Working in GroupsThis page intentionally left blan.docx

Working in Groups
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330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013
Working in Groups
Communication Principles
and Strategies
Seventh Edition
Isa N. Engleberg
Prince George’s Community College
Dianna R. Wynn
Nash Community College
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Engleberg, Isa N., author. | Wynn, Dianna, author.
Title: Working in groups: communication principles and
strategies / Isa N.
Engleberg, Prince George’s Community College, Dianna R.
Wynn, Nash
Community College.
Description: Seventh edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc.,
[2017] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016009869| ISBN 9780134415529 | ISBN

0134415523
Subjects: LCSH: Group relations training. | Small groups. |
Communication in
small groups.
Classification: LCC HM1086 .E53 2017 | DDC 302/.14--dc23
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v

1 Introduction to Group Communication 1
2 Group Development 19
3 Group Member Participation 36
4 Diversity in Groups 53
5 Group Leadership 77
6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 99
7 Listening and Responding in Groups 119
8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 136
9 Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 155
10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 178
11 Planning and Conducting Meetings 195
12 Group Presentations 215
Brief Contents

vii
Theory in Groups: Collective Intelligence 24
2.1.5: Adjourning Stage 24
Virtual Teams: Developmental Tasks 25
2.2: Group Goals 26
2.2.1: Establishing Group Goals 26
Theory in Groups: Goal Theory and Group Work 27
2.2.2: Balancing Group Goals and Hidden Agendas 27
Group Assessment: How Good Is Your Goal? 28
2.3: Group Norms 28
2.3.1: Types of Norms 29

GroupWork: Classroom Norms 29
2.3.2: Categories of Norms 30
2.3.3: Conformity 30
Ethics in Groups: Beware of Unreasonable Norms 30
2.3.4: Nonconformity 31
Groups in Balance . . . Change Norms as Needed 31
2.4: Group Motivation 33
2.4.1: A Sense of Meaningfulness 33
2.4.2: A Sense of Choice 33
2.4.3: A Sense of Competence 34
2.4.4: A Sense of Progress 34
Summary: Group Development 34
3 Group Member Participation 36
Case Study: Taming Tony the Tiger 36
3.1: Group Member Needs 37
3.1.1: Schutz’s Theory of Interpersonal Needs 37
GroupWork: Group Attraction Survey 39

3.1.2: Balancing Individual Needs and Group
Needs 40
3.2: Member Roles 40
3.2.1: Group Task Roles 40
3.2.2: Group Social Maintenance Roles 41
Theory in Groups: Belbin’s Team-Role Theory 42
3.2.3: Disruptive Behaviors 43
3.3: Member Confidence 44
3.3.1: Communication Apprehension 44
3.3.2: Strategies for Reducing Communication
Apprehension 45
Group Assessment: Personal Report of Communication
Apprehension (PRCA-24) 46
Virtual Teams: Confidence with Technology 47
3.3.3: Strategies for Helping Apprehensive Members 48
3.4: Member Assertiveness 48

Group Assessment: Assertiveness Scale 49
3.4.1: Balancing Passivity and Aggression 49
Preface xiii
About the Authors xvii
1 Introduction to Group
Communication 1
Case Study: The Study Group Dilemma 2
1.1: The Importance of Groups 2
Group Assessment: Group Communication
Competencies Survey 3
1.2: Defining Group Communication 4
1.2.1: Key Elements of Group Communication 4
Theory in Groups: Systems Theory 6
1.2.2: Types of Groups 6
Virtual Teams: Groups in Cyberspace 7
1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Working

in Groups 8
GroupWork: It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst
of Teams 9
1.3.1: Advantages of Working in Groups 9
Groups in Balance . . . Create Synergy 10
1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working in Groups 10
1.4: The Nature of Group Communication 11
1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills 11
1.4.2: The Group Communication Process 12
1.5: Balance as the Guiding Principle
of Group Work 12
1.5.1: Groups in Balance 12
1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics 13
Theory in Groups: Relational Dialectics Theory 13
Groups in Balance . . . Enjoy Working Together 15
1.6: Ethical Group Communication 15

1.6.1: Ethics in Balance 16
1.6.2: Credo for Ethical Communication 16
Ethics in Groups: The National Communication
Association Credo for Ethical Communication 16
GroupWork: The Ethics Credo in Action 17
Summary: Introduction to Group Communication 18
2 Group Development 19
Case Study: Nice to Meet You, Too 19
2.1: Group Development Stages 20
2.1.1: Forming Stage 21
Groups in Balance . . . Socialize Newcomers 21
2.1.2: Storming Stage 22
2.1.3: Norming Stage 23
2.1.4: Performing Stage 24
Contents

viii Contents
Groups in Balance . . . Know When and How
to Say No 50
3.4.2: Assertiveness Skills 50
Ethics in Groups: Managing Manipulators 51
Summary: Group Member Participation 51
4 Diversity in Groups 53
Case Study: Diversity Dilemma 54
4.1: The Value of Group Diversity 54
4.1.1: Culture and Diversity 55
4.1.2: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups 55
Groups in Balance . . . Seek Intellectual Diversity 56
4.2: Obstacles to Understanding Others 56
4.2.1: Ethnocentrism 56
4.2.2: Stereotyping 57
4.2.3: Prejudice 57
4.2.4: Discrimination 57

4.3: Personality Dimensions 58
4.3.1: The Big Five Personality Traits 58
4.3.2: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® 58
Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Introverts
and Extroverts 59
4.3.3: Motivating Personality Types
in Groups 61
GroupWork: Personality Types in Groups 61
4.4: Cultural Dimensions 62
4.4.1: Individualism–Collectivism 62
4.4.2: Power Distance 63
4.4.3: Gender Expectations 65
4.4.4: Time Orientations 65
4.4.5: High Context–Low Context 66
Virtual Teams: Cultural Dimensions and
Communication Technology 66
Group Assessment: Cultural Context Inventory 67

4.5: Gender Dimensions 68
4.5.1: Collective Intelligence 68
4.5.2: Amount of Talk 68
Theory in Groups: Muted Group Theory 69
4.6: Generational Dimensions 69
4.6.1: Four Generational Dimensions 70
4.6.2: Ensuring Successful Intergenerational
Interactions 70
4.7: Religious Dimensions 71
Group Assessment: Religious Knowledge Survey 72
4.8: Adapting to Diversity 73
4.8.1: Be Mindful 73
4.8.2: Adapt to Others 73
4.8.3: Actively Engage Others 73
Ethics in Groups: Practice the Platinum Rule 73
Summary: Diversity in Groups 74
5 Group Leadership 77

Case Study: The Leader in Sheep’s Clothing 77
5.1: What Is Leadership? 78
Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Leadership
and Followership 79
5.2: Becoming a Leader 80
5.2.1: Designated Leaders 80
5.2.2: Emergent Leaders 80
5.2.3: Strategies for Becoming a Leader 81
Group Assessment: Are You Ready to Lead? 82
5.3: Leadership and Power 82
5.3.1: Types of Power 83
5.3.2: The Power of Power 83
Ethics in Groups: Leadership Integrity 84
5.4: Leadership Theories 84
5.4.1: Trait Leadership Theory 85
5.4.2: Styles Leadership Theory 85
Groups in Balance . . . Cultivate the Two Sides
of “Great” Leadership 86

5.4.3: Situational Leadership Theory 86
GroupWork: The Least-Preferred-Coworker Scale 88
Theory in Groups: An Abundance of
Leadership Theories 90
5.5: The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness 90
5.5.1: Model Leadership Behavior 91
5.5.2: Motivate Members 91
5.5.3: Manage Group Process 92
5.5.4: Make Decisions 92
5.5.5: Mentor Members 92
5.5.6: Balancing the 5 Ms of Leadership
Effectiveness 93
Virtual Teams: Sharing Virtual Leadership
Functions 94
5.6: Diversity and Leadership 94
5.6.1: Gender and Leadership 94
5.6.2: Leading Multicultural Groups 96
Summary: Group Leadership 97

6 Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication in Groups 99
Case Study: How to Sink the Mayflower 100
6.1: Two Essential Tools 100
6.2: Team Talk 101
6.2.1: The Dimensions of Team Talk 101
Group Assessment: Auditing Team Talk 102
6.2.2: Use I, You, and We Language
Appropriately 103
6.3: Language Challenges 103
6.3.1: Abstract Words 103
Contents ix
7.3: Key Listening Strategies and Skills 129
7.3.1: Use Your Extra Thought Speed 129
7.3.2: Apply the Golden Listening Rule 129

7.3.3: “Listen” to Nonverbal Behavior 130
7.3.4: Minimize Distractions 130
7.3.5: Listen Before You Leap 130
7.3.6: Take Relevant Notes 130
Virtual Teams: Listening Online 131
7.4: Listening to Differences 132
7.4.1: Gender Differences 133
7.4.2: Personality Differences 133
7.4.3: Cultural Differences 133
Groups in Balance . . . Learn the Art of
High-Context Listening 133
7.4.4: Hearing Ability Differences 133
Ethics in Groups: Self-Centered Listening
Sabotages Success 134
Summary: Listening and Responding in Groups 135
8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 136
Case Study: Sociology in Trouble 137
8.1: Conflict in Groups 137

8.1.1: Task Conflict 138
8.1.2: Personal Conflict 138
8.1.3: Procedural Conflict 138
8.2: Constructive and Destructive Conflict 139
GroupWork: Conflict Awareness Log 139
Virtual Teams: Conflict in Cyberspace 140
8.3: Conflict Styles 141
8.3.1: Avoiding Conflict Style 141
8.3.2: Accommodating Conflict Style 141
Groups in Balance . . . Know How to Apologize
and When to Forgive 142
8.3.3: Competing Conflict Style 142
8.3.4: Compromising Conflict Style 143
8.3.5: Collaborating Conflict Style 143
8.3.6: Choosing a Conflict Style 143
Group Assessment: How Do You Respond
to Conflict? 144
8.4: Conflict Management Strategies 145

8.4.1: The 4Rs Method 145
Theory in Groups: Attribution Theory
and Member Motives 146
8.4.2: The A-E-I-O-U Model 147
8.4.3: Cooperative Negotiation 147
8.4.4: Anger Management 147
Ethics in Groups: The Group and the Doctrine
of the Mean 148
8.5: Conflict and Member Diversity 149
8.5.1: Cultural Responses to Conflict 149
6.3.2: Bypassing 104
6.3.3: Exclusionary Language 104
6.3.4: Jargon 104
Ethics in Groups: Sticks and Stones May
Break Your Bones, but Words Can Hurt Forever 105
6.4: Language Differences 106
6.4.1: Language and Gender 106
6.4.2: Language and Culture 106

Theory in Groups: The Whorf Hypothesis 107
6.5: Nonverbal Communication 108
Groups in Balance . . . Speak “Silently” 108
6.5.1: Personal Appearance 108
6.5.2: Facial Expression and Eye Contact 108
6.5.3: Vocal Expression 109
6.5.4: Physical Expression 109
Virtual Teams: Expressing Emotions Online 110
6.6: The Nonverbal Environment 111
6.6.1: Arrangement of Space 111
6.6.2: Perceptions of Personal Space 112
6.7: Nonverbal Differences 113
6.7.1: Nonverbal Communication and Gender 114
6.7.2: Nonverbal Communication and Culture 114
GroupWork: What is Nonverbally Normal? 114
6.8: Creating a Supportive
Communication Climate 115

6.8.1: Defensive and Supportive Behaviors 115
6.8.2: Immediacy in Groups 116
GroupWork: How Immediate Are You? 117
Summary: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
in Groups 117
7 Listening and Responding
in Groups 119
Case Study: That’s Not What I Said 119
7.1: The Challenge of Listening in Groups 120
7.1.1: The Nature of Listening 121
7.1.2: The Need for Better Listening 121
Group Assessment: Student Listening Inventory 122
7.1.3: The Habits of Listeners 123
7.2: The Listening Process 124
Theory in Groups: The HURIER Listening Model 124

7.2.1: Listening to Hear 125
7.2.2: Listening to Understand 125
Groups in Balance . . . Ask Questions to Enhance
Comprehension 126
7.2.3: Listening to Remember 126
7.2.4: Listening to Interpret 126
7.2.5: Listening to Evaluate 127
7.2.6: Listening to Respond 127
GroupWork: Practice Paraphrasing 128
x Contents
Groups in Balance . . . Let Members Save Face 149
8.5.2: Gender Responses to Conflict 150
8.6: Group Cohesion 150
8.6.1: Enhancing Group Cohesion 150
8.6.2: Groupthink 151

Summary: Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 153
9 Decision Making and Problem
Solving in Groups 155
Case Study: No More Horsing Around 156
9.1: Understanding Group Decision Making
and Problem Solving 156
9.1.1: Clear Goal 157
Theory in Groups: Asking Single and Subordinate Questions
157
9.1.2: Quality Content 159
9.1.3: Structured Procedures 159
9.1.4: Commitment to Deliberation 159
9.1.5: Collaborative Communication Climate 159
9.2: Group Decision Making 160
9.2.1: Decision-Making Methods 160
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid False Consensus 161
9.2.2: Decision-Making Styles 161

GroupWork: What Is Your Decision-Making Style? 162
9.3: Group Problem Solving 163
9.3.1: Brainstorming 164
9.3.2: Nominal Group Technique (NGT) 165
9.3.3: Decreasing Options Technique (DOT) 166
9.3.4: The Progressive Problem-Solving Method 168
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Analysis Paralysis 169
Virtual Teams: Mediated Decision Making
and Problem Solving 170
9.4: Creativity and Problem Solving 172
9.4.1: Creative Thinking 172
9.4.2: Enhancing Group Creativity 172
Ethics in Groups: The Morality of Creative
Outcomes 173
9.5: Problem-Solving Realities 173
9.5.1: Politics 173
9.5.2: Preexisting Preferences 174
9.5.3: Power 174
9.5.4: Organizational Culture 174

Group Assessment: Problem-Solving Competencies in Groups
175
Summary: Decision Making and Problem Solving
in Groups 176
10 Critical Thinking and
Argumentation in Groups 178
Case Study: Slicing the Pie 178
10.1: The Nature of Critical Thinking and
Argumentation 179
10.1.1: The Value of Argumentation in Groups 180
Theory in Groups: Argumentative Communication 181
10.1.2: Deliberative Group Argumentation 181
Group Assessment: Argumentativeness Scale 182
10.2: Understanding Arguments 183
10.2.1: Claim, Evidence, and Warrant 184
10.2.2: Backing, Reservation, and Qualifier 184

GroupWork: Analyze the Argument 185
10.3: Supporting Arguments 186
Groups in Balance . . . Document Sources of Evidence 186
10.3.1: Types of Evidence 186
10.3.2: Tests of Evidence 187
Virtual Teams: Think Critically about the Internet 187
10.4: Presenting Arguments 188
10.4.1: State Your Claim 188
GroupWork: Clarify Your Claims 188
10.4.2: Support Your Claim 189
10.4.3: Provide Reasons 189
10.4.4: Summarize Your Argument 189
10.5: Refuting Arguments 189
10.5.1: Listen to the Argument 189
10.5.2: State the Opposing Claim 190
10.5.3: Preview Your Objections 190
10.5.4: Assess the Evidence 190
10.5.5: Assess the Reasoning 190

10.5.6: Summarize Your Refutation 190
10.6: Adapting to Argumentation Styles 191
10.6.1: Gender Differences in Argumentation 191
10.6.2: Cultural Differences in Argumentation 191
10.6.3: Argumentation and
Emotional Intelligence 192
Ethics in Groups: Ethical Argumentation 192
Summary: Critical Thinking and Argumentation
in Groups 193
11 Planning and Conducting
Meetings 195
Case Study: Monday Morning Blues 196
11.1: Meetings, Meetings, Meetings 196
11.1.1: What Is a Meeting? 197
GroupWork: It Was the Best of Meetings; It Was the
Worst of Meetings 197
11.1.2: Why Do Meetings Fail? 198

11.2: Planning and Chairing Meetings 198
Theory in Groups: Chaos and Complexity Theories 199
11.2.1: Questions About Meetings 199
11.2.2: Preparing the Agenda 201
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Meetingthink 202
11.2.3: Chairing the Meeting 203
11.2.4: Preparing the Minutes 204
Ethics in Groups: Use Good Judgment
When Taking Minutes 205
Contents xi
11.3: Managing Members in Meetings 205
11.3.1: Adapting to Problematic Behaviors 205
11.3.2: Adapting to Member Differences 207
Virtual Teams: Meeting in Cyberspace 207
11.4: Parliamentary Procedure 208

11.4.1: Who Uses Parliamentary Procedure? 209
11.4.2: The Guiding Principles of Parliamentary
Procedure 209
11.4.3: The Parliamentary Players 210
11.4.4: Making a Motion 211
11.4.5: Making a Main Motion 212
11.5: Evaluating the Meeting 213
Group Assessment: Post-Meeting Reaction (PMR) Form 213
Summary: Planning and Conducting Meetings 214
12 Group Presentations 215
Case Study: Team Challenge 215
12.1: Presentations in and by Groups 216
12.2: Presentation Guidelines 217
12.2.1: Purpose 217
12.2.2: Audience 218
12.2.3: Credibility 219
Theory in Groups: Aristotle’s Ethos 219
12.2.4: Logistics 219

12.2.5: Content 220
12.2.6: Organization 220
12.2.7: Delivery 221
Virtual Teams: Mediated Presentations 222
12.3: Group Presentations 223
12.3.1: Public Group Presentations 223
12.3.2: Team Presentations 224
Groups in Balance . . . Welcome and Encourage Questions 225
Group Assessment: Team Presentation Evaluation 227
12.4: Presentation Aids 227
12.4.1: Presentation Slides 228
Ethics in Groups: Respect Copyrights 229
12.4.2: Delivering Presentation Aids 230
Groups in Balance . . . Know When to Break
the “Slide” Rules 230
GroupWork: Re-envision the Visual 232

Summary: Group Presentations 232
Glossary 234
Notes 245
Credits 274
Index 276
xiii
Preface
One central question has always guided our re-search and
writing for Working in Groups:
What do college students enrolled in a group communi-
cation course really need to know?

Our guiding question led us to include both classic
and current theories of group communication that focus
on “how groups work” as well as practical group commu-
nication strategies and skills that emphasize “how to work
in groups.”
Unified Perspective:
Balance and Group
Dialectics
Beginning with the first edition of Working in Groups, we
have used the concept of balance as a central metaphor
for learning how to work in groups. A group that reaches
a decision or completes a task is not in balance if group
members dislike or mistrust one another. A group that re-
lies on two or three members to do all the work is not in
balance. Effective groups balance factors such as task and
social maintenance functions, individual and group needs,
and leadership and followership.
We further developed the balance metaphor into a
unique model of group dialectics—the interplay of op-
posing or contradictory forces inherent in group work. A
dialectic approach examines how group members negoti-
ate and resolve the tensions and pressures they encounter

while working together to achieve a common goal. We ap-
ply contemporary theories and research to illuminate the
nine group dialectics that characterize the delicate balance
achieved by effective groups.
Group Dialectics
Individual Goals n Group Goals
Conflict n Cohesion
Conforming n Nonconforming
Task Dimensions n Social Dimensions
Homogeneous n Heterogeneous
Leadership n Followership
Structure n Spontaneity
Engaged n Disengaged
Open System n Closed System
Comprehensive Topic
Coverage
The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups strengthens the
text’s scholarship and applicability. Review the detailed
table of contents to get a feel for the depth and breadth of
topic coverage. We include classic and traditional group
communication subject matter, such as

• Group Development
• Member Diversity
• Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
• Decision Making and Problem Solving
• Group Norms and Roles
• Leadership Theories and Power
• Group Cohesiveness and Conflict
• Planning and Conducting Meetings
We also include cutting-edge theories, research, and
communication strategies, such as
• Group Dialectics and Balance
• “Team Talk” Strategies and Skills
• Communication Apprehension in Groups

• Communication Ethics in Groups
• Group Goal Setting and Motivation
• Adapting to Group Diversity
• Group Deliberation
• Virtual Teams
• Argumentation in Groups
• Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model
• Personality Traits in Groups
• Decision-Making Styles
• 5M Model of Effective Leadership
• The Collective Intelligence of Groups
Pedagogical Features
The pedagogical features of this Seventh Edition that link
the theories of group communication (how groups work)

with related communication strategies and skills (how to
work in groups) include the following:
Case Studies
Provided at the beginning of every chapter, original case
studies and accompanying questions enable students to
xiv Preface
Group Assessment
Group Assessment features provide new and revised
measures for evaluating student and group understanding
of important theories, strategies, and skills.
End-of-Chapter Summary and
Quiz Questions
Chapter Summary Sections review the major concepts in
each chapter. Students should be able to explain and apply
summary statements to a variety of group situations and
contexts.
End-of-chapter Quiz Questions link to chapter learn-
ing outcomes and give students the opportunity to assess

their understanding, application, analysis, and evaluation
of chapter content.
New to this Edition
The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups includes up-to-
date research and expanded coverage of contemporary
topics that build on our tradition of intellectual rigor, prac-
tical focus, and commitment to student learning.
• Updated, contemporary approaches to traditional top-
ics such as group roles, listening, leadership, conflict
resolution, and problem solving
• Expanded and updated sections on virtual teams and
communication technology in every chapter, with an
emphasis on applying group theory, strategies, and
skills to working in virtual teams
• Greater focus on collaboration and deliberation as
vital components of group effectiveness
• Expanded topic coverage focusing on successfully
resolving conflict, avoiding groupthink, managing
problematic group members, preparing for team pres-
entations, and using parliamentary procedure

• Updated sections on adapting to group diversity incor-
porated throughout most chapters, with contemporary
research on gender and intercultural communication
• New Theories, Research, and Practical Applications:
Collective Intelligence; Gender and Leadership; Cul-
tural Synergy; Cosmopolitanism and Ethics; The 4Rs
of Conflict Management; Group Deliberation and
Decision Making; The Progressive Problem-Solving
Method; Organizational Culture and Problem Solving;
Deliberative Argumentation; A Parliamentary Proce-
dure Primer
• Excerpts from text-specific video scenarios appli-
cable to specific sections of chapters followed by
related questions for group discussion or writing as-
signments
anticipate, discuss, and apply chapter content. The case
study questions do not offer a single or correct answer;
rather, they ask students to apply what they learn in the
chapter and to explore what they believe are appropriate
responses to the case study questions.

Video Scenarios
Incorporated into the first 11 chapters, video scenarios
highlight important group communication theories, strate-
gies, and skills. Instructors can use these videos to supple-
ment classroom lectures and discussions, as the basis for
exam questions, or as cases for analysis.
Groups in Balance
The Groups in Balance feature calls attention to group dia-
lectics and the need to balance the contradictory forces inher-
ent in all group work. The feature also examines the ways
in which groups negotiate and resolve a variety of tensions
using a both/and approach. Many of the Groups in Balance
features are new or revised for the Seventh Edition.
Theory in Groups
Throughout this edition, we use the Theory in Groups fea-
ture to explain why groups succeed or fail and how related
strategies and skills in this book can enhance group effec-
tiveness. Many of the theories in the Seventh Edition are
revised or new to the text.
Ethics in Groups
Every chapter includes an Ethics in Groups feature that
examines the many ethical issues and dilemmas that fre-

quently arise when interdependent group members col-
laborate with one another to achieve a common goal.
Virtual Teams
In each chapter, the Virtual Teams feature offers strategies
and skills to help groups and members achieve common
goals both in mediated face-to-face settings and in virtual
teams that communicate across time, distance, and organi-
zational boundaries.
GroupWork
GroupWork features in each chapter demonstrate and
apply group communication principles in structured in-
dividual and/or interactive activities. This feature offers
personal insights and opportunities for critically think-
ing about the ways in which related theories, strategies,
and skills affect how and why group members collabo-
rate with one another to achieve a common goal.
Acknowledgments
Although the title page of Working in Groups features
our names, this project exemplifies the value of collabo-
rating with our talented and creative publishing team.

We are particularly grateful to the group of content edi-
tors, copy editors, production editors, graphic design-
ers, photo editors, behind-the-scenes technicians, and
what we describe as our “online transformers” who lit-
erally transformed a traditional manuscript into a digi-
tal text.
We extend very special thanks to Carly Czech, who
became our sounding board, quality-assurance expert, and
go-to fixer in the production process.
We also extend our gratitude to the Working in Groups
Development Team including Karen Trost, our resource-
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xvii
Dianna Wynn is an adjunct professor at Nash Commu-
nity College in North Carolina. Previously, she taught at
Midland College in Texas and Prince George’s Commu-
nity College in Maryland, where students chose her as the
Outstanding Teacher of the Year. She has co-authored three
communication textbooks and written articles in academic
journals. In addition to teaching, she has many years of ex-
perience as a communication and trial consultant, assisting
attorneys in developing effective courtroom communica-
tion strategies.
Isa Engleberg, professor emerita at Prince George’s Com-
munity College in Maryland, is a past president of the
National Communication Association. In addition to writ-
ing seven college textbooks in communication studies and
publishing more than three dozen articles in academic
journals, she earned the Outstanding Community College
Educator Award from the National Communication As-
sociation and the President’s Medal from Prince George’s
Community College for outstanding teaching, scholarship,
and service. Her professional career spans appointments at
all levels of higher education as well as teaching abroad.

About the Authors
Working in Groups
1
1.4 Describe how understanding the
components of the group communication
process can enhance group effectiveness
1.5 Explain how successful groups balance
various dialectic tensions by using a

collaborative both/and approach
1.6 Practice the ethical principles included in
the National Communication Association’s
Credo for Ethical Communication
1.1 Explain why employers consistently
rank teamwork and the ability to
collaborate with others as essential
skills
1.2 Explain the importance of the five key
elements in the definition of group
communication
1.3 Compare the advantages and disadvantages
of working in groups
Learning Objectives
Chapter 1
Introduction to Group
Communication

Like most successful groups, formation skydiving requires the
collaboration of three or more interdependent
members working to achieve a common goal.
2 Chapter 1
1.1: The Importance
of Groups
1.1 Explain why employers consistently rank
teamwork and the ability to collaborate with
others as essential skills
All of us work in groups—at school, on the job, in volun-
tary organizations, and in interactive leisure activities.
Depending on the situation, group members can be family
members, friends, colleagues, and new acquaintances.
Meeting locations range from sports fields and battlefields
to courtrooms and classrooms, and even from cyberspace
to outer space.
Individual performance was once the measure of per-
sonal achievement, but success in today’s complex world

depends on your ability to work in groups. Researchers
Steve Kozlowski and Daniel Ilgen describe our profound
dependence on groups:
Teams of people working together for a common cause
touch all of our lives. From everyday activities like air
travel, fire fighting, and running the United Way drive to
amazing feats of human accomplishments like climbing
Mt. Everest and reaching for the stars, teams are at the
center of how work gets done in modern times.1
Working in groups may be the most important skill
you learn in college. A study commissioned by the Asso-
ciation of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U)
asked employers to rank essential learning outcomes
needed by college graduates entering the workplace. In
two of four major categories (“Intellectual and Practical
Skills” and “Personal and Social Responsibility”), the
top-ranked outcome was “teamwork skills and the abil-
ity to collaborate with others in diverse group settings.”
Recent graduates ranked the same learning outcomes as
top priorities.2 A business executive in the same study
wrote that they look for employees who “are good team
people over anything else. I can teach the technical.”3 In
another major study, employers identified group-related

communication skills as more important than written
communication, proficiency in the field of study, and
computer skills.4
Case Study: The Study Group
Dilemma
Grace has always wanted to be a pediatric nurse. When she
was accepted into the nursing program at a local college,
she looked forward to studying for her dream job. How-
ever, her first day in Anatomy and Physiology class turned
her hopes into fears. Her professor explained that every
student must learn and understand the significance of
more than 15,000 terms! As she looked around the class-
room, she could see that many of the other new nursing
majors seemed just as stunned as she was.
After class was over, she walked down the hallway
with four classmates. The mood was gloomy. After an
uncomfortable period of silence, one of the other students
suggested that they form a study group. Grace had her
doubts. She thought, “A study group will just take up a lot
of my time and energy with no guarantee that it will help
me earn a good grade. As much as I’d like to get to know
these students better, I can probably learn more by study-
ing alone. Besides, what if we don’t get along? What if I end

up doing most of the work or the others don’t show up?”
Grace’s concerns—like those of many people—are under-
standable. Groups use a lot of time, energy, and resources. In
some cases, a single person can accomplish just as much or
more by working alone. And even if a study group has the
potential to aid learning, it also has the potential for interper-
sonal conflicts and long-lasting resentments.
Critical Thinking Questions
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the
following critical thinking questions:
1. Given Grace’s concerns about spending a lot of her valuable
time and energy in a study group, what would you say to
encourage her to join?
2. What communication strategies should a study group use to
ensure that members are satisfied with the group
experience?
3. Which dialectic tensions are most likely to affect how well
Grace and her study group achieves its goal?
4. Is it ethical for a study group to work together in order to

improve their chances of earning a good grade when other
students in the same class study alone? If yes, why? If not,
why not?
Introduction to Group Communication 3
Group Assessment Group Communication Competencies
Survey5
What are the critical group communication skills identified by
employers? Fortunately, there are many research-based
competencies that characterize effective
group member behavior. As a way of introducing you to the
theories, strategies, and skills in this text, assess the importance
of each of the competencies
presented in the Group Communication Competencies Survey.
Directions: On a 5-point scale, where 5 is “Extremely
Important” and 1 is “Not at All Important,” rate the following
group competencies in terms of their importance
for becoming an effective group member. Select only one
number for each item. When you are finished, ask yourself this
question: How competent am I in the
“Extremely Important” areas?

Group Competencies
5
Extremely
Important
4
Very
Important
3
Somewhat
Important
2
Not Very
Important
1
Not at All

Important
1. Reduce your nervousness when speaking in a discussion or
meeting.
2. Understand, respect, and adapt to diverse group members.
3. Communicate openly and honestly.
4. Assume critical task roles (ask questions and analyze ideas)
and social
maintenance roles (motivate and support members).
5. Influence group members to change their attitudes and/or
behavior.
6. Correctly interpret and appropriately respond to members’
feelings.
7. Develop clear group goals.
8. Listen appropriately and effectively to other members.
9. Intervene appropriately to resolve member and group
problems.

10. Develop positive interpersonal relationships with group
members.
11. Manage and resolve interpersonal conflicts.
12. Develop and follow a well-organized meeting agenda.
13. Actively contribute to group discussions.
14. Use gestures, body language, facial expressions, and eye
contact effectively.
15. Demonstrate effective leadership skills.
16. Research and share important ideas and information with
group members.
17. Use presentation aids and presentation software
(PowerPoint) effectively.
18. Plan and conduct effective meetings.
19. Use appropriate procedures for group decision making and
problem solving.

20. Ask questions to clarify ideas and get needed information.
21. Motivate group members.
22. Use assertiveness strategies and skills confidently and
effectively.
23. Respect and adapt to group norms (standards of behavior).
24. Promote equal participation in discussions by all members.
25. Prepare and deliver an effective presentation or oral report.
26. Use appropriate and effective words in a group discussion.
27. Use effective technologies and skills to communicate in
virtual teams.
28. Develop and present valid arguments and opinions in a
group discussion.
29. Provide appropriate emotional support to group members.
30. Other strategies or skills:

a.
b.
c.
4 Chapter 1
1.2: Defining Group
Communication
1.2 Explain the importance of the five key elements in
the definition of group communication
When does a collection of people become a group? Do
people talking in an elevator or discussing the weather at
an airport constitute a group? Are the members of a church
congregation listening to a sermon or fans cheering at a
baseball game a group? Although the people in these
examples are groups, they are not necessarily working for
or with other members.
There are two basic uses of the word group. The first
describes people brought together by a circumstance, such

as a group of fans at a sporting event or concert, a group of
people waiting in line for a bus or at airport check-in, or a
group assembled at a political rally or a wedding. The sec-
ond use of the word identifies a group as people who
interact with one another to accomplish something.
(Table 1.1) In this textbook, we concentrate on the second
meaning in which group members are highly focused and
dependent on communication. We define group commu-
nication as the collaboration of three or more interdepen-
dent members working to achieve a common goal.
Although people frequently assemble in a variety of
circumstances and settings, group members who actively
collaborate with one another to achieve a shared goal have
the most influence and impact on their own lives and the
lives of others. When describing group communication, we
use the terms group and team interchangeably. Thus, a group
of friends organizing an annual block party can be just as
diligent and productive as a corporate team organizing and
conducting a stockholders’ meeting. Although we don’t call
a football team a football group or family members a team
(unless they’re playing a sport or game together), we can
Table 1.1 Shared Goals OR Shared Circumstances
Examples Classification

People who work with their neigh-
bors to pick up trash on Earth Day
People who interact with one another
to accomplish a shared goal
People discussing the weather at
an airport
People brought together by a shared
circumstance
People who are members of a church
congregation listening to a sermon
People brought together by a
shared circumstance
People who get together to choose
a scholarship winner from among
high school honors students
People who interact with one
another to accomplish a shared

goal
People who get together to watch
a Presidential candidates’ debate
on television
People brought together by a
shared circumstance
1.2.1: Key Elements of Group
Communication
The Green Bay Packers have won more championships than any
other team in National Football League history. How do the
Packers
exemplify the definition of group communication: the
collaboration
of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a
common goal?
Now, let’s break down our definition into the five essential
components of group communication shown in Figure 1.1.
Interdependence

C
ollaboration
Goals
Me
mb
ers
Group
Communication
W
or
ki
ng
Figure 1.1 Components of Group Communication
ThrEE or MorE MEMbErs The saying “Two’s com-
pany, three’s a crowd” recognizes that a conversation
between two people is fundamentally different from a three-
person discussion. If two people engage in a conversation,
Jill communicates with Jack and Jack communicates with Jill.

safely say that all of these people are working together in
order to achieve a common goal.
But if a third person is added, the dynamics change: A third
person can be the listener who judges and influences the con-
tent and style of the conversation. While two group members
talk, support, or criticize one another, a third person can offer
alternatives and make a tie-breaking decision if the other two
people can’t agree. We do not identify two people as a group
because researchers note that two people working together
perform at about the same level as the same two people
working alone.6
As the size of a group increases, the number of possi-
ble interactions (and potential misunderstandings)
increases exponentially. For example, a group with five
members has the potential for 90 different interactions; if
you add just two members, a group of seven has the poten-
tial for 966 different interactions.7

At this point, you may wonder whether there is an
ideal group size.
The answer is: It depends. It depends on members’
knowledge, attitudes, and skills; on the nature and needs
of the task; and—most importantly—on the group’s com-
mon goal. Fortunately, researchers have looked at the
group-size question and given us some useful guidelines:
• Most group members and leaders prefer groups of
three to nine members.
• Groups larger than nine members are generally less
productive.8
• Groups of five to seven members are generally more
effective for problem-solving discussions.
• To avoid tied votes, an odd number of members is usu-
ally better than an even number.
Smaller groups are generally more effective than larger
groups. As group size increases, cohesion and effective col-
laboration decreases, and members tend to divide into sub-
groups. In large groups, members are more argumentative,

less unified, and more competitive than cooperative. Some
members may feel left out or inconsequential, and as a
result, member satisfaction decreases as group size
increases.9 The best advice is the simplest: limit “group
size to the smallest number of members necessary to
accomplish group goals.”10
Many organizations have learned the importance of
creating groups in a size most likely to achieve specific
goals. For example, successful megachurches in the United
States may have thousands of members in their congrega-
tions, but small groups are often the key to their success.
Church members are encouraged to create or join tightly
knit groups of five to seven people who meet in a mem-
ber’s home to pray and support one another in times of
need. Worshipers match their interests with those of other
group members—new parents, retired accountants, moun-
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WRITING PROMPT

Key Elements of Group Communication
Think about the task groups in which you’ve been a member.
Choose
one or two examples and explain how the size of the group and
the
nature of the task affected its ability to achieve a common goal.
CollaboraTion Collaboration is a fairly common word
that encompasses such behaviors as coordination, coopera-
tion, interaction, and teamwork. In groups, collaboration is
characterized by coordinated group interaction in which
members share a common goal, respect others’ perspectives
and contributions, and work together to create a successful
group experience.
Effective collaboration ensures that members share
relevant information and opinions, make responsible deci-
sions, and develop positive interpersonal relationships.
The way in which group members communicate does
more than reveal group dynamics; it creates them.12 Mem-
bers learn which behaviors are appropriate, and which are
inappropriate. Whether members meet face to face or in
cyberspace, effective group communication requires col-

laboration.
inTErdEpEndEnCE interdependence refers to the influ-
ence of each group member on the thoughts and actions of
other members. A successful group with interdependent
members functions as a cohesive team in which all members
feel responsible for doing their part. The failure of a single
group member can adversely affect the entire group. For
example, if one student in a study group fails to read and
explain an important section of an assigned chapter, the entire
group will be unprepared for questions related to the material
covered in that chapter. Few tasks can be accomplished by a
group without information, advice, support, and assistance
from its interdependent members.
Working Working describes the physical and/or
mental effort group members expend when trying to
accomplish something. That “something” can be a social
goal, such as getting friends together for a surprise party;
tain bike riders—and use their commonalities as the basis
for religious discussions, member support, and volunteer
projects. Thus, although successful megachurches boast
large congregations that share a common belief system,
they rely on the motivation, comfort, and work of small

groups to sustain religious faith and church membership.11
6 Chapter 1
a family goal, such as deciding jointly where to go on
vacation; a medical team’s goal of planning training ses-
sions for improving patient care; or a management goal,
in which group members develop a strategic plan for
their organization.
Working in a group is not about hard labor. Rather,
when we work effectively in groups, we join others in a
productive and motivating experience in which members
combine their talents and energy to achieve a worthy goal.
CoMMon goal Group members come together for a
reason. Their collective reason defines and unifies the
group. A group’s common goal represents the shared pur-
pose or objective toward which group work is directed. A
group’s goal guides its actions, sets standards for measur-
ing success, provides a focus for resolving conflict, and
motivates members. Large-scale studies have found that a
clear common goal is the most significant factor separating

successful groups from unsuccessful groups.13
It doesn’t matter whether you call it a goal, an objec-
tive, a purpose, a mission, an assignment, or a vision. With-
out a common goal, group members would have difficulty
answering several critical questions: Why are we meeting?
Why should we care or work hard? Where are we going?
How will we know when we get there?
Some groups have the freedom to develop their own
goals. For example, a gathering of neighbors may meet to
discuss ways of reducing crime in the neighborhood, or
nursing students may form a study group to prepare for
and do well on an upcoming exam. Other goals are
assigned. A marketing instructor may require a semester-
long project to assess a student group’s ability to develop a
marketing campaign. An industrial company may assem-
ble a group of employees with the purpose of developing
recommendations for safer storage of hazardous chemi-
cals. Whatever the circumstances, effective groups work to
accomplish a common goal.
Theory in Groups
Systems Theory

