychology, the new evolved technique is reinforcement learning. Here, the agent is trained to attain the intelligence by interacting in the dynamic environment. The agent should take action according to the situation. This learning enhances through the strong pattern recognition ability. Few researchers that show the evidence of cognitive radio usually method for dynamic transition of spectrum [38, 39]. Table 1.3 provides the detail of AI support for intelligent networks and Table 1.4 summarizes the AI algorithms for cellular networks. It supports the AI for various tasks in cellular networks, network traffic management, user demands, resource utilization, coordination between the base stations (BSs), and other network entities. Figure 1.2 presents the architecture for intelligent 5G networks empow- ered with AI. It contains the AI controller on the top of Open Network Operating System and it is independent entity; it can convey with the radio accessed network (RAN), global SDN controller, and core networks (CNs). The role of AI center is to keep the record of service level agreements and also keep check on the requirement rate, area coverage, failure policies, data redundancy, and so on. The User Equipment (UE) level information in AI center handles the receiver category, network level information, quality of service, schedule maintenance, the in-fracture level information, that is, CPU, memory, storage, and so on, from the global controller. The AI center manages the embedded modules (sensing, mining, prediction, and reasoning) for the network management and provides feedback result for traffic management. The AI center, sensing module, keeps the track of local UEs and focuses on the mobility patterns in the networks. The reasoning and proactive module records the UEs to track the location and prepares handover functions with managing the mobility cost. Thus, the merging of AI in the working of 5G networks helps in controlling the uncertainties and maintains normal working of networks under non-normal conditions.AI center helps in periodically exchanging the information between the global controllers and
- 37. 14 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things TABLE 1.4 AI Algorithm Summary Modules Sense Mine Predict Reason Application Support Proposed Work Review & Analysis Compare the network applications on basis of services & events with hybrid sources LR—Logistic Regression HMM—Hidden Markov Model SVM—Support Vector Machine SVM and LR has better accuracy and HMM exhibits large probability of anomalies Clustering & Classify the Services according to the resources GBDT—Gradient bosting decision tree Spectral Clustering SVM Classification RNN-Neural Network The supervised learning approach exhibits quality data services and unsupervised learning exhibits dependency on data accuracy rate Do Prediction on the basis of Trend Analysis and Judgement of traffic analysis from hybrid sources KL—Kalman Filtering ARMA—Auto-Regression-Average- Moving Deep Learning RNN LSTM-Long Short Term Memory Compress Sense ARMA- KL exhibits better performance in onetime sequences generation. Deep learning, RNN, LSTM are better and provide advance level traffic analysis and mobility patterns Configure the results and better utility Dynamic Behavior—DB B&B—Bench & Beyond Approach Reinforcement Learning Q-Based Learning Transfer Learning DNN Dynamic behavior generalizes the behavior of Artificial Intelligence, better optimizes solution and better supportive environment with hybrid approach of RL and TL
- 38. 15 Intelligent 5G Networks it also manages the resources in emergency cases. The AI centers integrated with global controller constitute the multitier network support system and strengthen the 5G network. FIGURE 1.2 AI empower intelligent 5G network. 1.4 OPPORTUNITIES IN INTELLIGENT 5G NETWORKS Emerging of AI with the 5G network supports the following issues in 5G networks. 1.4.1 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT The 5G networks visualized the large amount of data and different types of networks. The integration of AI in 5G networking helps to allocate the network resources. It helps in predicting the network traffic and best traffic management practices, mining of relevant data from the abundant data, and providing more appropriate service to configure network.AI helps to generate the reports based on the trained data set and dynamic data to summarize the network users and the relevant network usage policies.
- 39. 16 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things 1.4.2 HETEROGENEITY IN 5G NETWORKS The inclusion of pico cells, micro cells, macro cells, even different network configuration deployed the network in heterogeneity. AI helps in managing the services in terms of service efficient (SE), and energy efficient (EE), and so on. AI generates new policies and rules to configure the pico BSs for larger throughput to the macro BSs to maintain the efficient networking data exchange. 1.4.3 HANDLE UNCERTAINTIES TO SUPPORT SUBSYSTEMS IN 5G The 5G network operators have well-developed system to manage the anomalies in the network. So the detection system helps to train the AI for detection of the abnormal network traffic patterns. Therefore, it helps in experiencing the unfamiliar traffic patterns and handles the uncertainties. So, here AI helps in shielding the safety threats and also counters the anomalies. 1.4.4 ISSUES IN INTEGRATED RANS AND CNS Issue relates to isolation of the RAN and CNs that not scaled enough in network. Thus, the AI center grants the controller to manage the wired and wireless resources and resource management and appropriate content distri- bution and caching server, and also provide the unified protection against the potential network threats. 1.4.5 CHALLENGES IN 5G NETWORKS The major challenges are to effectively apply theAI in the 5G networks. The data in 5G network is variety of data. The challenges for AI to recognize the large set of patterns analyze it and remember the patterns and then derive the result or take the appropriate decisions. Thus, the challenge in AI is to define the appropriate parameters, time is the major concern in mining the huge set of data, also the significant amount of storage, adequate security, and privacy policies are required. These are the main added computational capabilities of the network entities and the BSS and also manage the cost of the technology.
- 40. 17 Intelligent 5G Networks 1.5 CONCLUSION This chapter creates the vision of the future 5G networks. It provides the details of the future promising technology like edge computing, SDN, virtu- alization, wireless and wired networks, cloud computing, fog computing, and so on. This aggregates the open challenges—both the technical challenges and the governance policies. Here, we inculcate the benefits ofAI to the future generation cellular networks. AI provides the opportunities in 5G networks to analyze and recognize the patterns. This also provides the discussion of the AI with the algorithms for managing the different aspects of the 5G networks, that is, mobility management, load management, general management, service monitoring, and security and privacy aspect as well. Finally, the 5G network has empowered with the intelligence of AI to achieve success in the digitalized world. In future, we will further analyze the various use case for 5G network to provide the maximum benefit of AI and deep learning. KEYWORDS 5G networks software-defined networking artificial intelligence network function virtualization REFERENCES 1. Statista. Internet of Things Connected Devices Installed Base Worldwide from 2015 to 2025.www.statista.com/statistics/471264/IoT-number-ofconnected-devices-worldwide/ 2. Vijay, G., Ji, L., Lee, S., and Han, B., “Network Function Virtualization: Challenges and Opportunities for Innovations”. IEEE Comm. Mag. Vol. 53, (2015), pp. 90–97. 3. Sasu, T., Jon, C., Aaron, Y. D., and Flinck, H., “Software Defined Networking for Security Enhancement in Wireless Mobile Networks”. J. Comp. Net. Vol. 66 (2014), pp. 94–101. 4. J. Costa-Requena, Kantola, R., Manner, J., Liu, Y., and Aaron, Y. D., “SD 5G Mobile Backhaul”. Proceeding of 1st International Conference on 5G for Ubiquitous Connectivity, Levi, Finland, 26th–27th November, 2014. 5. Crowcroft, J., Liu, Y., Sasu, T., Flinck, H., and Ding, A. Y., “Demo: An Open-source Software Defined Platform for Collaborative and Energy-aware WiFi Offloading”.
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- 44. CHAPTER 2 Energy Harvesting Implementation for Wireless Sensor Networks JASPREET KAUR* and SILKI BAGHLA JCDM College of Engineering, Sirsa, Haryana 125055, India * Corresponding author. E-mail: jaspreet25913@gmail.com ABSTRACT Energy harvesting is the demand of present day wireless communication for improving the energy efficiency of a network and a way to green communication as well.Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) suffer from energy depletion of nodes and energy harvesting is a promising solution to enhance the life-time of sensor nodes in the area having lesser human intervention. In this work, different energy harvesting techniques have been presented and electromagnetic-based energy harvester model is deployed with WSN to evaluate its performance. Low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy protocol has been used as a routing protocol for sensor nodes. The performance of the proposed model is evaluated with variation in hardware characteristics of energy harvester and analyzed for sensor characteristics such as the number of dead nodes, alive nodes as well. The energy harvester model and WSN have been implemented on the MATLAB platform. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Development of wireless communication networks lead to several challenges which need to be resolved. These challenges include low latency, high data rates, energy efficiency, increase traffic handling capability, and network integration.Among these challenges, improving energy efficiency of the whole network is of prime concern. Nowadays, conventional batteries are a source of power in electronics devices. These batteries have a finite life span and
- 45. 22 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things need to be charged after some time. In mobile terminals, option of charging is available but the problem becomes tedious in case of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). In WSN, nodes are deployed in an area where human intervention is generally not feasible. In that case, replacement of battery or time to time charging is not possible. Moreover, batteries also place a limitation on the miniaturization of micro electro-mechanical systems. So, energy harvesting techniques have drawn the attention of researchers in the past few years to improve the performance of the network in terms of energy efficiency. It is also suggested as a major technique for improving energy efficiency in the development of the fifth generation of wireless mobile networks [1, 9]. Different energy sources existing in the environment around a system such as solar, wind, tidal energy geothermal energy, and other mechanical vibration can be the options for energy harvesting. Ease of availability, reli- ability, mobility, lesser cost, and their eco-friendly nature are other important advantages of these sources. Withtheimprovementsinintegratedcircuits,thesizeandpowerconsump- tion of current electronics has dramatically decreased. So, energy harvesting from the ambient natural environment has received great interest and has been investigated by many researchers. Other sources of ambient energies include the flow of liquids or gases, the energy produced by the human body, and also the action of gravitational fields produces ambient energy. These ambient energies are in the form of vibrations. Energy harvesting can be done by converting these vibrations into electrical energy. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows: Section 2.2 describes various techniques of vibrational energy harvesting. Section 2.3 explains the model of electromagnetic energy harvester used in this work, Section 2.4 provides simulation setup for performance evaluation of the model of energy harvester, Section 2.5 provides results obtained and Section 2.6 concludes the work with future remarks. 2.2 TYPES OF VIBRATIONAL ENERGY HARVESTING TECHNIQUES Depending on the availability and environment of the vibrational energy, energy harvesting techniques can be categorized as: Electromagnetic energy harvester: In this type of energy harvesting, electrical energy is produced by using a magnetic field. According to Faraday’s law, the rate of change of magnetic flux linkages with a coil results in induced emf in it. So, in electromagnetic energy harvester, a
- 46. 23 Energy Harvesting Implementation coil wrapped around a mass is allowed to oscillate in a magnetic field whichresultsintheproductionofvoltageacrossit.Theproducedvoltage is generally very small (~0.1 V) so an amplifier circuit is attached to obtain the desired output voltage. Moreover, the induced voltage can be varied by change in magnetic field strength, number of turns in the coil, mass or diameter of the coil as well. This method of energy harvesting has the advantage that it needs no external voltage source for its opera- tion. Wind vibration and mechanical vibration-based cantilever systems are examples of electro-magnetic energy harvesting methods. Electrostatic (capacitive) energy harvester:As its name indicates, this type of harvesting is based on changing the capacitance of vibration- dependent variable capacitors. Vibrations from the ambient atmo- sphere separate the plates of an initially charged variable capacitor (varactor), resulting in a change in its capacitance. Now, for a fixed charge value, a change in capacitance results in a change in induced voltage across it. So, this method requires an external voltage source and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy as both the plates move up and down (mechanical constraints are needed). The produced voltage is relatively high (2–10 V). It can be easily worked with MEMS. The system can be placed in a car near to the shock absorber, where the vibration is maximum. Piezoelectric energy harvester: Piezoelectric or electromechanical energy harvester, harvests vibrational energy from stress and compression and converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. A piezoelectric material is strained and deformed by applying mechanical energy resulting in equivalent electrical energy (voltage drop) as defined by the phenomenon of piezoelectric effect. In these harvesters, oscillating system is typically a cantilever beam structure with a mass (piezoelectric material) at one end of the lever. Piezo- electric materials are used in systems where it is subjected to stress or compression, producing a voltage of about 2–10 V [2, 10]. Vibration energy harvesting devices can be either electromechanical or piezoelectric. Due to the lack of availability of piezoelectric material, mostly electromagnetic harvester is used. 2.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY HARVESTER FOR WSN Figure 2.1 shows the model of electromagnetic harvester used in this work. It consists of a cantilever beam supported on a fixed support. A permanent
- 47. 24 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things magnet with mass “m” is mounted on the cantilever beam on which a coil is wrapped around. The vibrations applied to the cantilever beam move the magnet up and down resulting in a change of magnetic flux linked with the coil. Hence the voltage is induced in it which is applied to the load attached with the coil. FIGURE 2.1 Cantilever-beam-based energy harvester. Source: Reprinted from Ref. [8]. Open access. For a given mass of cantilever, maxim stress “σmax ” imposed depends upon its length “L,” thickness “t,” and moment of inertia “I” as given by ˜max = Maximum stress = FLt (2.1) 2I Here F = mg N. Maximum allowable deflection of the cantilever beam is given by Y = 2L2 ˜ (2.2) max max 3Et where Ymax = maximum allowable deflection, L = length of cantilever (11 mm) E = Young’s modulus, t = thickness of cantilever (0.2 mm). So, the maximum power generated by the cantilever beam-based energy harvester shown in Figure 2.1 is given by [2] mY 2 ˛n3 Rload PLmax = ( ) (2.3) 16˝ R + R p load coil where PLmax = maximum power generated, m = mass of cantilever beam (mg),