Objective: Provide an example that shows how the Input-
Process-
Output Model of Systems Theory demonstrates the complex
nature
of group communication.
Systems Theory (Figure 1.2) encompasses a group of theo-
ries that examines how interdependent factors affect one
another in a complex environment. In communication studies,
Systems Theory recognizes that “communication does not
take place in isolation, but rather necessitates a communica-
tion system.”14
Every group we describe in this textbook is a system, a
collection of interacting and interdependent elements work-
1.2.2: Types of Groups
Like their individual members, groups have diverse char-
acteristics and goals. Although a basketball team, a study
group, a corporate board of directors, and a homecoming
Example:
Typical Work
Group

Example:
Professional
Football Team
Components
of Systems
Theory
Planning; leadership;
cohesiveness; conflict
resolution; decision
making and problem
solving
OUTPUTPROCESSINPUT
Wins or losses and
point spread (group
performance);
individual player
performance records
(member performance);

player health and
attitudes, and fan
jubilation or misery
(member satisfaction)
Group Output Becomes New Input
Group Process Becomes
New Input
Practice, including how
to deal with various
field/weather conditions
(planning); choice and
execution of specific
plays during a game
(leadership); support or
lack of support from fans
(unified or conflicting);
team players/substitutes
on game days and
adaptation to opponents
(decision making and
problem solving)

Game rules, team
composition, and
player skills (task
requirements); the
personal traits and
attitudes of owners,
coaches, players,
and referees
(interpersonal
factors)
Group performance;
decisions; achieving
the common goal;
member satisfaction
Task requirements;
member
characteristics,
skills, expertise,
attitudes
Figure 1.2 Components of Systems Theory
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WRITING PROMPT
Systems Theory
Identify the input, process, and output of a college study group,
and explain how the group’s process and output can affect
input.
ing together to form a complex whole that adapts to a
changing environment. However, groups are not the only
systems in our lives. In biology, we study the digestive sys-
tem, the nervous system, and the immune system, and rec-
ognize that when one of these biological systems fails, it can
affect the others with serious or even deadly consequences.
We embrace the democratic system of government, marvel
at our solar system, and hope that our computer system
doesn’t crash.
One way of looking at groups and systems is through
Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) models. Inputs come from both

outside the group and within the group. Process takes place
within the group as it works to achieve its common goal. Out-
put, the results of input and process, can influence future input
and processes. Understanding how your group functions as a
system is just as important as doing your personal best in
helping your group succeed.
Table 1.2 Types of Groups
Type of Group
Purpose
Examples of
Membership
Primary To provide members
with affection, support,
and a sense of
belonging

Family, best friends
Social To share common
interests in a friendly
setting or participate in
social activities
Athletic team, college
sororities and fraternities
Self-Help To support and encourage
members who want or
need help with personal
problems
Therapy groups, Weight
Watchers
Learning To help members gain
knowledge and develop
skills
Study groups, ceramics
workshops

Service To assist worthy causes
that help other people
outside the group
Kiwanis, charity or volun-
teer groups
Civic To support worthy causes
that help people within
the group
Parent Teacher Associa-
tions (PTA), neighborhood
associations
Organizational To achieve specific goals
on behalf of a business or
organization
Management teams,
committees
Public To discuss important
issues in front of or for the

benefit of the public
Open-to-the-public panel
discussions, governance
groups
The eight types of groups are not absolute categories.
Many of them overlap. A Girl Scout belongs to both a social
group and a learning group, and their scout leaders, who
operate under the direction of the national association,
belong to both a service group and an organizational
group. The last two types of groups in Table 1.2—organiza-
tional groups and public groups—serve the interests of rec-
ognized organizations and public audiences.
Organizational groups may have goals as complex as
reengineering a global corporation or as simple as sharing
relevant information at a weekly staff meeting. Most
organizational groups work within a system that has its
own rules, vocabulary, levels of power, and member
responsibilities. If you are employed, you probably
Virtual Teams
Groups in Cyberspace

Objective: List the fundamental requirements of an effective
vir-
tual team, regardless of the medium or media members use to
collaborate with one another.
Today, regardless of when or where you work in groups, you
already do or inevitably will participate as the member of a vir-
tual team. Virtual teams rely on one or more mediated tech-
nologies to collaborate, often across time, distance, and
organizational boundaries.
Thousands of miles and several time zones may separate
virtual team members, whereas others work in the same room
using technology to collaborate on a group project. Diverse
and geographically distributed teams are now the model for
businesses and governments around the world. In fact,
research concludes that “with rare exceptions all organiza-
tional teams are virtual to some extent.”15
Virtual teams are everywhere. At least 75 percent of U.S.
companies allow employees to work remotely—and that num-
ber is expected to increase significantly.16 Surveys of multina-
tional corporations reported that 80 percent of the respondents
were part of a virtual team; 63 percent indicated that about half
of these teams were located in other countries. In one survey

of major corporations, 52 percent reported that virtual teams
are used by top management, and 79 percent are used for
project teams.17 Some companies—with names such as Art &
Logic, Automattic, Basecamp, and peopleG2—operate com-
pletely or mostly in virtual teams.18
The increasing prevalence of virtual teams creates new
challenges: Employees rated tasks such as managing conflict,
making decisions, expressing opinions, and generating inno-
vative ideas as more difficult in virtual teams than in face-to-
face meetings. In addition, 95 percent reported that their
greatest challenge was overcoming the inability to read non-
verbal behavior in text-only contexts. And 90 percent said they
don’t have enough time during virtual meetings to build rela-
tionships. The top-rated characteristics of an effective virtual
teammate include:
1. a willingness to share relevant information,
2. active engagement and interaction with others, and
3. the ability to collaborate.
committee are groups in which interdependent members
collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal,

each one has unique features and functions.
The most common types of groups fall into eight cat-
egories that span a wide range of groups, from the most
personal and informal types of groups to more formal,
structured types. You can identify each type of group
(primary, social, self-help, learning, service, civic, orga-
nizational, and public) by observing its purpose (why
the group meets) and examples of membership (who is in
the group), as shown in Table 1.2.
belong to several organizational groups. You may be a
member of a production team or a work crew. You may
belong to a sales staff, service department, management
group, or research team.
As noted in Table 1.2, public group members interact
in front of or for the benefit of the public. Although public
groups may engage in information sharing, decision mak-
ing, or problem solving, they are also concerned with mak-
ing a positive impression on a public audience.
8 Chapter 1

These are also essential communication competen-
cies needed by the members of all groups—whether meet-
ing face to face or via cyberspace with members across
the globe.19
Groups must balance the advantages and disadvan-
tages of using technology. On the one hand, organizations
spend billions of dollars on technology that allows employ-
ees to communicate with one another, collaborate on proj-
ects, and participate in virtual meetings. On the other hand,
“hundreds of millions of those dollars will be wasted chasing
fads and installing technology that people will use to work
the same way they worked before the technology was
installed.”20
Virtual teams are complex. Members may come from a
variety of organizations, cultures, time zones, and geo-
graphic locations, not to mention the many technologies
they can use. For example, their levels of experience and
expertise in using a particular virtual medium may vary. They
may also have computer systems with different capabilities,
such as older or newer versions of the software being used
for group communication. As a result, virtual teams develop
distinct group dynamics compared to groups that meet

face to face.21
In addition to the ones you know best (email, social
media tools, instant messaging, and frequently-used video
and audio conferencing systems), hundreds of commercially
available tools help virtual teams manage their work in differ-
ent time/space configurations. Table 1.3 provides examples of
virtual team products by function. By the time you read this
list, there are sure to be new, improved, and more innovative
tools for groups to use. Have you used any of these tools?
Did they help or hinder your group? What other products
would you add to the list?
Table 1.3 Virtual Tools for Virtual Teams22
Function Sample Products
Collaboration Redbooth, Slack, Blackboard Collaborate
Project Management Microsoft Project, Basecamp, Primavera
Document Storage/File
Sharing
Dropbox, Google Drive, Share Point

Electronic Meetings WebEx, GoToMeetings, Google Hangouts
High-End Video Confer-
encing
Cisco Telepresence, Polycrom Telepres-
ence, Logitech LifeSize
Meeting Schedulers Doodle, Timebride, ScheduleOnce
Document Co-Creation Google Docs, Prezi, Conceptboard
Whether you welcome the benefits of working in virtual
teams or not, they are here to stay. These powerful tools will
become increasingly prevalent in all types of groups. Cer-
tainly, in organizational environments, virtual teams will
become “the norm in conducting business.”23 To help you
succeed in these groups, we offer strategies and skills
throughout this textbook that focus on working effectively and
1.3: Advantages and
Disadvantages of Working
in Groups
1.3 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of

working in groups
If you’re like most people, you probably have suffered
through at least one long, boring meeting run by an
unskilled and incompetent leader. Perhaps you have lost
patience with a group that couldn’t accomplish a simple
task that you could do easily by yourself. Even so, the
potential advantages of working in effective groups far
outweigh the disadvantages.
Let’s begin by acknowledging several certainties about
group work. There is no question that some tasks are
impossible for one person to complete alone. Prehistoric
people joined together in groups to hunt large, ferocious
animals and to protect their families and clan. Today, we
form groups to build skyscrapers and rocket ships, to per-
form life-saving surgery and classical symphonies, and to
play football games and clean up oil spills.
In our daily lives, we also rely on smaller groups such
as mobile emergency medical teams, study groups, neigh-
borhood safety committees, coaching staffs, and our fami-
lies to make decisions and solve problems. Do these groups
do a better job than one person can? If the group is poorly

organized, lacks a clear goal, and includes unmotivated
members with limited or inappropriate knowledge and
skills, the answer is no. However, when groups work effec-
tively, efficiently, and ethically, they have the potential to
outperform individuals working alone and can make sig-
nificant contributions to the quality of our lives. The criti-
cal question is not, “Are groups better than individuals?”
Rather, ask yourself this: “How can we become a more
effective group?”25
efficiently in virtual environments. The following are
fundamen-
tal requirements for an effective virtual team:
• adequate resources (funding, people, skills, etc.) to
achieve a group’s common goal,
• appropriate and effective information technology and
support,
• members with adequate and appropriate electronic com-
munication skills,
• members with adequate and appropriate collaboration
skills suited to a mediated environment, and

• members who serve as role models for others in virtual
interactions.24
• Better Decision Making
• Superior Resources
• Member Satisfaction
• Enhanced Learning
• Greater Creativity
• More Time, Energy, and Resources
• Potential for Conflicts
• People Problems
A
d
va
nt
ag

es
D
isad
vantag
es
Figure 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working
in Groups
GroupWork It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst
of Teams
Directions: This activity is designed to help you identify some
of the advantages
and disadvantages of working in groups based on your own
experiences and
the experiences of others. Consider one of the groups in which
you have
worked. Then think about what you liked and disliked about
working in that
group. Now you should be able to identify characteristics
unique to the best
groups and worst groups.

The Best of Teams
Example: One member kept track of everyone’s birthday. On the
meeting
day closest to a birthday, we presented a card signed by
everyone and
shared a cake or cookies.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Worst of Teams
Example: The boss or leader refused to explain her decisions.
When
we’d ask why we could or couldn’t do something, she’d say,
“Because I said so.”
1.

2.
3.
4.
Advantages
Greater
Creativity
Enhanced
Learning
Member
Satisfaction
Superior
Resources
Better
Decision
Making

Figure 1.4 Advantages of Working in Groups
considered are the ways in which group communication can
enhance member satisfaction, learning, and creativity.
bETTEr dECision Making Do groups or individuals
perform better and make better decisions? The answer is: It
depends. When a task is fairly simple and routine (e.g.,
write a memo, total the day’s receipts), an individual work-
ing alone may perform it as well as or better than a group.
A simple, routine task such as putting stamps on envelopes
does not require a group because collaboration and inter-
dependence are unnecessary. Even a more difficult task or
problem that has one right answer may be solved more
easily by a smart person or expert working alone than by a
group. However, when a task is complex and the answers
or solutions are unclear or require an understanding of
multiple perspectives, a group has the potential to do a bet-
ter job than individuals working alone.
Once researchers understood the types of jobs that
groups do best, their findings were nearly universal:
groups usually outperform the average of their members’
individual judgments.26 Of course, there are exceptions. In
a “bad” group of poorly chosen or too-busy members lack-

ing sufficient information, motivation, and structured tech-
niques, failure is likely.
supErior rEsourCEs Every group member brings a
wide variety of resources, including different life experi-
ences, special expertise, and unique perspectives as well as
ideas, information, and opinions about a variety of issues.
When group members share what they know and what they
believe, it broadens and enriches the group’s knowledge
base. These collective ideas, information, and perspectives
are likely to result in better-informed, more meaningful, and
more effective group decision making and problem solving.
With rare exceptions, a group has more and better resources
to call upon than an individual working alone.
MEMbEr saTisfaCTion The social benefits of group
work can be just as important as task achievement. People
belong to and work in groups because groups give them
the opportunity to make friends, socialize, receive peer
support, and feel part of a unified and successful team. Not
surprisingly, the more opportunities group members have
to communicate with one another, the more satisfied they
are with the group experience.
Figure 1.3 notes that, in most cases, the potential

advantages of group collaboration far outweigh the poten-
tial disadvantages.
1.3.1: Advantages of Working
in Groups
The advantages of working in groups (Figure 1.4) outweigh
the disadvantages when group members collaborate effec-
tively with one another in pursuit of a common goal. The
first two advantages—Better Decision Making and Superior
Resources—are the most obvious. What you may not have
10 Chapter 1
EnhanCEd lEarning Working in groups is a collec-
tive learning experience in which members share ideas,
information, and opinions relevant to a common goal.
Research comparing cooperative, group-based learning
with traditional approaches in college courses indicates
that collaborative learning promotes higher individual
achievement in knowledge acquisition, retention, accuracy,
creativity in problem solving, and higher-level reasoning.27
New members learn from veterans, and amateurs learn
from experts. In addition to learning more about the topics

under discussion, members also learn more about how to
work as a group.
grEaTEr CrEaTiviTy In addition to performing bet-
ter than individuals working alone, groups also gener-
ate more innovative ideas and creative solutions. As
MIT management professor Peter Senge writes, “If you
want something really creative done, you ask a team to
do it—instead of sending one person off to do it on his or
her own.”28
Lee Towe, author of Why Didn’t I Think of That? Creativ-
ity in the Workplace, writes that the “key to creativity is the
mental flexibility required to mix thoughts from our many
different experiences.”29 When you combine your thoughts
with those of other group members, you increase the
group’s creative potential. In addition to providing a cre-
ative multiplier effect by tapping more information, more
brainpower, and more insights, groups have “awesome
superiority” when trying to unleash creativity and solve
challenging problems.30
1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working
in Groups
The advantages are clear when groups are working effi-

ciently and effectively. The disadvantages (Figure 1.5) are
more likely to occur when working in a group is not the
best way to achieve a goal, when members don’t work to
their full potential, or when problems interfere with
group members’ willingness and ability to communicate.
The most common complaints about working in groups
concern the amount of time, energy, and resources
expended by groups and the conflicts and people prob-
lems that can arise.
Groups in Balance . . .
Create Synergy
When three or more interdependent group members collab-
orate and work toward achieving a common goal, they have
the potential to create a synergy. The term synergy, often
expressed as the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,
comes from the Greek word synergos, meaning “working
together.” Synergy does not occur when people work alone;
it only occurs when people work together. In terms of group
communication, synergy is a state in which the effective
collaboration of group members produces better results
than what would be expected given the sum of skills and
abilities of individual members working alone. A sports team
of good players may, by the virtue of synergy, defeat a team
with several superstars. A design team at a high-tech com-

pany may surprise the world with new technological break-
throughs that the individuals on the team could not have
developed alone.
Effective groups are synergistic. Baseball teams without
superstars have won the World Series. Companies with execu-
tives who earn modest salaries have surpassed other companies
MorE TiME, EnErgy, and rEsourCEs Working in
groups costs time, energy, and resources. Nonproductive
meetings, poor communication, and vague group objec-
tives can gobble up as many as two of every five workdays.
Workers report spending an average of 5.6 hours a week in
meetings, and rate 69 percent of those meetings as ineffec-
tive.31 The wasted psychic and physical energy expended
in poorly run meetings can lead to counterproductive
stress and indifference. We spend a lot of time and energy
in groups; if that time and effort are wasted, we are throw-
ing away valuable resources.
poTEnTial for ConfliCT Very few people enjoy or seek
out conflict, but when group members work together to
achieve a common goal, there is always the potential for dis-
agreement. Members who habitually disagree may be seen as
aggressive or disruptive. As a result, some people will do

almost anything to avoid conflict and confrontation. They may
go out of their way to avoid working in groups, even though
discussing different perspectives and exploring alternative
options promote better group problem solving and decision
Disadvantages
People
Problems
Potential for
Conflicts
More Time,
Energy, and
Resources
Figure 1.5 Disadvantages of Working in Groups
in which CEOs are paid millions of dollars. Ordinary groups
have achieved extraordinary results. Synergy occurs when the
knowledge, talents, and dedication of group members merge
into a force that surpasses anything group members could
have produced without collaboration.

Watch The Group Project
Watch a clip of the video “The Group Project,” which illustrates
several disadvantages of working in groups as well as questions
about member ethics.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
1. The chapter text identifies several types of groups. Which
type
or types would best describe the group in the video?
2. To what extent did one member’s gossip about Sarah

influence
the group leader? How would a comment like this influence you
in a similar group?
1.4: The Nature of Group
Communication
1.4 Describe how understanding the components of
the group communication process can enhance
group effectiveness
Now that you have learned the basic components and types
of groups, two concepts can help you to better understand
the complex nature of group communication: (1) the critical
functions of communication theories, strategies, and skills;
and (2) the nature of the group communication process.
1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills
Throughout this textbook, we examine the theories, strate-
gies, and skills needed to promote and balance group pro-
ductivity and member satisfaction.32
• A theory is a clear, systematic, and predictive explana-
tion of a phenomenon.

Unlike the personal hunches or guesses you may have
about how effective groups work, who will win Dancing
with the Stars, or the impact of climate change, valid the-
ories are based on the interpretation of knowable and
verifiable facts. Group communication theories help us
understand what is occurring in a group as well as why
groups succeed or fail.
• A strategy is a method, guideline, or technique for deal-
ing with the issues and problems that arise in groups.
Effective strategies are based on theories. Without the-
ories, you won’t know why a particular strategy works
in one situation yet fails in another. If, contrary to lead-
ership theory, you believe that a domineering leader-
ship style is more effective than a democratic one, you
may find yourself at odds with group members and
even out of your leadership job.
• A skill is a specific ability that helps a group engage in
collaborative work to achieve its common goal.
Communication skills are the most important skills
available to group members. Like strategies, skills are
most effective when their use is based on theories. For

example, although active and empathic listening skills
are difficult to master, theories and research demonstrate
they are well worth the effort because they enhance the
quality of group collaboration.
A group member may know what strategies and skills
to use, but may have no idea why the strategies work or
how to perform the required skills. Eager to solve prob-
lems or achieve a common goal, a group may use inappro-
priate skills or hunches that don’t address the true causes
of a problem or help achieve the goal. Using strategies and
making. Some group members avoid meetings in which con-
troversial issues are scheduled for discussion; others are
unwilling to express their opinions when they do attend.
PeoPle Problems As much as we may want others to
share our interests, viewpoints, and willingness to work,
there is always the potential for individual group members
to create problems. Like anyone else in our daily lives,
group members can be stubborn, lazy, and even cruel. The
presence of certain members can even influence decisions
about whether to participate in a particular group.
To avoid conflict or extra work, some members may go

along with the group or play “Follow the leader” rather than
search for the best solution to a problem. Strong, domineer-
ing members can put so much pressure on others that they
effectively stifle productive discussion and constructive dis-
sent. Although no one wants to work with a group of
unpleasant members, there may be circumstances in which
people problems cannot be avoided. Fortunately, this text-
book provides a wide range of effective strategies and skills
for conducting successful and efficient meetings, managing
the inevitable conflicts that arise in groups, and coping with
and overcoming inappropriate member behavior.
12 Chapter 1
Table 1.4 Basic Elements of Group Communication
Basic Elements of
Group Communication
Description
Group Examples

Members People with distinct knowledge, experiences,
personality
traits, attitudes, skills, and cultural backgrounds who are rec-
ognized as belonging to the group
A surgical team includes one or more surgeons, an anesthesi-
ologist, and function-specific surgical nurses.
Messages The ideas, information, opinions, claims, and/or
feelings
expressed by group members that generate meaning in others
Group members ask for and share relevant ideas, information,
and opinions.
Context The physical and psychological environment in which a
group
communicates, including factors such as group size, working
conditions, and the relationships among members
A study group meeting in the college cafeteria communicates
in a different context than a corporate marketing team holding
a video conference with international clients.

Channels The media through which group members share
messages
using one or more of their five senses in face-to-face or medi-
ated settings
Group members express themselves verbally (words), nonver-
bally (facial expressions, body language, vocal cues) and/or
through various mediated channels.
Feedback Verbal and/or nonverbal responses from members that
indicate how well others received and interpreted
a message
Group members noticeably respond verbally, nonverbally,
and/or through mediated channels to the meaning of others’
messages.
Noise Any external (sounds, room conditions) or internal
(attitudes,
beliefs, and values) factors that interfere with how well mem-
bers express themselves or interpret the messages of others
External Noise: Hallway sounds, hot/cold room, poor lighting,
uncomfortable seating Internal Noise: Biases, worried
thoughts, anger, fatigue, hunger, headaches

Communication is complex enough when just two people
interact, and becomes even more complicated when addi-
tional people are involved. At its most fundamental level,
the group communication process includes six basic ele-
ments common to all forms of human communication:
members, messages, context, channels, feedback, and
noise. These elements are described in Table 1.4.
1.5: Balance as the Guiding
Principle of Group Work
1.5 Explain how successful groups balance various
dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/
and approach
At the heart of this textbook is an important guiding prin-
ciple: An ideal group succeeds because it achieves balance,
a state of equilibrium in which extreme approaches neither
dominate nor interfere with the group’s ultimate ability to
achieve its common goal.
In group communication, the group’s common goal is
the point on which members must balance many factors. A
group that makes a decision or completes an assigned task is

not in balance if group members end up hating one another. A
group that relies on one or two members to do all of the work
is not in balance. Effective groups weigh factors such as the
group’s task and social functions, individual and group
needs, and the responsibilities of leadership and follower-
ship. Achieving balance requires an understanding of the
interplay of the contradictory forces that operate in all groups.
1.5.1: Groups in Balance
All of us balance competing options every day. Should you
work or play? Should you spend or save? Should you eat a
Channels
Channels
= Noise
M
es
sa
ge
/F
ee
db

ac
k
Ch
an
ne
ls
M
essage/Feedback
Channels
M
essage/Feedback
Channels M
es
sa
ge
/F
ee
db
ac
k

Ch
an
ne
ls
MEMBER #2
CONTEXT CONTEXT
CONTEXT CONTEXT
MEMBER #4
M
E
M
B
E
R
#
1 ME

M
B
E
R
#3
C
ha
nn
el
s
C
hannels
Message/
Feedback
Figure 1.6 The Group Communication Process
skills without an understanding of appropriate theories

can make the process of working in groups inefficient, inef-
fective, and frustrating for all members.
1.4.2: The Group
Communication Process
Figure 1.6 illustrates the interactions among the six basic
elements of group communication.
Effective communication helps group members create
a worthy common goal, share relevant information and
opinions, make sound decisions, effectively solve prob-
lems, and develop supportive interpersonal relationships.
Theory in Groups
Relational Dialectics Theory
Objective: Evaluate the different methods groups use to balance
the dialectic tensions that arise when members collaborate to
achieve a shared goal.
Communication scholars Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgom-

ery use the term dialectics to describe the complex and con-
tradictory nature of personal relationships. Their Relational
Dialectics Theory claims that relationships are characterized
by ongoing, dialectic tensions among the multiple contradic-
tions, complexities, and changes in human experiences.33 The
following pairs of common folk proverbs illustrate such contra-
dictory, dialectic tensions:
“Opposites attract,” but “Birds of a feather flock together.”
“Two’s company; three’s a crowd,” but “The more, the
merrier.”34
Rather than trying to prove that one of these contradic-
tory proverbs is truer than the other—an either/or response—
relational dialectics takes a both/and approach. Unlike
relational dialectics and more narrow in scope, group dialec-
tics are the inevitable, contradictory tensions group members
experience as they collaborate with one another to achieve a
common goal. Researchers describe several ways in which
groups try to resolve such dialectic tensions. We have consoli-
dated these options into four categories, each of which is fol-
lowed by an example. The first three are usually less effective
than the fourth, which is both the most effective and (not sur-

prisingly) the most difficult.35
• Do Nothing
A group and its members ignore, deny, or pretend to fix
dialectic tensions. In other words, they do nothing. If the
tensions are trivial or diminish with time, this strategy can
work. Suppose a person invited to join the group because
of a specialized expertise or talent dominates discussions
and belittles less-informed group members; the group
may tolerate the resulting tension, hoping that group pres-
sure eventually will modify the new member’s behavior.
• Select Only One and Ignore the Other
A group chooses only one of the dialectic behaviors, such
as stick to a strict agenda or rely on creativity. Or even
though a group knows that two absent members would
vote against a proposal, they go ahead and make the
decision anyway—all in the name of avoiding tensions.
• Choose Different Options for Different Situations
Say that a group’s monthly meeting usually adheres to a
highly structured agenda. When group members have dif-

ficulty coming up with new ideas or a range of solutions to
a problem, they may choose a dissimilar approach: set
aside the agenda and do some unstructured brainstorm-
ing. Switching back and forth may work when the group
carefully chooses techniques compatible with the group’s
task and member traits.
• Collaborate
In our definition of group communication, we use the
term collaboration to describe coordinated group inter-
action in which interdependent members share a com-
mon goal, respect others, and work together. Effective
collaboration also occurs when a group recognizes dia-
lectic tensions and attempts to work out creative, both/
and responses to it.36 Depending on the nature of the
problem—be it the potential for conflict between mem-
bers, a domineering member, tension between structure
and spontaneity, or any other tension—the group may
choose any of the above three options, or collaborate
with one another by balancing a both/and approach.
big bowl of ice cream or a piece of fresh fruit for dessert?
Such tensions are best resolved by taking a both/and
approach rather than the either/or perspective just described.

For example, if you’re lucky, you may have both a job that
pays well and one in which you enjoy working. If you both
spend wisely and save more, you can look forward to a
more secure financial future. If you eat both small portions
of ice cream and fresh fruit, the result is a more balanced
diet. Even in close personal relationships, a couple may both
cherish their time together and respect each other’s need for
time apart. As you will see, a both/and approach helps group
members collaborate with one another in pursuit of a com-
mon goal.
1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics
The term dialectics, a method for examining and resolv-
ing two contradictory or opposing ideas, may be new to
you. Linked to the notion of dialectics is the need for bal-
ance as a means of maintaining equilibrium between the
competing pressures in groups. It may help you to remem-
ber that the prefix di- means two, as in diagonal (joining
two opposite points) or dialogue (a conversation between
two people). Effective groups engage in a cooperative
effort to balance group dialectics through effective com-
munication strategies.
Successful groups learn to balance the competing and
contradictory

forces that operate in all groups.
14 Chapter 1
Table 1.5 Group Dialectics
Group Dialectics Balancing Group Dialectics
Individual Goals
m Group Goals
Members’ personal goals are balanced with the group’s common
goal.
A group will not function well—or at all—if members focus
entirely on their individual goals rather than on the group’s
common goal.
When a group agrees on a clear and important goal, members
can pursue both individual and group goals as long as their
personal
goals do not undermine the common goal. For example, if you
join a group because you’re interested in forming a romantic
attachment with another member, your support of the group’s
common goal may impress the person you desire, allowing you

to
attain your individual goal.
In the best of groups, your personal goals support the group’s
common goal. If you do not share the group’s goal, you may
become frustrated or even try to undermine the group. In ideal
groups, members negotiate their personal needs and interests to
achieve a balance between the dialectic tension of being an
independent member of an interdependent group.
Conflict m
Cohesion
The value of constructive conflict is balanced with the need for
unity and cohesiveness.
Conflict is unavoidable in effective groups. How else can
members express disagreements that may lead to better
solutions? How
else can groups ensure that ethical standards are upheld? Groups
without constructive conflict are groups without the means to
analyze the wisdom of their decisions. At the same time, groups
also benefit from cohesion—the mutual attraction and teamwork
that holds the members of a group together. All for one and one
for all! Cohesive groups are committed and unified, but they are

also
willing to disagree and engage in conflict when necessary.
Conforming m
Nonconforming
A commitment to group norms and standards is balanced with a
willingness to differ and change.
Group norms are specific standards of behavior expected by
members of a particular group. Norms affect the quality and
quantity of
work by group members. Dialectic tensions can arise when one
or more members challenge a group norm or standard. Effective
groups recognize that constructive criticism contributes to
group success. Contradictory group norms highlight the need for
both
conformity and nonconformity.
Task Dimensions
m Social
Dimensions
The responsibility and motivation to complete tasks are
balanced with promoting member relationships.

The best groups negotiate the task dimensions 4 social
dimensions dialectic by balancing work with social interaction.
A group’s
task dimensions focus on achieving its goal. The social
dimensions focus on the interpersonal relationships among
group
members. Thus, a group discussing a department’s budget
primarily focuses on its task. If, however, at the end of the
meeting,
the group surprises a member with a cake in celebration of her
birthday, the group’s focus shifts to the social dimension. More
often, groups exhibit both task and social dimensions when they
get the job done in a way that makes everyone feel socially
accepted and valued.
When groups balance work and play, they are more productive.
Think of how frustrating it is to work on a group task when
members don’t get along. Think of how disappointing it is to
work with friends who don’t take a task seriously or don’t make
signifi-
cant contributions. The old saying “All work and no play makes
Jack [or Jill] a dull boy [or girl]” certainly applies to groups.
However,
all play and no work can make you unemployed.39

Homogeneous m
Heterogeneous
Member similarities are balanced with member differences in
skills, roles, personal characteristics, and cultural perspectives.
The prefixes homo and hetero come from the Greek language.
Homo means “same or similar”; hetero means “different.” A
homogeneous group is composed of members who are the same
or very similar to one another. The members of a
heterogeneous group are different from one another.
Not surprisingly, there is no such thing as a purely
homogeneous group because no two members can be exactly the
same.
Certainly, some groups are more homogeneous than
heterogeneous. For example, the Black Caucus in the U.S.
Congress is more
homogeneous than the Congress as a whole. The legal team
representing a client is more homogeneous in terms of
education,
income, professional experience, and lifestyle than the jury
selected to hear the case. Every person on this Earth—and thus
every

member of a group—is different, and that’s a good thing. If
every group member were exactly alike, the group would not
achieve
much more than one member working alone. At the same time,
similarities assure members that they share some common
characteristics, traits, and attitudes.
Leadership m
Followership
Effective and ethical leadership is balanced with committed and
responsible followership.
Effective leadership has many components and challenges. It is
not a solo task—it also requires competent and responsible
followers. Effective leaders have the confidence to put their
egos aside and bring out the leadership in others.40 When group
members assume specific leadership functions, the group has
achieved an optimum balance of both leadership and
followership.
Successful groups balance dialectic tensions by using
a collaborative both/and approach. You may both enjoy
warm friendships with some members and effectively
cope with members who are difficult. Your group may

want both a stable, predictable process of problem solving
and the freedom to experiment and seek creative out-
comes. Table 1.5 presents nine group dialectic tensions
that call for a balanced approach to their resolution.38
When members collaborate, they openly acknowledge
and honestly confront the dialectic tensions. Only then
can they discuss ways to balance the contradictory ten-
sions in the hope that the problems will be resolved.
A group’s inability to recognize and appropriately address
serious dialectic tensions can result in failure to achieve a com-
mon goal as well as member dissatisfaction and antagonism.
Restoring balance and resolving dialectic tensions are critical
tasks in all groups seeking to achieve a common goal.37
1.6: Ethical Group
Communication
1.6 practice the ethical principles included in the
national Communication association’s Credo for

Ethical Communication
Ethics requires understanding whether you and other
group members behave in a way that meets agreed-upon
standards of right and wrong.44 Ethical questions—Are
we doing the right thing? Is he dishonest? Is she tolerant
of different viewpoints?—arise whenever we communi-
cate because communication has consequences. What
you say and do can help or hurt both group members
and other people affected by the group’s decisions and
actions.
Enjoy Working Together
Have you or a group you’re in ever been totally caught up
in what you were doing, wholly focused on it, and also able
to perform at a very high level with ease?42 If your answer
is yes, you have had an optimal group experience in
which all group members are caught up in the group’s
work and are performing at a high level of achievement.
When group participation becomes an optimal experience,
members are highly motivated. They are committed and
inspired. Creative thinking comes easily, and working on
the task is pleasurable. Hard work is energizing rather than
exhausting. Some groups find the optimal experience so

pleasurable that they’d rather do group work than relax or
socialize.43
To achieve this optimal level of motivation, you and your
group must negotiate several dialectic tensions. First, you must
have a worthy goal that motivates both individual members
and the group as a whole. You must balance both task and
social dimensions by encouraging members to complete tasks
and by promoting strong interpersonal relationships. You must
both support and reward member engagement and accom-
modate members who need to disengage by pausing, recharg-
ing, and relaxing.
Sometimes, high-energy action is unstoppable
because group members are extremely motivated, person-
Group Dialectics Balancing Group Dialectics
Structure m
Spontaneity
The need for structured procedures is balanced with the need for
innovative and creative thinking.
Group communication scholar Marshall Scott Poole claims that

procedures are “the heart of group work [and] the most powerful
tools we have to improve the conduct of meetings.”41
Structured procedures help groups balance participation, resolve
conflicts,
organize discussions, and solve problems. However, if a group
becomes obsessed with rigid procedures it misses out on the
benefits
of spontaneity and creativity. Whether it’s just “thinking
outside the box” or organizing a creative problem-solving
session, groups can
reap enormous benefits by encouraging innovation and “what-
if” thinking. Effective groups balance the need for structure
with time
for spontaneous and creative thinking.
Engaged m
Disengaged
Member energy and labor are balanced with the group’s need
for rest and renewal.
The engaged–disengaged dialectic has two dimensions—one
related to the amount of activity, the other related to the level
of
commitment. Groups often experience two opposite types of

activities: high-energy, nonstop action, relieved by periods of
relaxation
and renewal.
Effective groups understand that racing toward a distant finish
line may only exhaust group members and leave some sitting on
the sidelines panting for breath. At the same time, low energy
and inaction accomplish nothing. Balancing the urge to run with
the
need for rest and renewal challenges most groups.
Open System m
Closed System
External support and recognition are balanced with internal
group solidarity and rewards.
All groups are systems. Effective groups maintain a balance by
moving between open and closed systems. When a group
functions as an open system, it welcomes input from and
interaction with its environment. That input can be the opinions
of
nongroup members, information from outside research, or
challenges from competing groups. When a group functions as a
closed system, it guards its boundaries and discourages input or

interaction with the outside. Depending on the situation, a
group may open its boundaries and welcome input, or close
them to protect the group and its work. Effective groups
understand that there are times when they must function as an
open system and other times when they must close the door
and work in private. For example, a hiring committee may
function as an open system in order to recruit candidates and
research their backgrounds. When they have finished this
process, they meet privately and confidentially to evaluate the
candidates and make a hiring recommendation.
Table 1.5 Group Dialectics (Continued )
ally committed, and appropriately rewarded for their work.
Stopping to recharge or relax would only frustrate a group
with pent-up energy. At the other end of the dialectic spec-
trum, members who plod through group work with little
enthusiasm may feel unmotivated, uncaring, and unre-
warded. Asking such groups to pick up speed would only
increase their resentment.
16 Chapter 1

1.6.1: Ethics in Balance
All of the characteristics, guidelines, dialectics, theories,
strategies, and skills in this chapter are questionable if a
group and its members fail to behave ethically. Ethics
embodies an understanding of whether group members’
communication behaviors meet agreed-upon standards of
right and wrong.
Initially, you may think that the “rules” of ethical
behavior are absolute: “Thou shalt not steal” or “Thou
shalt not lie.” Is it ethical, however, to steal a loaf of
bread if your family is starving? Is it acceptable to lie if
telling the truth would do more harm than good? There
are often dialectic tensions involved in making ethical
decisions.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle offered his
doctrine of the mean as an ethical principle based on
moderation and appropriateness.45 In this doctrine, the
term mean is used as in “a point between extremes,” rather
than mean as in “nasty” or “cruel.” The doctrine of the
mean counsels that when you face an ethical decision, you
should select an appropriate reaction somewhere between
two extremes. Aristotle’s golden mean constitutes the
essence of the and/or approach to group dialectics. For

example, highly effective groups learn how to appropri-
ately balance individual and group goals, conflict and
cohesion, structure and spontaneity, as well as six other
dialectics.
Ethical questions arise whenever you work in groups.
Is it ethical to share questionable rumors about a job candi-
date to make sure your group doesn’t hire an unsuitable
person? Is it acceptable to tell exaggerated, heartbreaking
stories about hungry children to persuade a group to pro-
vide financial support to a local food bank? Is it fair for
some group members to boycott a meeting because they
are strongly opposed to the politics of a person who has
been invited to participate? Aristotle would tell us to avoid
a yes or no answer. An ethical group and its members seek
an appropriate and ethical both/and response. Throughout
this text, we provide regular features about group ethics
that address issues facing you and your group as you work
toward a common goal.
1.6.2: Credo for Ethical
Communication
The National Communication Association, the largest pro-
fessional communication association in the world, formu-
lated and adopted the nCa Credo for Ethical

Communication, a set of guiding principles that assess
how well communication behaviors meet agreed-upon
standards of right and wrong.46 In Latin, the word credo
means “I believe.” Thus, an ethics credo is a belief state-
ment about what it means to be an ethical communicator.
All of the ethical principles in the NCA Credo apply to
working in groups. Ethical communication requires an
understanding of the tensions that operate in all groups as
well as a desire to communicate in a way that meets agreed-
upon standards of right and wrong.
Ethics in Groups
The National Communication
Association Credo for Ethical
Communication
Objective: Understand the NCA Credo for Ethical
Communication
Preamble
Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people commu-
nicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible
thinking, decision making, and the development of relation-
ships and communities within and across contexts, cultures,

channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication
enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness,
fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self
and others. We believe that unethical communication threat-
ens the well-being of individuals and the society in which we
live. Therefore we, the members of the National Communica-
tion Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the
following principles of ethical communication:
Principles of Ethical Communication
• We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason
as essential to the integrity of communication.
• We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspec-
tive, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and
responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.
• We strive to understand and respect other communica-
tors before evaluating and responding to their messages.
• We promote access to communication resources and
opportunities as necessary to fulfill human potential and con-
tribute to the well-being of families, communities, and society.