- 48. 25 Energy Harvesting Implementation εp = damping factor, Y = maximum allowable deflection, = load resistance, Rload = coil resistance. Rcoil The produced energy being very small is then amplified and applied to WSN as shown in Figure 2.2. FIGURE 2.2 Electromagnetic energy harvester-based WSN. 2.4 SIMULATION SETUP The proposed model of electromagnetic energy harvester is implemented on the MATLAB platform. Table 2.1 provides the simulation set up used in this work. Mass of cantilever is varied from 490 to 530 mg. The proposed model is implemented with a fixed value of thickness and width of the cantilever as 0.2 and 0.3 mm, respectively. The performance of the energy harvester model used in this work is evaluated in terms of maximum power generated ” with variation in mass and length of the cantilever beam. The gener- “PLmax ated power is applied as initial energy to WSN consisting of 100 nodes. Low energy adaptive clustering hierarchical routing algorithm has been used for routing in WSN [4]. The performance of WSN is evaluated in terms of the number of alive nodes, dead nodes, and remaining energy. 2.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 2.3 shows the variation of maximum allowable deflection and natural frequency with variation in the length and mass of the beam. It is observed that the natural frequency tends to decrease with an increase in the length of the beam and mass of the cantilever beam. It is also observed that the
- 49. 26 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things maximum allowable deflection of the cantilever beam increases with an increase in length of the beam. Figure 2.4 provides the maximum power generated by the energy harvester model used in this work for variation in mass of the cantilever beam. It can be observed that the output power decreases with an increase in the mass of the beam and maximum power is generated for a mass of 490 mg as 2.408 × 10−8 W. TABLE 2.1 Simulation set up for energy harvester Mass of cantilever (mg) 490-530 Thickness of cantilever beam (mm) 0.2 Length of cantilever beam (mm) 4-11 Width of cantilever beam (mm) 0.3 No. of nodes in WSN 200 Area of WSN (m2 ) 200 x200 No. of rounds 200 Initial energy of WSN 2.4 J FIGURE 2.3 Maximum allowable deflection and natural frequency for variation in length and mass of the beam.
- 50. 27 Energy Harvesting Implementation FIGURE 2.4 Maximum power generated for variation in mass of cantilever beam. The power generated is applied to WSN constructed in an area of 200 × 200 m2 having 200 nodes. Figure 2.5 provides node deployment in selected the area of WSN. FIGURE 2.5 Deployment of nodes in WSN. The performance of WSN is evaluated in terms of the number of alive nodes, dead nodes, and remaining energy. Energy of nodes is diminished
- 51. 28 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things with an increase in the number of rounds. Once a node is run out of its energy, it is assumed as a dead node. A dead node no longer can send or receive any data. In a network having a fixed number of nodes, the number of dead nodes increases with the number of rounds, and the number of alive nodes decreases accordingly. It is observed that for the given value of energy harvested from the energy harvester model used in this work, the number of nodes alive for 80 rounds and got dead after that. Similarly, energy of WSN diminished after 80 rounds as shown in Figures 2.6–2.8. FIGURE 2.6 Number of dead nodes with number of rounds. FIGURE 2.7 Number of alive nodes during network lifetime.
- 52. 29 Energy Harvesting Implementation FIGURE 2.8 Remaining energy after 200 rounds. Figure 2.7 shows the total number of alive nodes in the network during the 200 rounds. The node whose energy is not completely depleted after the simulation or they have enough energy to transmit or receive data are alive nodes. The remaining energy of the network is defined as the sum of energy of all the alive nodes after each round. Figure 2.8 presents the energy of the network after 200 rounds. 2.6 CONCLUSION Energy harvesting has gained a lot of attention from researchers in the past few years for different applications. In WSN also, energy efficiency is of main concern. So, this work is an effort to design the energy harvester-based WSN. The performance of the electromagnetic energy harvester has been evaluated for variation in the mass of the cantilever. The energy generated is applied to WSN to estimate the lifetime of nodes. The model can be modified with energy-efficient routing techniques employed with WSN and variation in the design of the energy harvester.
- 53. 30 Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things KEYWORDS energy harvesting energy efficient green communication LEACH WSN REFERENCES 1. Hossain, E. and Hasan, M. “5G cellular: key enabling technologies and research challenges,” IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, Vol. 18, Issue 3, pp. 11–21, June 2015. 2. Jackson, N., O’Keeffe, R., Waldron, F., O’Neill, M., and Mathewson, A. “Evaluation of low-acceleration MEMS piezoelectric energy harvesting devices” Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 25, November 2013. 3. Rahman, T., Sakir, S. R., and Onna, S. D. “Design of an efficient energy harvester from ambient vibration,” BSC Thesis, BRAC University, April 2012. 4. Heinzelman, W., Chandrakasan, A., and Balakrishnan, H., “Energy-efficient communi- cation protocols for wireless microsensor networks,” Proceedings of the 33rd Hawaaian International Conference on Systems Science (HICSS), January 2000. 5. Fang, L. H., Idris, S., Hassan, S., Abd Rahim, R. B., and Abd Malek, M. F., “A study of vibration energy harvester,” ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, ISSN 1819-6608, 2006–2015. 6. Ojo, F. K., Akande, D. O., and Mohd Salleh, M. F. “An overview of RF energy harvesting and information transmission in cooperative communication networks,” Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature, 2018. 7. Zakaria, J., and Salleh, M. F. M. “Wireless energy harvesting on AF relaying system over outdated channel conditions,” 2018 7th International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering (ICCCE). 8. Rahman, T., Sakir, S.E., Onna, S.D. Design on an Efficient Energy Harvester from Ambient Vibration: A report submitted to Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, (EEE) BRAC University in fulfillment of the requirements for thesis work. 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10361/1832 9. Chandrakant Mallick, Suneeta Satpathy, “Challenges and Design Goals of Wireless Sensor Networks: A Sate-of-the-art Review”, International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 – 8887), 2018. 10. Sachi Nandan Mohanty, E.Laxmi Lydia, Mohamed Elhoseny, Majid M. Gethami AI Otabi, K.Shankar, Deep learning with LSTM based distributed data mining model for energy efficient wireless sensor networks, Physical Communication, vol. 40, Issue-4, 101097-102008, (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phycom.2020.101097.