• We promote communication climates of caring and mutual
understanding that respect the unique needs and charac-
teristics of individual communicators.
• We condemn communication that degrades individuals and
humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and vio-
lence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.
• We are committed to the courageous expression of per-
sonal conviction in pursuit of fairness and justice.
• We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings
when facing significant choices while also respecting pri-
vacy and confidentiality.
• We accept responsibility for the short- and long-term con-
sequences of our own communication and expect the
same of others.
GroupWork The Ethics Credo in Action
Are there unique ethical standards for working in groups? Are

members ethically obligated to share accurate and important
information with other members?
Should members encourage one another to express controversial
and conflicting points of view and opinions? Provide examples
in The Ethics Credo in Action that
demonstrate your understanding of ethical communication in
groups.
Directions: Review the preamble and principles in the NCA
Credo for Ethical Communication. The first column lists all
nine principles, and the second column
provides an example of how the credo can be applied to groups.
Your job is to provide another example in the third column—
Additional Example—for each of the
ethical principles to demonstrate your understanding of each
principle. The example can be a situation you or group members
have experienced personally, or it
can be taken from current events or from history.
Credo for Ethical Communication Principle
Example of Application to Working in
Groups

Additional Example
1. Truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason are
essential for ethical communication.
Groups should urge members to accurately quote
and cite the sources of researched information they
share with others.
2. Freedom of expression, diversity of perspective,
and tolerance of dissent are fundamental to a
civil society.
Groups should create a supportive climate in which
members feel free to express their ideas, opinions,
values, and feelings.
3. Ethical communicators strive to understand and
respect others before evaluating and responding
to their messages.
Group members should strive to understand mem-
bers’ unfamiliar or controversial beliefs and values
before making judgments.

4. Access to communication resources and oppor-
tunities are necessary to fulfill human potential
and contribute to the well-being of families, com-
munities, and society.
When working in virtual groups, all group members
should have access to similar equipment.
5. Ethical communicators promote climates of car-
ing and mutual understanding that respect the
unique needs and characteristics of individual
communicators.
Groups should respect and adapt to members
whose cultural backgrounds are different than the
majority of group members.
6. Ethical communicators condemn communication
that degrades others through distortion, intimida-
tion, coercion, and violence, and through the
expression of intolerance and hatred.
Group members should not tolerate statements that
belittle or stereotype others within or outside the

group.
7. Ethical communicators express their personal
convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.
Group members express well-informed and reason-
ably argued political and personal beliefs.
8. Ethical communicators share information, opin-
ions, and feelings when facing significant choices
while also respecting privacy and confidentiality.
Group leaders should keep members informed
about their individual progress in private and in
confidence.
9. Ethical communicators accept responsibility for
the consequences of their own behavior and
expect the same of others.
Group members who are justly criticized for disrupt-
ing the group process should accept the conse-
quences of their actions.
WRITING PROMPT

Ethical Group Communication
1. Is this situation rare or all-too-familiar in your experience
working
in groups? Even if it’s rare, what could you and the members
have done to prevent the problems they’re encountering so
near the deadline? To what extent did each member contribute
to the problem?
2. Which disadvantages of working in groups were evident in
this group?
3. Evaluate the extent to which group members demonstrated or
failed to demonstrate specific principles expressed in the
National
Communication Association’s Code for Ethical Communication.
your instructor.
Submit
Watch The Group Project

Watch a clip from the video “The Group Project,” which
focuses
on the responsibilities, communicative behavior, and ethics of
group members.
Summary: Introduction to Group Communication
1.1: The Importance of Groups
• Working in groups is an inescapable part of everyday
life; most people spend a considerable amount of time
and energy working in groups.
• Many employers view group-related skills as more
important than written communication skills, profi-
ciency in the field of study, and computer skills.
1.2: Defining Group Communication
• Group communication is the collaboration of three or
more interdependent members working to achieve a
common goal.

• Collaboration in groups requires a joint effort in which
members share a common goal, respect various per-
spectives and contributions, and work together to cre-
ate a successful group experience.
• In general, groups of three to nine members are prefer-
able; groups of five to seven members are generally
more effective for problem-solving tasks.
• A clear common goal is often the most significant factor
separating successful groups from unsuccessful groups.
• According to Systems Theory, every group is a system,
a collection of interacting, interdependent elements
working together to form a complex whole that adapts
to a changing environment.
• Types of groups include primary, social, self-help, learn-
ing, service, civic, organizational, and public groups.
• Virtual teams are groups that rely on one or more
mediated technologies to collaborate, often across
time, distance, and organizational boundaries.
1.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of

Working in Groups
• Advantages: Better decision making, superior
resources, member satisfaction, enhanced learning,
and greater creativity.
• Disadvantages: The amount of time, energy, and
resources expended by groups; the potential for inter-
personal conflicts and people problems.
• Synergy is a state in which the effective collaboration
of group members produces better results than what
would be expected given the sum of skills and abilities
of individual members working alone.
1.4: The Nature of Group Communication
• Understanding and applying theories, strategies,
and skills are fundamental to successful group
communication.
• Six basic elements—members, messages, channels, feed-
back, noise, and context—interact with one another in
the group communication process.

1.5: Balance as the Guiding Principle of
Group Work
• Baxter and Montgomery’s Relational Dialectics Theory
claims that interpersonal relationships are characterized
by ongoing, dialectic tensions among the multiple contra-
dictions, complexities, and changes in human experiences.
• Group dialectics represent the need for balance between
competing and contradictory components of group work
by taking a both/and approach to resolving such tensions.
• There are nine group dialectics: individual goals 4
group goals; conflict 4 cohesion; conforming 4 non-
conforming; task dimensions 4 social dimensions;
homogeneous 4 heterogeneous; leadership 4 follow-
ership; structure 4 spontaneity; engaged 4 disen-
gaged; open system 4 closed system.
• Groups in balance typically enjoy optimal group expe-
riences in which all group members are caught up in
the group’s work and are performing at a high level of
achievement.
1.6: Ethical Group Communication

• An ethical group and its members seek an appropriate,
both/and response to ethical dilemmas.
• The National Communication Association (NCA)
Credo for Ethical Communication sets forth guiding
principles to assess how well communication behav-
iors meet agreed-upon standards of right and wrong.
Chapter 1 Quiz: introduction to group Communication
A minimum number of characters is required to
post and earn points. After posting, your
response can be viewed by your class and
instructor, and you can participate in the
class discussion.
Post 0 characters | 140 minimum
ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: The STudy GROuP dIleMMa
Use the information you have learned to answer the following
questions about the case study that was presented at the begin-
ning of the chapter:

What strategy or strategies should the study group use to ensure
that members are satisfied with and benefit from the group
experi-
ence? Briefly explain how these strategies could be
implemented.
Review and discuss the similarities and differences between
your answer and those of at least two of your classmates.
18
19
themselves. They all smile a lot, but communication is a bit
stiff and awkward. Betty’s handshake connects to other
members only at her fingertips, while Ray and Bill have firm
grips. As Aisha introduces herself, she giggles and runs a
hand through her long hair. Dave sits at the head of the table
and chairs the meeting.
Aisha has come to the meeting well prepared. After she
hesitantly raises her hand to speak, Dave recognizes her. Aisha

reports that, according to her research, a simple playground can
Case Study: Nice to Meet
You, Too
A group of community volunteers meets for the first time to
plan and raise funds for building a neighborhood play-
ground. Although Dave, Betty, Ray, Bill, and Aisha live in the
same community, they don’t know one another well, and
some have never met. They begin the meeting by introducing
2.3 Describe strategies for creating and
changing explicit and implicit group
norms
2.4 Compare the four categories of motivators
2.1 Describe the five group development stages
by identifying each one’s fundamental
characteristics and strategies
2.2 Explain the guidelines for establishing a
clear and elevated group goal
Learning Objectives

Chapter 2
Group Development
Effective groups develop strong ties with one another, clear
goals, productive norms, and
motivated members.
20 Chapter 2
extend your hand to the first person you see, and say “Hi,
I’m [your name]—Nice to meet you”? Or do you pause at
the door, check things out as you move into the room, and
look for a suitable moment to introduce yourself? Or per-
haps you just take a seat and say nothing? Like many peo-
ple, you may choose the more cautious approaches.
Welcome to the world of group development! In this chap-
ter, we examine how groups form and evolve as they try to
balance the complex and contradictory dialectic tensions
inevitable in group work.
There are recognizable milestones in the lives of most
groups. Like individuals, groups move through stages as

they develop and mature. A new “infant” group behaves
differently than a group that has worked together for a long
time and has matured into an “adult.” A group’s ability to
“grow up” directly affects how well its members work
together. By observing the behavior of groups and their
members in a variety of settings and circumstances, research-
ers have identified distinct phases that groups experience as
members collaborate to achieve a common goal.
Bruce Tuckman, an educational psychologist, cre-
ated Tuckman’s Group Development Model, which
identifies four discrete stages in the life cycle of groups—
forming, storming, norming, and performing.1 A fifth
stage was later added to the model—adjourning.2 In this
chapter, we use Tuckman’s model, as shown in Figure 2.1,
because it is well recognized in communication and busi-
ness management literature, the five stages are easy to
remember, and the model remains one of the most com-
prehensive models of group development relevant to all
types of groups.3
range from $5,000 to $50,000. She suggests that $35,000 would
be a good target budget. Bill starts to respond by saying, “Well,
uh, . . . ,” but when he sees that Ray has raised his hand, he
turns

the conversation over with, “Go ahead.” Ray says, “Oh, I was
going to say—ah—I’ve looked it over a bit—$35,000 is—ah—I
don’t know—I guess that would be good, but I think we should
stay as high as we can.” Bill now responds with, “Ah—I was
thinking just the opposite—kind of—we should go lower—uh
. . . .” Dave interrupts and suggests that they go with the
$35,000
Aisha proposed, just to get started. Bill seems a bit annoyed
with Dave’s suggestion, but doesn’t say anything.
Dave notes that, regardless of the cost, they need to dis-
cuss ways of raising money for the playground. At this
point, Aisha begins taking notes. Betty says, “Well—it
worked at our church—in the other city where I lived . . . we
had great bake sales—twice a year.” Ray politely tells Betty
that a bake sale is a great idea, but that it may not raise
enough funds. Others in the group grimace or roll their
eyes, ignoring Betty’s offer to run a bake sale. Aisha then
asks if group members know anyone connected to a foun-
dation that might donate some of the money. After Betty
reveals that she has a dear friend who is actively involved in
a large, local foundation, the group sits up and pays a lot
more attention to her. Ray even jokes about getting the
foundation to help with the bake sale, too. Everyone laughs.

Only three minutes of the meeting have gone by. The
group has a lot more to discuss, but in just this short period
of time members have begun to become better acquainted
with one another and have a better feeling about how they
will work together and get along.
When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to
answer
the following critical thinking questions about this case study:
1. What verbal and nonverbal behaviors demonstrated the
forming stage of group development?
2. In your opinion, which members are most likely to compete
for status and influence in the storming stage?
3. What strategies did group members use or should they have
used to decrease primary tension?
4. What, if any, dialectic tensions will affect how well this
group
achieves its common goal and how well members get along
with one another?

2.1: Group Development
Stages
2.1 Describe the five group development stages by
identifying each one’s fundamental characteristics
and strategies
How do you behave when you attend the first meeting of a
new group? Do you march into the room confidently,
Forming Storming
Members are
socially
cautious and
polite.
Ask yourself:
Who are the
group
members?
How can I
help reduce
primary
tensions?

What is our
common
goal?
Ask yourself:
How can I
help reduce
secondary
tensions?
How should
I react to
criticism?
Is everyone
committed
to our
common
goal?
Ask yourself:
What does
the group
expect of me?
How can I
foster
collaboration

among group
members?
What is the
group’s plan
for achieving
our common
goal?
Members
compete for
status and
openly
disagree.
Norming
Members
resolve status
conflicts and
establish
norms.
Performing
Members

assume
appropriate
roles and work
productively.
Adjourning
Members
disengage and
relinquish
responsibilities.
Goal
Ask yourself:
Are we using
effective
decision-making
and problem-
solving
strategies?
How can I assist
and support
other group
members?

Are we
collaborating
effectively and
progressing
toward
achieving our
common goal?
Ask yourself:
How should
we celebrate
the group’s
accomplishments?
How will we
maintain contact
with one another
after the group
disbands?
How well did I
contribute to
achieving the
group’s
common goal?
Figure 2.1 Tuckman’s Group Development Stages

Group Development 21
overly polite. Members don’t interrupt one another, and
there may be long, awkward pauses between comments.
When members do speak, they often speak softly and
avoid expressing strong opinions. Although laughter may
occur, it is often strained, inappropriate, or uncomfortable.
When the group starts its discussion, the topic may be
small talk about sports, the weather, or a recent news event.
A group that experiences primary tension may talk
less, provide little in the way of ideas and opinions, and be
perceived as ineffective. Before a group can work efficiently
and effectively, members should try to reduce primary ten-
sion. In some groups, primary tension lasts for only a few
minutes. In less fortunate groups, primary tension may
continue for weeks, but eventually it should decrease as
members become more comfortable with one another.
ManaGinG PriMary Tension Although primary ten-
sion often disappears quickly and naturally as group mem-
bers get to know one another and gain confidence, some

groups need direct intervention to relieve such tensions.
Recognizing and discussing primary tension is one way
of breaking its cycle. A perceptive member may behave pur-
posely in a way that counteracts primary tension, such as
talking in a strong voice, looking involved and energized,
sticking to the group’s topic, and expressing an opinion.
Here are some additional suggestions for managing
primary tension during the group’s forming stage:8
• Get acquainted with group members. Introduce yourself.
• Create a supportive and comfortable communication
environment. Be positive and energetic. Smile and
laugh. Nod in agreement. Exhibit enthusiasm.
• Participate in but don’t dominate the discussion, espe-
cially if you are the group’s leader.
• Be prepared and informed before your first meeting so
you can help the group focus on its task. If you are the
leader, prepare and distribute a meeting agenda.
• Clarify the group’s purpose or assignment. Ask ques-

tions, and encourage others to ask questions about the
group’s goal.
• Be patient and open-minded, knowing that primary
tension should decrease with time.
2.1.1: Forming Stage
When you join a group, you rarely know what to expect. Will
everyone get along and work hard? Will you make a good
first impression? Will this be a positive group experience or a
nightmare? Most people enter a new group with caution.
During the initial forming stage, members become
acquainted with one another and attempt to understand the
nature of their task.4 Members may behave cautiously and
feel somewhat uncomfortable about working with a group of
strangers or unfamiliar colleagues. They try to figure out
what they will be asked to do, test personal relationships, and
determine which behaviors are acceptable and unacceptable.
Although little gets done during this orientation phase, mem-
bers need this time to get to know one another and assess the
group’s goal. At this point in the group development process,
“the most important job . . . is not to build a better rocket or
debug . . . a new software product or double sales—it is to ori-
ent itself to itself.”5 Eventually, group members become more

comfortable, open, and spontaneous with one another.6
PriMary Tension Primary tension describes the
social unease and inhibitions experienced by group mem-
bers during the getting-acquainted stage of a group’s
development.7 Because most members of a new group
want to create a good first impression, they tend to be
Watch Planning the Playground
Watch this clip from the video “Planning the Playground,”
which
illustrates concepts in this section.
Socialize Newcomers
In some instances, you will be a newcomer to an already well-
established group. Not surprisingly, your experiences in other
groups affect how you adapt to and communicate with new
group members. Understanding the socialization process can
help you reduce the uncertainty that accompanies every new
group experience.
In the context of group communication, socialization is
a process in which members communicate with one another in

your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Group Development Stages
1. What verbal and nonverbal behaviors shown in the video
dem-
onstrated the forming stage of group development?
2. In your opinion, which group members are most likely to
compete
for status and influence in the storming stage? Explain your
answer.
3. How did David try to resolve an initial disagreement among
members of the group?

22 Chapter 2
2.1.2: Storming Stage
After resolving the initial tensions of the forming stage,
group members realize that “being nice” to one another
may not accomplish very much, particularly when there
are critical issues to address and problems to solve. As a
group moves from the forming stage to the storming stage,
disagreements arise. Members confront personal, proce-
dural, and status issues.
During the storming stage, some members compete
with one another to determine individual status, establish-
ing member roles, and agree upon a common goal. In this
stage, groups address the conflict 4 cohesion dialectic and
the leadership 4 followership dialectic. Some members
lose their patience with the niceties of the forming stage.
During this stage, group members may become argumenta-
tive and emotional. As the group tries to get down to busi-
ness, the most confident members compete for both social
acceptance and leadership. They openly disagree on issues
of substance. However, it is still too early in the group’s
existence to predict the outcome of such competition.
Many groups try to skip this stage in order to avoid

competition and conflict. However, storming is a necessary
part of a group’s development. Without it, a group may fail
to establish productive roles, appropriate leadership
responsibilities, and clear goals.
seconDary Tension secondary tension is character-
ized by the frustrations and personality conflicts experi-
enced by group members as they compete with one another
for acceptance and achievement.14 Primary tension arises
from lack of confidence. Secondary tension emerges when
members have gained enough confidence to become asser-
tive and even aggressive as they pursue positions of power
and influence. Conflicts can result from disagreements
over substantive issues, conflicts in values, different work
styles, and an inability to deal with disruptive members.
Regardless of the causes, a group cannot hope to achieve
its common goal without managing secondary tension.
The signs of secondary tension are almost the direct
opposite of primary tension. There is a high level of energy
and agitation. The group is noisier, more dynamic, and
physically active. Members speak in louder voices, inter-
order to acquire or adjust to the social knowledge, behavioral
expectations, and skills necessary to function effectively in a

particular group.9 The socialization process is important in
groups because “positive socialization creates stronger com-
mitments to confront and balance the multiple issues and ten-
sions involved in participating in group activities.”10 New
group
members move through five phases as they experience the
socialization process (Figure 2.2):11
Phase 1: Preliminary Phase
Phase 5: Exit Phase
Phase 4: Assimilation Phase
Phase 3: Adaptive Phase
Phase 2: Acquainting Phase
Figure 2.2 Five Phases of the Socialization Process
1. Preliminary Phase A newcomer brings beliefs and atti-
tudes, cultural dimensions, needs and motives, communi-
cation skills, personality traits, knowledge, and prior group
experiences to a group. These factors influence how well
the group accepts the newcomer: If the group needs and

values what the newcomer has to offer, socialization will
be faster and easier.
2. Acquainting Phase Members of an established group
determine if a newcomer meets the group’s needs and
expectations. They may look for someone with certain types
of knowledge or communication skills. They may have heard
that the newcomer shares their beliefs and attitudes. The
newcomer and group members consider how the new mem-
ber might contribute to the group’s work. Socialization is more
likely to succeed if the newcomer’s characteristics, motives,
and abilities align with the group’s needs and expectations.
3. Adaptive Phase During this phase, newcomers try to fit
in and adjust to group expectations. The newcomer
assumes needed functions, communicates effectively with
other group members, and finds an appropriate balance
between individual and group goals.
4. Assimilation Phase During this phase, newcomers become
fully integrated into the group’s culture. Established members
and newcomers blend into a comfortable state of working
together to achieve common goals. At this point, the new-
comer becomes a fully functioning member of the group.

5. Exit Phase In this final phase of new member socialization,
a newcomer may leave an established group. Some groups,
such as families, may never disband, although they change
as new members join and others leave. Working groups
manage this process by giving departing members a warm
send-off and welcoming new members who take their place.
Regardless of the reason (whether positive or negative),
leaving an established group can be a difficult experience.12
Generally, newcomers gain acceptance by asking the
group for help or information, offering assistance to other
group members, and conforming to group expectations.13
Socialization in groups is a give-and-take process in which
members and groups come together to satisfy personal needs
and accomplish group goals.
“the successful and socially healthy group is not character-
ized by an absence of social tension, but by successful man-
agement of social tension.”17

rupting and overlapping one another so that two or three
people may be speaking at the same time. Members sit up
straight, lean forward, or squirm in their seats. Everyone is
alert and listening intently.
ManaGinG seconDary Tension Members of suc-
cessful groups develop ways to handle this stage of group
development. Often, one or two members will joke about
the tension. The resulting laughter is likely to ease the stress.
If secondary tension threatens to disable a group, someone
needs to bring it up as an issue that the group discusses and
tries to minimize by focusing on the group’s goal. Here are
some strategies for managing secondary tension:15
• Explain the concepts of forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning stages so members under-
stand why problems are occurring and why they
should diminish.16
• Recognize that conflict during the storming stage is
inevitable and necessary to becoming an effective
group. Encourage constructive disagreement among
group members.
• Make sure that group members fully understand and

agree to the group’s common goal and task require-
ments by the end of the storming stage.
• Discuss how the group will approach decision making
and problem solving.
• Discuss members’ potential contributions toward
achieving the group’s goal.
• Consider your role and how you can contribute to the
group’s work.
• Participate in the group’s discussion. Contribute infor-
mation, opinions, and suggestions. Express disagree-
ment constructively and respectfully.
• Avoid conflict over personality and work-style dif-
ferences.
• Analyze how you react if your ideas and comments
are criticized or rejected.
As was the case with primary tension, members should
be patient and open-minded, knowing that secondary tension
should decrease with time. In some cases, members will work

outside the group setting to resolve the personal difficulties
and anxieties of group members. Dealing with secondary ten-
sion can be difficult and even painful. However, the reward of
resolving such tension is a balanced group ready and able to
move to the next stage of group development.
Most groups experience some form of primary and
secondary tension during the forming and storming stages.
In fact, a little bit of tension is a good thing. It can motivate
a group toward action and increase a group’s sensitivity to
feedback. Effective groups learn to balance the needs for
conflict and cohesion (Figure 2.3). As group communica-
tion scholars Donald Ellis and Aubrey Fisher point out,
2.1.3: Norming Stage
During the forming and storming stages, groups lack balance;
they are either too cautious or too confrontational. Once a
group reaches Tuckman’s third stage, group cohesion emerges
as the foundation for effective group work. During the norm-
ing stage, members resolve early tensions and begin collabo-
rating as a committed and unified team pursuing a common
goal. A group that fails to resolve such forming and storming
tensions before this third stage will probably fail to develop
productive norms and a structured process.18

As members learn to trust one another, they are more
willing to disagree and express opinions. They develop
structured methods for achieving group goals and estab-
lish norms or rules of engagement. Group members are
comfortable interacting with one another and are ready to
focus on the tasks necessary to achieve their common goal.
Here are suggestions for successfully navigating the
norming stage of group development:19
• Clarify the tasks necessary for achieving the group’s
common goal. Develop a plan for successfully achieving
the goal.
• Identify each member’s responsibilities and roles
within the group. Make sure you understand what the
group expects you to do.
• Keep members focused on the group’s tasks.
• Encourage collaborative work relationships among
members.
• Recognize and adapt to differences among members.

• Modify or eliminate destructive or counterproduc-
tive behaviors.
• Resolve conflicts constructively, and use agreed upon
decision-making procedures.
There is more order and direction during this third stage
of group development. Members have begun to balance a
wide range of group dialectics, with special emphasis on
norms (conforming 4 nonconforming), task requirements
(structure 4 spontaneity), effective deliberation (conflict 4
cohesion), and adapting to member characteristics (homoge-
Primary Tension Secondary Tension
Figure 2.3 Balancing Primary and Secondary Tensions
24 Chapter 2
neous 4 heterogeneous). At the same time, members should
remember that “All work and no play” can make group
work tedious and counterproductive. Take time to socialize
with and support members, but don’t get carried away. An

80% work to 20% play ratio is both welcome and beneficial.20
2.1.4: Performing Stage
When a group reaches the performing stage, members are
fully engaged and focused on collaborating to achieve group
goals. Roles and responsibilities are fluid, adapting and
changing according to group needs and task requirements.
In this stage, group loyalty and morale are generally high.
Members have internalized “constructive, task-related”
roles and activities.21 When groups reach the performing
stage, members focus their energies on both the task and
social dimensions of group work as they make major deci-
sions and solve critical problems. Nearly everyone shares in
and supports a unified effort to achieve a common goal.
Although disagreements occur, they are usually resolved
intelligently and amicably. During this stage, groups experi-
ence very little tension. Members support one another and
feel a sense of accomplishment as they collaborate.
The following strategies can help your group collabo-
rate effectively during the performing stage:22
• Devote time to planning how the group will make deci-
sions, solve problems, and achieve its common goal.

• Stay focused on completing your assigned tasks.
• Encourage collaboration and innovation. Offer to help
other members. Ask for help when you need it.
• Solve problems as they arise and make the decisions
necessary for achieving the group’s goal.
• Use constructive conflict resolution methods when
disagreements occur.
• Adapt to group expectations for communicating with
members, following group procedures, and meeting
standards of quality.
• Evaluate the group’s processes and progress regularly.
Make sure that all members are working effectively
toward the common goal.
• Encourage creativity, innovation, and constructive
criticism.
Theory in Groups
Collective Intelligence

Objective: Identify the three factors that exemplify collective
intelligence in groups.
Researchers have identified a c factor that explains why
some groups perform better than others—they are literally
smarter. This factor, called collective intelligence, is a
phenomenon in which “smart” groups are more likely to
succeed when members are sensitive to one another’s
feelings, promote equal participation, and include female
members.
Before examining the finer points of collective intelligence,
reconsider the concept of synergy. Recall that synergy occurs
when a group performs better than expected given the sum of
skills and abilities of individual members working alone.23 In
other words, the whole is greater than the sum of its individual
parts. Collective intelligence is more than synergy; it is a
unique
characteristic of groups that transcend the apparent synergy
of other groups.
Three factors characterize groups that exemplify collective
intelligence:24

1. Members are highly sensitive to their colleagues’
feelings. They accurately interpret the meaning of and
feelings exhibited in members’ nonverbal behavior, such
as playfulness, irritation, boredom, or the need for com-
fort. They also listen skillfully, share criticism constructively,
have open minds, and are not dictatorial or dominating.
Even in virtual team settings where nonverbal behavior
cannot be seen, groups that exhibit collective intelligence
sense and keep track of how others feel as well as what
they know and believe.25
2. Members seek an even distribution of talking time
and turn-taking in discussions.26 All members contrib-
ute to the group equally. No one dominates; no one is left
out. As one researcher put it, “groups that had smart peo-
ple dominating the conversation were not very intelligent
groups.”27
3. Membership includes women. In most cases, the pres-
ence and contributions of women in a group enhance the
entire group’s collective intelligence.
Collective intelligence is the not the sum of group mem-
bers’ IQs. In fact, the collective intelligence of groups made up
of people with very high IQs may be lower than one made up of

people with average intelligence. A group composed of mem-
bers who do not recognize and display sensitivity toward oth-
ers’ feelings, who do not encourage or allow equal contributions
from all members, and who are all of a single gender, may be
considerably less “intelligent” than groups with these three
important components.
2.1.5: Adjourning Stage
When a group reaches the final adjourning stage, it has
achieved its common goal and begins to disengage and
disband.28 Many groups never reach an adjourning stage.
They may be a permanent work group; a regular group of
friends who play basketball, tennis, or card games together;
a board of directors for a public or private institution; or a
virtual team of doctors who collaborate online to help
diagnose puzzling ailments.
Other groups achieve their common goal and end
their existence as a group. A study group for a particular
course, a one-time mountain-climbing group, an impromptu

emergency rescue team, or a group sand-bagging the
banks of a flooding river may have no reason to continue
once they’ve achieved a singular goal. In other cases,
individual members leave a group for personal or profes-
sional reasons.
When an entire group disbands, members may
experience the stress that comes with relinquishing
group responsibilities. Although members are often
proud of what they’ve achieved, they may also feel a
sense of loss when the group dissolves. Some members
may struggle with whether or how to preserve friend-
ships that developed during the life of the group. When
groups adjourn, the dialectic balance shifts from engage-
ment to disengagement. Some writers describe this fifth
stage as “mourning,” which recognizes the loss felt by
group members.29
Here are some suggestions for managing the adjourn-
ing stage:
• Acknowledge and celebrate the group’s accom-
plishments.
• Recognize individual members’ contributions toward

the group’s goal.
• Sustain friendships developed within the group by
maintaining contact with those members after the
group disbands.
• Evaluate your role in the group’s success. Identify
what you did well as a group member and where you
could improve. Apply these lessons to your other
group experiences.
Tuckman’s group development model is linear: It
describes development stages as small changes that fol-
low one another in a fixed path.30 However, many
groups don’t move through each successive stage sys-
tematically or as though they are running a clearly
marked obstacle course. Most groups work through a
stage until circumstances motivate them to take on the
challenges of another stage. Factors such as “changes in
membership, external demands, and changes in leader-
ship” may slow development or push a group back to a
previous stage.31
Group development stages are “ideal” steps, but
groups often deviate from this ideal. For example, a

very large, new group may have difficulty getting itself
going, but a smaller group with members who have
worked together previously may skip or move quickly
through the early stages. Although some groups “may
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Tuckman’s Group Development Stages
In your opinion, which group development stage is the most
stress-
ful? The most rewarding? Explain your answers.
Virtual Teams
Developmental Tasks
Objective: Recommend specific strategies that help virtual
teams succeed as they move through four group
developmental stages.

Most group development theories assume that members inter-
act face to face at the same time and in the same place. This
assumption does not apply when describing developmental
stages in virtual teams. Two developmental features of virtual
teams require added attention:
• The planning, organization, and use of technology add
components to each stage of group development.
• Members’ technical expertise, attitudes toward, and con-
fidence with technology can affect how groups move
through every stage.
Forming Stage
During the forming stage, virtual team members begin to
develop codes of virtual conduct, review software and
hardware requirements, and raise and answer questions
about how they will use technology to accomplish the
group’s goals. Because resolving this stage is critical to
group development, some virtual teams arrange a face-to-
face orientation meeting before going online. An initial face-
to-face meeting is particularly helpful if members do not
know one another, the project is complicated or requires
significant collaboration among members, or the goal is

unclear.33
Storming Stage
During a virtual team’s storming stage, members must deal
with the added complication imposed by the virtual environ-
ment. In addition to expressing opinions and debating substan-
tive issues, the group may encounter technical problems and
different levels of member expertise. For example, some mem-
bers can tolerate and adjust to a bad phone connection or slow
stagger back and forth among stages” as members,
issues, and conditions change, they still “have a ten-
dency to move forward” through specific development
stages.32
26 Chapter 2
An effective group has both a clear understanding of its
goal and a belief that its goal is meaningful and worth-
while.34 In a three-year study of characteristics that
explain how and why effective groups develop, research-
ers found “A clear and elevated goal” to be the top attri-
bute on the list.35 Any old goal is not enough; the goal

must be elevated—one that is of higher importance than
others—a goal that is grand, energizing, high-minded,
and worth working toward. The Apollo Moon Project,
initiated during the Kennedy administration, is a good
example. Which goal is more specific: “To be leaders in
space exploration” or “To land a man on the moon by
the end of the 1960s”? Fortunately, NASA adopted the
second goal, and its simple words were both clear and
inspiring.36
Clear, elevated goals challenge group members and
give them the opportunity to excel—both as individuals
and as a group. Here is how Carl Larson and Frank
LaFasto describe what happens when groups work to
achieve such goals:
[Groups] lose their sense of time. They discover to their
surprise that it’s dark outside and they worked right
through the supper hours. The rate of communication
among team members increases dramatically, even to
the point that individuals call each other at all hours of
the night because they can’t get something out of their
minds. There is a sense of great excitement and feelings
of elation whenever even minor progress is made
toward the goal.37

2.2.1: Establishing Group Goals
If your group is assigned a goal by someone outside the
group, group members may not be inspired by or fully
understand the goal. However, if your group develops its
own goal, members are more likely to embrace it and work
hard to achieve it. This increase in enthusiasm and moti-
vation occurs because group-based goal setting produces
a better balance between member and group needs, a bet-
ter understanding of the group tasks necessary to achieve
the goal, and a better appreciation of how individual
members can contribute. In addition, the process of goal
setting can promote a more collaborative and cohesive
group environment.
Group goals should be both specific and challenging.
As implied by the two NASA goals, specific goals lead to
higher performance levels than general goals. For example,
telling a group to “find the best candidate for the job” is a
generalized goal. A specific goal would be more like the
following: Review the candidates for the job, recommend
three top candidates, and include a list of each top candi-
date’s strengths and weaknesses. Table 2.1 summarizes
some questions to ask in deciding on goals.

online response rate, but for others—perhaps a non-native
English speaker, a member who is hearing impaired, or a slow
typist—these challenges can make interaction difficult or
impossible. What should the group do if technical systems are
not compatible, or if some members are technically unskilled or
apprehensive about using advanced technology? Virtual teams
must solve technical problems if they hope to address task-
related issues and move beyond the storming stage.
Norming Stage
During the norming stage, virtual teams focus on the task.
They define members’ roles, resolve conflicts, solve most
technical problems, and accept the group’s norms. Virtual
teams address issues related to differences in time, distance,
technology, member cultures, and organizational environ-
ments. At this point, the group is ready to begin working effec-
tively in the virtual environment.
Performing Stage
Once a virtual team reaches the performing stage, members
engage in ongoing virtual interaction and encourage equal par-
ticipation by all members. They have overcome or adjusted to
technical roadblocks, have become comfortable with the vir-
tual media used by the group, and are hard at work to achieve
the common goal.

Adjourning Stage
As a group disbands, members may rely on virtual communi-
cation to manage the separation anxiety that comes with the
adjourning stage. If a group has matured and performed well,
members will be reluctant to completely end relationships
with their colleagues. Even if a virtual team no longer operates
in an official capacity, members may continue to consult and
interact with one another via email, text messages, or other
communication media.
2.2: Group Goals
2.2 explain the guidelines for establishing a clear and
elevated group goal
Rescue teams, NASA astronauts, surgical teams, mountain
climbers,
and sports teams work together to achieve a goal.
Table 2.1 Key Questions for Setting Group Goals

Regardless of the circumstances or the setting, your group will
ben-
efit by asking six questions about your group’s goals:38
Questions for Setting Group Goals
1. Clarity Is the goal clear, specific, and measurable if
achieved?
2. Challenge Is the goal challenging, inspiring, and thought
provoking?
3. Commitment Do members see the goal as meaningful,
realistic, and
attainable? Are they dedicated to achieving the goal?
4. Compatibility Can both group and individual goals be
achieved?
5. Cooperation Does the goal require collaboration among group
members?
6. Cost Does the group have adequate resources, such as
time and materials, to achieve the goal?

Setting a specific, clear, and elevated goal benefits
every group. You don’t have to be a NASA scientist or a
corporate executive to set impressive goals. Even if your
only task is to participate in a graded classroom discus-
sion, your group should take the time to develop a set
of appropriate goals. For example, in many group com-
munication classes, instructors require students to par-
ticipate in a problem-solving discussion. The group
usually chooses its topic, creates a discussion agenda,
and demonstrates its preparation and group communi-
cation skills in class. This is nothing like “Landing a
man on the moon.” Yet even a classroom discussion can
be more effective if the group establishes a clear, ele-
vated goal, such as, “Every member of our group will
earn an A on this assignment.” To achieve this goal,
your group will have to do many things: Choose a
meaningful discussion topic, prepare a useful agenda,
research the topic thoroughly, make sure that every
member is well prepared and ready to contribute, and
demonstrate effective group communication skills dur-
ing the discussion. A clear, elevated goal does more
than set your sights on an outcome; it helps your group
decide how to get there.