- 54. CHAPTER 3 An Approach to Enhance the Wireless Sensor Network Efficiency Through Coverage and Energy Utilization Technique KARANDEEP SINGH1* , and SATNAM SINGH SEKHON2 1 Department of Electronics and Communication, BFCET, Bathinda, Punjab, India 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, BFCET, Bathinda, Punjab, India * Corresponding author. E-mail: Krndeep3@gmail.com. ABSTRACT Nowadays, wireless sensors are emerging in the field of industrial as well as in scientific research. These wireless sensor networks are having issues regarding coverage as well as major issue of battery life span, so in this chapter issues are discussed and then algorithms are proposed to enhance the coverage and battery life of the sensor network. The techniques covered in these sections work on time management and optimal sampling rate to extend both the range and life of the network. 3.1 INTRODUCTION A wireless network of sensors consists of a large number of sensory nodes which ranges from low to high for performing different tasks in numerous fields.As wireless sensor network is emerging these days and covering wider area in different applications like local monitoring to military surveillance. Sensor nodes collect the information from other several nodes after sensing
- 55. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 56. wait, then, until the crack of doom: Colonel Napier would remain unavenged. Feverishly I tore out into the streets and bought up all the late editions of the evening papers which I could lay my hands on. This mysterious crime had impressed the stolid imagination of Londoners so well accustomed to horrors that end in nothingness to a degree that was quite unusual; and all the journals had launched out into lurid descriptions of the dead man and the manner of his passing so that a horrid sense of nausea seized on me, and I cursed journalism and all its loathsome enterprise; albeit it I was most eager myself at the same moment to take advantage of its discoveries. One paper, however, had got a paragraph that threw a new light on the occurrence—the Star—and I read it with throbbing eagerness: A STARTLING THEORY “Latest inquiries to-night tend to show that there is a good deal behind the death of Colonel Napier. The police are certain that the murderer has some other object than theft, at which task it was said that he must have been disturbed by the sudden tapping on the door by the valet, Richardson. It is rumoured that the appearance of Detective Naylor on the scene was of set design. Naylor, as was stated in the papers a few days ago, has the warrant in hand for the arrest of the murderer of young George Sutton, a man who, it will be remembered, fled to this country from a monastery in Mexico after he had committed the deed. Now the two crimes are connected in the minds of the police for some reason they will not divulge; and it is whispered freely at Scotland Yard that a man who puts his hands on the murderer of Sutton will at the same time arrest the assassin
- 57. of brave Colonel Napier. Unfortunately, the quest is highly complicated, and at the clubs there are some wild, romantic stories afloat, which connect the deaths with stories of vast, hidden treasures and diplomatic intrigues, party jealousies, and mystery-loving Mexicans. For our own part, we advise the public to take little heed of these wild romances until they contain something which looks a trifle more substantial. A milkman, for instance, has been found who declares he was passing Whitehall Court about the time the murder must have been committed, and he swears positively that he saw a young, dark-looking foreigner, aged about twenty-five, run from the direction of Embankment Mansions and disappear up Northumberland Avenue. He says, also, that he saw the man’s features quite distinctly, and that he will be able to recognise them again in any circumstances and after any lapse of time. Now clues like these are worth a thousand of the utterly preposterous yarns they are whispering in Clubland to-night about Jesuits and parliamentary personages who are much too busy to be mixed up with all the numberless scandals and tarradiddles that affect the House of Commons under its present party régime.” Surely, if this theory pointed to anyone it did most certainly to José Casteno! Further speculation, however, was cut short by the arrival of a telegraph messenger. With trembling fingers I tore open the envelope, and found that, after all, the Spaniard had kept his word and had wired me, most fully, news of his whereabouts and wishes: To Hugh Glynn, 99 Stanton Street, London, WC. “Have accompanied our good friend to Green Dragon Hotel, Shrewsbury. At Birmingham he met a clever but needy
- 58. aeronaut named Captain Sparhawk. This man has invented a flying machine which he has arranged to show at Great Shropshire Floral Fête here on Monday. Z. has promised to finance him and to ascend with him to test the machine’s capacities. Two other seats were on sale in the town at twenty pounds each. I have bought them, and propose you and I ascend with them disguised as military men in undress uniform of engineers; otherwise fear, if the machine travels far, Z. may do a bolt to some other district. If you don’t wire me, c/o Post Office, shall assume you will come. —C.” “Certainly I will come,” I said to myself grimly as I folded up the message and placed it in my pocket-book. “It would be a pity for you, Master José, to undertake any fresh adventures without my personal assistance. You might come to some harm before we had cleared up the mystery of the death of Colonel Napier, and that would be a pity, a great pity, indeed.” And snatching up the travelling-bag which I always kept ready packed for such emergencies I dashed off to a costumier I knew who lived near, in Wellington Street. Then I made for Euston, and catching the night mail to the Midlands, contrived such a good use of my time, that, before church time, I found myself in Shrewsbury, scrambling up the hill that led from the main railway station to the far-famed Green Dragon Hotel, where I understood both Zouche and Casteno were. On the way down, however, I had effected certain changes in my appearance. A dark wig was on my head. A black moustache hid my mouth. My plain civilian clothes had given place at the costumier’s to the uniform of a sergeant of royal engineers. I had done this to deceive the
- 59. hunchback, and to satisfy Casteno I had brought no disguise for the Spaniard. I did not think he would need one after I had finished my first conversation with him! And as I turned into the courtyard of the hotel he came out and met me with outstretched hand.