2.2.2: Balancing Group Goals and
Hidden Agendas
A group will not function well—or at all—if members
focus only on their personal goals rather than a common
goal. When a group agrees on a clear and important
goal, members can pursue both group and individual
goals, as long as their personal goals do not undermine
the group goal.
When a member’s personal goal is secret and radi-
cally different from or contrary to the group’s common
goal, the result is a hidden agenda. Hidden agendas
occur when one or more members have undisclosed
reasons for doing something that will benefit only indi-
vidual members rather than the group as a whole. In
some situations, hidden agendas can have serious nega-
tive consequences that prevent a group from achieving
its goal.
Hidden agendas represent what people really want
rather than what they say they want. When hidden agen-
das become more important than a group’s goal, the result
can be group frustration and failure because real issues
and concerns may be buried while misleading and false
arguments dominate the discussion. A student reported

Theory in Groups
Goal Theory and Group Work
Objective: Explain the criteria for developing an effective
group goal.
Researchers Edwin Locke and Gary Latham emphasize the
value of setting group goals and recommend methods for
accomplishing those goals. Their research establishes a
strong relationship between the difficulty and specificity of a
goal and how hard people will work to achieve it. On the flip
side, a simple, routine goal is not a strong motivator. For
example, if your goal is to merely pass a difficult college
course, you may not work hard or feel proud of the results if
you succeed. However, if you strive for an A or B, you will
work harder, be proud of your work, and—if you succeed—
enjoy the rewards that come with achieving an enviable grade
in a notorious “killer” course.
Locke and Latham conclude that groups function best
when their goals are:
• specific,

• hard but realistic,
• accepted by members,
• used to evaluate performance,
• linked to feedback and rewards,
• set by members and groups, and
• framed to promote member growth.39
Effective goal setting does more than raise group pro-
ductivity and improve work quality—it also clarifies group
and member expectations, increases satisfaction with indi-
vidual and group performance, and enhances members’
self-confidence, pride, and willingness to accept future chal-
lenges. Provided the group accepts them as worthwhile,
challenging goals can lead to greater effort and persistence
than easy goals.40
28 Chapter 2

the early stages of group development.41 Initial discussions
could include some of the following questions:
• What are the group’s goals?
• Does the leader have any personal concerns or goals
that differ from the group’s goals?
• Do any members have personal concerns or hidden
agendas that differ from the group’s goals?
• What outcomes do members expect?
the following incident in which a hidden agenda disrupted
a group’s deliberations:
I was on a student government board that decides how
college activities funds should be distributed to student
clubs and intramural teams. About halfway through the
process, I became aware that several members were
active in intramural sports. By the time I noticed their
pro-sports voting pattern, they’d gotten most of what
they wanted. You wouldn’t believe the bizarre reasons
they came up with to cut academic clubs while fully

supporting the budgets of athletic teams. What made me
mad was that they didn’t care about what most students
wanted; they only wanted to make sure that their favor-
ite teams were funded.
If unrecognized and unresolved during the forming
and storming stages, hidden agendas are likely to infect
the remaining stages of group development. Effective
groups deal with hidden agendas by recognizing them and
trying to resolve them whenever they occur. If a group
member doesn’t participate in a critical discussion or if the
group’s progress is unusually slow, look for hidden agen-
das. A question such as, “What seems to be hanging us up
here?” may prompt members to reveal some of their per-
sonal concerns and self-centered goals. Recognizing the
existence of hidden agendas may be sufficient to keep a
group moving from one stage to another in its develop-
ment and may tip the group’s balance toward individual
goals (Figure 2.4).
Even when you recognize the existence of hidden
agendas, some of them cannot and should not be shared
because they may create an atmosphere of distrust. Not
many people would want to deal with the following reve-
lation during a group discussion: “I only joined this group

because I thought it would look good on my résumé.” Rec-
ognizing hidden agendas means knowing that some of
them can and should be confronted, but others need not be
shared with the group.
Individual Goals Group Goals
Figure 2.4 Balancing Individual Goals and Group Goals
Groups can resolve the dialectic tensions caused by
hidden agendas through early agreement on the group’s
common goal and by carefully choosing appropriate group
procedures. Sociologists Rodney Napier and Matti
Gershenfeld suggest discussing hidden agendas during
Group Assessment
How Good Is Your Goal?42
An effective group has both a clear understanding of its goal
and
feels the goal is meaningful and worthwhile. The How Good Is
Your Goal assessment is an opportunity to evaluate the
effective-
ness of the goal in a group in which you have been a member.

Directions: For each of the following questions, answer “Yes”
or
“No” to assess the overall goal of a group you currently belong
to
or belonged to in the past. Each time you select a “No”
response,
consider how the goal could have been improved.
Yes No
1. Does your group have a common goal?
2. Is the goal specific?
3. Do group members understand the goal?
4. Do group members believe the goal is worthwhile?
5. Is the goal achievable?
6. Are the resources available to achieve the goal?
7. Is the goal sufficiently challenging to group
members?

8. Are all members committed to the goal?
9. Do all members know what they have to do to
achieve the goal?
10. Does the goal require group collaboration?
11. Does the group recognize any individual hidden
agendas?
12. Has the group resolved any hidden agendas?
13. Do members receive feedback about their own
progress and the group’s progress?
14. Is there a reward for achieving the group’s goal?
15. When achieved, is the goal observable or
measurable?
2.3: Group Norms
2.3 Describe strategies for creating and changing
explicit and implicit group norms

Earlier in this chapter, we used the word norm to describe
an expected way of behaving in a particular group. We also
discussed the norming stage of group development in
which members resolve initial tensions and learn to col-
laborate with one another as a committed and cohesive
name badges. The staff members may have recommended
this rule, the supervisor may have ordered this “custom,”
or the company may have established a policy regarding
employee identification.
implicit norms are group norms that are rarely dis-
cussed or openly communicated, but are still expected
rules of behavior. As a result, they may not be easily rec-
ognized or understood by outsiders or by new group
members. Generally, implicit norms evolve as members
interact with one another. For example, it may take new
group members several weeks to learn that meetings
begin 15 minutes later than scheduled. Even seating
arrangements may be governed by implicit norms:
Almost all of us have been unsettled when we walked

into a classroom or meeting to discover someone sitting at
“our” desk or in “our” chair. Although not a word is spo-
ken, offending members may sense that they have vio-
lated an implicit norm, whether or not they understand
what it is. Members who fail to “get it” may soon be
viewed as inconsiderate or clueless.
team. In this section, we examine the nature of group
norms and how they affect a group’s overall ability to
achieve a worthy common goal.
norms are expectations concerning the kinds of
behaviors and opinions that are acceptable or unaccept-
able in a particular group. Put more simply, norms are a
group’s accepted rules of behavior that, when followed,
ensure effective collaboration among group members.
Norms are important because they serve many important
functions. Norms
• express the values and ethical standards of the group.
• help the group function efficiently and effectively.
• define appropriate and inappropriate task and social
behavior.

• enhance productivity in the performing stage of group
development.
• ensure group survival when faced with threatening
challenges.
Group norms influence how members behave, dress,
speak, and work. For example, the norms for the members
of a company’s sales team may include a dress code, regu-
lar meetings before lunch, applauding one another’s suc-
cesses, and staying late at work without complaining.
Without norms, there would be no consensus on how to
organize and perform work.
However, some norms can work against a group and
its goals. If group norms place a premium on friendly and
peaceful discussions, group members may be reluctant to
voice disagreement or share bad news. If group norms per-
mit members to arrive late and leave early, meetings may
not have enough participating members to make impor-
tant decisions. Norms that do not support a group’s goal
can prevent the group from succeeding.
Group norms are powerful predictors of group behav-

ior. According to psychologist Nicky Hayes, “Group norms
are intangible and often difficult to express in words, but
that doesn’t mean that they are not real. People who belong
to groups often try very hard to conform to their group’s
norms—because the price of failure may be exclusion from
the group, or even ridicule.”43
2.3.1: Types of Norms
There are two general types of group norms—explicit
and implicit.
explicit norms are group norms that are written or
stated verbally and shared with all group members.
Explicit norms are often imposed on a group by a leader
or by someone outside the group. The group leader may
have the authority to determine work rules. A large group
or organization may have standard procedures that it
expects everyone to follow. For example, the workers in a
customer service department may be required to wear
GroupWork
Classroom Norms44
Without norms, group work can be a confusing and disorderly
experience. Norms do more than provide guidelines for member

behavior. They are vital to the effective collaboration needed to
achieve a group’s common goal. This activity ask you to distin-
guish between implicit and explicit norms.
Directions: List three implicit norms and three explicit norms
that operate in some of your classes. When you have identified
examples of each type of norm, rank the norms in terms of their
usefulness in ensuring quality instruction and effective learning.
Do all of the norms that the group listed contribute to a positive
classroom experience? Should some of the existing norms be
modified? Are any additional norms needed?
Explicit
Classroom Norms
Your
Ranking
Implicit
Classroom Norms
Your
Ranking
Example: The syllabus

states that no makeup
work is allowed
without a legitimate
written excuse.
Example: When stu-
dents come in late,
they tiptoe to the
closest available seat.
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
30 Chapter 2
2.3.3: Conformity
Group norms function only to the extent that members con-
form to them. conformity occurs when group members
adopt attitudes and actions that adhere to group norms and
are favored by a majority of group members.45 We learn the

value of conformity at a young age. In the classroom, chil-
dren learn that standing in line and raising their hands are
expected behaviors. On the playground, children who refuse
to play by the rules may find themselves playing alone.
Although some group members may have reasons for
ignoring norms or wanting to change them, most groups pres-
sure their members to conform. You are more likely to conform
to norms when one or more of the following factors are present:
• You want to continue your membership in the group.
• You have a lower status than other group members
and do not want to risk being seen as an upstart.
• You feel obligated to conform.
• You get along with and like working with the other
group members.
• You may be punished for violating norms and/or
rewarded for compliance.46
2.3.2: Categories of Norms
Regardless of whether norms are explicitly communicated
or implicitly understood, they can be divided into four cat-

egories: interaction norms, procedural norms, status
norms, and achievement norms as shown in Table 2.2.
• interaction norms specify how group members should
communicate with one another.
• Procedural norms specify how the group should oper-
ate and what structured procedures it should use.
• status norms specify the levels of influence among
group members and how status (prestige, respect,
power) is established or earned in the group.
• achievement norms specify the quality and quan-
tity of work expected from group members. Achieve-
ment norms help members determine how much
time and energy they should devote to working in a
particular group.
Table 2.2 Categories of Norms
Categories
of Norms
Key Questions

Examples of
Implicit Norms
Examples of
Explicit Norms
Interaction
Norms
What communi-
cation behavior
is appropriate?
We tend to use
the pronouns
we, us, and our
rather than I, me,
and my.
The group leader
is responsible for
making sure that
everyone gets a
chance to speak.

Procedural
Norms
How does the
group operate?
Everyone turns
off cell phones
and other tech-
nologies during
meetings.
We always get
an agenda in
advance and use
it during our
meetings.
Status
Norms
Who has power
and control?

The group leader
always sits at the
head of the table.
When a group
vote is tied, the
leader casts the
deciding vote.
Achievement
Norms
What are the
group’s stan-
dards?
Everyone shows
up on time or
early for our
scheduled
meetings.
All members
must have full
references for

any reports or
research they cite.
Recall that dialectic tensions can arise when one or more
members challenge the group’s norms or standards. At the
same time, constructive criticism that promotes a group’s
goal can contribute to group effectiveness. Understanding
the nature of the conformity 4 nonconformity dialectic can
help your group resolve this common tension (Figure 2.5).
Conformity Nonconformity
Figure 2.5 Balancing Conformity and Nonconformity
Ethics in Groups
Beware of Unreasonable
Norms
Objective: Explain the implications for group behavior based on
the famous Zimbardo study in which college students played the
roles of prison guards and prisoners.
Groups can exert enormous pressure on members to conform
even when a norm is unethical or dangerous. Thus, groups
have an ethical responsibility to establish reasonable norms.

Two classic (and disturbing) studies illustrate our tendency to
conform to unreasonable norms.47
During the 1960s, Stanley Milgram of Yale University
designed a series of experiments to find out whether people
would
obey commands from a stranger who tells them to inflict what
seems to be considerable pain on another person. Subjects were
told by the supposed experimenter to administer painful electric
shocks to a research associate if the associate answered a ques-
tion incorrectly. In fact, no shock was given, but the associates
were trained to writhe in pain, scream, and pound on walls.
Even
though these behaviors convinced the subjects that they were
causing enormous pain, most subjects increased the shocks as
directed by the experimenter. In this case, pressure from an
authority figure outweighed individual judgment and morality.
In another famous study conducted in the early 1970s,
Philip Zimbardo created a realistic-looking prison in a Stanford
University basement in which student subjects were assigned to
play the role of prison guard or prisoner for several days. Very
quickly, the prison guards began abusing their power and
became
increasingly cruel. After a brief period of rebellion, the

prisoners
became passive, demoralized, and depressed. Zimbardo halted
2.3.4: Nonconformity
Members decide whether they will conform to group
norms or not. nonconformity occurs when a member’s
behavior does not reflect the norms or expectations of the
group. Although conformity to most norms is essential to
the functioning of a group, nonconformity can improve
group performance when members have legitimate con-
cerns and alternative suggestions. Figure 2.6 presents the
process for managing nonconformity. Nonconformity can
be either constructive or destructive.
Member does
not conform to
group norm
Behavior is
constructive
nonconformity

Group re-
evaluates
the norm
Group retains the norm
Group adopts a new norm
Behavior is
destructive
nonconformity
Group
discusses
the norm’s
value
Group
deals with
disruptive
member
Group retains the norm

Group clarifies the norm
Group changes the norm
Group accepts the behavior
Group confronts the member
Group excludes the member
Figure 2.6 Managing Nonconformity
consTrucTive nonconforMiTy
Group norms express group values, help groups function
efficiently,
and define appropriate social behavior. Why does constructive
nonconformity also help a group achieve its common goal?
constructive nonconformity occurs when a member
resists conforming to norms as a way of alerting members
about problems that may prevent the group from achieving
its common goal. Constructive nonconformity is sometimes
needed and can be a valuable asset. Movies, television
shows, and books have championed the holdout juror, the

stubbornly honest politician, and the principled but disobe-
dient soldier or crewmember. Sometimes there is so much
pressure for group members to conform that they need a
nonconformist to shake up the process, to provide critical
feedback, and to create doubt about what had been a confi-
dent but wrong decision. Nonconformity can serve a group
well if it prevents members from ignoring important infor-
mation or making a poor decision. The following state-
ments are examples of constructive nonconformity:
• “I know we always ask the newest group member to
take minutes during the meeting, but we may be los-
ing the insight of an experienced member and skilled
note taker by continuing this practice.”
• “I have to question devoting my time to these weekly
meetings if we continue to take three hours to get through
a routine agenda.”
the experiment because it was “out of control” and causing psy-
chological and physical damage to the subjects.48
In some groups, discriminatory norms exclude people
because of race, gender, age, ethnicity, religion, or personal
phi-

losophy. When group norms restrict members’ freedom of
expression or human rights, an ethical member should object to
the norm and try to change it. If all else fails, ethical members
may
publicly renounce the group or quit in protest.
A group and its members have ethical responsibilities.
The following strategies will help you and your group develop
constructive norms and navigate ethical dilemmas:49
• When you join a group, focus on the group’s goals rather
than your own.
• If someone in the group asks you to do something unethi-
cal, object to or decline the assignment—and make the rest
of the group aware of the ethical issues and consequences.
• If a group adopts unethical norms, such as restricting the
free flow of information or refusing to include diverse mem-
bers, take responsibility and push for changes to such
restrictive norms.
• Promote a group climate in which all members can develop
to their full potential as individuals of worth and dignity.

• As members become more aware and knowledgeable
about the ethical issues that arise whenever people com-
municate, the group should develop a well-thought-out
credo or code of ethics.
Change Norms as Needed
When norms do not meet the needs of a group or its mem-
bers, new ones should be established. Some norms may be
too rigid, whereas others may be too vague. Some norms
may have outlived their usefulness. Finding an appropriate
balance between existing norms—which may be old, rigid, or
useless—and new, untested norms presents a challenge to
32 Chapter 2
Although most groups can handle an occasional
encounter with a renegade, dealing with consistently dis-
ruptive members is another story. Fortunately, several
strategies can help a group deal with a member whose dis-
ruptive behavior becomes destructive. The methods dis-
cussed in the following sections begin with efforts to
accommodate a disruptive member and escalate to a more

permanent solution.
A group can accept, confront, or even exclude the trou-
blesome member.
accePT In some cases, a group will accept and put up
with disruptive nonconformity. Acceptance is not the same
as approval; it involves learning to live with disruptive
behavior. When the disruption is not critical to the group’s
ultimate success, or when the member’s positive contribu-
tions far outweigh the inconvenience and annoyance of
putting up with the behavior, a group may allow the dis-
ruptive behavior to continue. For example, a member who
is always late for meetings but puts in more than her fair
share of work may find her tardy behavior accepted as an
unavoidable fact of group life.
confronT Another strategy for dealing with disrup-
tive nonconformity is confrontation, particularly when a
member’s behavior is impossible to accept or ignore and
when it threatens the success of a group and its mem-
bers. At first, rather than singling out the disruptive
member, the entire group can address the issue by talk-
ing in general terms about coming to meetings prepared
and on time, not interrupting others while they are

speaking, or criticizing ideas rather than people. How-
ever, when a member becomes “impossible,” groups may
need to confront the perpetrator more directly. Members
may direct nonverbal messages (frowning, looking away,
eye-rolling, heavy sighs, groans) to the wayward mem-
ber in an attempt to show that the group is displeased.
Or a group may address the member directly during the
course of the discussion: “Barry, it’s distracting and dis-
rupts our discussion when you answer your cell phone
in meetings. Please turn it off.” Although such attention
can be intimidating and uncomfortable for the noncon-
forming member, it is not always sufficient to overcome
the problem.
As an alternative to a public confrontation, there may
be value in discussing the problem with the disruptive
member outside the group setting. A frank and open con-
versation between the disruptive member and the leader
or a trusted member of the group may uncover the causes
of the problem as well as solutions for it. Because some
nonconforming members may not view their behavior as
disruptive, they may not understand why the group is
ignoring, confronting, or excluding them. Taking time to
talk with a disruptive member in a nonthreatening setting
can address both personal and group problems.

every group. Effective groups learn how to change norms in
order to prevent or curb recurring disruptions or problems.
Norms can be difficult to change, especially when they are
implicit or unspoken. Changes in group norms typically occur
as the result of the following conditions or behaviors:
• Contagious behavior, such as changing a work proce-
dure, a dress code, or speech patterns
• Suggestions or actions of high-status or highly confident
members
• Suggestions of outside consultants
• Group discussion and decision making (for explicit norms)
• Continued interaction (for implicit norms)50
When group norms no longer help a group achieve its
purpose, some members may resist changes simply
because change can be disruptive and threatening. How-
ever, fear of change should be weighed against probability
of failure. Effective groups know when to hold on to tried-
and-true norms and when to change them. The natural

development of groups usually requires changes in goals,
membership, and/or norms.
DesTrucTive nonconforMiTy In contrast,
destructive nonconformity occurs when a member resists
conforming to norms without regard for the best interests
of the group and its goals. For example, sending and
responding to text messages during meetings by a mem-
ber in spite of the group’s clear disapproval is distracting,
annoying, and even threatening if allowed to continue.
Nonconformity of either type provides a group with
an opportunity to examine its norms. When members
deviate, the group may have to discuss the value of a
particular norm and subsequently decide whether to
change it, clarify it, or continue to accept it. At the very
least, nonconforming behavior helps members recognize
and understand the norms of the group. For example, if a
member is reprimanded for criticizing an office policy,
other members will learn that the boss should not be
challenged.
Rather than accepting a nonproductive norm, some
groups may attempt to correct nonconforming members.
Imagine the challenge of dealing with the following non-

conforming behavior:
• Despite a commitment to high standards of group work,
a member continues to underperform so that work does
not get done or other members have to pick up the slack.
• Despite the group’s agreement on a common goal, a
group member openly and aggressively pushes a per-
sonal agenda for a different outcome.
• Despite clear norms about equal participation by all
members, one group member dominates discussions
and blocks others from speaking so that meetings run
twice as long as they should.
baseball player who said, “I used to enjoy playing baseball
until I started getting paid for it.”55
Every group has the potential to make group work an
optimal experience for members by using the four catego-
ries of motivators to energize and reinforce an entire group

depicted in Figure 2.7: a sense of meaningfulness, a sense
of choice, a sense of competence, and a sense of progress.56
EXCLUDE When all else fails, a group may exclude disrup-
tive members. Exclusion can take different forms. During dis-
cussions, group members can turn away from problem
members, ignore their comments, or refuse to make eye con-
tact. Instead, exclusion might mean assigning disruptive
members to unimportant, solo tasks or ones that will drive
them away from the group. Finally, a group may be able to
expel unwanted members. Being asked to leave a group or
being barred from participating is a humiliating experience
that all but the most stubborn members would prefer to avoid.
Rather than covering up for disruptive and noncon-
tributing members, effective groups deal with such indi-
viduals. As Jon Katzenbach and Douglas Smith wrote in
The Discipline of Teams, “Sometimes that requires replacing
members, sometimes it requires punishing them, and
sometimes it requires working with them. [An effective
group] does whatever it takes to eliminate disruptive
behavior and ensure productive contributions from all of
its members.”51
2.4: Group Motivation

2.4 Compare the four categories of motivators
The word motivate comes from a French word, motif,
which means “causing to move.” Thus, if you motivate
someone, you give that person a cause or reason to act.
Group motivation provides the inspiration and/or incen-
tives that move group members to work together to
achieve a common goal.52 Without motivation, we may
know what we need to do and even how to do it, but we
lack the will and energy to do it.
Most us of are familiar with extrinsic motivation, the
incentives that come from external sources, such as a boss
or business, a teacher or coach, a friend, family member,
or role model. These rewards can take the form of money,
job benefits and perks, good grades and blue ribbons, or
the approval and praise of others. Extrinsic rewards do
not necessarily motivate group members because they
force members to work. Perks and praise push or drive
members to collaborate with others and achieve a goal.
Extrinsic incentives can be positive or negative.53 For
example, hoping that your boss will give you a promo-
tion for a job well done is a positive extrinsic motivator.
However, fear of getting fired for doing a poor job is a
negative extrinsic motivator.

In contrast, intrinsic motivation constitutes rewards
that come from internal sources inherent in a particular
activity. These rewards take the forms of pride in doing
good work and achieving a challenging goal as well as a
sense of personal accomplishment.54 Intrinsic rewards
inspire and move members because they care about and
want to do the work. The push and pull dialectic of extrin-
sic and intrinsic motivation is captured by a major league
Meaningfulness Choice
Competence Progress
Figure 2.7 Thomas’s Intrinsic Motivators in Action
2.4.1: A Sense of Meaningfulness
The shared feeling that the group is pursuing a worthy
task creates a sense of meaningfulness. Highly moti-
vated groups believe that the job is worth doing and
that they are capable of getting it done. Whether your
group is setting out to climb Mt. Everest, planning a
homecoming rally, or establishing a new product line,
make sure there is a clear and elevated goal supported
by every member of the group. You can also promote a

sense of meaningfulness in your group by meeting
members’ needs and adapting to their personality
types. If you are leading a group, give group members
feedback that tells them whether their efforts are con-
tributing to the group’s goal.57
2.4.2: A Sense of Choice
Motivated groups feel they have a sense of choice—the
shared feeling that the group has the power and ability to
make decisions about how to organize and do its job. In
addition to focusing on the group goal, group members
should select agreed-upon strategies for achieving the
goal. Every member knows what she or he is expected to
do. If you are the group’s leader, you can promote a sense
of choice by encouraging members to make decisions
about how tasks are accomplished and accept the inevita-
bility of making mistakes when exploring innovative
approaches. When group members have the power to
make decisions, they are motivated by a greater sense of
personal control and responsibility.
34 Chapter 2

2.4.3: A Sense of Competence
The shared feeling that the group is doing excellent, high-
quality work is a sense of competence. Motivated groups
need more than a clear goal and strategies for achieving
that goal. They also need competent group members who
are ready, willing, and able to perform the tasks necessary
to achieve their common goal. When members experience
a sense of competence, they become totally absorbed in
what they are doing, are willing to take on new challenges,
and feel personal and group pride. You can promote a
sense of competence in your group by providing construc-
tive feedback to group members and listening to their feed-
back, complimenting member abilities and achievements,
and setting high standards for yourself and for the group.
2.4.4: A Sense of Progress
Motivated groups must feel a sense of progress—the
shared feeling that the group is accomplishing something.
“How are we doing?” is an important question for all
groups. It is difficult for members to stay motivated if they
have no idea whether the group is making progress
toward its goal. A well-chosen, structured goal should be
measurable. Motivated groups “create good, objective
measurements that people can relate to their specific
behavior.”58 A group can provide a sense of progress by

tracking and measuring progress; monitoring and, if
needed, finding ways to sustain group motivation; and
celebrating group accomplishments.
Watch Planning the Playground
Watch this clip from the video “Planning the Playground,”
which
illustrates concepts in this section.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Group Motivation
1. What strategies did group members use to decrease primary
tension?
2. As these group members continue working together to
achieve

the group’s goal, what types of rewards are most likely to
be effective?
Summary: Group Development
2.1: Group Development Stages
• The life cycle of groups has five discrete stages—form-
ing, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
• During the forming stage, many groups experience
primary tension, the social unease that accompanies
the getting-acquainted stage in a new group.
• During the storming stage, secondary tensions often
emerge as members pursue positions of power and
influence.
• Groups with collective intelligence have three charac-
teristics: (1) a social sensitivity to member emotions,
(2) equality in the amount of talking and turn-taking in
discussions, and (3) the presence and participation of
female members.
• The process of socializing newcomers in a group
moves through five phases: preliminary, acquainting,

adaptive, assimilation, and exit.
• Virtual teams must take into account their members’
confidence and expertise with technology in order to
move through group development stages efficiently
and effectively.
2.2: Group Goals
• An effective group has both a clear understanding of
its goal and a belief that its goal is meaningful and
worthwhile.
• Effective group goals require attention to clarity, chal-
lenge, commitment, compatibility, cooperation, and cost.
• Goal Theory claims that groups function best when
their goals are specific, challenging, accepted, used to
evaluate performance, and promote member growth.
• Hidden agendas occur when a member’s private goal

conflicts with the group’s goal.
2.3: Group Norms
• Norms are expectations held by group members
concerning acceptable behavior; they can be explicit
or implicit.
• Norms can be classified as interaction, procedural, sta-
tus, and achievement norms.
• Constructive nonconformity occurs when a member
resists a norm while still working to promote a group goal.
• Destructive nonconformity occurs when a member
resists conforming to norms without regard for the
best interests of the group and its common goal.
• When members engage in destructive nonconfor-
mity, a group can accept, confront, or even exclude
them.
• Groups have an ethical responsibility to establish
norms that are reasonable and respect the rights of
others.

2.4: Group Motivation
• Group motivation provides the inspiration and incen-
tives that move group members to work together to
achieve a common goal.
• Whereas extrinsic motivation relies on incentives that
come from external sources in the form of money, job
benefits, good grades, and praise from others, intrin-
sic motivation relies on rewards that come from inter-
nal sources inherent in a particular activity in the form
of personal pride and a sense of accomplishment.
• Members are motivated by a sense of meaningfulness,
a sense of choice, a sense of competence, and a sense
of progress.
chapter 2 Quiz: Group Development
class discussion.

ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: NICe TO MeeT yOu, TOO
question about the case study that was presented at the begin-
Which members, if any, are most likely to compete for status
and influence in the storming stage?
36
3.1 Recognize the inclusion, control, and
affection needs of group members
3.2 Explain how group task and social
maintenance roles contribute to group

productivity and member satisfaction
3.3 Apply specific strategies and skills to
enhance the communication confidence
of group members
3.4 List the benefits and skills characteristic of
effective assertiveness
Learning Objectives
Case Study: Taming Tony
the Tiger
Anthony (“Tony the Tiger”) Tarantella is a conscientious
and assertive man who has always liked working in groups.
He is a member of a large family, has lots of friends, enjoys
playing Tuesday night basketball on a neighborhood team,
and finds his work as a Kiwanis Club member rewarding.
At work, Tony manages the sales and advertising depart-
ment for a small business. For the past 20 years, his group
experiences have been, for the most part, positive.
Recently, he has sensed a change in his feelings and com-
mitment to several groups. Members of his basketball team

often miss games, saying they’re too tired or too busy. On the
job, he seems to have less time to complete more work. His
Chapter 3
Group Member Participation
In successful groups, members assume critical roles, adapt to
one another’s interpersonal needs, and communicate
confidently and assertively.
Group Member Participation 37
group members. His work explains why we join, remain in,
and even leave groups.
3.1.1: Schutz’s Theory of
Interpersonal Needs
Will Schutz developed the Fundamental Interpersonal
Relationship Orientation (FIRO) Theory that examines
how the need for inclusion, the need for control, and the
need for affection influences how group members interact
with one another. Schutz maintains that we join groups in

order to satisfy one or more of these needs.1 As you will see,
ideal group members meet these needs by finding a balance
between two extremes.
A group of volunteer firefighters certainly serves a need in the
community, but joining the local fire department may also
fulfill
individual volunteer’s interpersonal needs.
The Need FOR INclusION An inclusion need repre-
sents our desire to be given attention and to feel significant
and accepted by other group members.2 For some group
members, the need for inclusion is strong—they want to fit
in and be appreciated by other members. The need for
inclusion is less important to other group members—they
are quite content to work without a great deal of involve-
ment with others. When a group meets a member’s
inclusion need, the result is an ideal social member—a per-
son who enjoys working with people but is also comfort-
able working alone.
younger and less-experienced colleagues respect his exper-
tise, but he no longer gets excited when working with them.
Tony understands that things have changed. His fam-

ily has grown up, and he has less influence in their lives.
Some of his close friends have moved out of the neighbor-
hood. Retirement has claimed several of his best cowork-
ers. He also recognizes that his way of working may not be
in sync with the work styles of younger employers. He can
tell that some staff members don’t like his insistence on
clear schedules and meeting deadlines. He knows he
becomes aggravated and critical when a basketball game is
canceled or someone at work makes a last-minute request
for a new advertisement. He finds himself losing patience
with his wife and kids when they change plans without
consulting him. To make matters worse, everyone knows
he’s frustrated, but he can’t seem to tone down his judg-
mental reactions. A few times, he has lost his temper over
small issues and had to apologize for his behavior. Tony
decides he needs to take a good look at himself to help fig-
ure out how to recapture his commitment to group work.
answer
1. What needs motivate Tony’s participation in groups? To what
extent are those needs met in his current job?

2. What roles does Tony assume in his groups, and how do these
roles affect his attitude and behavior as a group member?
3. How can Tony balance his interaction style and become less
aggressive?
4. Which dialectic tensions help explain the problems Tony is
experiencing as he works in groups?
3.1: Group Member Needs
3.1 Recognize the inclusion, control, and affection
needs of group members
Most of us join groups because they satisfy specific needs.
For example, some people join volunteer fire departments
or participate in neighborhood watch programs to safe-
guard their community. College students join campus
clubs and societies to be with friends or make new ones.
New employees may soon quit if the boss and work team
seem intolerant or disagreeable. In many cases, you may
join a group to meet an individual need separate from the
group’s common goal. For instance, a young attorney
might join a local civic organization in an effort to meet

prospective clients. A retiree may volunteer at a hospital to
feel productive and appreciated.
Although many psychologists have studied human
needs and offered theories to explain their impact, psy-
chologist Will Schutz focused on the interpersonal needs of
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Group Member Needs
How have your experiences in groups satisfied or not satisfied
your
interpersonal needs? Are you a democratic, social, and/or
personal
group member?

38 Chapter 3
When inclusion needs are not met, members do not feel
accepted; they do not fit in with the group and may engage
in either undersocial behavior or oversocial behavior.
• An undersocial member may feel unworthy or may
withdraw from the group. Because these people believe
that no one values them, they try not to be noticed and
thus avoid being hurt.
• An oversocial member seeks attention to compensate
for feelings of inadequacy. Such members seek com-
panionship for all activities because they can’t stand
being alone. They try to impress other members with
what and whom they know.3
If group members exhibit undersocial and/or oversocial
behavior, try to satisfy their inclusion needs. Making new
members feel welcome and veteran members feel valued
requires a careful balance between the inclusion needs of
individual members and the group’s need to achieve its
common goal. Figure 3.1 illustrates how members react
when their inclusion needs are met as well as the conse-
quences of unmet inclusion needs.

responsibility. Abdicrats often feel no hope of having
any control in the group. Generally, they do what they
are told and avoid responsibilities.
• The autocrat reacts to unmet control needs by trying to
dominate the group. Autocrats often criticize other
members and try to force their decisions on the group.4
Dealing with abdicrats and autocrats requires the
group to grant members a sense of control appropriate to
their needs without jeopardizing group productivity and
member satisfaction. Giving members responsibility for
and leadership of special projects or tasks may satisfy their
need for control. For example, asking a member to chair an
important subcommittee may satisfy an autocrat’s control
need. Figure 3.2 illustrates how members react when their
control needs are fulfilled, as well as the consequences of
unmet control needs.
The Need FOR cONTROl A control need refers to the
desire to feel competent, confident, and free to make deci-
sions. The need for control is often expressed by a member
who wants to be the group’s leader. For some members,
the need for control is strong—they want to take charge of

the group and influence members. For other group mem-
bers, the need for control is less important—they are quite
content to be followers and entrust leadership tasks to oth-
ers. When a group meets a member’s control need, the
result is a democratic member—a person who has no
problems with power and is just as comfortable giving
orders as taking them. Such members are often excellent
leaders because they can exercise control when needed, but
they also put the group’s goals ahead of their own needs.
Unmet control needs can result in the emergence of an
abdicrat or an autocrat. Each type manifests control needs
through opposite behaviors.
• An abdicrat is a group member who reacts to unmet
control needs by being submissive and avoiding
The Need FOR AFFecTION An affection need reflects
our desire to express and receive warmth or be liked by
others.5 Members with strong affection needs seek close
friendships and expressions of warmth from others. Simi-
lar to inclusion and control needs, some group members
have a high need for affection—they want to be liked and
develop strong friendships with group members. For oth-
ers, the need for affection is less important—they don’t

need to be liked to be a productive group member. When a
group meets a member’s affection need, the result is a per-
sonal member—a person who is emotionally comfortable
interacting with group members. While preferring to be
liked, an ideal personal member is secure enough to func-
tion in a group where social interaction and affection are
not high priorities.
When affection needs are not met, members do not feel
liked; they become uncomfortable in the group setting.
Reactions to this deficit fall into two categories: underper-
sonal behavior and overpersonal behavior.
• An underpersonal member may establish only super-
ficial relationships with other members. Because they
believe no one likes them, they may appear aloof and
uninvolved, and when pressed, they rarely share their
honest feelings or opinions.
Inclusion Needs
“I feel accepted by the group.”
Social Member

“I need to feel accepted by the group.”
“I won’t participate much
in group discussions.”
“I try to gain the
group’s attention.”
“I don’t feel accepted by
or involved in the group.”
Undersocial Member Oversocial Member
Figure 3.1 Inclusion Needs
Control Needs
“I need to feel influential and important.”
“I just do what
I am told.”
“I try to dominate
the group.”

“I don’t have influence
in the group.”
Abdicrat Autocrat
“Others respect me.”
Democratic Member
Figure 3.2 Control Needs
GroupWork Group Attraction Survey6
When group membership fulfills the interpersonal needs of
members, the result is a highly collaborative group. When group
membership fails to fulfill such needs,
resultant member behaviors can jeopardize a group’s ability to
achieve its common goal. To determine the factors that probably
motivate you to join and/or remain
a group member, complete the Group Attraction Survey.
Directions: Think of an effective group in which you currently

participate or in which you have participated in the past. Keep
the selected group in mind as you
complete this questionnaire. The 15 statements describe the
possible reasons you were attracted to, joined, and remained a
member of this group. Indicate the
degree to which each statement applies by selecting whether
you:
1) Strongly disagree; 2) Disagree; 3) Are undecided; 4)
Agree; or 5) Strongly agree.
Scoring
Group Attraction Scoring Score
Seek Task Achievement Add your responses to items 4, 7, and 9
Seek Social Interaction Add your responses to items 3, 8, and
14
Seek Inclusion Add your responses to items 5, 11, and 13
Seek Control Add your responses to items 1, 12, and 15
Seek Affection Add your responses to items 2, 6, and 10

Total Score
Score Interpretation: A score of 12 or above in any category
indicates that this need is an important reason why you joined
and stay in this group. A score of 6 or
below indicates that this need was not an important factor in
joining the group and not a major reason for you staying in it.
Examining your needs and attraction to
other groups in which you work may result in different scores.
• An overpersonal member seeks intimate friend-
ships despite the disinterest of other members. Such
members are often too talkative, too personal, and
too confiding.7
Dealing with underpersonal and overpersonal mem-
bers requires expressions of fondness and friendliness.
Being friendly to new members and taking the time to com-
municate affection to long-standing members takes extra
effort, but these actions can convert unsatisfied participants
into ideal personal members. Figure 3.3 (see page 40) illus-
trates how members react when their affection needs are ful-
filled as well as the consequences of unmet affection needs.

40 Chapter 3
Individual Needs Group Needs
Figure 3.4 Balancing Individual Needs and Group Needs
Table 3.1 Group Roles
Task Roles Social Maintenance Roles
Coordinator Harmonizer
Information Provider Motivator
Opinion Provider Supporter
Questioner Gatekeeper
Clarifier Team Builder
Analyzer
Implementer

what you do in a group; it’s also what members expect you
to do. For example, a group may rely on one member to gen-
erate enthusiasm for group work and promote teamwork,
and another member to reconcile disagreements, reduce ten-
sion, and calm anxious members. Both of these roles serve
valuable group functions.
Members may adopt different roles at different times
in different groups. Some members take on multiple roles.
Thus, you may assume the role of coordinator in a group
that lacks direction, but function as a harmonizer in another
group that needs help in resolving conflicts. If you know
the most about the discussion topic, your primary role may
be that of information provider. And if a member dominates
a discussion, several group members may try to counteract
this behavior by taking on the positive role of gatekeeper.
What’s critical is finding a balance of appropriate roles
based on the group’s progress toward achieving its goals.8
Group roles fall into two functional categories: task
roles and social maintenance roles. Task roles are sets of
behaviors that affect a group’s ability to complete its work
and achieve a common goal. social maintenance roles are
sets of behaviors that affect how group members get along

with one another while pursuing a common goal. They
focus on building relationships and keeping the group
cohesive and cooperative. (See Table 3.1.)
In the following sections, each functional role is cate-
gorized, named, described, and illustrated with statements
that might be heard from a member assuming that role.9
3.2.1: Group Task Roles
Seven essential task roles enable groups to “get the job
done.” Not surprisingly, there is overlap in these func-
tions. An effective coordinator provides information, asks
questions, and helps implement a plan in addition to the
primary task of maintaining group focus. However, the
task roles in this section go well beyond an occasional
helping-hand or insightful analysis. Instead, they repre-
sent a consistent set of expected behaviors taken on by
specific group members. Table 3.2 provides descriptions
and examples of the following seven task roles: coordina-
tor, information provider, opinion provider, questioner,
clarifier, analyzer, and implementer.
3.1.2: Balancing Individual Needs
and Group Needs
Using Schutz’s FIRO theory to improve a group’s performance

requires a balanced approach that helps members meet both
individual inclusion, control, and affection needs and the
group’s need for productive collaboration. For example, a
member who seeks attention or tries to impress other mem-
bers may have a strong inclusion need. Rather than giving up
on or criticizing an undersocial or oversocial member, you can
help satisfy members’ inclusion needs by praising their good
work. When members have strong control needs but are not
capable enough or eligible to lead a group, you may be able to
satisfy both their need for control and the need to advance the
group’s goal by asking them to lead a special project. Praising
and rewarding effective group behavior can help group mem-
bers feel included, competent, and well liked.
There are reasons to be cautious about using FIRO the-
ory to explain and predict group behavior. Undersocial
behavior may not reflect an unmet inclusion need; the mem-
ber may be quite comfortable and happy working alone.
Overpersonal behavior may not reflect an unmet affection
need; such behavior may represent an enthusiastic effort to
create a positive social climate for the group (see Figure 3.4).
Affection Needs
“I feel that others like me,

and if they don’t, that’s OK.”
Personal Member
“I need to feel that others like me.”
“I’m not sure that
others like me.”
Underpersonal Member
“I avoid friendships
with other members.”
“I confide in and
try to become very
close with everyone.”
Overpersonal Member
Figure 3.3 Affection Needs
3.2: Member Roles
3.2 explain how group task and social maintenance

roles contribute to group productivity and member
satisfaction
A role is a pattern of behaviors associated with a member’s
specific functions within a particular group. A role is not just
Table 3.2 Group Task Roles
Task Role Description Examples
Coordinator • Serves as the group’s manager by keeping
the group focused on its goal, planning and
conducting meetings, assigning tasks, facil-
itating decision making, and identifying
group process problems.
• Makes sure that group meetings are pro-
ductive and that members know their
responsibilities.