- 60. Chapter Thirteen. The Two Brothers. There was nothing in the way Casteno received me to suggest a man with a guilty secret. On the contrary, as I advanced through the doorway that led to the Green Dragon he stepped out boldly towards me the instant he recognised me beneath the disguise which he himself had suggested. “Welcome, my good friend,” he said in a bluff and hearty fashion, stretching out his hand; “Welcome!” I took the greeting he proffered, although I turned my head away and would not let him detect my real feelings. At first I was sorely tempted to take him by surprise and to denounce him there and then as the man who had stolen into Whitehall Court in those early morning hours, climbed through that open bedroom window, and had killed poor Colonel Napier, one of the truest and most loyal soldiers that ever lived. But I crushed all those temptations down. There was much for me to discover before I could show my suspicions so plainly as that. I had to go very slowly and carefully to work. “I am glad to see you,” I answered at length, and that sentiment, indeed, was true. I was glad—more glad than he could guess. “Let the porter carry my luggage in, and let you and I have a walk.” “Excellent,” said he, “that was just what I was going to propose if you were not too tired.” And giving the necessary directions to the hotel servants he calmly linked his arm in mine, and led me down the street towards the river, whither
- 61. all the passers-by seemed to be hastening on their way homeward after service at church. “Well, and how did you get on with Miss Velasquon?” he asked later. “Very badly,” I returned. “I lost her at Vauxhall Bridge Station.” “Oh, never mind about that,” he replied lightly. “Your duty ended as soon as you arrived with her in London. As a matter of fact, I sent a friend to intercept her at that point. He didn’t quite understand whether he could trust you or not, so he hit on that ruse by which she slipped out of the carriage whilst you were looking out at an opposite platform. She wired me, however, that you had had some extraordinary adventure on the way up. What was that?” “Oh, merely some women tried to lure her off to Broadmoor Lunatic Asylum,” I snapped. “Why on earth didn’t you tell me I was safe when we reached town? Do you know, I searched the station from top to bottom before I decided your friend had come to no harm.” “No, I don’t. In fact, I am very sorry about what the man whom I sent did. I was, however, under the impression that I had told you not to worry after she had reached town. The real danger existed on the way up. I had most specific warning that it was on the actual journey from Southampton Lord Fotheringay would make the semi- criminal effort he did to get her out of my hands.” “Why should he?” I demanded, stopping suddenly and gazing fixedly at the speaker. “Why should two men ever strive after the same sweetheart?” Casteno answered, his features flushing
- 62. crimson. “Call it Life—Fate—Providence—Luck—Destiny— what you like. There it is. It often happens. The whole truth is, the earl and I are both in love with Camille Velasquon. She prefers me, hence his quest for the documents is mixed up in a thirst for personal revenge.” “And the documents you asked her to bring?” I cut in suddenly, “what of those? Are they love letters?” And a quiet smile of derision showed itself at the corners of my mouth. “Do you want them, or are they to go into the archives of the Order of St. Bruno as quaint but interesting curiosities?” “Neither,” said Casteno simply. “They are more important, much more important, than lovers’ effusions. They give the keys to various ciphers used by the Jesuits in the early days of their Order in Mexico. Is there anything else you would like to ask?” Then seeing he had put me to some confusion he went on with great earnestness: “Look here, man, why don’t you trust me a little more? Don’t you see that there must, in a quest like this we are engaged upon, be a hundred details about which I cannot give you my confidence? Why not be content to labour in the dark until the time for the light comes? As it is just at present, I satisfy you for a day easily and perfectly enough, but it is only for a day. Something you don’t expect happens, and lo! I find about me a cloud of distrust, suspicion, and unpleasant suggestion that takes out of me every bit of heart and pluck.” “Is not that your own fault?” I blurted out. “Are not your actions calculated to excite distrust? Carry your memory back to the last time you were in my office in Stanton Street. What happened then?” “Nothing of great account.” But now he went very pale.
- 63. “Are you quite sure of that?” I queried in the gravest tones. “Think again. Examine your conscience again. What about that dagger of yours? Why did you get up and sharpen it on the hearthstone directly you thought I should not see you?” The Spaniard started, and recovered himself with an effort. “Because I had had a fright,” he stammered. “In an idle moment I had looked through the window and there I saw a man who had vowed to take my life.” “I cannot believe you,” I cried. “You must convince me. Tell me who was this foe?” “My own brother,” he muttered, turning away from me with an impatient gesture and quickening his steps. “You have seen him yourself. The hunchback called him Paul—” “Then,” I gasped in amazement, “you—you are the hunchback’s son?” “Of course I am,” he retorted. “I thought you guessed that directly you saw Paul when we were up in that recess watching my father put on his disguise. The relationship seemed so evident that I did not feel there was any necessity to explain it.” “But you call yourself Casteno?” “No; I changed my name after I had quarrelled with my father some years ago and got employment in the Royal Household of Spain. I purchased the right to do so—” “Then you talk English like a native.” “So does the hunchback.”
- 64. “And when that morning you saw your brother,” I went on, breaking away on a new tack, “why did you go after him?” “To make peace if I could. As it was doubtful I prepared myself also for war.” “And did you find him?” “No; he was too quick for me. I slipped as hard as I could to his chambers in Embankment Mansions in Whitehall Court, but he was not in them. They were closed and locked.” “Embankment Mansions in Whitehall Court,” I repeated. “That is where Colonel Napier lives.” And as I uttered the name of the dead officer I scrutinised every line on Casteno’s face. “Of course it is,” he responded, and not the smallest sign of excitement did he exhibit. “Paul, for some years, has had a set of chambers over the flat occupied by Colonel Napier. He has got one of those wild, hopeless passions that sometimes seize the lowly born for girls in the higher ranks of life, for Miss Napier.” “Not Miss Doris Napier!” I interjected. “Oh yes, Miss Doris. The thing is almost laughable—except for Paul, who is absolutely crazy on the subject, and who has often told me that on the day you are formally engaged to her he will shoot you like a dog.” “Pleasant for me,” I observed, “extremely pleasant. Your father and I are old friends; how is it he didn’t warn me?” “He always hoped that Paul would come to his senses. He was ashamed of the lad’s madness. He trusted that some other girl would appear on the scene to fascinate Paul.