• May serve as the group’s chairperson,
facilitator, manager, or designated leader.
Ideally, several group members share
coordination functions.
“Drew, would you mind designing our presentation slides?”
“Don’t forget—if you have any issues you want added to our
next meeting’s agenda,
please email them to me at least two days in advance.”
“It sounds like we’ve fully analyzed the relevant issues. Let’s
move on and talk about
possible solutions.”
Information
Provider
• Researches and shares relevant informa-
tion, offers well-informed suggestions,
and/or contributes specialized expertise
and skills.
• Ensures that members are fully informed.

“I checked with the accountant, and she said . . .”
“I have an idea. I know several local artists who might donate
their art to our fundraising
auction. I’ll ask a few and let you know the results.”
“I’m very familiar with copyright law and suggest that we get
the photographer’s written
permission to use her images in our brochure.”
Opinion
Provider
• Expresses informed opinions, interprets the
opinions and perspectives of others, and
ensures that members are familiar with vari-
ous points of view when making decisions.
“I don’t agree that radio ads are the answer, because they’ll use
up our entire promotional
budget.”
“Chris couldn’t make the meeting today, but he told me that he
doesn’t think a bake sale
will raise enough money.”

“I think it would be better if we all contributed some slides to
the presentation instead of
relying on one group member to design them.”
Questioner • Asks for information and opinions, requests
clarification, probes for what others think or
feel, and tests for group consensus.
• Helps a group identify the information it
needs and promotes a better understand-
ing of the issues in a group’s discussion.
“How can we decide on a policy for students with disabilities
without knowing more about
the new federal laws and regulations?”
“Christina, I understand that you believe the project
management software should be up-
graded, but I’m not sure I understand why it’s necessary. Could
you please explain it more?”
“Do we all agree that the lobby should be renovated this year?”
Clarifier • Explains ideas and suggestions, corrects

misunderstandings, summarizes the
group’s discussion and conclusions, and
helps the group refine its goal.
• Minimizes confusion and provides members
with a clearer understanding of the group’s
discussion and its goal.
“Marshall isn’t saying that the IT department needs more
technical training. Instead, he’s
suggesting that they attend a team-building workshop.”
“Okay, so far we’ve agreed to hold a fundraising gala, but we
don’t yet have agreement
on the event’s theme.”
“Our goal—to promote citizens’ full participation in our
democracy—is noble but a bit vague.
Let’s consider a more specific goal, such as ‘Register 100 new
voters each month.’”
Analyzer • Assesses information, opinions, and argu-
ments; evaluates courses of action and sug-
gests multiple options for solving problems.

• Makes sure that the group engages in
effective critical thinking and that group
decisions are based on accurate informa-
tion and sound reasoning.
“I think we’ve forgotten something here. These building figures
don’t take into account
monthly operating costs, such as utilities and maintenance.”
“Ashley’s suggestions make sense, but there are a couple of
potential problems we
should discuss before we take a final vote.”
“We need to consider the consequences of dramatic changes to
the work schedule in the
sales department. Employee morale could suffer.”
Implementer • Transforms group ideas into action by
developing action plans, following through
on assigned tasks, creating oral and/or
written reports, and helping other members
needing assistance with their tasks.
• Without implementers, a group’s great idea
never becomes a reality.

“I’ve created a schedule with deadlines. Let’s look it over to
make sure it works for everyone.”
“We’re going to need a fairly large committee to get this done.
I’ll do a simple spreadsheet
that shows the tasks that need to be completed and whether the
potential committee
members have the will and skill to do them.”
“If you need some extra help, I’d be happy to work with you on
creating a realistic budget
for the project.”
3.2.2: Group Social
Maintenance Roles
Five social maintenance roles help group members get along
with one another as they pursue a common goal. Like task
roles, social maintenance roles can overlap. Table 3.3 pro-
vides descriptions and examples of the following five social
maintenance roles: harmonizer, motivator, supporter, gate-
keeper, and team builder.
The need to balance the seven task roles and the five
social maintenance roles is illustrated in Figure 3.5.

Task Roles Social Maintenance Roles
Figure 3.5 Balancing Task Roles and Social Maintenance
Roles
42 Chapter 3
Table 3.3 Group Social Maintenance Roles
Social Role Description Examples
Harmonizer • Creates a cooperative group environment by
reducing tensions, helping members resolve
conflicts, and encouraging the group to adapt to
interpersonal differences.
• Helps the group manage the primary and sec-
ondary tensions that occur during the early
stages of group development and encourages
members to get along with one another.
• Promotes group cohesion and facilitates con-

structive conflict resolution.
“This first meeting is a bit awkward since we don’t know each
other. Let’s go around
the table and introduce ourselves.”
“I know we’re starting to get on each other’s nerves, but we’re
almost done. Let’s put
aside our differences and finish up.”
“It looks as though we’re not going to agree on this one. Maybe
we can improve the
old system rather than trying to come up with a brand new way
of doing it.”
Motivator10 • Creates enthusiasm for the group’s goal,
empowers the group to make its own
choices, encourages members to do their
best, and acknowledges member and group
accomplishments.
• Motivates group members to believe that the
goal is meaningful, to feel that they have the
power to make decisions, to know that they are
capable of the work, and to enjoy a sense of

accomplishment.
“What our group is proposing could transform the entire
organization. This is so exciting!”
“After our presentation, let’s get together for dinner and
celebrate a job well done!”
“As the division manager, I could develop a new employee
grievance procedure on my
own, but I think this team is fully capable of developing a
reasonable and fair process.
I’ll plan on implementing the process this group recommends.”
Supporter • Offers encouragement, praises group members,
identifies and expresses group feelings, and lis-
tens with empathy to other members.
• Promotes member confidence and provides
emotional support in stressful situations.
• Focuses on the emotional needs of group members.
“The information you found has been a big help. Thanks for
taking the time to research this.”

“I sense that the group is getting tired and would appreciate a
break before discussing
the next item on the agenda.”
“I understand that you’re feeling a bit overwhelmed by this
project right now. Would
you like to talk about it?”
Gatekeeper • Facilitates member participation by monitoring the
flow of communication within the group, encour-
aging quiet members to speak, and discouraging
anyone from dominating a group discussion.
• Ensures that all members have an opportunity to
fully participate in group discussions.
“I think we’ve heard from everyone except Sophie, and I know
she has strong feelings
on this issue.”
“Alex, we’re pretty clear on your position. Let’s hear what
others have to say.”
“Too many people are talking at once. Let’s listen to one person

at a time, and we’ll
make sure everyone gets a chance to express their opinions.”
Team
Builder
• Enhances group cohesion by promoting a
group identity, showing respect for other mem-
bers, and expressing pride in the group’s work.
• Creates camaraderie and unity among members.
“I’m honored to be a part of this project. What a great group!”
“We’ve got this. Remember our motto—One Dream, One
Team!”
“I’m very impressed with the talent in our group. I’m learning a
lot working with all of you.”
Theory in Groups
Belbin’s Team-Role Theory
Objective: Explain Belbin’s Team-Role Theory and evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses of each of Belbin’s nine roles.

R. Meredith Belbin’s Team-Role Theory goes well beyond
the dozens of traditional roles developed more than half a
century ago.11 Team-Role Theory explains that, in effec-
tive groups, members seek out and perform roles compati-
ble with their personal characteristics and skills.12 After
studying corporate work groups for many years, Belbin
identified nine primary roles that lead to team success.13 He
concluded that groups work best when “there is a balance
of primary roles and when team members know their roles,
work to their strengths, and actively manage weak-
nesses.”14 Thus, depending on the nature of the task, a
group may not achieve its goal without both specialists and
team workers or with too many evaluators and not enough
resource investigators.
As you review Belbin’s nine roles in Table 3.4, keep in mind
that there is no such thing as a “pure” role. Most members
assume a mix of roles depending on the needs of the group and
its members as well as the nature of the task. The best group
members are those with role flexibility, the ability to assume
the roles need by a group in a particular context.15
Given Belbin’s declaration that balance rather than intel-

lect is the key to group success, every group should seek an
optimum combination of role functions. In a perfectly balanced
group, writes Belbin, “there is always someone who can deal
naturally with any set of responsibilities”16 Let’s apply this
notion to the list of task and social maintenance roles we pre-
sented. A group without an analyzer may fail to base its deci-
sions on accurate information and sound reasoning. Similarly,
without the influence of a gatekeeper, some members domi-
nate a discussion but others never get an opportunity to
express their opinions.
Effective group members identify appropriate roles for
themselves and know how to work with group members
who assume other roles.17 Group members should also be
“very clear about their roles,” but they should also avoid
the temptation of establishing inflexible roles.18 Instead,
they should seek balance by calling on group members’
multiple talents.19
Table 3.4 Belbin’s Team-Role Theory

Belbin’s Role Function Characteristics
Coordinator/
Chairperson
Clarifies goals; helps allocate roles, responsibilities, and duties;
articulates group conclusions.
Calm, trusting, impartial, self-disciplined, mature, positive
thinker,
confident; decisive when necessary; may be seen as
manipulative.
Shaper Seeks patterns in group work; pushes group toward
agree-
ment and decisions; challenges others.
Energetic, high achiever, anxious, impatient, outgoing,
argumenta-
tive, provocative, dynamic; can be abrasive.
Innovator Advances proposals and offers new and creative
ideas; pro-
vides insights on courses of action.

Creative, individualistic, serious and knowledgeable,
unorthodox,
intellectual; may disregard practical details and people.
Resource
Investigator
Explores opportunities, makes contacts, shares external infor-
mation; negotiates with outsiders; responds well to challenges.
Extroverted, curious, versatile, sociable, innovative,
communicative,
noisy and energetic; sometimes lazy.
Monitor/Evaluator Analyzes problems and complex issues;
monitors progress
and prevents mistakes; assesses the contributions of others;
sees all options; judges accurately.
Sober, clever, discreet, detached, unemotional prudent, not
easily
aroused; takes time to consider; rarely wrong; may appear cold.
Implementer Transforms talk and ideas into practical action;
develops

actions plans for group members.
Tough-minded, practical, tolerant, conservative, methodical.
Teamworker Gives personal support and help to others; is
socially oriented
and sensitive to others; resolves conflicts; calms the waters;
serves as an ingroup diplomat.
Cooperative, sensitive, team-oriented, indecisive, deputy leader,
gre-
garious, supportive, may sacrifice task for social goals; listens
well.
Completer/Finisher Emphasizes the need for meeting schedules,
deadlines, and
completing tasks; searches out errors.
Perfectionist, perservering, conscientious, detail oriented,
persistent,
anxious; sometimes obnoxious.
Specialist Single-minded, self-starting, dedicated; provides
unique or rare
expertise and skills.

Contributes in narrow area; dwells on technicalities; overlooks
the
“big picture”.
3.2.3: Disruptive Behaviors
Ideally, every group member assumes task and maintenance
roles appropriate to the group and its task. Unfortunately,
some members consistently engage in disruptive behavior
that may prevent a group from achieving its common goal.
These disruptive members may have unmet interpersonal
needs, hidden agendas, or poor communication skills.
Regardless of the reasons for their behavior, such members
interfere with a group’s ability to work effectively.
Occasionally, an otherwise productive member may
disrupt group work by dominating a discussion because
the issue is of huge importance to the member and the
group. Another member who usually assumes the roles of
motivator and team builder may become a nonparticipant
for reasons related to health or personal problems outside
the group, or as a way of allowing quiet members more
opportunities to participate. However, when members
are highly disruptive, a group may lose its will to work

and fail to achieve its common goal. Table 3.5 identifies
six common types of disruptive behaviors in groups:
dominator, obstructionist, attacker, egoist, support seeker,
and nonparticipant.
Table 3.5 Disruptive Behaviors in Groups
Disruptive
Behavior
Description
Example
Dominator • Prevents others from participating by monopolizing
discussions in a way
that inhibits effective collaboration and decision making.
• Interrupts others, aggressively asserts dominance, takes
inflexible posi-
tions on issues, and rejects the ideas and arguments of other
members.

• May have a high control need expressed in autocratic
behavior.
“That’s crazy, Sophie! Right off the top of my head I can
think of at least four reasons why we can’t do it your way.”
“I’ve told you all exactly what we should do. If we don’t do
it my way, then don’t count on my department’s support
or resources.”
Obstructionist • Blocks group progress by consistently making
negative statements and
unreasonably disagreeing with others.
• May change the subject or the group’s direction.
• Often uses negative nonverbal behavior such as constantly
shaking the
head “No,” rolling the eyes, and smirking to frustrate other
members and
create disorder.
• May bar the way toward progress no matter what a group
member says.
“There’s no point in wasting time discussing that idea.

There’s no way it will work.”
“I don’t see any solutions here. We might as well give up
on this whole project.”
Attacker • Puts down other members or deflates others’ status
for self-centered
reasons (to achieve a personal rather than the group goal, to
hurt a dis-
liked member, or to create fear and gain power).
• Is often sarcastic, unreasonably critical of others, and may
take credit for
others’ work or ideas.
• Makes statements that are humiliating, offensive, or verbally
abusive.
“It’s a good thing I had time to rewrite your report. There
were so many mistakes in it, we would have been embar-
rassed by it."
“If that’s the best idea you can come up with, then this
group is in trouble.”
(continued )

44 Chapter 3
3.3: Member Confidence
3.3 Apply specific strategies and skills to enhance the
communication confidence of group members
Imagine the benefits and satisfaction of working with group
members who have positive and realistic perceptions about
themselves and their abilities. Add to that personal attributes
such as assertiveness, optimism, enthusiasm, affection, pride,
independence, trust, the ability to handle criticism, and emo-
tional maturity. These attributes describe a nearly perfect
group member.
Members with a positive, “can-do” attitude cope more
effectively with unexpected events, problematic behavior,
and challenging assignments. Fostering group and mem-
ber confidence is much more than the power of positive
thinking—it helps groups commit to ambitious goals and
believe in their ability to meet them.20
3.3.1: Communication Apprehension

Communication scholars have investigated the anxieties
that people feel when they must speak to others in a vari-
ety of contexts. The result is a large body of research that
has important implications for working in groups.
James C. McCroskey identified and defined communica-
tion apprehension as the “fear or anxiety associated with
either real or anticipated communication with another person
or persons.”21 Communication apprehension includes more
than public speaking anxiety; it also encompasses fear of
speaking in conversations, meetings, and group settings.
About 20 percent of the U.S. population experiences very high
levels of communication apprehension in certain situations,
Disruptive
Behavior
Description
Example
Egoist • Seeks personal attention in ways that distract the group
from achieving

its goal.
• May joke around too much, brag excessively about
accomplishments or
skills, and talk too much about personal issues unrelated to the
group’s
work; self-centered and proud of it.
“Listen—I’ve been working on this outrageous imperson-
ation of the boss. I’ve even got his funny walk down.”
“As the only person here to have won the company’s pres-
tigious top achiever award, I personally suggest that . . .”
Support
Seeker
• Needs frequent and excessive emotional support and sympathy
from
the group.
• May inappropriately share private feelings and problems with
the group
rather than contributing to the group’s goal.
• Has an incessant need for inclusion and affection expressed as

helpless-
ness and incompetence, even though fully capable of completing
a task.
• Distracts the group from its goal by demanding an excessive
amount of
emotional support.
“I’ve broken up with my girlfriend and can’t focus on the
group project right now. Do you think I should try to get
back together with her? I need some advice.”
“Everyone else in the group has so much more experience
than me. I don’t think I can do my part of the report. I’m a
lousy writer.”
Nonparticipant • Never or rarely contributes to a group’s
discussion or work.
• May sit silently during most group discussions, give in on
issues to avoid
conflict, not show up for meetings, desert the group when it
most needs
everyone’s participation, and regularly fail to complete assigned
group
tasks.

• Is often distracted by other tasks during group meetings such
as texting,
emailing, eating, whispering to others, or doing work unrelated
to the
group’s project.
• May be “present” on a virtual team, but certainly not “there”
for any pro-
ductive purpose.
“I’m leaving now because I have to go to an important
meeting.”
“I didn’t have time to write my portion of the report. Some-
one else needs to do it.”
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Helping Annie

1. Which, if any, of Schutz’s needs are expressed or evident in
the
video clip?
2. Review the group task and social maintenance roles, Belbin’s
team roles, and the list of disruptive behaviors. Which positive
roles did group members assume? Which disruptive behaviors
were evident? How did these roles affect the group’s ability to
achieve its common goal?
3. Which positive roles were not evident in the group and
how could they have helped the group achieve its
common goal?
Watch “Helping Annie”
Watch the video “Helping Annie,” which illustrates concepts in
this chapter.
while more than 70 percent experience apprehension when

faced with the prospect of making a presentation.22
There are different levels of communication apprehen-
sion, depending on several factors, such as the personality of
the speaker, the nature of the listeners, and the characteristics
of the occasion or setting. For example, talking at a weekly
staff meeting may be easy, but defending a department’s
actions at a meeting of company executives may generate high
levels of anxiety. How apprehensive are you in different com-
munication contexts? Complete the Personal Report of Com-
munication Apprehension (PRCA) self-assessment that
appears on the next page before reading the rest of this section.
Communication apprehension “may be the single
most important factor in predicting communication behav-
ior in a small group.”23 Consequently, it is not surprising
that highly apprehensive people may avoid group commu-
nication or sit quietly in a group if they must be present.24
Table 3.6 lists basic characteristics of group members with
high apprehension and low apprehension.
rience high levels of communication apprehension
spend extra time making sure that they are well pre-
pared to participate in a discussion or meeting. Well-
prepared members know more about the topic and have

a clear idea of the positions they support. As a result,
they have more to contribute when they participate.
Being well prepared will not eliminate anxiety entirely,
but it can reduce your fear of being at a loss for relevant
ideas and information when called upon to speak.
• Learn Communication Skills. If you wanted to improve
your tennis game, you would try to improve specific
skills—perhaps your serve, your return, or your
backhand shot. The same is true about communicating
in groups: Learning and practicing specific skills can
help you improve your ability to participate in groups.
These skills are described throughout this text. Learn-
ing to become more sensitive to feedback, to follow a
group’s agenda, or to serve as an effective group leader
and participant can enhance the skills you need to suc-
ceed in a group discussion. Improving your communi-
cation skills will not eliminate communication
apprehension, but it can reduce your level of anxiety.
• Relax Physically. One reason we experience communi-
cation apprehension is that our bodies feel tense. Our
hearts beat faster, our hands shake, and we’re short of
breath. This response is a natural one, and may reflect
excitement and eagerness as much as anxiety and fear.

By learning to relax your body, you may also reduce
your level of communication apprehension. For exam-
ple, break the word relax into two syllables: re and lax.
Inhale slowly through your nose while saying the
sound re (“ree”) silently to yourself. Then breathe out
slowly while thinking of the sound lax (“laks”). Inhale
and exhale three or four times while thinking, “Reee-
laaax.” By the time you finish, your pulse should be
slower and—hopefully—you will also feel calmer.26
• Think Positively. You may be able to reduce apprehension
by changing the way you think about communicating.
Rather than thinking, “They won’t listen to me,” try
thinking, “Because I’m so well prepared, I’ll make a
valuable contribution.” cognitive restructuring is a
technique for reducing communication apprehension
that analyzes irrational beliefs about speaking to others
(cognitions) and seeks to modify those thoughts (restruc-
turing).27 Researchers who study emotions contend that
thinking happy or sad thoughts can make you feel happy
or sad.28 So think positively and feel confident! Next
time you feel apprehensive about communicating, tell
yourself these positive statements: “I have good ideas,”
“I am well prepared,” and “The group respects me even
when they don’t accept my suggestions.”

• Visualize Success. Closely related to cognitive restruc-
turing is visualization, a technique for reducing com-
munication apprehension that encourages positive
Table 3.6 Communication Apprehension in Groups
Members with High
Apprehension May . . .
Members with Low
Apprehension May . . .
avoid group participation. initiate discussions.
talk less often. speak more often.
agree with others rather than
voice disagreement.
assert themselves and their beliefs.
smile and giggle inappropriately. become group leaders.
fidget. strategically choose when to speak

and when to remain silent.
use awkward phrases as fillers,
such as “well,” “uh,” or “you
know.”
appear more confident.
have difficulty following a
discussion.
dominate a discussion or talk
compulsively.
3.3.2: Strategies for Reducing
Communication Apprehension25
If your PRCA score classifies you as an apprehensive speaker,
or if you believe that your level of anxiety associated with
talking in groups is unusually high, you can use several
effective strategies to reduce your apprehension level.
• Know That You Are Not Alone. Everyone has experienced
communication apprehension in certain settings. If you
dread the thought of communicating in a group or

public setting, you are one of millions of people who
feel the same way. Such feelings are normal. As you lis-
ten to other group members, don’t assume that it is
easy for them to talk. Several of them are probably
experiencing the same level of anxiety that you are.
• Be Well Prepared. Although you cannot eliminate com-
munication apprehension completely, you can boost
your confidence by being well prepared for every group
discussion. Many successful group members who expe-
46 Chapter 3
Group Assessment Personal Report of Communication
Apprehension (PRCA-24)29
The Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-
24) instrument is the best available measure of communication
apprehension. Your PRCA score is a
relatively permanent trait that is not likely to change
significantly unless you engage in some type of effective
intervention or training to change it.30
Directions: Indicate the degree to which each statement applies

to you by selecting whether you:
1) Strongly disagree; 2) Disagree; 3) Are undecided; 4)
Agree; or 5) Strongly Agree.
Scoring: The PRCA provides one total score and four subscores.
The subscores are related to communication apprehension in
each of four common
communication contexts: group discussions, meetings,
interpersonal conversations, and public speaking. To compute
your scores, merely add or subtract your
scores for each item as indicated here.
Scoring Formula
Group Discussions: 18 + total of scores for items 2, 4, and 6;
minus total of scores for items 1, 3, and 5.
Meetings: 18 + total of scores for items 8, 9, and 12; minus
total of scores for items 7, 10, and 11.
Interpersonal Conversations: 18 + total of scores for items 14,
16, and 17; minus total of scores for items 13, 15, and 18.
Public Speaking: 18 + total of scores for items 19, 21, and 23;
minus total of scores for items 20, 22, and 24.
(continued )

2. Computer Anxiety: A condition affecting as many as
50 percent of all Americans—is “A feeling of being fearful
or apprehensive when using or considering the use of a
computer.”33 Factors such as past failure, the nature of the
task, and the use of a new computer application have the
potential to affect every group member.34 Fortunately,
researchers have found that the more experience people
have with technology, the less anxious they are.35 The
solution? Help anxious group members acquire and mas-
ter computer skills, and their anxieties are likely to
decrease. Also, “many tried-and-true, face-to-face meth-
ods of confidence building still apply,” such as letting
group members know when they are doing a good job.36
There is, however, a flip-side to the confidence coin when
applied to online conferences and computer-mediated discus-
sions. Some people are more confident when communicating
online. A theory called hyperpersonal communication
explains why some group members express themselves more
competently and confidently in mediated settings than they do
in face-to-face discussions:37

• Impression Management. Consider how you feel when
communicating online. You have greater control over how
you present yourself. An added confidence booster is the
fact that your written message is separate from your
appearance, gender, race, social status, and any accent
or dialect. Depending on the technology, many of these
nonverbal factors are not displayed in your message
unless you choose to include that information.
• Response Time. Some online channels allow members to
take the time to construct suitable replies. For example,
depending on how soon you have been asked to reply to
a question posed in an email, you can consult a report or
do research and sound like an expert.
• Feedback. Online communication usually provides feed-
back that lets you know whether your message was
received and interpreted as you intended. Confirming
feedback reinforces confidence.38
Virtual Teams
Confidence with Technology
Learning Objective: Explain how writing apprehension, com-

puter anxiety, and hyperpersonal communication can affect
com-
munication within a virtual team.
When groups use audioconferences or videoconferences, or
participate in online or computer-mediated discussions, member
confidence may erode or improve, depending on the electronic
medium and the personal preferences of members. In a video-
conference, for example, members who experience high levels
of communication apprehension may find themselves more
nervous because they are “on television.” Every word and
movement is captured for all to see and hear.
When a conference moves into cyberspace, two different
types of anxiety come into play:
1. Writing Apprehension: “The fear or anxiety associated
with writing situations.”32 Because many online interac-
tions depend on written words, poor writers and those
who experience writing apprehension find themselves
anxious about and preoccupied with the task of writing
rather than being focused on the group’s goal.
thinking about communicating in groups by physi-
cally relaxing and imagining yourself succeeding.

Many professional athletes improve their performance
by finding a quiet place where they can relax and visu-
alize themselves competing and winning.31 You can do
the same thing. Take time—before you meet with your
group—to visualize yourself communicating effec-
tively. Mentally practice the skills you need in order to
succeed while also building a positive image of your
effectiveness. When you can visualize or imagine
yourself succeeding in a group and you can maintain a
relaxed state at the same time, you will have broken
your fearful response to communicating in groups.
Subscores
Group Discussions Meetings Interpersonal Conversations
Public Speaking
To obtain your total score for the PRCA, add your four
subscores together. Your score should be between 24 and 120. If
your score is below 24 or above 120, you
have made a mistake in computing the score. Scores for each of
the four contexts (groups, meetings, interpersonal
conversations, and public speaking) can range
from a low of 6 to a high of 30. Any score above 18 indicates
some degree of apprehension. For example, if your score is
above 18 for the public speaking context,

you are like the overwhelming majority of Americans who
experience some communication apprehension.
U.S. Norms for PRCA-24
Mean Standard Deviation
Total Score 65.5 15.3
Group 15.4 4.8
Meetings 16.4 4.8
Interpersonal 14.5 4.2
Public Speaking 19.3 5.1
The above scores represent U.S. norms. Various studies have
compared CA scores in the United States to those in other
cultures. Countries with levels of communication
apprehension higher than the United States include China,
Micronesia, Japan, New Zealand, Russia and Taiwan. The
following countries have scores lower than those in
the United States: Australia, South Korea, and Puerto Rico.
Some countries scores were similar to the United States:

Argentina, Finland, and Sweden.
Virginia P. Richmond, Jason S. Wrench, and James C.
McCroskey, Communication: Apprehension, Avoidance, and
Effectiveness, 6th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson,
2013), pp. 50-60.
48 Chapter 3
Unlike the depiction in this photograph, communication
apprehension is rarely visible to listeners. It can, however, have
a
significant effect on group effectiveness because highly
apprehensive
members may be reluctant to participate in group discussions.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT

Communication Apprehension
In light of what you’ve read about helping members feel more
confident about communication in groups, identify several
strategies
to alleviate communication anxiety. How might they backfire
and
make the problem worse?
3.3.3: Strategies for Helping
Apprehensive Members
Effective groups learn to both support members who expe-
rience high levels of communication apprehension (high
apprehensives) and tactfully curb those with low levels of
apprehension (low apprehensives) who may talk too much
or are oblivious to how other members feel about speak-
ing. If your PRCA score classifies you as a low apprehen-
sive, this puts you in a position to help the more
apprehensive group members. Three strategies may help
reduce other members’ level of communication apprehen-
sion: supportive and constructive feedback, encourage-
ment and inclusion, and allowing others to speak.
PROvIde suPPORTIve ANd cONsTRucTIve Feed-

bAck All group members work more effectively when
they receive supportive feedback. When apprehensive
group members are speaking, smile and nod, listen patiently,
and don’t interrupt or let other members interrupt them.
Sometimes, however, feedback must address a problem. For
example, say that your group is supposed to develop a plan
for raising scholarship funds, but the members have spent
the last fifteen minutes complaining about the high cost of
textbooks. Here, you should provide constructive feedback
as you describe your own feelings, thoughts, and wants:
• “I’m confused.” (feeling)
• “We’ve discussed several interesting fundraising
ideas, but we’re getting side-tracked.” (thought)
• “Let’s review the group’s goal.” (want)
Expressing feedback constructively can increase your own
credibility and other members’ confidence while also mov-
ing the group forward.
eNcOuRAge ANd INclude ANxIOus MeMbeRs
Patience and understanding alone may not be enough to
encourage a member who is too anxious to join in a discus-

sion. Encouraging apprehensive members to speak up con-
tributes to the group’s overall success because quiet
members often have important information and good
ideas.39 However, there are both effective and counterpro-
ductive ways to include someone. Confronting a reluctant
speaker with a direct challenge—such as, “Why in the world
do you disagree with the rest of us?”—is not very helpful.
It’s much more effective to ask a question that you know the
apprehensive person is able to answer, such as, “Could you
explain why you disagree?”
sTOP TAlkINg Finally, the most obvious thing you can
do to help those who have difficulty participating is to
stop talking. If you know that other members have diffi-
culty entering the discussion or interrupting someone
who is speaking, curb your own comments so that others
have a chance to contribute. Keep a careful eye on less-
than- confident participants. Often you will see members
take a breath as though they want to speak, only to be sti-
fled by your continued comments or by the comments of
others. When that happens, conclude your remarks and
give that person an opportunity to speak: “Just one moment,
Jill, but I think Alex has something to say about this.”

3.4: Member Assertiveness
3.4 list the benefits and skills characteristic of
effective assertiveness
Assertiveness—speaking up and acting in your own best
interests without denying the rights and interests of
others40—has the potential to enhance the confidence
Group Assessment Assertiveness Scale41
Some group members are very comfortable expressing their
feelings and opinions, speaking up for their own rights and the
rights of others, and acting on their
own behalf and in the group’s best interests. Assertiveness is
not measured by whether you get what you want. Instead, it’s a
way of deciding what to say and
how to behave that balances individual and group goals.
Directions: Indicate the behavior to which each statement
applies by selecting “I usually act this way” or “I rarely act this
way” for each statement.

Interpretation of Results: If most of your check marks are in the
“I usually act this way” column, you perceive yourself as highly
assertive. If most of your
check marks are in the “I rarely act this way” column, you may
have a lot to gain by becoming more assertive. As a reality
check, ask some friends, colleagues,
or group members with whom you’ve worked or played, whether
they agree with your assessment.
and effectiveness of a group and its members. When
expressed appropriately, assertive communication can
also raise your level of confidence and reduce commu-
nication apprehension.
Assertive group members are confident; they stand up
for themselves while interacting with others to achieve a
group goal. They get along well with other members, are
usually relaxed (as opposed to stressed) because they know
how to handle most situations reasonably well, focus on
the present rather than on past complaints or disappoint-
ments, and are confident about themselves and respectful
of others.42 So, how assertive are you? Complete the Asser-
tiveness Scale to find out.

3.4.1: Balancing Passivity
and Aggression
As previously noted, when members lack the will or skill
to behave assertively, they may behave passively.
• Passivity is nonassertive behavior characterized by a
lack of confidence and/or a reluctance to express opin-
ions and feelings. Passive members may experience
high levels of communication apprehension, fear criti-
cism from others, have unmet inclusion needs, and do
what they’re told to do, even when they disagree with
or dislike the request. They are rarely satisfied with
their group experiences because they feel powerless
and put-upon.
• Aggressiveness is critical, insensitive, combative, or
abusive behavior that is motivated by self-interest at
the expense of others. Aggressive members get what
they want by taking over or by bullying other mem-
bers into submission. As a consequence, they are
often disliked and disrespected. In many cases,
aggressive members behave this way because their
needs for inclusion, control, and/or affection are not
met, or they may not know how to express them-

selves assertively.
In some cases, passivity and aggression combine
to create a third type of behavior:
• Passive-aggressive behavior is uncooperative and
obstructive behavior that appears to be cooperative.
Passive-aggressive individuals rarely exhibit aggressive
behavior, even though they lack respect for the rights of
50 Chapter 3
others. They also may appear confident rather than pas-
sive because they speak up and contribute. However,
beneath the façade of effective participation lies a poten-
tially destructive member. Passive-aggressive members
often get their way by undermining other members
behind their backs, by behaving cooperatively but
rarely following through with promised contributions,
and by appearing to agree while privately planning an
opposite action. For example, a passive-aggressive
member may volunteer to work on a subcommittee, but
fail to do the work. Another may appear to handle criti-

cism calmly, but then spread vicious rumors about the
person who was critical.
The graph in Figure 3.6 demonstrates how group effec-
tiveness is related to member assertiveness.43 Group mem-
ber effectiveness increases as you move from passivity to
assertiveness, and then decreases as you move beyond
assertiveness to aggressiveness.
Passive Assertive
Member Assertiveness
Aggressive
Figure 3.6 Group Effectiveness and Member
Assertiveness
3.4.2: Assertiveness Skills
Regardless of how assertive you think you are, you can
always improve your assertiveness skills. Building
assertiveness skills incrementally can help you and the
other members of your group increase confidence while
reducing social tensions. The following list includes
both simple and complex skills for enhancing your
assertiveness:

• Devote a significant amount of time to preparing for
group meetings.
• Enlist an assertive colleague who will make sure
that you are recognized and given time to speak at
meetings.
• Express your opinions clearly. Don’t talk around the
issue or ramble.
• Establish and maintain direct eye contact with indi-
vidual group members.
• Assume an assertive body posture. Your body should
be alert and focused in the direction of other speakers.
• Express your feelings as well as your thoughts. If you
let group members see your emotions, your recom-
mendations may be taken more seriously.
• Speak expressively—use volume, pitch, and rate to
help your statements stand out.
Assertive group members reap many rewards. Gen-

erally, they are more satisfied with and proud of the
work they do in groups. They are also more likely to
become group leaders. Because assertive members
respect the rights of others, they are well liked. There is
much to be gained from exhibiting assertive behavior in
groups, and first among those benefits is increased confi-
dence. Figure 3.7 illustrates the need for balance among
all of the factors involved in group membership dis-
cussed in this chapter.
someone. But what if you want to say no? Fortunately, you can
use several communication strategies and skills to say no:
• Use assertive body posture. If you say no with your
words, but signal maybe with your body, people will
believe that you can be persuaded to do what they want.
• Choose your words carefully. Use a clear statement,
such as, “No, I’m not willing to do that,” rather than, “Gee,
I’m not sure . . . maybe another time.”
• Don’t apologize or make excuses. Unless an apology
is necessary, minimize statements such as, “I’m sorry,
but I can’t . . . ” or “I wish I could, but. . . .”

• Don’t ask permission to say no. Avoid saying, “Would it
be okay if I didn’t . . . ?” or, “Will you be upset if I say no?”
• Accept the consequences. Just as you have the right
to say no, others have the right not to like it.46
Know When and How
to Say No
Knowing when and how to say no effectively is one of the most
basic assertiveness skills, but it is also among the most
difficult.
Randy Paterson, author of The Assertiveness Workbook, puts it
this way: “If you cannot say no, you are not in charge of your
own life.”44 Why, then, do so many people believe that if some-
one asks them to do something, they have to do it? Several
widespread beliefs prevent a passive person from saying no:
• They won’t accept my no and will expect me to do it anyway.
• They won’t accept or like me if I say no.
• Given our relationship, I don’t have the right or the cour-
age to say no.45

Think of it this way: If someone said, “Can I have your
car?” you’d refuse, wouldn’t you? What about, “Would you
write the group’s paper and put everyone’s name on it?” or,
“Can the group meet at your house on Sunday?”
Certainly, there’s nothing wrong with saying yes when the
request is reasonable and you want to do it or you want to help
High Need for Inclusion,
Control, and Affection
Task Roles
High Communication
Apprehesion
Assertiveness
Low Need for Inclusion,
Control, and Affection

Social Maintenance Roles
Low Communication
Apprehesion
Passivity; Aggressiveness
Figure 3.7 Balancing Factors Affecting Group
Membership
Ethics in Groups
Managing Manipulators
Learning Objective: Explain the ethical implications of
manipulative behavior, and describe strategies for responding to
such behavior.
In the context of groups, manipulators are group members
who skillfully, but unethically, influence and control others to
their own advantage in an unfair, dishonest, or deceitful
manner. For example, let’s assume you have a high control
need and that your experience and personality traits make
you well suited for a leadership role you prize. By putting
aside the rights and needs of group members, you enlist
what you know about each member to get the position you

want, rather than what your group needs. If you know that
some members have high inclusion needs, you may praise
and reward them well beyond what they deserve so they
feel accepted and valued. If others are highly apprehensive
or reluctant to take on highly visible roles that require asser-
tiveness, you may consign them to thankless or routine
jobs. In these cases, you intentionally deceived some mem-
bers and removed other, potentially talented members from
contributing in a meaningful way in order to achieve your
own selfish goal.
The National Communication Association’s Credo for Eth-
ical Communication calls for a commitment to the “courageous
expression of personal conviction in pursuit of fairness and jus-
tice.”47 Ethical group members have an obligation to assert
themselves, not only to pursue their own goals, but also to pre-
vent unjust or unethical behavior by others. For instance, the
members of a medical team must have the courage to speak
up if they believe that a patient is being given the wrong treat-
ment. Whether your group is deciding how to trim a budget,
determining the best candidate to hire, or developing a market-
ing campaign, each group member has the responsibility to act
assertively by expressing opposition to unethical group behav-
ior and decisions.

Fortunately, the skillful use of assertiveness strategies can
help you say no to such unethical behavior. Here are several
strategies for dealing with a group member whose self-centered
behavior seeks to manipulate others:
• Distance yourself emotionally when dealing with the
manipulator’s comments and behaviors. Use logic instead
of emotion when responding.
• Challenge dishonest statements. Call out rudeness,
offensive behavior, and unethical behavior.
• Agree to disagree and/or change the subject.
• Stand firm. Be prepared to repeat yourself many times
until the manipulator gets the point.
• Enlist other group members to back you up when you take a
stand, and back them up when they confront a manipulator.
Summary: Group Member Participation
3.1: Group Member Needs
• Schutz’s FIRO Theory identifies three interpersonal

needs (inclusion, control, and affection) that affect
member behavior and group effectiveness.
• A social member’s inclusion needs are met; underso-
cial or oversocial behavior may indicate that a mem-
ber’s inclusion needs are not met.
• A democratic member’s control needs are met; control
needs may not be met when members behave as abdi-
crats or autocrats.
• A personal member’s affection needs are met; under-
personal or overpersonal behavior may indicate that a
member’s affection needs are not met.
3.2: Member Roles
• When a group member exhibits a unique set of skills
or behavior patterns that serve specific functions
within the group, that member has assumed a role.
• Group task roles focus on behaviors that enable a group
to get the job done. The task roles are coordinator,

52 Chapter 3
information provider, opinion provider, questioner,
clarifier, analyzer, and implementer.
• Group social maintenance roles affect how group
members get along with each other. The social mainte-
nance roles are harmonizer, motivator, supporter, gate-
keeper, and team builder.
• Belbin’s Team-Role Theory claims that members seek
out roles that are most natural to them—those that are
compatible with their personal characteristics and
skills.
• Disruptive behavior distracts the group from its goal.
Common types of disruptive members include the
dominator, obstructionist, attacker, egoist, support
seeker, and nonparticipant.
3.3: Member Confidence
• Communication apprehension is an individual’s
level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or

anticipated communication with another person or
persons.
• The following strategies can help reduce communica-
tion apprehension: know that you are not alone, be
well prepared, learn communication skills, relax phys-
ically, think positively (cognitive restructuring), and
visualize success.
• The following strategies can help others reduce their
level of communication apprehension: provide sup-
portive and constructive feedback, encourage and
include anxious members, and stop talking.
3.4: Member Assertiveness
• Assertiveness—speaking up and acting in your own
best interests without denying the rights and interests
of others—has the potential to enhance the confidence
and effectiveness of a group and its members.
• Assertive group members know when and how to say
“no” as well as when and how to manage manipulators.
• Effective assertiveness seeks a balance between passivity

and aggression, and avoids passive-aggressive behavior.
ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: TaMING TONy The TIGeR
How can Tony curb his demanding and judgmental reactions
with a more patient and collaborative communication style?
How
can he recapture his commitment to group work?
chapter 3 Quiz: group Member Participation
class discussion.

53
4.5 Explain how gender can affect group norms,
roles, leadership, and goal achievement
4.6 List specific strategies to enhance group
communication among members from
different generations
4.7 Explain the importance of understanding,
respecting, and adapting to group members
with different religious beliefs and practices
4.8 Apply specific communication strategies to
understand and react appropriately to
diversity in groups
4.1 Explain why member diversity can enhance
the quality of group deliberation and
outcomes

4.2 Give examples that clearly differentiate the
meanings of ethnocentrism, stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination
4.3 Explain how personality differences among
members can enhance group effectiveness
4.4 Describe how the paired characteristics
of five cultural dimensions affect group
communication
Learning Objectives
Chapter 4
Diversity in Groups
Member diversity helps groups make better decisions because
diversity adds a wider range of perspectives.
54 Chapter 4

After you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to
answer
1. How can group member diversity help or hinder the Missing
Kids organization’s ability to achieve its goals?
2. Wanda and Wayne have focused on race and ethnicity in
looking for board members. What other cultural and personal
dimensions should they consider?
3. What strategies should Wanda and Wayne use to recruit
qualified diverse members to the governing board more
effectively?
4. How do you think the predominantly white male governing
board will respond if Wanda and Wayne recommend a list
of new board members with no white males? How would
you respond?
4.1: The Value of Group
Diversity
4.1 Explain why member diversity can enhance the
quality of group deliberation and outcomes

Every person on this Earth—and thus every member of a
group—is different. Even identical twins have different
experiences as well as different characteristics, abilities,
and beliefs. Think about the many ways in which you dif-
fer from others by asking yourself the following questions:
• Where did you grow up, and how did that influence
who you are now?
• What aspects of your culture do you value and would
not give up?
• Which of your physical characteristics do you like?
Are there any that you dislike?
• What are your interpersonal, intellectual, and physical
skills?
Your answers to these questions reflect who you are
and how you differ from other group members. These dif-
ferences are not trivial. Your success, and that of your
group, depends on your ability to handle the inevitable
dialectic tensions that arise in diverse groups.

At the same time—and regardless of your culture,
nationality, gender, religion, age, and abilities—you
share more similarities than differences with others.
According to the Institute for Global Ethics, eight core
values transcend individual cultures and personal dif-
ferences throughout the world: love, truthfulness, fair-
ness, freedom, unity, tolerance, responsibility, and
respect.1 Remember that all of us smile when we’re
happy, blush when we’re embarrassed, and cry when
we’re sad or in pain.
Case Study: Diversity
Dilemma
Missing Kids is a charitable organization started by a
group of grandfathers who wanted to help children who
slip through the cracks in social service programs. The
board has raised millions of dollars supporting a variety
of initiatives, including college scholarships for impover-
ished kids who earn good grades in high school, special
mobile clinics that provide free medical checkups, and
houses for single parents and children who have been the
victims of abuse.
After two decades of good work, many of the original
organizers have left or will soon be leaving the governing

board. As current board members and co-chairs of the
nominating committee, Wanda and Wayne have been
asked to review the charity’s major donors and recommend
replacements.
Wanda and Wayne are proud of the charity and its
achievements, and they enjoy working with a dedicated
group of board members. However, the original officers
and board members were all white males. Because the
children served by the charity are much more diverse,
Wanda and Wayne have been asked to seek greater diver-
sity among potential board members. The co-chairs have
been diligent in their research. They’ve read that diverse
groups are often more effective than homogenous groups,
but homogeneous group members may get along better
because they are comfortable with people who are similar.
Most of the Missing Kids donors are also white, because
board members sought donations from friends and people
they knew well.
After coming up with only a few names in their
search for new board members, Wanda and Wayne make
a list of several non-white people they know. Wanda rec-
ommends an African American woman who works for
the agency that provides volunteer doctors and nurses

for the mobile clinic. Wayne knows a Latino man and an
Asian woman at his accounting firm who might be will-
ing to join. Wanda strongly recommends nominating
more women. Wayne counters that they already have a
few women on the board and should be looking for mem-
bers from different racial and ethnic groups, regardless of
gender.
The co-chairs soon realize that in addition to focus-
ing on diversity, they must consider whether candidates
can assume needed roles on the board and whether they
have the potential to contribute innovative ideas, valu-
able insights, and relevant expertise. Equally important,
Wanda and Wayne need to think about how the long-
serving, older white board members will get along with
the newcomers.
Diversity in Groups 55
4.1.2: Homogeneous and
Heterogeneous Groups
A homogeneous group is composed of members who are
the same or very similar to one another; a heterogeneous

group is composed of members who are different from one
another. Successful groups balance member similarities
and differences in skills, roles, personal characteristics, and
cultural perspectives.
Group researchers are unanimous in their advocacy
for heterogeneous groups. Member diversity helps groups
make better decisions because it “adds perspectives that
would otherwise be absent.”5 When group members are
too much alike, they find it harder to keep learning
because each member brings less and less new informa-
tion to the table.6 Member diversity enhances a group’s
ability to generate more potential solutions to problems,
challenge ideas, perform a wider range of critical roles,
avoid groupthink, and increase creativity and effective-
ness.7 In work contexts, “The worst kind of group for an
organization that wants to be innovative and creative is
one in which everyone is alike and gets along too well.”8
Successful groups effectively manage the homogeneous m
heterogeneous dialectic.
In addition to differences in members’ cultures, a
concept known as deep diversity describes member
characteristics that are difficult to observe, such as the
knowledge, skills, and abilities related to the demands of

a group’s task.9 Members of deeply diverse and hetero-
geneous groups expand the range of possible solutions to
a problem; in contrast, homogeneous groups narrow the
range of solutions they are likely to consider.10 Deeply
diverse groups tend to perform better than the very best
member of the group working alone. Deep diversity also
promotes synergy, which enhances group productivity.11
Despite all of the advantages of diversity in groups,
don’t assume that all homogeneous groups should be
transformed into highly diverse groups. In some circum-
stances, a homogeneous group of all women (a rape victim
4.1.1: Culture and Diversity
Before going any further, we need to define the terms cul-
ture and diversity. Culture is “a learned set of shared inter-
pretations about beliefs, values, and norms which affect the
behaviors of a relatively large group of people.”2 Within
most cultures, there are also groups of people—members of
co-cultures—who coexist within the mainstream society
yet remain connected to one another through their cultural
heritage.3 In the United States, Native American tribes are
co-cultures, as are African Americans, Hispanic/Latino
Americans, Asian Americans, Arab Americans, Irish Ameri-
cans, and members of large and small religious groups.

Given our broad definition of culture, a Nebraska rancher
and a Boston professor can have different cultural perspec-
tives, as can native Brazilians, Indonesian Muslims, and
members of the Chippewa tribe.
Now let’s compare the notion of culture to a broader
concept: diversity. Diversity describes more than a person’s
country of origin, skin color, or ethnic heritage. When dis-
cussing group communication, we use the term diversity
in its most general sense—the quality of being different. In
every group, you will work with members whose physical
characteristics, status, traits, values, and attitudes are dif-
ferent from yours. These distinctive characteristics include
age, occupation, physical ability, marital status, personality
preferences, and much more.
Figure 4.1 illustrates three layers of diversity within
every group member: core personality, internal dimen-
sions, and external dimensions.4
Personality
Race Age
Ethnicity Gender

Physical
Ability
Sexual
Orientation
Mental
Ability
Cultural
Dimensions
Inte
rnal Dimensions
Extern
al Dimensions
IncomePolitical
Orientation
Marital
Status

Family
Status
Appearance Recreational
Habits
Educational
Background
Work
Experience
Religion
Personal
Habits
Geographic
Location
Figure 4.1 Three Layers of Diversity
your instructor.

Submit
WRITING PROMPT
The Value of Group Diversity
Nour is a shy, Muslim high school student with an interest in
music.
She lives with her parents in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Adam is an
ener-
getic, politically liberal elementary school teacher. Recently, he
and
his wife have converted from Catholicism to Buddhism. In
which of
the three layers would you put each of Nour and Ben’s diversity
characteristics? Explain your answers.
56 Chapter 4
4.2: Obstacles to
Understanding Others
4.2 Give examples that clearly differentiate the

meanings of ethnocentrism, stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination
Effective groups welcome a variety of opinions and use
multiple strategies and skills for collaborating with mem-
bers from diverse backgrounds. Something as simple as
seeking, accepting, and respecting the differences among
group members will generally make a group and its mem-
bers more effective. At the same time, groups should reject
four common barriers that prevent diverse members from
interacting productively: ethnocentrism, stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination (Table 4.1).
4.2.1: Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a mistaken belief that your culture is a
superior culture, with special rights and privileges that are
or should be denied to others. Ethnocentrism is not the
same as patriotism. An ethnocentric communicator
believes the following:
• My culture should be the role model for other
cultures.
• People would be happier if they lived like people in

my culture.
• Most other cultures are backward when compared
with my culture.
support group), all members more than 40 years old (a
retirement planning group), or all Latino/Latina members
(a highly focused political action group) may be exactly
what is required to achieve a specific goal. However, het-
erogeneous groups may fail if members are chosen as token
representatives of a race, ethnic group, generation, or reli-
gion in order to do nothing more than be able to claim that
a group is diverse.12 A commitment to group diversity is
not an acceptance of political correctness; a truly diverse
group offers powerful advantages essential to achieving
common goals.
Homogeneous
Groups
Heterogeneous
Groups
Figure 4.2 Balancing Homogeneous Groups and
Heterogeneous Groups

Based on the description you just read, can you identify
examples
of a homogeneous and heterogeneous group?
Seek Intellectual Diversity
Let’s assume that you belong to a group whose members
boast a higher-than-average IQ. You’re eager and ready to roll
because your group is so brilliant! There’s just one problem:
Smart groups do not always make smart decisions. Before you
conclude that your group should look for a balance of both
smart and dumb members, stop! Instead, your group should
look for a balance of both smart, well-informed members and
members with needed skills and diverse points of view.
The concept of collective intelligence is a phenom-
enon in which “smart” groups are more likely to succeed
when members are sensitive to one another’s feelings, par-
ticipate equally, and include female members. This concept
emphasizes that a group of members with very high IQs
may not be a smart group. If members do not recognize and
are not sensitive to others’ feelings, if they do not encourage
or allow equal contributions by all members, and if the
members are all men, the group may be much less “intelli-

gent” than groups that have one or more of those three
characteristics.
Scott Page, a political scientist at the University of Michi-
gan who studies group characteristics, member intelligence,
and problem solving, describes the nature of intellectual diver-
sity in groups as follows:
On the group level, intelligence alone is not enough, because
intelligence alone cannot guarantee you different perspectives
on
a problem. . . . Grouping only smart people together doesn’t
work
that well because the smart people (whatever that means) tend
to
resemble each other in what they can do. . . . Adding in a few
people who know less, but have different skills, can improve the
group’s performance.13
Think about the many intelligent people on a U.S. presi-
dent’s staff—and then consider the terrible consequences of
poor White House decisions such as the failed U.S. invasion of
Cuba in 1961, the inexcusable Watergate conspiracy during
the 1972 presidential election campaign, and the ill-advised

2002 decision to go to war in Iraq. Then think about the well-
educated, intelligent people who run U.S. corporations and
consider some of their appalling decisions—from denying the
manufacture of defective products and condoning dishonest
accounting to ignoring warnings about the imminent economic
collapse and resulting 2008 recession. In addition to lacking
collective intelligence, these groups may also succumb to
groupthink, a phenomenon in which the deterioration of
group effectiveness and moral judgment results from in-group
pressure. As noted in Chapter 8, it takes a lot more than col-
lective geniuses to avoid poor decision making.
seem harmful, they can lead to unfair judgments. Stereo-
typing other group members does more than derail
progress; it prevents members from contributing their
best skills and may create long-lasting resentment and
anger.
4.2.3: Prejudice
Stereotyping leads to prejudice—“negative attitudes
about other people that are based on faulty and inflexi-

ble stereotypes.”15 Prejudices often arise when someone
has little or no direct experience with a cultural group.
The word prejudice has two parts: pre-, meaning “before,”
and -judice, meaning “judge.” When you believe or
express a prejudice, you are making a judgment about
someone before you have taken time to get to know that
person and see whether your opinions and feelings are
justified.
Although some prejudices may seem positive—“He
must be brilliant since he went to Yale”—the result can be
negative for those who do not conform. Statements such
as, “He can’t be brilliant because he only has a community
college degree,” “I don’t want a person with disabilities
working on our group project,” or “I’m not voting for a
pregnant woman to lead this group” are all examples of
prejudices based on stereotypes. Such prejudices have sev-
eral characteristics:
• They rarely are based on extensive direct experience
and firsthand knowledge.
• They result in irrational feelings or dislike and even
hatred for certain groups.

• They justify a readiness to behave in negative and
unjust ways toward members of the group.16
4.2.4: Discrimination
Discrimination refers to acting out and expressing preju-
dice by excluding groups of people from the opportuni-
ties and rights granted to others. Examples of such
opportunities and rights are found in areas such as
employment, promotion, housing, political expression,
and equal rights.
Sadly, discrimination comes in many forms: racial, eth-
nic, religious, and gender discrimination; sexual harass-
ment; discrimination based on sexual orientation, disability,
or age; and discrimination against people from different
social classes and with different political ideologies. Dis-
crimination has no place in groups.
Table 4.2 illustrates how ethnocentrism, stereotyp-
ing, prejudice, and discrimination are frequently
expressed when talking about race, nationality, gender,
and religion.
4.2.2: Stereotyping
A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people

that oversimplifies their characteristics and results in erro-
neous judgments about the entire group of people.
Depending on the observers, stereotypes about white
Americans can be silly (“Whites can’t dance or play basket-
ball”) or severe (“Most whites are cold, dishonest, greedy,
and racist”).14
When we stereotype others, we rely on exaggerated
beliefs to make judgments. Unfortunately, stereotyping
usually attributes negative traits to an entire group when,
in reality, only a few people in that group may possess
those traits. Even today, African Americans may be stereo-
typed as lazy and loud; Jews may be stereotyped as shrewd
and greedy.
Stereotypes do not have to be negative; there are
positive stereotypes, such as, “Asian students excel in
math and science” and “Females are more compassionate
than males.” Although positive stereotypes may not
Table 4.1 Barriers to Working in Diverse Groups
Barrier Definition Example
Ethnocentrism A mistaken belief that
your culture is a superior

culture with special
rights and privileges that
are or should be denied
to others
“We need an engineer
with good ol’ American
know-how!”
Stereotyping A generalization about a
group of people that
oversimplifies their char-
acteristics and results in
erroneous judgments
about the entire group
of people
“Let’s appoint Sharon to
take minutes because
women are better at
secretarial tasks.”
Prejudice A preconceived attitude
about other people based
on faulty and inflexible

stereotypes
“What would it look like if
we made William the
public spokesperson of
our organization? He
never finished college.”
Discrimination Acting out and expressing
prejudice by excluding
groups of people from the
opportunities and rights
granted to others
“Let’s not ask anyone
older than 50 to join our
technology work team.”
Ethnocentric group members offend others when
they imply that they represent a superior culture with
superior values. For example, have you ever been
insulted by someone who implies that because of her
religious beliefs, she can go to heaven and you cannot?
Have you been insulted by someone who believes that
his culture’s traditions, language, or even music prefer-

ences are better than yours? If so, you have seen ethno-
centrism in action.
58 Chapter 4
Not surprisingly, high levels of two Big Five Personality
Traits—agreeableness and emotional stability—are associ-
ated with group cohesiveness and sociability, whereas a
third trait—conscientiousness—is associated with task per-
formance. After all, who would choose or want to work with
members who were disagreeable, neurotic, and careless?
At the same time, groups benefit by having introverted
members who take time to think through ideas as well as
“Closed to Experience” members who recognize the value
of putting imagination and curiosity aside when the group
must make an emergency decision.
4.3.2: The Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator®
In addition to the Big Five Personality Traits, a second per-
sonality model demonstrates why and how group mem-

bers react to group tasks and social interactions in different
ways. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)18 is a
widely used inventory that identifies specific personality
types based on the ways in which people perceive the
world around them and make judgments. The MBTI looks
at the different ways in which “people prefer to use their
minds, specifically, the way they perceive and the way they
make judgments.”19 Thousands of corporations, including
most Fortune 100 companies, use the MBTI “to identify job
applicants whose skills match those of their top perform-
ers” and “to develop communication skills and promote
teamwork among current employees.”20
According to the MBTI, all of us have preferences of
thought and behavior that fall into four categories, with
two opposite preferences in each category. As you read
about the following traits, ask yourself which preferences
best describe your personality.
ExTrovErT–InTrovErT These two traits describe
where you like to focus your attention. An extrovert21
focuses outward; an introvert focuses inward.
Extrovert is a Myers-Brigs personality type who is out-
going, usually talks more than others, and is often enthusi-

astic and animated during a discussion.
4.3: Personality Dimensions
4.3 Explain how personality differences among
members can enhance group effectiveness
How would you answer the following question: Do mem-
bers’ personalities affect group productivity and member
satisfaction? Anyone who has ever worked in a group
knows the answer: Of course they do. We define personality
as a consistent set of relatively permanent traits that influ-
ence how we think, feel, and behave in a variety of contexts.
Depending on the circumstances, these traits can help or
hinder a group’s progress toward a common goal. Under-
standing personality theories helps a group balance its col-
lection of diverse temperaments, traits, and talents.
4.3.1: The Big Five Personality Traits
Psychologists use the Big Five Personality Traits to
describe five factors (extroversion, agreeableness, consci-
entiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experi-
ence) that, taken together, constitute a personality. Like
many of the group dimensions discussed in this textbook,
personality traits have a dialectic perspective as well.

Consider the five personality traits and their opposites
in Table 4.3.17
Table 4.2 Obstacles to Understanding Others
Ethnocentrism Stereotyping Prejudice Discrimination
Race Most important discoveries were
made by white Europeans.
Latinos are very emotional. Colored people live on welfare
because they don’t want to
work.
I won’t hire a white person as
spokesperson for our cause.
Nationality The U.S. is the best country in
the world.
Japanese people are very polite. I dislike Oriental markets
because
they cheat their customers.
I won’t go to Indian restaurants.

Gender My gender is more realistic and
smarter than the other gender.
Men are good at home repairs;
women are good at home
decorating.
I prefer working for male
supervisors.
I won’t hire women because if they
get pregnant, it will disrupt work
and cost us additional sick leave.
Religion My faith is the one and only true
religion.
Catholics are unquestioning in
their obedience to the Pope.
If she’s an atheist, she’s not a
decent or moral person.
I will fight against letting a Muslim

Mosque be built here.
Table 4.3 The Big Five Personality Traits
Big Five
Personality Traits
Characteristics
Associated with Big
Five Personality Traits
Opposite
Personality Traits
Extroversion Outgoing, talkative, socia-
ble, assertive, active
Introversion
Agreeableness Cooperative, friendly,
courteous, flexible, trusting,
good-natured, tolerant
Disagreeableness

Conscientiousness Self-disciplined, organized,
thorough, responsible,
hard-working, persevering
Carelessness
Emotional Stability Calm, poised, secure Neuroticism
Openness to
Experience
Imaginative, curious,
broadminded, intelligent,
original, artistically sensitive
Closed to Experience
Introvert is a Myers-Briggs personality type who
needs time to think before speaking and who may prefer to
work alone rather than in a group.

Figure 4.3 lists the characteristics of and differences
between extroverts and introverts.
• Outgoing, sociable, expressive
• Enjoys groups and discussions
• Talks first, then thinks
• Thinks out loud
• May dominate discussion
• Gets energy from being with
others
Extrovert Introvert
• Reserved, private, contained
• Prefers one-on-one interactions
• Thinks first, then talks
• Thinks to himself or herself
• May speak less in discussion
• Needs time alone to reenergize
Figure 4.3 Characteristics of Extroverts and Introverts
An extrovert usually likes working in groups and on
committees, but an introvert may prefer a solo assignment.
Introverts need more time to think before they speak or act.

A group may miss good ideas and needed analysis if it
rushes into solutions proposed by enthusiastic extroverts.
Value Both Introverts
and Extroverts
Misunderstandings between extroverts and introverts are
common in groups. “Extroverts complain that introverts don’t
speak up in meetings. Introverts criticize extroverts for talking
too much and not listening well.”22 Effective groups balance
the needs of both personality types by accommodating the
differences in communication style and tapping the best ideas
from all members.
In The Introvert Advantage: How to Thrive in an Extro-
vert World, psychologist Marti Olsen Laney writes that
“introverts are often surprised when they are not valued for
their considerable contributions” to a group, in part because
they don’t speak up. They also “find it hard to both absorb
all the information and formulate an opinion about it. They
need time away from meetings to sift and sort data.” Some
introverts can become “brain locked” because they can’t
find the right words to express their meaning.23 Yet intro-
verts, rather than extroverts, are more likely to assume
important group roles such as clarifier, analyzer, imple-

menter, and supporter.
Introverts can use several strategies to enhance their
value and contributions by demonstrating they are particularly
skilled and wholeheartedly involved in a group and its work.
• Say hello and smile when you enter a meeting room.
• Don’t schedule too many meetings on the same day.
• Before attending a meeting, write down some of the
comments and questions you want to share with group
members. Take notes during a meeting to help you focus
your thoughts and avoid information overload.
• Nod your head, smile, and use eye contact to let others
know you are listening.
• By listening carefully to what members say, particularly if an
issue is controversial or causing conflict, you can enhance
your value to the group by helping to clarify, analyze, or
summarize what you’ve heard during the discussion
• Let members know that you will continue to think about
an issue and get back to them with a reaction.24

Now let’s examine how the extroverts in a group can help
introverted members maximize their contributions and value.
Begin by imagining that introverts such as Abraham Lincoln,
Albert Einstein, J.K. Rowling, Bill Gates, and Mahatma Gandhi
are members of your group. Wouldn’t you want to hear what
they have to say? Here are a few strategies extroverts can use
to encourage participation by introverts and let them know
they are valued:
• Spend time, one-on-one, getting to know members who
are introverts.
• Monitor your own talk and stop talking if you see or sense
that an introvert wants to contribute or looks frustrated.
• Give introverts time and space to think before asking
them to respond or contribute.
• Consider short breaks in long meetings so introverts can
leave the room, get away from the group, and recharge
their “batteries.”
• Recognize and praise introverts for their contributions.25

your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Value Both Introverts and Extroverts
Based on your reading, are you primarily an extrovert or an
introvert?
How does this trait affect the way you communicate with others
and
work in groups?
SenSor–IntuItIve These two traits focus on how you
look at the world around you—whether you see the forest
or the trees. Sensor is a Myers-Briggs personality type who
focuses on details and prefers to concentrate on one task at
a time. A sensor sees the trees, and likes facts and details.
Intuitive is a Myers-Briggs personality type who likes to
make connections and formulate big ideas but who may
become bored with details. An intuitive sees the forest, and
prefers the big picture. Figure 4.4 compares the characteris-

tics of sensors and intuitives.
60 Chapter 4
JuDGEr–PErCEIvEr The last two traits focus on how
you deal with the outer world and its problems. Judger is
a Myers-Briggs personal type who is highly structured
and likes to plan ahead. Judgers are well organized, fol-
low lengthy to-do lists, and look for closure. They are
very punctual and can become impatient with people
who show up late or waste time. Perceiver is a Myers-
Briggs personality type who is less rigid about deadlines
and time constraints and who is flexible and willing to try
new options. Perceivers like open-endedness and view
being on time as less important than being adaptable;
they are often the group’s risk takers. However, they often
procrastinate and end up in a frenzy to complete a task on
time. Figure 4.6 compares the characteristics of judgers
and perceivers.
Sensors and intuitives often see things quite differ-
ently. Sensors like rules, systematic explanations, and
detailed facts, but intuitives prefer theoretical models and

often avoid rules and details.26 Communication between
sensors and intuitives can be difficult “because they see
things so differently, and each believes that [their] informa-
tion is more accurate, valid, and real.”27
Groups need both kinds of members to function effec-
tively and efficiently. Researchers Carl Larson and Frank
LaFasto provide the following example:
“In the construction business it’s important to have the
‘big picture’ people who can see the conceptual side of a
project and know when major changes are necessary.
This viewpoint needs to be balanced by people who are
at the job site supervising the very detail-oriented por-
tions of the work. Both are necessary members of a good
project team.”28
ThInkEr–FEElEr These two traits explain how you
make decisions. Thinker is a Myers-Briggs personality type
who takes pride in thinking objectively and making diffi-
cult decisions. Thinkers are task-oriented and logical; they
often enjoy arguing and making difficult decisions and
want to get the job done, even if the cost is bad feelings
among members. Feeler is a Myers-Briggs personality type
who wants everyone to get along and who will spend time

with other group members to achieve harmony. They are
people-oriented members who think with their hearts. Fig-
ure 4.5 compares the characteristics of thinkers and feelers.
When thinkers and feelers work together in groups,
there is the potential for misunderstanding. Thinkers may
appear unemotional and aggressive. Feelers may annoy
thinkers by “wasting” time with social chitchat. Thinkers
should try to remember that what they intend as good
advice may strike others as unkind. Feelers should learn
not to take criticism too personally and to speak up if they
feel they are being treated unfairly.29 When thinkers and
feelers appreciate their differences as decision makers, they
can form an unbeatable team. Although the thinkers make
decisions and move the group forward, feelers make sure
that the group is working harmoniously.
• Focuses on details
• Practical and realistic
• Likes concrete information
• Likes facts
• Trusts experience
• Values common sense
• Likes rules

Sensor Intuitive
• Focuses on the big picture
• Theoretical
• Likes abstract information
• Gets bored with facts and details
• Trusts inspiration and intuition
• Values creativity and innovation
• Likes to bend or break rules
Figure 4.4 Characteristics of Sensors and Intuitives
• Task oriented
• Objective, firm, analytical
• Prefers businesslike meetings
• Values competence, reason
• Direct and firm minded
• Thinks with the head
Thinker Feeler
• People oriented
• Subjective, humane, appreciative
• Prefers social interchange in
meetings

• Values relationships, harmony,
and justice
• Tactful and tenderhearted
• Thinks with the heart
Figure 4.5 Characteristics of Thinkers and Feelers
• Values organization and structure
• In control and definite
• Likes deadlines and is usually
punctual
• Work now/play later
• Needs standards and expectations
• Adjusts schedules to complete
work
Judger Perceiver
• Values flexibility and spontaneity
• Goes with the flow
• Dislikes deadlines and is often late
• Play now/work later
• Feels constrained by rules,
takes risks
• Works at the last minute

Figure 4.6 Characteristics of Judgers and Perceivers
Judgers and perceivers often have difficulty working
together. To a judger, a perceiver may appear “air-
headed” or scatterbrained. To a perceiver, a judger may
appear rigid and controlling. Judgers come prepared to
make decisions and solve problems, but perceivers “aren’t
comfortable with things being ‘decided’; [they] want to
reopen, discuss, rework, argue for the sake of arguing.”30
As difficult as it is for them, judgers should try to stop
“doing” and take time to relax with others. Perceivers
should try to respect deadlines and keep the promises
that they make to judgers.
Diverse Personality traits Most groups benefit
when there is an appropriate mix of personality traits. A
group without judgers or conscientious members may
miss important deadlines and fail to achieve its goal. A
group that lacks members who are open to experience fails
to develop innovative approaches or seek creative solu-

tions. A group without a sensor can overlook important
details or critical flaws in a proposal.
The members of an ideal group would be agreeable, con-
scientious, open to experience, and emotionally stable. They
would represent all eight Myers-Briggs traits—extroverts,
introverts, sensors, intuitives, thinkers, feelers, judgers, and
perceivers—and “would put them together in such a way
that they would not only understand their differences but
could also draw upon them.”31Although it is tempting to
choose members with whom you share personality traits,
your group will perform better with representatives of every
personality trait (Figure 4.7).
Myers-Briggs’
Personality
Traits
Judger
or
Perceiver
Thinker

or
Feeler
Sensor
or
Intuitive
Extrovert
or
Introvert
Figure 4.7 The Diversity of Myers-Briggs Personality Traits
4.3.3: Motivating Personality Types
in Groups
Chandra, an intuitive extrovert, is asked to edit and proof-
read a 50-page report analyzing her company’s hiring pro-
cedures. She tries to do her best, but finds her eyes glazing
over by the time she’s on the second page. Jerome, an intro-
verted sensor, is asked to answer impromptu questions
about hiring problems at a staff meeting. He draws a blank
because he needs time to think over the questions before

answering. Instead of being motivated, Chandra and
Jerome are frustrated. Fortunately, adapting to their per-
sonality types can improve their productivity and personal
satisfaction. Table 4.4 summarizes the many ways in which
different personality types call for different approaches to
motivation.32
Now reconsider the frustrations experienced by Chan-
dra and Jerome and how they may have contributed to
their lack of motivation. One way to engage their unique
talents more effectively is to let them switch tasks so that
Chandra answers impromptu questions about hiring prob-
lems and Jerome edits the report. Understanding the per-
sonality types of group members helps you choose effective
motivational strategies.
Table 4.4 Personality Types and Member Motivation
Type-Based Motivational Strategies
Extrovert
• Encourageinteraction.
• Allowtimefor“talkingout”ideas.
• Providefrequentfeedback.

Introvert
• Setclearandvaluedgoals.
• Providethinkingtimebeforeand
duringdiscussions.
• Provideintrovertsmoreopportu-
nitiestospeak.
Sensor
• Setrealisticgoals.
• Keepmeetingsshortandrelevant.
• Requestreal,practicalinformation.
Intuitive
• Developanengaginggoal.
• Encouragevisioningandcreativity.
• Encouragebrainstorming.
Thinker
• Focusontaskdispassionately.
• Encouragedebateonsubstan-
tiveissues.
• Encouragelogicaldecision

making.
Feeler
• Discussimpactofdecisionson
people.
• Encouragecooperationand
harmony.
• Recognizemembers’contribu-
tions.
Judger
• Encourageclosureonissues.
• Provideanagendaanddead-
lines.
• Setstandardsandexpectations.
Perceiver
• Focusonavarietyofalternatives.
• Keepthetimeframeopen.
• Letadecisiongraduallyemerge

fromdiscussion.
GroupWork
Personality Types in Groups
TheMyers-BriggsTypeIndicatorfocusesonhowyouperceivethe
worldandmakedecisions.Unlikea rulerora thermometer, the
MBTI is notmeasuring something visibleorphysical; instead, it
measuresself-reportedlifestyleaswellasattitudinalandbehavior
preferences,nottraitsoraptitudes.Whenyoucompleteandana-
lyzeyouranswerstothePersonality Type in Groupsquestionnaire,
keepinmindthatyouarethebestjudgeofyourtype.YourMBTI
resultsmaynot“fit”therealyou.And,mostimportant,notypeis
betterthananyother.
Part 1
Directions:Onyourown,readthetwosetsofdescriptionsfor
eachpairofMyers-Briggspersonality types.Select the indi-
vidualphrases thatbestdescribeyou.Note thepersonality
typewith themostselections—extrovertor introvert;sensing
or intuition; thinkingor feeling; judgingorperceiving.Answer
asyoureallyare,notasyouwishyouwereorwishyoucould
beinthefuture.33
Identify Your Traits

1. Are you an extrovert or an introvert?
Extrovert Introvert
Iamoutgoing,sociable,
expressive.
Iamreserved,private,
contained.
Ienjoygroupsanddiscus-
sions.
Ipreferone-to-oneinterac-
tions.
Italkfirst,thinklater. Ithinkfirst,thentalk.
62 Chapter 4
I can do many things at
once.

I focus on one thing at a
time.
I think out loud. I think to myself.
Other people give me
energy.
Other people often exhaust
me.
I enjoy being the center of
attention.
I don’t enjoy being the
center of attention.
Total Total
2. Are you a sensor or an intuitive?
Sensor Intuitive
I focus on details. I focus on the big picture.

I am practical and realistic. I am theoretical.
I like concrete information. I like abstract information.
I like facts. I get bored with facts and
details.
I trust experience. I trust inspiration and intuition.
I value common sense. I value creativity and
innovation.
I want clear, realistic goals. I want to pursue a vision.
Total Total
3. Are you a thinker or a feeler?
Thinker Feeler
I am task-oriented. I am people-oriented.
I am objective, firm,
analytical.

I am subjective, humane,
caring.
I enjoy arguing. I think arguing is disruptive.
I prefer businesslike
meetings.
I prefer social interactions
in meetings.
I value competence, rea-
son, justice.
I value relationships and
harmony.
I am direct and firm-
minded.
I am tactful and tender-
hearted.
I think with my head. I think with my heart.

Total Total
4. Are you a judger or a perceiver?
Judger Perceiver
I value organization and
structure.
I value flexibility and spon-
taneity.
I am in control and definite. I go with the flow.
I like having deadlines. I dislike deadlines.
I will work now, play later. I will play now, work later.
I like standards and
expectations.
I feel constrained by rules.
I adjust my schedule to
complete work.

I do work at the last minute.
I plan ahead. I adapt as I go.
Total Total
Summarize your scores by indicating the letter that best
describes
your personality traits and preferences. The four-letter combina-
tion is your MBTI personality.
E or I S or N T or F J or P
Part 2
When you have finished the questionnaire and identified your
own personality traits, consider the following questions:
1. How could the lack of one or two Myers-Briggs personality
traits affect group effectiveness?
2. Given your own personality traits, what challenges will you
face working with the other members of your group, whose
traits may be different from yours? (For example, will a
perceiver and a judger be able to work collaboratively on

projects with short deadlines?)
3. How can you improve your effectiveness as a group in light
of the personality traits of the individual members? (Example:
As an extrovert, I should carefully observe and gently encour-
age introverts who may have difficulty contributing to group
discussions.)
4.4: Cultural Dimensions
4.4 Describe how the paired characteristics of five
cultural dimensions affect group communication
We owe a great deal to contemporary social scientists who
have identified important dimensions of culture.34A cultural
dimension is an aspect of culture that can be differentiated
and measured relative to other cultures.35
Several common dimensions are fundamental to
understanding a culture. “Each dimension can be viewed
as a continuum of choices that a culture must make” rather
than either/or categories.36 We also include a fifth dimen-
sion that applies across all other dimensions and that
focuses on the relationships between culture and commu-
nication. Table 4.5 provides definitions, examples, behav-

iors, and methods for adapting to these cultural
dimensions.
4.4.1: Individualism–Collectivism
Individualism–collectivism may be the most important factor
distinguishing one culture from another.37 Individualism–
collectivism is a continuum of traits representing the degree
to which a culture relies on and has allegiance to the self
or the group and whether people see themselves as
unique and independent or conforming and interdepen-
dent on one another.38
Individualism is a cultural value or belief that the indi-
vidual is important, that independence is worth pursuing,
that personal achievement should be rewarded, and that
individual uniqueness is important.39 The United States is
the most individualistic culture in the world. However, as
much as 70 percent of the world’s population values interde-
pendence or collectivism. Collectivism is a cultural value or
belief in interdependence that places greater emphasis on the
views, needs, and goals of the group than on the views,

Table 4.5 Cultural Dimensions of Group Members
Cultural Dimension Description and Examples Group Member
Behavior Recommended Adaptations
Individualist–
Collectivist
Act independently or interdependently.
Individualism: Value individual achieve-
ment and freedom; United States, Aus-
tralia, Great Britain, Canada.
Collectivism: Emphasize group identity
and loyalty; Guatemala, Ecuador, Pan-
ama, Venezuela.
Individualistic members tend to work
alone and seek credit for their own work.
Collectivist members like to work in
groups and try to help other group mem-
bers.
Encourage collectivism in all members.
Help individualistic members understand
that they are part of a larger group that

needs their input and collaboration to
achieve a common goal.
Power Distance Extent of equity or status differences
among members.
High Power Distance: Inequity
between high- and low-status members;
Malaysia, Slovakia, Guatemala, Panama.
Low Power Distance: Equality and
interdependence among group mem-
bers; Austria, Israel, Denmark,
New Zealand.
High power distance members try to
take charge and make decisions.
Low power distance members seek
consultation and consensus.
Establish clear norms for member behav-
ior. Determine the extent to which mem-
bers will participate in decision making,
how specific tasks will be assigned, how
and by whom members will be evalu-
ated, and who will serve as leader(s).