- 65. Besides, he did tell Colonel Napier about it. The colonel and he are related, as a matter of fact. Both of them married step-sisters; but my mother died many years ago.” “I had no idea of this.” “No doubt,” returned the Spaniard courteously. “Lovers don’t usually trouble to inquire as to the relations of the girls they love until after marriage. If they did, cynics say that they would spare themselves a good many highly unpleasant surprises. The colonel, of course, was equally annoyed about this infatuation, and I am told that only a few days ago he met Paul on the stairs of the flat and gave him a good beating with his cane for daring to send Miss Napier a bunch of flowers. Perhaps, however, this is only idle gossip. I heard it from a servant whom my father had recently dismissed. He said that Paul was so incensed at this outrage that he would have stabbed the colonel dead on the spot if he had had his dagger with him. Luckily, he had forgotten that morning to fasten it on—” “I am not so sure about that,” I answered slowly and with great distinctness, “although, now I came to think of it, I did recollect that in the old days Doris had told me a good deal about the persecutions she had suffered from the ridiculous attentions of a foreign boy who lived in the set of rooms above theirs—attentions, I am sorry to say, I had only laughed to scorn.” “Not so sure!” echoed my companion in tones of genuine disgust and horror. “Why, would you, Mr Glynn, have liked my brother to make an attempt on his uncle’s life?” “That would have been better than what happened,” I returned meaningly. “Why, what was that?” cried the Spaniard in alarm.
- 66. “Somebody crept into his bedroom as the colonel slept and stabbed him to the heart—to be precise, the exact hour you left me to search for Paul.” “Good heavens!” gasped Casteno, falling back. “Then the wretched boy has broken loose from his reason and carried out his insane idea of revenge! Ah! now I see it all. That was why I caught him lurking about your office! He had tracked Colonel Napier there earlier, and had no notion that he had returned to Whitehall Court until he saw a strange figure at your door.” “Even that doesn’t explain who killed the clumber spaniel Fate.” “I think it does,” urged Casteno stoutly. “The dog knew, somehow, he had done wrong to his master and would not leave him. In a fit of passion and terror Paul whipped out his knife and stabbed him.” “But that would happen near Whitehall Court. How came the dog to die in a passage near Stanton Street?” “He must have been making for your office: remember all dogs have odd gleams of foresight at times.” For a few moments we walked on in silence. The duel had been a sharp one and a long one, but already I was possessed with an uncomfortable suspicion that the Spaniard had won. Even as I surveyed the ruins of my theories I was conscious that little was left to connect Casteno with the murder. “But do you think your brother Paul will be discovered?” I asked.
- 67. “I cannot tell,” said Casteno, and I could see now he was sincerely grieved at the disastrous intelligence I had communicated to him. “There are sure to be plenty of people in Embankment Mansions who will remember the caning which the lad had from the colonel on the stairs. They will be certain, when they recover their wits, to give the police the details of that affray; also there is that discharged servant I spoke of—the man Butterworth. He hates Paul like poison. He will leave no stone unturned, I am certain, to connect the lad with the crime. “Still, mere suspicion is one thing, and evidence strong enough to warrant arrest is another,” he added after a moment’s careful consideration. “Perhaps, after all, I am wrong. Somebody else may have done it. We shall see.” “Whoever it is I shall do my best to bring them to justice,” I cried hotly. “I don’t care whether it is Paul Zouche—” “Of course not,” replied Casteno with much dignity. “I have no doubt you will communicate all I have repeated to you to Scotland Yard. Indeed, I never had any two opinions on that score. At the same time you must excuse me if I don’t evince any keen desire to debate the matter further.” “I never asked you to do so,” I retorted, anxious not to be outdone in courtesy by the Spaniard. “All your statements to me were practically volunteered.” “True,” said Casteno. “As a matter of fact, I felt they were honestly due to you. I saw that my absence from your rooms at the time when the colonel was murdered looked very ugly for me. Very ugly, indeed.” “Particularly after you had warned the man only an hour previously that if he didn’t do a certain thing, which he
- 68. subsequently declined to do for you, he would regret his action before four and twenty hours had passed.” “Quite so. Quite so. All the same, that was but a figure of speech. Myself, I had no idea of violence or revenge. My sole impression was of his gross injustice to yourself, which I felt Time himself would most quickly avenge. “Still,” he went on, and now his tones were particularly grave, “don’t let us go on debating this business further. It is very awful—it is dreadfully tragic—and it seems to strike right at the heart of the family life of us both. Let us leave it where it stands. I am sure myself a crime like that, in the heart of London, can’t remain hidden for many days, particularly with such assistance as you will be able to give the police when you have a few moments to spare to write or to wire to the headquarters staff at Scotland Yard. Therefore don’t pursue the matter with me any longer. Realise that you, and I too, are engaged on a business of gigantic international importance. Aren’t you curious to hear what I have arranged since I sent you that telegram informing you my father, as I suppose I must now call the hunchback when I speak of him to you, had picked up with this flying machine inventor, Sparhawk, and had actually determined to go on a journey through the air with him to- morrow in a brand new flying machine?” “I am very curious,” I admitted. “I had no idea old Peter had such adventurous tastes.” “Nor have any of his friends. Yet such is the fact. He has really two natures—the student’s and the explorer’s,— always at work within him; and I never knew him have a big job on, like the deciphering of those three manuscripts relating to the Lake of Sacred Treasure, that he has not eased the strain on his brain, caused by the hours of close
- 69. attention which the work demands, by going on some wild excursion of this sort. Curiously enough, too, he has always believed in flying machines. It has been one of the dreams of his life to patent one which he could present to Spain for use in warfare. Indeed, all the time Santos-Dumont was making those daring ascents of his in Paris he haunted the French capital in the hope he might pick up some tips for his own models, which he keeps in a disused stable near the Crystal Palace, and which he works on every Sunday after he has heard Mass in that impressive-looking church in Spanish Place.” “But how about his studies?” I asked. “Oh, he doesn’t find Shrewsbury hotel life agree with him. He and Sparhawk are only waiting here until the fête to- morrow, and then they’ll career off; and wherever they drop, even if it is only in a village seven miles away, they will not trouble to come back here. They’ve quite resolved to cut off to some other part of England, but where, I can’t for the life of me find out. Still, I think I have done very well to book up the only two seats they offered for sale to the public, don’t you? We shall have to be careful, of course, or they will see through our disguises. At all events, they’ll find it hard to shake us off—” “Unless the apparatus goes wrong and drops us to earth.” “Well, we must take all those risks, mustn’t we? And, by Jove, talking of angels, here we can see two of them—at least, there are Captain Sparhawk and the worthy hunchback walking off together up the street yonder. Let’s follow them. By the way in which they’ve put their heads together they’re up to no good I am certain. Just before you came I peered through the keyhole of my father’s room, and I saw him hard at work on the manuscripts. Now, what
- 70. on earth can have happened to have made him give it up so suddenly and dress himself up as though he were going for a long journey?” “He may have discovered something startling and strange,” I answered, a great fear now in my heart. “Those documents may have yielded up their secret to him. See! he’s going in the direction of the railway station. He may be going back to town.” “Or to the shed where Sparhawk keeps his flying machine. It lies in this direction—in a street parallel with the railway station. Luckily, we have not far to go before we shall see what they are up to. Personally, I don’t like the look of things at all.” And we both of us quickened our pace. Outside a fence that skirted a long and rambling garden they were joined by a third companion—a girl attired in a bright summer costume, who chatted with them gaily as they marched steadily forward. “Who can that be?” cried Casteno, much puzzled. “I did not know my father had any woman friends.” “Well, let’s slip to the other side of the street,” I suggested. “Then we can catch a glimpse of her face. The figure certainly seems very familiar to me, although my short sight often plays me the strangest of pranks.” We stepped quickly across the road, and with a few strategic movements materially lessened the space between us and the trio in front. A moment later the girl turned her face in the direction of the hunchback, evidently to exchange some jest with him, for her features were wreathed in smiles.