Gender Expectations Concern for self and success and/or a
focus on caring and sharing.
Masculine Orientation: Assertive, deci-
sive, dominant; Slovakia, Japan, Hun-
gary, Austria, Venezuela.
Feminine Orientation: Nurturing, coop-
erative; Sweden, Norway, Latvia, the
Netherlands.
Masculine-oriented members focus on
the task and personal success.
Feminine-oriented members focus on
member relations and respect for others.
Balance masculine and feminine expec-
tations in order to achieve task and
social goals. Do not forgo decisions or
actions in order to achieve total coopera-
tion and consensus.
Time Orientations How people organize and value time.
Short-Term Time Orientation: Adhere
to plans, schedules, and deadlines; time
is valuable; Pakistan, Nigeria, Philippines,
Canada.

Long-Term Time Orientation: Not
obsessed with promptness or schedules;
China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan.
Short-term time oriented members
focus on one task at a time and work
hard to meet deadlines.
Long-term time oriented members are
frequently late, do many things at once,
and are easily distracted and tolerant of
interruptions.
Encourage short-term time oriented
members to take responsibility for time-
sensitive tasks, while accepting that
long-term time oriented members will
vary their promptness based on the
nature and importance of a situation or
relationship.
High Context–Low
Context
Different uses of verbal and nonverbal
elements to communicate and interpret

meaning.
High Context: Messages are implied
and context-sensitive; Japan, China,
Greece, Mexico.
Low Context: Messages are explicit,
factual, and objective; Great Britain,
United States, Scandinavia, Germany.
High-context members seek meaning
from nonverbal cues and the nature of
interpersonal relationships.
Low-context members want facts and
clear, direct, explicit verbal communica-
tion.
Give high-context members time to
review information and react; demon-
strate the value of going beyond “just
facts” to low-context members. Interpret
the meaning of both verbal and nonver-
bal messages as well as the nature of
relationships.
needs, and goals of individuals. In collectivist societies, the
interests of the group prevail over the interests of the indi-

vidual, and there is a greater willingness to collaborate
with other group members.40 For example, once children
have completed high school or higher education in the
United States, many parents encourage them to strike out
on their own—to pursue a career and find their own place
to live. However, in many Asian countries, parents encour-
age their children to stay at home and work until they
marry and, once they do, to work for the benefit of the
immediate and extended family. Figure 4.8 compares the
characteristics of individualistic and collectivist cultures.
At first, a collectivist perspective may appear ideally
suited for group work. Yet, the opinions of individualistic
members help groups recognize and adapt to a variety of
useful perspectives. Despite the fact that the United States
ranks highest in terms of individualism, not all Americans
are individualistic. For example, many African Americans,
Asian Americans, and Latino Americans embrace the tra-
ditions and values of collectivist societies.
The focus on individual achievement and personal
rewards in the United States can make interaction with
group members from collectivist cultures difficult. Group
members from these cultures may view a highly individu-

alistic communication style and behavior as selfish, arro-
gant, antagonistic, power-hungry, ruthless, and impatient.
Interestingly, as poor nations gain wealth, they begin to
shift toward greater individualism.41
4.4.2: Power Distance
Can you walk into your boss’s office unannounced, or
do you have to run a gauntlet of administrative assis-
tants? Is it easy to make a personal appointment with
64 Chapter 4
low power distance is a cultural perspective in which
power distinctions are minimized. Supervisors work with
subordinates; professors work with students; elected offi-
cials work with constituents. Despite the fact that the
United States claims to be the greatest democracy on Earth
and an equal opportunity society, it ranks sixteenth on the
list of low-power-distance cultures—after countries such
as Finland, Switzerland, Great Britain, Germany, Costa
Rica, Australia, the Netherlands, and Canada.44
Power distance has enormous implications for groups,

particularly given the strong correlation between collec-
tivism and high power distance and between individual-
ism and low power distance. If you are individualistic and
are strongly encouraged to express your own opinion, you
are more willing to challenge group members and leaders.
If, however, your culture is collectivist and your personal
opinion is subordinate to the welfare of others, you are
less likely to challenge the collective authority of a group
or its leader.
Figure 4.8 Characteristics of Individualistic and Collectivist
Cultures42
The following images highlight key characteristics of
Individualistic and Collectivist cultures.
the president of your college or university? Does our
society truly believe in the sentiments expressed in the
U.S. Declaration of Independence that all people “are
created equal”? These questions are addressed by power
distance. Power distance is a cultural dimension that
reflects the physical and psychological distance between
those who have power and those who do not have power
in relationships, institutions, and organizations. It also
represents “the extent to which the less powerful person

in society accepts inequality in power and considers it
normal.”43
high power distance is a cultural perspective that
accepts major differences in power and assumes that all
people are not created equal. In a high-power-distance cul-
ture, you dare not challenge authority. Parents, for exam-
ple, may have total control over their children, and men
may have total control over the women in their family. The
government, corporate officers, and religious or legal
authorities dictate the rules of behavior and enforce them.
In masculine-oriented cultures, men are supposed to be
assertive, tough, and focused on material success, and
women are supposed to be more nurturing, modest, tender,
and concerned with the quality of life. Feminine orienta-
tion is characteristic of an egalitarian cultural perspective in
which both men and women are nurturing, modest, tender,
and concerned with the quality of life. In cultures with an
egalitarian gender perspective such as Sweden and Nor-
way, gender roles overlap: Men and women can be asser-

tive and/or nurturing.47
Think of the challenges groups face when there is a
mix of masculine and feminine orientations. Members with
masculine orientations may compete for leadership posi-
tions and exhibit highly assertive behavior. Members with
more feminine orientations may be highly effective and
supportive but never achieve a real voice or influence in
the group. Later in this chapter, we take a closer look at the
ways in which men and women view and work in groups.
4.4.4: Time Orientations
There are many ways of looking at time. Time orientation
describes the extent to which a culture organizes and val-
ues time. In most parts of northern Europe and North
America, time is a valuable commodity. We spend time,
save time, waste time, lose time, gain time, and take time
outs. As a result, we fill our days and nights with multiple
commitments and live fast-paced lives. However, the pace
of life in countries such as India, Kenya, and Argentina is
driven less by a need to “get things done” than by a sense
of participation in events that create their own rhythm.48
Cultures differ in terms of whether they look forward
to the future (long-term) rewards or whether they focus

on past and present (short-term) goals. A short-term time
orientation is a cultural perspective in which people are
highly organized and value time. They may feel con-
trolled by time, deadlines, multi-tasking chores, and to-do
lists. A long-term time orientation is a cultural perspec-
tive in which people see time as flexible and able to suit
their needs rather than the other way around.
Countries with short-term time orientations, such as
Pakistan, Nigeria, the Philippines, Canada, Great Britain,
and the United States, expect quick results from their
efforts. They value leisure time and are more likely to spend
than save what they earn. Countries with long-term time
orientations such as China, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea
value persistence, thriftiness, adaptability, and humility.
The members of cultures with a long-term time orientation
honor elders and value the ability to defer gratification of
needs. When short-term and long-term time orientation
members interact in groups, the results can be frustrating.
Short-term time orientation members become distressed by
how long-term time orientation members seem to disre-
spect or ignore schedules and deadlines. For long-term time
4.4.3: Gender Expectations
All of us—no matter what our culture—have expectations

about gender roles. Obviously men cannot become preg-
nant. On average, women are not as physically strong as
men. Gender expectation is a cultural dimension that
describes the ways in which cultures define gender roles
and the extent to which a culture values competition and
assertiveness over harmony and nurturance. This cultural
dimension acknowledges biological traits, but primarily
focuses on social and psychological dimensions.
When first reading about this cultural dimension, many
people mistakenly think we are describing cultures in which
everyone is feminine (and even effeminate in behavior) or
everyone is masculine (and even macho). These traits
describe a societal perspective, not individual men or women.
The United States is ranked fifteenth among nations in terms
of masculine expectations.45 Masculine orientation is a cul-
tural perspective in which men are supposed to be assertive,
tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are
supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the
quality of life. Cultures with a masculine orientation esteem
personal success, competition, assertiveness, and strength.
Unselfishness and nurturing is often seen as a weakness or
“women’s work.” At the more masculine end of the gender
expectation continuum, women have fewer rights and privi-
leges than men. In countries such as Japan and Austria and

in Arab countries with large Muslim populations, men and
women are viewed as inherently different, “and these differ-
ences require dissimilar expectations and treatments.”46
When Japanese people bow to one another in greeting, the
person
with less power bends lower. In what ways do members of the
U.S.
culture show differences in power distance?
66 Chapter 4
orientation members, schedules and commitments—par-
ticularly plans for the future—are not firm, and even impor-
tant plans may change right up to the last minute.49
If you have a short-term time orientation, you can try
to modify and relax your concerns about time and schedul-
ing when working with long-term time orientation mem-
bers. If you have a long-term time orientation, do your best
to respect and adapt to the needs of short-term time orien-
tation members for careful scheduling and promptness.

4.4.5: High Context–Low Context
All communication occurs in a context, a physical and psy-
chosocial environment in which a particular situation or
event occurs. Context is the information that surrounds an
event and clarifies its meaning.50 In and of itself, context
may hold more meaning than the words in a message. high
context–low context is a cultural dimension that describes
whether a culture relies more on nonverbal behavior or on
words for the meaning of messages. In high-context cul-
tures, gestures, silence, facial expressions, and the relation-
ships among communicators are more reliable indicators of
meaning. Very little meaning is expressed in words. In
high-context cultures, such as China, Japan, and Greece,
meaning is also conveyed through status (age, gender, edu-
cation, family background, title, and affiliations) and
through an individual’s informal network of friends and
associates.51 Things get done depending on the nature of
relationships with others and attention to group process.52
low-context is a cultural perspective in which the
meaning of messages is dependent on language. Members
of low-context cultures tend to speak more, speak louder,
and speak more rapidly than people from high-context
cultures. As members of a low-context culture, North
Americans tend to “Speak up,” “Spell it out,” “Tell it like it

is,” and “Speak our mind.” In low-context cultures,
“things get done by following procedures and paying
attention to the goal.”53 Table 4.6 contrasts several charac-
teristics of high- and low-context cultures.
Virtual Teams
Cultural Dimensions and
Communication Technology
Objective: Explain the ways in which each of the five cultural
dimensions can significantly affect the success of virtual teams.
Not surprisingly, cultural dimensions affect the success of vir-
tual teams significantly. In Mastering Virtual Teams, Deborah
Duarte and Nancy Snyder use social psychologist Geert Hofst-
ede’s dimensions and anthropologist Edward T. Hall’s research
on context to explain how culture affects the way we use com-
munication technology.55 We have added a brief discussion of
how the time orientation dimension affects virtual groups.
• Individualism–Collectivism. Members from collectivist
cultures prefer face-to-face interactions. In contrast, indi-
vidualistic communicators like having the screen to them-
selves as they present their ideas and opinions.

• Power Distance. Members from high-power-distance
cultures communicate more freely when technologies are
asynchronous (do not occur in real time) and when anon-
ymous input is possible. In other words, when asynchro-
nous technology conceals power relationships, members
from high-power-distance cultures may be more willing to
challenge one another.
• Gender Expectations. Members from cultures with a
feminine orientation are more likely to use technology as a
way of encouraging, supporting, and motivating others
whereas members from cultures with a masculine orienta-
tion are more likely to see such nurturing behavior as a
waste of precious meeting time.
• Time Orientation. Members with a short-term time ori-
entation become frustrated by members with long-term
time orientations who may be late to join an audioconfer-
ence or a teleconference. At the same time, long-term
time-oriented members may become distracted during an
online meeting and sidetrack or disrupt the group by dis-
cussing unrelated issues.
• High Context–Low Context. People from high-context
cultures prefer more information-rich technologies (e.g.,

videoconferences and, to some extent, audioconfer-
ences) as well as media that offer the feeling of social
presence. People from low-context cultures prefer more
asynchronous communication with the ability to “get it in
writing” via email and other writing-only virtual media.
close personal relationship. During a group discussion,
Allison scowls every time Philip expresses his opinion or
makes a suggestion. However, when asked whether she
agrees with Philip, she says yes. Group members with
high-context perspectives would pay more attention to
Allison’s nonverbal behavior and decide that she may be
angry with Philip and disapprove of his ideas. In contrast,
members with low-context perspectives may only hear the
“yes” and assume that Allison and Philip are in agreement.
Table 4.6 Characteristics of High-Context and
Low-Context Cultures54
High-Context Culture Low-Context Culture
Indirect and implied communication Direct and clear
communication
Rely on nonverbal meanings Rely on verbal meanings

Reserved reactions Reactions on the surface
Strong in-group bonds Flexible group membership
High level of group commitment Low level of group
commitment
Time is flexible Time is highly organized
Change is slow Change is fast
Group members from high- and low-context cultures
express and interpret messages differently. For example,
suppose everyone knows that Allison and Philip have a
Group Assessment Cultural Context Inventory56
High- and low-context cultures differ in terms of how people
relate to and communicate with one another and how they treat
space and time. Complete and
analyze your answers to the Cultural Context Inventory. Note

that very few people are totally high or low context
communicators. Depending on the situation and
the people involved, most of us have a combination of high and
low context characteristics.
Directions: For each of the twenty statements in this inventory,
indicate whether the extent to which you agree or disagree in
terms of your tendencies,
preferences, and behaviors when interacting with others. When
you have scored your inventory, consider the following
questions:
1. To what extent does your score reflect a preference for
individual or group achievement?
2. Do you tend to show your emotions or hold back on your
emotions when communicating in groups?
3. How well do you adapt to group members whose score is
significantly different than yours?
(continued )
68 Chapter 4

4.5.2: Amount of Talk
Who talks more: women or men? Many people believe that
women talk more than men do. Yet most women experi-
ence just the opposite, particularly when they’re working
in groups. Social scientists Rodney Napier and Matti
Gershenfeld explain this phenomenon:
Throughout history, women have been punished for talk-
ing too much or in the wrong way. . . . Yet study after study
shows that it is men who talk more—at meetings, in
mixed-group discussions held in classrooms where girls
or young women sit next to boys or young men. . . . And
not only did men speak for a longer time, but the women’s
longest turns were shorter than the men’s shortest turns.60
A study of college students found that the number of
words uttered by males and females were virtually the
same. Men actually “yakked slightly more than women,
especially when interacting with spouses or strangers and
when the topic was non-personal.” Women talked more
with classmates, with parents and children, and in situa-
tions where the topic of conversation required disclosure
of feelings.61
Research in group communication finds that some

female members feel undervalued or even invisible when
working with male group members. Women often com-
plain that when they say something in a meeting, no one
responds, yet a few minutes later a man makes the same
suggestion and is praised for the quality of his input.62 Sev-
eral new studies support this observation, including one
that showed when women spoke up with ideas equal in
value to those contributed by men, the women’s ideas were
viewed less favorably. In addition, when women asserted
themselves and spoke more than the men in a group, they
were viewed as less competent.63
4.5: Gender Dimensions
4.5 Explain how gender can affect group norms, roles,
leadership, and goal achievement
Researchers who study gender differences claim that women
and men are alike on most—but not all—psychological
traits.57 In other words, males and females are much more
similar than different. Unfortunately, many people still
believe there are major psychological differences between
genders. These beliefs are learned perceptions based on out-
dated assumptions, traditional family roles, and the influ-
ence of various media. In cartoons, books, and films, knights

in shining armor still save maidens in distress, and Mom
knows best how to clean auto grease off Dad’s pants.
New and somewhat surprising research has challenged
several traditional views about women and men, particu-
larly how they affect a group’s collective intelligence as well
as the amount of talk by men and women in group contexts.
4.5.1: Collective Intelligence
Collective intelligence in groups has three critical compo-
nents related to the characteristics of its members:
• members communicate more and equally with one
another,
• members are sensitive to one another’s feelings, and
• membership includes women.
Why, you may wonder, do groups with female mem-
bers outperform all-male groups? One explanation for
this finding is that women are consistently better on social
sensitivity tests and at accurately reading group member
emotions than men are.58 However, keep in mind that any
group can have collective intelligence when members—
be they women or men—are high in social sensitivity.59

Scoring: The purpose of this inventory is to assess your
tendencies toward being high-context or low-context oriented.
Transfer the numbers for each statement to
the appropriate blank provided below. Then, add the numbers in
each column to obtain your total score in the High Context
column and your total score in the Low
Context column.
High Context (HC) Low Context (LC)
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
9. 10.
11. 12.
13. 14.

15. 16.
17. 18.
19. 20.
Totals Totals
Note which of your total scores is higher—the High Context
total or the Low Content total. To determine whether you have a
high-context or low-context
orientation, subtract your lower score from your higher score.
Record the difference in the blank below:
________ Higher Score minus ________ Lower Score =
________ Score Difference
Scoring Interpretation
A score difference between 0 to 3 means you have a bi-cultural
orientation along the high/low context dimension.
A score close to 20 means you have a very strong preference for
either the high or low context dimension.

Cheris Kramarae’s Muted Group Theory claims that power
imbalances inhibit some female and minority group members
from expressing themselves assertively and impede their ability
to participate effectively in group work.64 This noteworthy the-
ory examines “the ways that the communication practices of
dominant groups suppress, mute, or devalue the words, ideas,
and discourses of subordinate groups.”65 When Kramarae
uses the term dominant groups, she refers to a dominant
group and a subordinate group within a single group. For
example, she often describes women and minorities as subor-
dinate groups within a larger group in which white males are
the dominant group. Although members of subordinate groups
may speak and have a lot to say, their messages are “often
disrespected, and their knowledge often not considered suffi-
cient for decision or policy making.”66
Kramarae helps explain why and how women’s voices, in
particular, are subdued or silenced. “Women in most if not all
cultures are not as free or as able as dominant men are to say
what they want to say, when and where they wish to say it,
without
ridicule or punishment.”67 However, we urge you to avoid
making

hasty generalizations about the role of women and minorities in
groups. For example, in a group composed primarily of
influential
African American women, a less powerful white male may be
muted. When black women and white women work together in
groups, the white women may criticize and try to mute the more
outspoken speaking style of black women.68
Muted Group Theory has direct relevance to work in
groups. Kramarae claims that subordinate groups (women and
Table 4.7 Counteracting the Effects of Muted
Group Theory
Strategy Description Example
Call atten-
tion to the
silencing
strategy.
If a member disre-
spects a subordinate
group member, call out
the person responsible

for it.
“Fred, you’ve inter-
rupted Kara three times
in the last few minutes.
Please let her finish talk-
ing. We want to hear
what she has to say.”
Identify the
value of
differences.
When members dis-
agree, point out the
importance of express-
ing diverse points of
view.
“Our decision could have
negative consequences,
so it’s very important that
we hear everyone’s point
of view.”

Be assertive. Speak up and act in
your own best interests
without denying the
rights and interests of
others.
“I realize you may not
have known that my
husband and I are
Christian Scientists. I
think you owe me an
apology, and I trust this
won’t happen again.”
Resist
stereotyping.
Avoid judgments based
on erroneous general-
izations or oversimplify-
ing the characteristics
of an entire group of
people.
“Why are the women in

this group always asked
to take minutes? Let’s
practice an equal
opportunity policy and
ask the men do it, too.”
According to Muted Group Theory, groups with power in a
society tend to mute the voices of less powerful groups. What
can less powerful groups, such as women and minority group
members, do to counteract this tendency?
4.6: Generational
Dimensions
4.6 list specific strategies to enhance group
communication among members of different
generations
Once upon a time, we classified people on the basis of age
by putting them into one of two categories: old and young.
Today—probably because of marketing and advertising
research—we catalogue, grade, and pigeonhole people of
different generations based on their potential as buyers
and voters. Labeling any group allows members to identify
with their contemporaries and to view other generations

with some level of suspicion and even disapproval. After
all, how can “they” be as good and as smart as “we” are?
Theory in Groups
Muted Group Theory
Objective: Describe the central claim of Muted Group Theory
and
how it applies to the ways in which group members deliberate.
other minority groups) “do not control language and speech in
the same way men do.”69 For example, most researchers
studying gender expectations use the phrase masculine–femi-
nine values. Why not feminine–masculine values? Why do
most U.S. women take their husband’s surname when they
get married, and why do children typically take their father’s
surname regardless of whether Mom kept her maiden name?
Regardless of whether you are a member of a less power-
ful subordinate group or are a member with power, several strat-
egies can counteract the effects of Muted Group Theory and
encourage interaction and contributions from all members
(Table 4.7).

70 Chapter 4
4.6.2: Ensuring Successful
Intergenerational Interactions
The mixing of generations in families, communities, col-
lege classrooms, and work settings adds diversity and
potential difficulties to the challenge of communicating in
groups. Of all of the generational mixes, the interaction of
Baby Boomers with Generation Xers and Millennials may
create the most problems. When a Baby Boomer explains to
a subordinate that “Dressing appropriately is part of your
job,” a Generation Xer may respond, “Why do you care
what I wear if I do my job?” If a Millennial says, “You’re
threatened by us because we know how to use technology
better,” a Baby Boomer may fire back, “Who do you think
invented the technology?”71
Let’s take a closer look at three generational dimen-
sions—Baby Boomers, Generation Xers , and Millennials—
and how they can learn to interact more effectively.72 If you
belong to Generation X or are a Millennial and work in
groups with Baby Boomers, you should
• Show respect to Baby Boomers and acknowledge that

you have less experience and can learn from them.
• Communicate face to face rather than relying com-
pletely on email or text messages. Learn to play the
political game in work groups—look for opportunities
to advance without angering, disappointing, or alien-
ating those in power. Baby Boomers are often diplo-
matic and can help Generation Xers and Millenials
navigate politically charged group environments.
Table 4.8 A Timeline: Four Generational Dimensions
Start Date End Date Label Description
1900 1945 Traditionalists Experienced two world wars and great
depression
Loyal, hardworking, financially conservative, and faithful to
institutions
1946 1964 Baby Boomers Grew up with television and
experienced the Vietnam War
Challenged the status quo
Workaholic
1965 1980 Generation Xers Raised in the era of video games
and personal computers

Technologically savvy
Value work/life balance
1981 1999 Millennials Grew up with cell phones and personal
computers
Collaborators and favor teamwork
Keep their career options open
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Generational Dimensions
How well do people you know match the characteristics of their
respective generational dimensions? Provide examples.
4.6.1: Four Generational
Dimensions
Brief descriptions of four generational dimensions
follow:70

• Traditionalists are a U.S. generation born between 1900
and 1945. Two world wars and the Great Depression
taught this generation how to live within limited
means. Traditionalists are loyal, hardworking, finan-
cially conservative, and faithful to institutions.
• Baby Boomers are a U.S. generation born between 1946
and 1964. This generation grew up with television and
experienced the Vietnam War. Many of them bravely
challenged the status quo and are responsible for
many of the civil rights we now take for granted. As a
whole, this generation knows how to navigate political
minefields in the workplace. Boomers often believe
they are always right and are willing to work hard to
get what they want. The term workaholic was coined to
describe Baby Boomers.
• Generation xers are a U.S. generation born between 1965
and 1980. They are technologically savvy because they
were raised in the era of video games and personal
computers. Because they witnessed increasing employ-
ment layoffs and challenges to the presidency, orga-
nized religion, and big corporations, they are often
skeptical and distrustful of institutions. Generation

Xers believe that work is not the most important thing
in their lives, and value work/life balance.
• Millennials are a U.S. generation born between 1981 and
1999. Many younger Millennials are still in school, just
graduating from college, or just completing postgrad-
uate studies. This generation grew up with cell phones
and personal computers. Generally, they are confident
and have high self-esteem. Millennials are collabora-
tors and favor teamwork, having functioned in groups
in school, organized sports, and extracurricular activi-
ties from a very young age. They take on many activi-
ties at once and like keeping their career options open.
There are more than 4,000 religions in the world. Like most
people, you may be familiar only with the “big” religions
and perhaps one or two more “obscure” faiths. Even if you
are familiar with more, you may still lack religious literacy—
the knowledge of and ability to understand and discuss
religions. Think about your own or different religions. Are
you familiar with the religious terms, symbols, images,

beliefs, practices, scripture, themes, and stories that are
employed within a particular culture? Unfortunately,
many Americans know very little about their own religion,
let alone the religions of others.74
• Learn the corporate history and culture. Nothing both-
ers Baby Boomers more than a new, young employee
who wants to change things, with seemingly no
thought given to what has gone on before.
As a Baby Boomer working with Generation Xers or
Millennials, you should
• Get to the point. State your objectives clearly.
• Avoid micromanaging Generation Xers and Millenni-
als who need more independence and freedom.
• Do not expect them to be workaholics. Generation
Xers and Millennials—who value a healthy work/life
balance—may not spend as many hours at work, but
they’re still getting the job done.
• Be more flexible. Remind yourself that it’s okay for
work to be fun. Generation Xers and Millennials tend

to think that Baby Boomers are too intense and set in
their ways; prove them wrong.
Many Baby Boomers see group work as a football game
in which all members act together according to a plan, but the
younger generations see group work more like a relay race:
“I’ll give it all I’ve got—when and where I’m supposed to.”73
4.7: Religious Dimensions
4.7 Explain the importance of understanding,
respecting, and adapting to group members with
different religious beliefs and practices
The power of religious respect and cooperation are evident in
this
photo as Buddhist nuns join Catholic sisters and other religious
leaders to mark a four-year ceasefire agreement between the Sri
Lanka government and the Tamil rebels at an interreligious
conference. How successful have the leaders and members of
organized religions been in achieving intergroup cooperation
and
peace? Why or why not?
Watch The Politics of Sociology

Watch the video clips from “The Politics of Sociology,” which
illustrates concepts in this chapter.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Dimensions of Diversity
1. Given the three layers of diversity (personality traits; internal
dimensions; external dimensions) which specific dimensions
were evident in the members of this group?
2. Describe the communicative behaviors of Helen and Georgia,
the two women in the group. To what extent was there evidence
of the inhibiting factors described in Muted Group Theory?
3. To what extent did gender, race, and generational factors
affect
the group discussion?

72 Chapter 4
Group Assessment Religious Knowledge Survey75,76
By all measures and compared to other countries, Americans are
deeply religious, but often uninformed about the beliefs and
customs of other religions. Test your
own knowledge about a few of the world’s major religions by
taking the brief Religious Knowledge Survey.
Directions: Test your knowledge of the world’s major religions
by completing this Religious Knowledge Quiz. Select the
appropriate option depending on whether
the statement is true, false, or you don’t know.
Statement True False I Don’t Know
1. In Islam, Jesus, Abraham, and Mohammed are prophets.
2. Judaism is an older religion than Buddhism.
3. Islam is a monotheistic religion (belief in one God), just like
Christianity and Judaism.

4. A Christian Scientist believes that disease is a delusion that
can be cured by prayer.
5. Jews fast during Yom Kippur; Muslims fast during Ramadan.
6. Jesus Christ was a Jew.
7. Roman Catholics throughout the world outnumber all other
Christians combined.
8. Sunni Muslims compose about 90 percent of all adherents to
Islam.
9. Hindus believe in reincarnation.
10. The Ten Commandments are the basis of Jewish laws.
11. Mormonism is a Christian faith founded in the United
States.
12. Protestant reformer Martin Luther labeled the religious
beliefs of Muslims, Jews, and Roman Catholics as false.
13. One-third of the world’s population is Christian.

14. One-fifth of the world’s population is Muslim.
15. Hinduism is the oldest of the world’s major religions, dating
back more than 3,000 years.
The independent Pew Forum on Religion and Public
Life conducted a national survey of Americans asking
questions about the Bible, Christianity, and other world
religions as well as famous religious figures. On aver-
age, people answered only half the questions correctly,
and many flubbed questions about their own religions
(e.g., 53 percent of Protestants could not identify Martin
Luther as the person who started the Protestant Refor-
mation). Interestingly, the groups with the highest scores
on religious knowledge questionnaires were atheists
and agnostics, followed by two religious minorities,
Jews and Mormons.77
Stephen Prothero, a professor of religious studies,
shares the following results from his surveys:78
• 50 percent of survey respondents could not name even
one of the four Gospels.

• Most Americans could not name the first book of the
Hebrew Bible.
• Ten percent of the surveyed Americans thought that
Joan of Arc was Noah’s wife.
Interestingly, there has been a surprising decline in
the number of Christians in recent years. The 2015 Pew
Research Center ’s study, America’s Changing Religious
Landscape, brought disturbing news to many religious
communities in the United States. Here are a few high-
lights:79
• The percentage of adults (ages 18 and older) who
describe themselves as Christians has dropped by
nearly 8 percentage points in just seven years, from
78.4% in an equally massive Pew Research survey in
2007 to 70.6% in 2014. That’s a decline of 5 million
adults.
• The evangelical Protestant share of the U.S. population
also dropped, but at a much slower rate, falling by
about 1 percentage point since 2007.

• The percentage of Americans who are religiously unaf-
filiated—describing themselves as atheist, agnostic, or
“nothing in particular”—has jumped more than 6 per-
centage points, from 16.1% to 22.8%.
Although a group’s goal may have nothing to do with
religion, members should be sensitive to the diverse and
changing religious beliefs of their members. For example,
Seventh-day Adventists and observant Jews celebrate the
Sabbath on Saturdays. These members may resent being
asked to do group work on a Saturday, or may even refuse.
A Muslim group member who prays five times a day may
want to be excused from meetings at worship times. The
increasing number of non-Christians and atheists may
resent using group time for other members’ Christian holi-
day celebrations.80 Groups can avoid such problems by
asking and answering the following questions:
• How do the needs, attitudes, and practices of group
members’ religions affect our work?
• What adaptations should we make so we don’t
exclude members because of religious practices or
beliefs?81

4.8: Adapting to
Diversity
4.8 apply specific communication strategies to
understand and react appropriately to diversity
in groups
In order to understand and react appropriately to
group members’ diverse perspectives, you must try to
“see the world through their eyes.” Putting yourself in
another person’s situation helps minimize miscommu-
nication and prejudice. Of course, learning such strate-
gies may require changes in long-standing habits of
thought and action.
4.8.1: Be Mindful
Before explaining what mindfulness is, let’s take a look at
its opposite: mindlessness. Mindlessness occurs when you
allow rigid categories and false distinctions to become hab-
its of thought and behavior.82 If you engage in mindless-
ness, you are trapped in an inflexible, biased world in

which your religion is always right and good; people from
other cultures are inferior and untrustworthy; boys will
always be boys, and girls will always be girls; and change
is a terrible and scary thing.83
Mindfulness, in contrast, is the ability to be fully
aware of the present moment without forming opin-
ions, taking sides, or making hasty judgments as you
learn more about someone else.84 When you are mindful,
you recognize stereotypical thinking and prejudices
and try to overcome them. Mindfulness gives you the
freedom and motivation to understand, respect, and
adapt to others.85 Mindful communicators learn more
about others and their cultures by being open to new
information. Too often, we dismiss another person’s
belief or behavior as irrational or bizarre when more
information about that belief or behavior would help us
understand it. For example, a cow is livelihood to a
rancher; a sacred animal to a Hindu; a collection of
genes and proteins to a biologist; and a mistreated, liv-
ing being to members of PETA (People for the Ethical
Treatment of Animals).86 Once you learn why observant
Muslims and Jews do not eat pork products or why
Hindus will not eat the meat of sacred cows even under
famine conditions, you may become more mindful and

tolerant of their customs.
4.8.2: Adapt to Others
You probably feel most comfortable when you “fit in” with
the people around you. To fit in, you may modify the way
you talk to family members, friends, colleagues, authority
Ethics in Groups
Practice the Platinum Rule
Objective: Explain the difference between the Golden Rule and
the Platinum Rule in terms of their applicability to group
member
diversity.
The well-known Golden Rule—“Do unto others as you
would have them do unto you”—may not work in groups
with diverse members. Every culture has a huge influence
on a person’s moral development and their standards of
what’s right or wrong.88 So, why would you assume that
you know what other people want, think, feel, or need with-
out asking them? Intercultural communication scholars
Judith Martin and Thomas Nakayama note that “ethical
principles are often culture-bound, and intercultural con-
flicts arise from varying notions of what constitutes ethical

behavior.”89
For example, someone from an individualistic culture
may value truth and live by the principle “Honesty is the best
policy.” Telling another group member, “The presentation
slides you prepared don’t meet acceptable design principles”
may be the truth. However, the same behavior may be seen
as unethical in a collectivist culture because the importance
figures, and strangers. For example, two people may be
from different areas of the country, one from Maine and the
other from Alabama. When they go “home,” their dialects,
vocabulary, sentence structure, rate of speech, and even
volume may change to accommodate their home culture.
Yet, in professional settings, their speech may remain more
formal in style and substance.
4.8.3: Actively Engage Others
Direct, face-to-face interaction with people from culturally
diverse backgrounds benefits everyone. You and others
may transform long-held negative beliefs about one
another’s cultures into positive opinions.
One of the most interesting and exciting ways to
actively engage others is to travel—either within your

home country or in a foreign country. A survey of students
who studied abroad found a positive link to career success,
a more tolerant worldview, and increased self-confidence.
When questioned about their intercultural development
and understanding, 98 percent reported that study abroad
helped them to better understand their own cultural val-
ues and biases.87
If you succeed in minimizing your level of anxiety and
uncertainty when encountering others, you may discover
new worlds with fascinating people who can enrich your
life. Regardless of culture, nationality, gender, religion, age,
and ability, all of us share the traits unique to the amazing
human condition.
74 Chapter 4
of saving face was ignored. Face is the positive image a per-
son wishes to create or preserve that is also appropriate for a
particular culture. Cultures that place a great deal of value on
“saving face” discourage personal attacks and outcomes in
which one person “loses face.” A statement such as, “I
appreciate your efforts and now think Keisha should work

with you to finalize our presentation slides” may not be the
“whole truth and nothing but the truth,” but it allows a mem-
ber the opportunity to maintain a positive image while still giv-
ing the group a chance to correct problems. Clearly, treating
others as you would like others to treat you may not be
appreciated or considered appropriate by someone with dif-
ferent cultural values.
A more culturally sensitive approach is to follow the Plat-
inum Rule, which advises you to “Do unto others as they
wish to have done to themselves.”90 In other words, “Treat
others the way they want to be treated.”91 Following the
Golden Rule is easier but more ethnocentric: You only need to
know how you prefer to be treated. Following the Platinum
Rule requires enough understanding of a culture to recognize
that another group member may have different preferences: It
requires you to focus on the other’s needs and values apart
from your own.
Skilled intercultural communicators use a variety of meth-
ods to understand and adapt to ethical differences among
group members. They apply the Platinum Rule by practicing
cosmopolitanism, a word derived from the Greek kosmopolite,
meaning “citizen of the world.” Cosmopolitanism is the rec-
ognition that there are universal ethical values across cultures

while also acknowledging variations in values and the manner
in which they are applied.92 For example, and as previously
noted by the Institute for Global Ethics, fairness is a universal
value. However, what constitutes fair behavior may be per-
ceived differently from culture to culture. The following strate-
gies can help you follow the Platinum Rule and practice
cosmopolitanism:
1. Seek understanding. Actively seek information about other
cultures and engage with others who are different from
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Practice the Platinum Rule
Which of the five strategies for following the Platinum Rule do
you
find most challenging? Explain your answer.

Summary: Diversity in Groups
4.1: The Value of Group Diversity
• Culture is a learned set of shared experiences about
beliefs, values, and norms that affect the behaviors of a
relatively large group of people; the members of co-
cultures coexist within a predominant society yet
remain connected to one another through their cul-
tural heritage.
• Diversity, the quality of being different, exists in all
groups and includes variables such as nationality, race,
ethnicity, age, gender, occupation, physical ability, per-
sonality preferences, religion, marital and parental sta-
tus, and work experience.
• Member diversity helps groups make better decisions
because it adds perspectives that would otherwise be
you. Accept differences with an open mind and avoid ste-
reotyping.
2. Recognize similar and differing values. Various cultures
share
many fundamental ethical values. However, you should also

recognize any key differences. What is unethical in one cul-
ture may be acceptable in another.
3. Withhold judgment. Learn about a culture before jumping
to conclusions regarding its values and practices. A par-
ticular culture’s view of right and wrong can be fully under-
stood only within the larger context of its history, religion,
ethical standards, and so on.
4. Practice tolerance. The behaviors of group members
from other cultures may make you feel uncomfortable or
confused. However, tolerating or accommodating unfa-
miliar behavior shows respect for other group members
and provides you an opportunity to learn about another’s
culture.
5. Disagree when appropriate. Acknowledging ethical differ-
ences does not require silent acceptance of harmful or
unjust behavior. For example, a group should not deny a
leadership position to a female member merely to accom-
modate members from another culture who insist on
more traditional roles for women. Group members have
an ethical responsibility to speak out in the face of unjust
behavior.