- 71. I stopped short in astonishment. It was no other than Doris Napier! Casteno recognised her almost at the same moment that I did. The effect upon him was just as great, for he, too, halted and gazed at me with an expression of vague but sincere concern. “This is odd—very odd!” he muttered. “I had no idea that Miss Napier was out of London. I wonder, now, how she came to have missed all news of her father’s death? Can she have mixed herself up in this manuscript hunt—under pressure from Lord Cyril Cuthbertson or the Earl of Fotheringay, for instance? I remember, now, that she was a great patriot at one time—used to speak for the Primrose League and organisations like that. It would have been a masterly stroke on their part to get hold of her—to work on my father—for he has had always a very soft corner in his heart for her, and in the old days the colonel used to say there was nothing he would refuse her. What do you think, Glynn?” he added, turning suddenly to me. “Is it your idea that she has come under some lofty notion that England’s interests are in peril both from the Jesuits and from Spain, and if she doesn’t circumvent these enemies the Lake of Sacred Treasure will be lost to this country for ever?” But I refused to be drawn. Her appearance was sudden, too unexpected. “I don’t know,” I answered. “I can’t even guess. The thing may be a ruse on the part of the wretch that killed her father. He may fear the effect of her disclosures. I must wait; just now I cannot see.” “At all events, I am sure the hunchback is no partisan to any move like that last one you mention,” returned Casteno stoutly, with something resembling offended family pride
- 72. vibrating through his voice. “Indeed, I am certain that as yet he knows nothing, absolutely nothing, about the tragedy at Whitehall Court. He has been too busy trying to decipher the manuscripts to have had any time or strength to glance at the Saturday night or Sunday morning papers. As for Captain Sparhawk, like all enthusiastic inventors, he is a man of one idea. He can think of nothing, talk of nothing, dream of nothing, read of nothing but the flying machine which he is going to try to-morrow in the Quarry at the great floral fête.” With a nod that might mean anything or nothing I fell into step with my companion. By this time Doris, the hunchback, and the aeronaut had got quite a considerable distance ahead. As a matter of fact, I was just then struggling with a fierce desire to rush forward—to see Doris face to face—to speak with her—to tell her all that had happened—to warn her of her dangers—to assure her and myself that nothing on earth could part us. Hence it was I could not carry on any conversation no matter how important. I had first to conquer myself. Haste would ruin all. Unfortunately, we had not proceeded many yards before the worst we could have anticipated happened. All at once the three whom we were pursuing stopped at a gate which led, by way of a drive, up to a large, superior-looking house. A tall, interesting stranger with the clear-cut features of a typical barrister, who has not been down long enough from ’Varsity life to forget all the graces, stepped up to them, and then the entire party moved round and went into the house, the door of which closed behind them. “Confound it! we shall learn nothing like this,” snapped Casteno, biting his lips in his annoyance. “I thought I knew my father’s habits and methods pretty well, but ever since I have been down here at Shrewsbury he has managed to
- 73. throw me out of my reckoning continually. Now, what are we to do, Glynn? Had we better grin and bear it, or ought we to try if we can’t find out for ourselves what is happening in this place?” I turned round stolidly and motioned to a boy who was passing, his eyes fixed in admiration on the uniform I was wearing—that of a sergeant in the Royal Engineers. “Who lives in this house?” I asked, and a sixpenny piece travelled from my palm to his. “Nobody—often,” answered the lad, with a smile. “As a matter of fact, it belongs to the Earl of Fotheringay, like the most of the property does hereabout. He came down here late last night. I know, because I serve him with milk.” And with a self-conscious nod the juvenile tradesman pulled himself together and passed on. “There! What did I tell you?” asked Casteno. “Didn’t I suggest Miss Napier had been inveigled into this business to help Lord Fotheringay out of his difficulties? You mark my words. This walk of theirs—this meeting—this encounter outside these gates—are all a plant—a trap designed to get the hunchback into the Government’s clutches. Our duty now is clear. We must find our way inside and checkmate any of their moves at once.” “Steadily,” I replied, “steadily,” pulling the excited Spaniard down a long, narrow, leaf-covered passage that ran by the side of a wall which skirted the limit of the grounds attached to the house. “It is all very well to pull up these theories in this fashion; but there is one great helper of ours always ready to checkmate both Fotheringay and Cuthbertson, and him you have quite forgotten. Now, remembering the existence of Mr Cooper-Nassington, why should we go and put our necks in jeopardy, eh?” And out of the corner of an
- 74. eye I shot a quick glance at Casteno. It had been long on my mind to find out what that Honourable Member was up to, and I realised that this was a most favourable chance. After all, we had to wait for a decent interval. There was just a possibility that the trio might re-appear and return to the Green Dragon. Casteno, however, seemed to be on this occasion perfectly frank. “Cooper-Nassington,” he explained, “is by no means idle. He is as hard at work as you or I. As a matter of fact, he has run up to Whitby, in Yorkshire, where he has an interest in a shipbuilding yard and an iron mine, and he is fitting out an expedition for Mexico, which will leave immediately we get wind of the exact spot where the Lake of Sacred Treasure may be found.” “And he does all this for England, and so do you?” “Yes—in a way—yes,” the Spaniard replied hesitatingly. “There is a lot of things to explain which I can’t explain yet. But that’s the substantial fact.” “Then why do you fight the hunchback, you a Spaniard,” I queried, “when all the benefit will go to England if you succeed, not to Spain?” Casteno never flinched. “That’s another thing which I can’t make clear to you just now; but perhaps it may be enough for you if I say the whole thing turns on my quarrel with my father and my love for Camille Velasquon. But stop,” he went on in a different voice; “we can’t go on exchanging confidences like this or we shall never get down to business at all. What do you say to slipping over this wall and stealing across the grounds? Often most valuable clues can be picked up by spies who get beneath windows and peer in at the corners at critical times.”
- 75. “All right. Time presses. Let’s see what we can manage,” I said. After all, I had now no love for Lord Fotheringay. I was just as glad of an opportunity of upsetting his little schemes as was Casteno. Besides, did not every move I made then take me just a little nearer to the solution of that mysterious appearance of Doris? Selecting a point where the wall stood but seven or eight feet from the ground we quietly scrambled to the top by the aid of some projecting stones and then dropped on the other side to the turf at that extremity of the garden. Between ourselves and the house lay a belt of thick, high shrubs, then a long stretch of greensward, and afterwards two or three terraces flanked by urns, in which geraniums and other gaudily-coloured flowers had been planted. In the deepening shadows we flitted like two spectres—swiftly and silently—until at length we found beneath our feet the beds of plants which blossomed outside the quaint old mullioned windows in the front of the house. Stealthily we crept from point to point, intent on hearing the voices of the trio we sought, or at least of catching some token of their presence. Time after time we raised our heads above the level of the window-sills and peered into the interiors, so cool, so fresh, so tastefully furnished. Nothing but disappointment seemed to dog our footsteps. We could not catch a glimpse of a single living person in the entire ground floor of that house. At last Casteno stopped. “Look here!” he said in that quick, decisive way of his. “We can’t go on like this. The more I examine this place the more convinced I am that there is something radically wrong about it and in that arrangement between Fotheringay and the hunchback. Now the point is this: will you make a bold stand if I do? You are in disguise; so am I. If we are caught, let us pretend that we are
- 76. sweethearts of two of the servants who, we regret to find, have left—but, at all events, let us slip through these rooms and see what we can discover.” “Very well,” I answered. “But if we are to have any success, we must have no pride. First of all, we must take off our boots and carry them.”
- 77. Chapter Fourteen. Which Contains a Fresh Development. The Spaniard made a slight grimace, but, quickly recovering himself, he did as he was bidden, and we scrambled headlong into one of the reception-rooms without another moment’s hesitation. This apartment was furnished in a light and modern style, but it bore no trace of recent occupation. Consequently, we did not waste any unnecessary time in its examination but made at once for the hall on to which it abutted. One of those noble staircases we seldom if ever find in a town mansion led to the rooms above; and at a nod from me Casteno stepped boldly upward to a door that stood slightly ajar. Placing a warning finger on his lips he dropped to his hands and knees almost as soon as I reached the topmost stair and peered through the aperture. I also stretched over him and peeped at the interior, and even as we did so we both started back. For there, in a room fitted up like a boudoir, was the poor but over-venturesome aeronaut, Sparhawk, firmly fixed on a high-backed oaken chair with his hands tied securely behind him, his mouth tied with a handkerchief, while a piece of rope held his neck tightly pressed against the wood. Another moment, and I am sure that, whatever might have been the consequences, we should have darted in and released him had not another object in the room caught and held our attention. That was no other than Doris herself, who had evidently been put on guard over the too
- 78. venturesome captain, and was now promenading up and down the room, with a loaded revolver, trying to look fierce and commanding and well accustomed to firearms, but failing, I am bound to own, most miserably in the attempt. Obeying a touch from the Spaniard I drew back down a few of the stairs and held a hurried consultation with him. “It seems to me,” he said, with a sly chuckle, “as though the worthy captain showed a little fight when he found that he had been trapped and that some of our friends thought it would be better if they kept him quiet for a little while so that they could fix things up with my father in comparative peace. For a time, at all events, I propose we leave him with Miss Doris.” “So do I,” I said. “We have really no business with him except to go on that journey in his flying machine, and if he doesn’t come up to time we can always tell the committee of the fête where to find him. Now, let’s push on. As I turned away for the door of the room in which he is confined I think I saw the entrance to an oratory or chapel, and once I am almost certain I caught the sounds of voices. Let us go and explore that next.” And I turned my face about and made for the end of the passage where I had noticed a big pair of folding doors, on the panels of which had been carved the sacred monogram and a cross about two feet in height. As I had suspected, this was the place to which the hunchback had been taken. True, the doors had been shut, but there was no key in the lock, and the first glance through the hole revealed to us the interior of a family chapel that had been turned into a kind of assembly hall, for a long oaken table ran down the centre, flanked by rows of stalls on either side that, no doubt, had occupied honoured positions in the chancel. At the top end of this table sat no less a personage than His
- 79. Majesty’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, with a quill in his hand, busily writing on some large blue official- looking paper. To the right of Lord Cyril sat Lord Fotheringay, who was also bending over some documents, while opposite to him was the lawyer we had seen outside the gate—the man who had first of all spoken to Doris and her companions—and he was reading aloud from a large book in front of him a queer, legal jargon that suggested some Act of Parliament that had been for centuries on the statute-book. For a moment the object of all this attention eluded us, but only for a moment. Suddenly, the lawyer stopped, and Lord Cyril Cuthbertson looked up, an expression of annoyance on his firm but forbidding features. Then we saw the hunchback spring to the bottom of the table, on which he laid a fist trembling with passion. “This is monstrous,” he cried, “monstrous! I repeat, I am no more an Englishman than is the Holy Father at Rome or the Emperor Nicholas, or my own beloved King Alphonso. I, therefore, deny your right to detain me here—to threaten me with penalties—to torture me with the knowledge that you have determined to stop at nothing to gain possession of those three manuscripts relating to the Lake of Sacred Treasure.” “Then give them up, my good man,” replied Lord Cyril Cuthbertson suavely. “I have told you I will compensate you for them richly. It shall be no question of what they have cost you but of what they may mean to you.” “And I refuse,” repeated the man doggedly. “I refuse. I have refused—I shall always refuse!”
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