In long-term time-oriented cultures, schedules are less
important and many tasks are done at once.
• In high-context cultures, members are less dependent
on words and rely on gestures, silence, and facial
expressions because the relationships among commu-
nicators generate meaning. Low-context cultures
depend more on language for meaning.
• Effective virtual teams understand and adapt to the
ways in which culture affects members’ use of and
feelings about communication technology.
4.5: Gender Dimensions
• Group members should monitor the ways that men
and women interpret events and express their opin-
ions and adapt as needed to help achieve the com-
mon goal.
• In general, the presence of women in groups enhances

the group’s collective intelligence.
• Men tend to talk more often than women, and tend
to interrupt women more frequently when they do
talk.
• Muted Group Theory explains that those with power
in a society “mute” the voices of less powerful
groups.
4.6: Generational Dimensions
• Generational mixes of Traditionalists, Baby Boomers,
Generation Xers, and Millennials present special chal-
lenges when working in groups.
4.7: Religious Dimensions
• Most people living in the United States know very lit-
tle about their own religion, and much less about other
religions.
• Religious literacy is the ability to understand and use
the religious terms, symbols, images, beliefs, practices,
scripture, heroes, themes, and stories that are

employed within a culture.
4.8: Adapting to Diversity
• Groups that encourage intercultural communication
strategies such as mindfulness, adaptation to others,
and active engagement with others are more likely to
be effective and more ethical when collaborating with
members from different cultures.
• The Platinum Rule—“Do unto others as they would
have you do unto them”—recognizes that there are
culture-based variations in the ethical values and the
manner in which they are applied.
absent. When groups are too much alike, they find it
harder to keep learning because each member brings
less new information to the discussion.
• Deep diversity describes member characteristics that
are more difficult to observe, such as group members’
knowledge, skills, and abilities related to the group
task.
4.2: Obstacles to Understanding Others

• Ethnocentric group members offend others by imply-
ing that they represent a superior culture with supe-
rior values.
• Stereotypes are generalizations about a group of
people that oversimplify their characteristics and
result in erroneous judgment about the entire group
of people.
• Prejudices are negative attitudes about other people
based on faulty and inflexible stereotypes.
• Discrimination is acting out and expressing prejudice
by excluding groups of people from the opportunities
and rights granted to others.
4.3: Personality Dimensions
• In terms of the Big Five Personality Traits (extrover-
sion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional sta-
bility, and openness to experience), high levels of
agreeableness and emotional stability are associated
with group cohesiveness, whereas conscientiousness
is associated with task performance.

• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® examines the way
we perceive the world around us and make judgments.
• Myers-Briggs categorizes personality traits in four
categories with differing preferences: extrovert/intro-
vert, sensor/intuitive, thinker/feeler, and judger/
perceiver.
4.4: Cultural Dimensions
• As much as 70 percent of the world’s population
regards collectivism, or interdependence, as more
important than individualism.
• High-power-distance cultures accept differences in
power as normal; low-power-distance cultures prefer
to minimize power distinctions.
• In masculine-orientation cultures, men are supposed
to be assertive and tough, whereas women are
expected to be more modest and tender. In feminine-
orientation cultures, gender roles overlap.
• In short-term time-oriented cultures, events are sched-

uled as separate items and deadlines are emphasized.
76 Chapter 4
ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: dIveRSITy dIleMMa
How do you think the predominantly white male governing
board will respond if Wanda and Wayne recommend a list of
new board members, none of whom are white males? How
would you respond?
Chapter 4 Quiz: Diversity in Groups

class discussion.
77
that qualify for help into local People’s Project housing. In
addition, each family receives job counseling, skills train-
ing, child care, and assistance in looking for a permanent
home.
For 20 years, the People’s Project was directed by one
of its founders, Bill Blessing. When Blessing announced his
retirement, the board of trustees hired an energetic and
5.1 List the characteristics of effective
leadership
5.2 Contrast the strategies for becoming a
leader and being a leader

5.3 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of
the different types of leadership power
5.4 Compare the relative merits of the trait,
styles, and situational leadership theories
5.5 Review the importance of each function in
the 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness
5.6 Identify strategies for overcoming barriers
to female and minority leadership
Learning Objectives
Case Study: The Leader
in Sheep’s Clothing
The People’s Project is a nonprofit organization with the
mission of serving displaced families within their local
communities. The organization moves homeless families
Chapter 5
Group Leadership
Effective communication is the foundation of effective

leadership.
78 Chapter 5
3. Given that many staff members are unhappy working for
Dupree, what strategies could help them improve the
group’s situation?
4. How does Dupree measure up to the 5M Model of
Leadership Effectiveness?
5.1: What Is Leadership?
5.1 List the characteristics of effective leadership
If you use the word leadership to search any major online
bookseller’s site, you will discover thousands of books on
that subject. Most of them are written by highly respected
scholars and well-regarded business leaders, but some
unusual titles demonstrate the popularity of this topic.
Here are just a few:
• Lincoln on Leadership

• Robert E. Lee on Leadership
• Leadership Secrets of Colin Powell
• Leadership Secrets of Hillary Clinton
• Jesus on Leadership
• The Leadership Secrets of Billy Graham
• Martin Luther King, Jr. on Leadership
• The Leadership Secrets of Santa Claus
And before you chuckle too much over The Leadership
Secrets of Santa Claus, consider how you could translate
some of his “secrets” into useful leadership tips: Choose
your reindeer wisely; make a list and check it twice; listen
to the elves; find out who’s naughty and who’s nice; be
good for goodness’ sake.1
Apparently, everyone has something to say about
leadership. You do, too. You have observed leaders at
work, voted for leaders at school and in public elections,
and probably led a group at some point in your life. That

group could have been a sports team, a study group, a
work team, or a group of children left in your care.
All groups need leadership. Without leadership, a
group may be nothing more than a collection of individu-
als, lacking the coordination and motivation to achieve a
common goal. Quite simply, “there are no successful
groups without leaders. . . . Leaders lead because groups
demand it and rely on leaders to satisfy needs.”2
However, a leader is not the same thing as leadership.
Leadership is the ability to make strategic decisions and
use communication effectively to mobilize group mem-
bers toward achieving a common goal. The term mobilize
connotes several leadership competencies, including moti-
vating, guiding, supporting, and focusing the attitudes
and behaviors of group members. Leader is the title given
to a person; leadership can refer to any member who is
instrumental in mobilizing members to achieve the
group’s goal.
experienced nonprofit director named Will Dupree. From
his first day at work, Dupree jumped right into the job. He
met with residents of People’s Project housing to listen to
their needs and complaints. He scheduled meetings with

community leaders and politicians to solidify their sup-
port. He delivered an eloquent speech at a local church that
supported the People’s Project. And when a fire left three
families without shelter, he rolled up his sleeves and spent
two days helping them move into People’s Project housing.
The board was thrilled, and the community was delighted
with this new charismatic leader.
Back at the People’s Project headquarters, the mood
was very different. During his first week on the job, Dupree
called a meeting of the senior staff, most of whom had been
working for the People’s Project for many years. He told
them that, to the outside community, he would always be
responsive, caring, and empowering. However, behind
closed doors at the People’s Project, he would be a tough,
uncompromising director. “I don’t want to be your friend,”
he said. “You will meet all deadlines and give 110 percent
without complaining.” Within a few days, they learned
that Dupree was a man of his word. One afternoon at 4:30,
he marched into a senior staff member’s office and said, “I
need a report by noon tomorrow on how the proposed zon-
ing legislation will affect our buildings and those we’re try-
ing to acquire.” The staff member worked past midnight to
write the report, and came in early the next morning to
make revisions. As requested, the report was sitting on

Dupree’s desk by noon. A day later, the staff member asked
the director what he thought of the report. His response
was “Oh, I’ve been busy—haven’t read it yet.” As similar
incidents continued to occur, senior staff members became
increasingly frustrated by and wary of their new director.
His popularity outside headquarters was so high that they
thought their hands were tied. But when Dupree started to
have “favorites” among the staff members, several veteran
employees decided that retirement or work elsewhere
might be better and healthier options.
Although the People’s Project had never been more
successful, staff members faced a dilemma: They were
strongly committed and loyal to the organization and its
mission, but had serious misgivings about Dupree’s char-
acter and his leadership.
answer
1. As a designated leader, how could Dupree adapt his
leadership style to accommodate his veteran staff members
more effectively?

2. According to Situational Leadership theories, is Dupree a
task-motivated leader or a relationship-motivated leader?
How well does his leadership style match the group’s
situational dimensions?
Group Leadership 79
Effective communication is the “mortar or glue”
that unifies leadership competencies. The abilities to
think clearly and act decisively as well as appropriate
self-awareness and self-discipline are all critical leader-
ship skills, but communication binds these building
blocks together.7 Research by the American Society for
Talent Development (ASTD) confirms the importance of
communication, particularly for the Millennial Genera-
tion (those born between 1977 and 1997). When asked
whether this generation is prepared for leadership, the
majority of employers and 40 percent of Millennials
responded No. Although technologically savvy, Millen-
nials are not always socially savvy. To succeed as lead-
ers, they need to work on developing competencies,
such as “diplomacy, communication, listening, patience,

and relationship building.”8
Another way to understand the nature of leadership is
to contrast it with the functions of management. Managers
concentrate on getting an assigned job done, but leaders
focus on the group’s ultimate direction and goal. “You
manage things,” wrote Rear Admiral Grace Murray Hop-
per, but “you lead people.”3 Note how the employee in the
following situation describes the difference between a
manager and a leader:
Lee is the manager of our department, so he’s technically
our leader. He always follows procedures and meets
deadlines for paperwork, so I guess he’s a good manager.
But we don’t get much guidance from him. I think that
managing and leading are somehow different. Allison
supervises the other department. She inspires her work-
ers. They’re motivated and innovative, and they work
closely with one another. We do our job, but they seem to
be on a mission. I’ve always thought that working for
Allison would be more rewarding and enjoyable.
Ronald Heifetz, director of the Leadership Education
Project at Harvard’s School of Government, describes the
dialectic tensions inherent in leadership: Leaders must cre-

ate a balance between the tensions required to motivate
change and the need to avoid overwhelming followers.4
Effective leaders walk a fine line between both fostering
interdependence and encouraging self-reliance, between
both building cohesion and welcoming disagreement, and
between both imposing structure and promoting spontane-
ity (Figure 5.1).
Foster Group Goals
Build Cohesiveness
Impose Structure
Encourage Individual Goals
Value Conflict
Promote Spontaneity
Figure 5.1 Balancing Leadership Tensions
Unfortunately, many leaders—whether you call them
boss, supervisor, chair, director, captain, or by their first or last
name—are the number one reason people quit their jobs.5

Here’s a comment from an employee preparing to quit a
stable, lucrative job posted in response to a blog about bad
boss behaviors.6
[The boss] doesn’t know what I do, doesn’t want to know,
but he suddenly pops in my office every time he sees a dip
in monthly production and acts like I am not doing my
job. . . . I try to explain and he doesn’t want to hear. That is
the most infuriating thing about him. You can discuss noth-
ing with him. . . . I can’t sleep and I . . . am miserable. Time
to go. I think he is going to miss my work after I am gone.
Value Both Leadership
and Followership
Who wants to be a follower? In the United States—the most
individualistic country in the world—we praise and value indi-
vidual leaders. This admiration of leaders is not shared by all
cultures. In collectivist cultures, standing out from the group is
considered arrogant. Instead, loyal, hard-working followers are
admired. In the United States, being a follower receives little
praise. Garry Wills captured this perception in his book Certain
Trumpets: The Nature of Leaders:
Talk about the nobility of leaders, the need for them, our

reliance
on them, raises the clear suspicion that followers are not so
noble, not needed—that there is something demeaning about
being a follower. In that view, leaders only rise by sinking
others to
subordinate roles.9
In effective groups, leaders and followers share ideas and
opinions. They collaborate to achieve a common goal. Follow-
ers have a say about where they are being led. After all, without
followers, there would be no one to lead.
The leadership n followership dialectic is significant to
group success. Effective leaders put their egos aside and bring
out the leadership in others. Think of how many “ordinary”
people came forward to take leadership roles during the hor-
rific events of September 11, 2001. Office workers in the World
Trade Center organized coworkers to carry injured colleagues
down thousands of stairs. Local businesses and volunteers
worked cooperatively to provide food and comfort to the hun-
dreds of people involved in the rescue and recovery operation.
Other businesses donated office space to companies whose
operations had been destroyed when the towers collapsed.10
Mayor Rudy Giuliani was widely credited and praised for his
leadership during the crisis, but there were hundreds of other

extraordinary leaders and thousands of dedicated followers
doing what was needed to help New York City recover from a
monstrous attack.
80 Chapter 5
there can be a long and difficult period of adjustment
for everyone. One student described this difficult pro-
cess as follows:
For five summers, I worked as a counselor at a county day
camp for underprivileged children. Anthony was our boss,
and all of us liked him. We worked hard for Anthony
because we knew he’d look the other way if we showed up
late or left early on a Friday. As long as the kids were safe
and supervised, he didn’t bother us. But when Anthony
was promoted into management at the county government
office, we got Tyler. The first few weeks were awful. Tyler
would dock us if we were late. No one could leave early.
He demanded that we come up with more activities for the
kids. After-work pool parties were banned. He even made
us attend a counselors’ meeting every morning, rather than
once every couple of weeks. But, in the end, most of us had

to admit that Tyler was a better director. The camp did
more for the kids, and that was the point.
When group members elect or appoint a leader from
within the group, the initial challenges can be just as diffi-
cult. If the person who once worked next to you becomes
your boss, the adjustment can be problematic. Here, a busi-
ness executive describes how difficult it was when she was
promoted to vice president:
When I was promoted, I became responsible for making
decisions that affected my colleagues, many of whom
were close friends. I was given the authority to approve
projects, recommend salary increases, and grant promo-
tions. Colleagues who had always been open and honest
with me were more cautious and careful about what
they said. I had to deny requests from people I cared
about, while approving requests from colleagues with
whom I often disagreed. Even though I was the same
person, I was treated differently, and as a result, I
behaved differently.
Being plucked from a group in order to lead it changes
the nature of your relationship with the other members of
the group. Even though the members know you well, you

still must earn their trust and respect as a leader. Here are
three suggestions:
• Involve the group in decision making as much as
possible.
• Discuss ground rules for interactions with friends
while assuring them of your continued friendship.
• Share your concerns with group members and ask for
their ideas and help in resolving problems.14
5.2.2: Emergent Leaders
Very often, the most effective leadership occurs when a
leader emerges from a group rather than being promoted,
elected, or appointed. The leaders of many political, religious,
and community organizations emerge. An emergent leader
5.2: Becoming a Leader
5.2 Contrast the strategies for becoming a leader and
being a leader
Anyone can become a leader. Abraham Lincoln, Harry
Truman, and Barack Obama rose from humble beginnings

and hardship to become U.S. presidents. Corporate execu-
tives have worked their way up from the sales force and
the secretarial pool to become chief executive officers.
Consider the following:
• Former Verizon CEO Ivan Seidenberg, the son of an
electrical supply shop owner, started his business
career as a telephone cable splicer’s assistant.11
• Sam Walton milked cows on the family farm and sold
magazines in Oklahoma before he acquired his first
variety store which eventually grew into Wal-Mart.12
• Oprah Winfrey, born to an unwed teenager and raised
on her grandmother’s farm in Kosciusko, Mississippi,
became a CEO and the richest self-made woman in the
United States.13
The path to a leadership position can be as easy as
being in the right place at the right time, or being the only
person willing to take on a difficult job. Becoming the
leader of a group usually occurs in one of two ways: being
chosen to lead or naturally emerging as a leader.
5.2.1: Designated Leaders

A designated leader is selected by group members or by
an outside authority. You may be hired for a job that gives
you authority over others. You may be promoted or
elected to a leadership position. You may be assigned to
chair a special work team or subcommittee. In all of these
cases, the selection of the leader depends on an election or
an appointment.
Sometimes, less-than-deserving people are appointed
or elected to powerful leadership positions. Is it possible,
then, for a designated leader to be an effective leader? Of
course it is, particularly when a leader’s abilities match the
needs of the group and its goal.
Designated leaders face unique challenges. When a
newly appointed leader enters a well-established group,
Leadership Followership
Figure 5.2 Balancing Leadership and Followership
Group Leadership 81

TaLk EarLy and OfTEn (and LisTEn TO OThErs)
Research shows that the person who speaks first and most
often is more likely to emerge as the group’s leader.15 The
number of contributions is even more important than the
quality of those contributions. The quality of your contribu-
tions becomes more significant after you become a leader.
The link between participation and leadership “is the
most consistent finding in small group leadership research.
Participation demonstrates both your motivation to lead
and your commitment to the group.”16 Although talking
early and often does not guarantee you a leadership posi-
tion, failure to talk will keep you from being considered as
a leader. Yet don’t overdo it. If you talk too much, members
may think that you are not interested in or willing to listen
to their contributions. Although it’s important to talk, it’s
just as important to demonstrate your willingness and abil-
ity to listen.
knOw MOrE Than OThErs (and sharE whaT
yOu knOw) Leaders often emerge or are appointed
because they are seen as experts—people who know more
about a topic or task than other members. A potential
leader who merely explains ideas and information more
clearly than other group members may be perceived as

knowing more.
Groups need well-informed leaders, but they do not
need know-it-alls who see their own comments as most
important. Effective leaders value everyone’s contribu-
tions. Members who want to become leaders understand
that they must demonstrate their expertise without intimi-
dating other group members.
ExprEss yOur OpiniOn (and wELCOME disagrEE-
MEnT) When groups have difficulty making decisions or
solving problems, they appreciate someone who offers
good ideas and informed opinions. Members often emerge
as leaders when they help a group resolve problems. How-
ever, offering ideas and opinions is not the same as having
them accepted. Use caution when discussing differences
with other group members. Criticism may cause resent-
ment and defensiveness. Bullying your way into a leader-
ship position by rejecting the ideas and opinions of
members can backfire. If you are unwilling to listen to alter-
natives or to collaborate, group members may not be will-
ing to follow you. “Effective leaders welcome disagreement.
They do not suppress conflict, they rise and face it.”17
The strategies for becoming a leader are not necessarily

the strategies needed for successful leadership. Although
you may talk a lot, demonstrate superior knowledge, and
assert your personal opinions in order to become a leader,
you may find that the dialectic opposites—listening rather
than talking, valuing the knowledge of others, and seeking
a wide range of opinions—are equally necessary to succeed
as a leader.
is a person who gradually achieves leadership by interact-
ing with group members and contributing to the achieve-
ment of the group’s goal. Emergent leaders do not have to
spend time learning about the group, its goals, and its
norms. They also have some assurance that the group wants
them to be its leader.
5.2.3: Strategies for Becoming
a Leader
Although there is no method guaranteeing that you will
emerge or be designated as a group’s leader, certain strate-
gies can improve your chances. All of them require an
approach that takes advantage of the opportunities for
leadership without abusing its privileges (Figure 5.3).
Martin Luther King, Jr. emerged as a leader. He went from
being the

pastor at a church in Montgomery, Alabama, and Atlanta,
Georgia, to
a civil rights activist . . . and the rest is history.
Talk Early and Often
Know More than Others
Express Your Opinion
Listen to Others
Share What You Know
Welcome Disagreement
How to Become a Leader How to Be a Good Leader
Figure 5.3 Strategies for Becoming a Leader
82 Chapter 5
5.3: Leadership and Power

5.3 describe the strengths and weaknesses of the
different types of leadership power
You cannot fully understand the dynamics of leadership
unless you also understand the dynamics of power. In the
context of group communication, power is the ability and/
or authority to influence members, shape decisions, and
control resources through a variety of means. Leadership
experts Warren Bennis and Bruce Nanus claim that power
is “the quality without which leaders cannot lead.”19 In the
hands of a just and wise leader, power is a positive force; in
the hands of an unjust or foolish leader, power can be a
destructive and corrupting force.
Group Assessment Are You Ready to Lead?18
Complete the Are You Ready to Lead? survey to gain insights
into your attitudes about and behaviors as a leader. Keep in
mind that this instrument is not a
personality test, but a self-assessment that can help you develop
and improve strategies and skills for becoming a highly
effective leader.
Directions: Indicate the extent to which you agree with each of

the statements, using the following scale:
1 = SD: strongly disagree; 2 = D: disagree; 3 = U: undecided;
4 = A: agree; 5 = SA: strongly agree.
Scoring and Interpretation: Calculate your total score by adding
the numbers circled. A tentative interpretation of the scoring is
as follows:
90–100 high readiness for the leadership role
60–89 moderate readiness for the leadership role
40–59 some uneasiness with the leadership role
39 or less low readiness for the leadership role
If you are already a successful leader and have a low score on
this survey, you can ignore the results or reevaluate your
leadership behavior in terms of improving
your effectiveness. If you scored low and you are not yet a
leader, study the statements carefully. Look for ways to change
your approach and behavior so you can
eventually answer more statements with a 4 or a 5.
Group Leadership 83

5.3.2: The Power of Power
What kind of power is best? The answer depends on
many factors, including the type of group, the situation or
organization, member characteristics, and the group’s
goal. For example, reward power works best in groups in
which the leader controls something that members value.
It is less effective when the so-called rewards are insig-
nificant or trivial.
Research examining French and Raven’s five cate-
gories of power (reward, coercive, legitimate, expert,
and referent) concludes that reward power, legitimate
power, and coercive power are the least effective. “They
either have no influence or a negative influence both on
how people act at work and on job satisfaction. Expert
power and referent power tend to produce positive out-
comes.”21
In the extreme, highly coercive leaders can range
from the “abusive tyrant who yells at and humiliates
people to the manipulative sociopath. At their worst,
leaders who rely on coercive power have no idea how
destructive they are—or they simply don’t care.”22 How-
ever, coercive power can be “effective when those subject

to this form of power are aware of expectations and are
warned in advance about the penalties for failure to com-
ply. Leaders using coercive power must consistently
carry out threatened punishments.”23 In contrast, referent
power (a form of personal power) is influential because it
is recognized and conferred by the group rather than by
an outside source.
Most group leaders employ several types of power,
depending on the needs of the group and the situation.
Some leaders may have the power to reward, coerce, and
persuade as well as legitimate, expert, informational, refer-
ent, and/or charismatic power. Leaders of other groups
may depend on only one or two types of power. Regardless
of type or number, the more power a leader has, the more
carefully its use should be balanced with the needs of the
group. If you exert too much power, your group may lose
5.3.1: Types of Power
Many researchers study power and its relationship to
group leadership. Here, we combine the work of two sets
of researchers. John French and Bertram Raven classify
power into five categories: reward power, coercive power,
legitimate power, expert power, and referent power. Psy-
chologists Gary Yukl and Cecilia Fable add three additional

types of power: informational power, persuasive power,
and charisma. Yukl and Fable note that if you combine
French and Raven’s five categories with their three catego-
ries, you end up with two basic types of power,20 which we
call position power and personal power (Figure 5.4). Position
power is authority derived from a member’s job responsi-
bilities or official status within an organization. Personal
power is authority that stems from an individual’s charac-
ter, competence, and earned status. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show
the four types of power in each of these two categories.
Types of
Power
Position Power: Comes
with the position
Legitimate Power
Charismatic Power
Persuasive Power
Referent Power

Expert Power
Informational Power
Coercive Power
Reward Power
Personal Power: Comes
from personal
characteristics
Figure 5.4 Types of Power
Table 5.1 Position Power: Comes with the Position
Type Description Example
Legitimate Power Relies on the authority
of a job title or duty
“I have the authority to
lead.”
Reward Power Relies on the ability to
give out resources val-

ued by members
“I can reward you.”
Coercive Power Relies on the ability to
deal out sanctions and
punishments
“I can punish you.”
Informational Power Relies on the control
and transmission of
needed information
“I have the information
you need.”
Table 5.2 Personal Power: Comes from Personal
Characteristics
Type Description Example
Expert Power Relies on expertise
and credentials

“I have the knowledge
and skills we need.”
Referent Power Relies on members’
respect for and
experience with the
leader
“I’ve earned your
respect and trust.”
Persuasive Power Relies on effective and
strategic communica-
tion skills
“I know how to per-
suade and encourage
others.”
Charismatic Power Relies on a leader’s
character, compe-
tence, and vitality
“I have the energy, will,
and passion to make

things happen.”
84 Chapter 5
5.4: Leadership Theories
5.4 Compare the relative merits of the trait, styles, and
situational leadership theories
In Leadership, Warren Bennis and Bruce Nanus point out
that “no clear and unequivocal understanding exists as to
what distinguishes leaders from non-leaders, and perhaps
more important, what distinguishes effective leaders from
ineffective leaders.”30 Despite such inconclusive results,
there is something to learn from most leadership theories.
This chapter examines several theoretical approaches to
leadership, including trait theory, styles theory, situational
theory, and others (Figure 5.5).
Ethics in Groups
Leadership Integrity
Objective: Explain the importance of leadership integrity.

Leadership integrity is the consistency between a leader’s
words and deeds and a perception that the leader and mem-
bers share common values and goals.24 Leaders with integrity
are honest, have strong moral principles, and do the right thing
consistently, regardless of circumstances. Reliability, decency,
respectfulness, and trustworthiness are at the hallmarks of
integrity.25 Worldwide surveys of business professionals iden-
tify integrity and honesty as the characteristics they most
admire in a leader.26
Leaders without integrity are often referred to as “hypo-
crites” or as “two-faced.”27 They may talk the talk, but don’t
walk the walk. Leaders with integrity honor their commitments
and keep their promises. They practice what they preach,
regardless of emotional or social pressure. For example, if a
good friend in your group asks to chair a committee and you’ve
already promised that position to another member, you should
keep your promise even if it might jeopardize your friendship.
Consider the ways in which political candidates develop
and even change their positions based on the outcomes of polls
and pressure from major donors and special interest groups.
Without integrity, leadership can become an ego trip—or, even
worse, a power trip. Warren Bennis and Joan Goldsmith use the

metaphor of effective leadership as a stool with three legs—
“ambition, competence, and integrity—[which] must remain in
balance if the leader is to be a constructive force.” If one of
these
leadership legs is missing, the group may fall over (or fall
apart).
A leader with too much ambition and/or not enough compe-
tence or integrity risks becoming a destructive force, pursuing
selfish goals rather than goals that benefit the group.28
The Center for Business Ethics at Bentley College poses
five questions that can help you decide the extent to which
your leadership behaviors—or those of leaders you follow—
are ethical or unethical.29 All of these questions assess
whether leadership integrity is demonstrated consistently,
regardless of circumstances.
• Is it right? Does the leader conform to universally accepted
principles of right and wrong, such as, “Thou shalt not steal”?
• Is it fair? Would the leader overlook a competent person
in order to promote a less competent relative or friend?
• Who gets hurt? Does the leader try to do the greatest
good for the greatest number of people?

• Who hears about it? Would the leader be comfortable if
the details of decisions or actions were made public in the
media or through email? What would the leader tell a child
to do in similar circumstances?
• How does it smell? If a reasonable person with good com-
mon sense were to look at the leader’s decision or action,
would it “smell” suspicious or bad? Would it seem wrong?
Watch the video “The Politics of Sociology,” which illustrates
concepts in this section of the chapter.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Leadership Integrity

As the group’s designated leader, what could Steve, the
department
chair, have done to help the faculty collaborate more effectively
in
this very important discussion? What kinds of power could or
should
he have used to influence members, shape decisions, manage
mem-
ber participation, and avoid nonproductive arguments?
SITUATIONAL
THEORY
Matching
Leaders and
Leadership
Jobs
STYLES
THEORY
Are
Democracies

Always
Best?
TRAIT
THEORY
You Have
It or
You Don’t
Three Theoretical Approaches to Leadership
Figure 5.5 Leadership Theories
its energy and enthusiasm. If you don’t exert enough
power, your group may flounder and fail.
Group Leadership 85
work in different styles—tough or gentle, comic or tragic—
different styles are attributed to leaders. Early attempts to
describe different leadership styles yielded the three cate-

gories mentioned here, which form a continuum of leader-
ship control. Autocratic leaders exert a great deal of control,
democratic leaders employ a moderate amount of control,
and laissez-faire leaders maintain the least control.36
auTOCraTiC LEadErs An autocratic leader uses
power and authority to strictly control the direction and
outcome of group work. They make many of the group’s
decisions, establish goals with little or no input from oth-
ers, expect followers to obey orders, take personal credit
for group success, and tend to use reward power and coer-
cive power. Autocratic leaders are more likely to dominate
discussions and are less likely to listen to others.
Dr. Sandy Faber, a well-known astronomer, wrote about
her experience leading a group of six astronomers who devel-
oped a new theory about the expansion of the universe. An
unfortunate back injury made her take a new look at her auto-
cratic leadership style. Rather than directing and controlling
the group process, she had to lie on a portable cot when she
met with the research team. She discovered that leading a
group from a cot was almost impossible. But from that posi-
tion, she also learned a valuable lesson about leadership:
It was the best thing that could have happened to us. The

resultant power vacuum allowed each of us to quietly
find our own best way to contribute. I now think that in
small groups of able and motivated individuals, giving
orders or setting up a well-defined hierarchy may gener-
ate more friction than it is designed to cure.37
Although many people assume that democratic lead-
ership is always best, an autocratic style may be more
effective under certain circumstances. During a serious cri-
sis, there may not be enough time to discuss issues or con-
sider the wishes of members. Autocratic leaders may
produce more accurate solutions if they are more knowl-
edgeable or skilled than other members. Certainly, a mili-
tary combat leader can’t stop when under fire to consult
everyone in the group.38 In such cases, a group may be
thankful that an autocratic leader is fully in charge.
dEMOCraTiC LEadErs A democratic leader promotes
the interests of group members and practices social equal-
ity. As the name implies, democratic leaders behave quite
differently than autocratic leaders. Democratic leaders
share decision making with the group, promote collabora-
tion, focus on group morale as well as the task, give the
group credit for success, and tend to rely on referent power
and expert power to motivate members.

There are, however, potential drawbacks to democratic
leadership. Democratic collaboration takes time and can be
unmanageable in large groups. Also, by failing to take charge
in a crisis or to curb a discussion when decisions need to be
5.4.1: Trait Leadership Theory
In 1841, Thomas Carlyle’s book On Heroes, Hero-Worship,
and the Heroic History led to what we now call Trait Leader-
ship Theory.31 Often referred to as “The Great Man” theory,
this theory is based on the assumption that leaders are
born, not made. Trait Leadership Theory is an approach to
leadership that identifies physical, behavioral, personality,
competency, and attitudinal traits that characterize suc-
cessful leadership across a variety of situations.
Think of the leaders you admire. What traits do they
have? Do they possess self-confidence, humility, trustwor-
thiness, high tolerance of frustration, warmth, humor,
enthusiasm, extroversion, assertiveness, emotional stabil-
ity, adaptability, farsightedness, and openness to new
experiences?32 Although most of us would gladly follow a
leader with these qualities, there is no guarantee that hav-
ing these traits will make you a good leader. In fact, many
effective leaders only exhibit a few of these traits. For

example, Harriet Tubman, an illiterate runaway slave, did
little talking but led hundreds of people from bondage in
the South to freedom in the North. Bill Gates, an intro-
verted computer geek, became one of the richest men on
earth as head of Microsoft, a company that all but dictates
how we use personal computers.
According to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®, a spe-
cific set of traits characterizes “life’s natural leaders.” These
“extroverted thinkers” use reasoning ability to influence
and direct those around them.33 They are usually enthusias-
tic, decisive, confident, organized, logical, and argumenta-
tive. They love to lead, enjoy debating challenging
questions, use their ingenuity and logic to develop new
ideas and strategies, and provide others with plans and
structures to help them work toward a common goal.34
Although they often assume or win leadership positions,
extroverted thinkers may not always be effective leaders
because they may intimidate or overpower others. They
also may be insensitive to the personal feelings and needs
of group members. Although many extroverted thinkers
become leaders, they may need to develop a less intense,
more balanced approach in order to succeed as leaders.
Since its inception in the late 19th century, Trait Leader-

ship Theory has gone well beyond a leader’s physical char-
acteristics, basic nature, and obvious skills. Contemporary
researchers have expanded the list of traits to include a
wider range of leadership traits, including a strong desire to
lead, intelligence, problem-solving skills, expertise, social
sensitivity, and most of all, superior communication skills.35
5.4.2: Styles Leadership Theory
As a way of expanding the trait approach to the study of
leadership, styles Leadership Theory is an approach to
leadership that identifies three distinct leadership styles:
autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire. Just as actors
86 Chapter 5
5.4.3: Situational Leadership Theory
We now know that a single trait or style of effective lead-
ership does not work for every group and every situa-
tion. Harvard University’s Richard Hackman explains
that effective leadership “involves inventing and com-
petently executing whatever actions are most likely to
create and sustain” an effective group.45 Situational
Leadership Theory describes the actions needed by a

particular leader to achieve a particular group’s goal in a
particular situation.
According to situational Leadership Theory, effec-
tive leaders choose leadership strategies that appropri-
ately match their group and the circumstances in which
they work together. Most of us do this in our daily inter-
actions with other people. We may be extra patient with
nervous colleagues on their first few days at a new job.
We check up on some group members more than others
because we know they’ll forget meeting times and dead-
lines.46 In this section, we examine two models that
share the assumptions of Situational Leadership Theory:
the Hersey–Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
and Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership Effec-
tiveness.
finalized, democratic leaders may be perceived as weak or
indecisive by their followers. That said, the benefits of demo-
cratic leadership far outweigh the costs. In groups with dem-
ocratic leadership, members are usually more satisfied with
the group experience, more loyal to the leader, and more pro-
ductive in the long run. Members often fear or distrust an
autocratic leader, but they usually enjoy working with a
democratic leader.39

LaissEz-fairE LEadErs Laissez-faire is a French phrase
that roughly means “to let people do as they choose.” A
laissez-faire leader lets the group take charge of most deci-
sions and actions. Group members set their own goals, cre-
ate their own work schedules and procedures, and may
dislike interference or advice from their leader. In mature
and highly productive groups, a laissez-faire leader may
be a perfect match for the group. Such a laid-back leader-
ship style can generate a climate in which open communi-
cation is encouraged and rewarded. Unfortunately,
laissez-faire leaders do little or nothing to help a group
when it needs decisive leadership. Figure 5.6 illustrates the
continuum of leadership styles.
Democratic Laissez-FaireAutocratic
High Control Low Control
Figure 5.6 The Leadership Styles Continuum
Although Trait Leadership Theory and Styles Leader-
ship Theory are not as popular or accepted as they were in
the past, they greatly influenced the development of subse-
quent theories that have advanced our knowledge about

and understanding of leadership.40
Cultivate the Two Sides
of “Great” Leadership
In Leadership without Easy Answers, Ronald Heifetz describes
effective leaders as people who walk a razor’s edge (ouch!).
He offers this example: If you challenge group members too
quickly with too much to do, they will resist your leadership
and resent the chaos your expectations create for them. If you
challenge members too slowly with too little, they may blame
you for their lack of motivation and progress. Effective leaders
stay balanced on the edge by adapting to the group, its mem-
bers, and changing situations.41
Jim Collins, author of Good to Great, assembled a research
team with the goal of comparing the attributes of “good” and
“great” companies in similar industries, as well as those of com-
panies that had tried to move from “good” to “great” status but
failed. In terms of leadership, he found that the great leaders of
great companies balanced two dimensions: professional will
and personal humility.42
Collins contends that, to lead your group to greatness,

you must be willing to keep your ego in check for the sake of
the group’s well-being and common goal. Those who aren’t
willing to do this are not well-suited to this type of leadership.
“For these people, work will always be first and foremost about
what they get—fame, fortune, adulation, power, whatever—
and not what they build, create, and contribute.”43 Notice how
the two sides of leadership—professional will and personal
humility—balance one another in Figure 5.7.44
Professional Will
Creates superb results in
achieving a clear goal
Does what needs to be
done to achieve the group’s
goal
Sets high standards for
achieving the group’s goal
Allocates responsibility
for succeeding or failing
objectively and fairly

Personal Humility
Acts modestly, never boastful;
shuns public glorification
Acts with calm determination;
relies on inspiring standards
and motivational strategies
Channels ambition into
achieving the group’s goal;
sets up worthy successors
Gives credit for success to
other people, not to self
Figure 5.7 Balancing the Two Sides of Leadership
Group Leadership 87
hErsEy–BLanChard siTuaTiOnaL LEadErship®
MOdEL The hersey–Blanchard situational Leader-
ship Model links specific leadership styles to the readi-

ness of group members.47 Member readiness is the
extent to which group members are willing and able to
work together in order to achieve a common goal. Will-
ingness is characterized by confidence, commitment,
and motivation; ability relies on knowledge, expertise,
and skill. As member readiness increases, leaders should
rely more on relationship behaviors and less on task
behaviors. The type and level of member readiness dic-
tates the type and level of effective leader behavior. The
following summary of guidelines based on the Hersey–
Blanchard Situational Leadership Model is illustrated in
Figure 5.8:48
2. The Selling Stage
(moderate member readiness)
3. The Participating Stage
(moderate to high member readiness)
1. The Telling Stage
(low member readiness)
4. The Delegating Stage
(high member readiness)

High
Guidance
Leadership
Behavior
Low
Guidance
Leadership
Behavior
High Supportive
Leadership Behavior
Low Supportive
Leadership Behavior
Figure 5.8 The Hersey–Blanchard Situational Leadership
Model
fiEdLEr’s COnTingEnCy MOdEL Of LEadErship
EffECTivEnEss Management expert Fred Fiedler
developed one of the most influential approaches to situ-
ational leadership. fiedler’s Contingency Model of Lead-

ership Effectiveness contends that effective leadership
occurs only when there is an ideal match between the
leader’s style and the group’s situation.49 Fiedler charac-
terizes leadership styles as being either task motivated or
relationship motivated. Task-motivated leaders derive
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
The Hersey–Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
Explain which of the four stages require(s) high member
readiness,
and why.
Table 5.3 Task-Motivated Leaders and Relationship-
Motivated Leaders
Leadership
Style

Leader
Motivation Leader Behavior
Task-Motivated
Leaders
Want the job
done even if it
results in not
getting along
with other
members
• May appear efficient and strong
• May ignore group morale
• May confront disruptive members
• May do the work of other mem-
bers because of dissatisfaction
with work quality or quantity
Relationship-
Motivated
Leaders

Want to get
along with other
members even
if it results in
not getting the
job done
• May ignore task requirements
• May tolerate disruptive members
• May appear inefficient and weak
• May do the work of other mem-
bers to avoid asking them to do
more
ThrEE faCTOrs ThaT affECT LEadErship EffEC-
TivEnEss
Fiedler proposed that highly effective leadership occurs only
when
there is an ideal match between the leader’s style and the
group’s
work situation. Successful coaches, managers, volunteer
coordinators,

college presidents, and military officers often match their
leadership
style to the nature of the group’s situation and goal.
major satisfaction in getting things done and doing them
well. relationship-motivated leaders derive major satis-
faction from positive interpersonal relationships with
group members.50 Notice the dialectic tensions between
these two leadership styles in Table 5.3.
Once you have determined your leadership style, you can
analyze how well your style matches your group’s situa-
tion. According to Fiedler, leadership effectiveness in a
88 Chapter 5
GroupWork The Least-Preferred-Coworker Scale51
Fiedler claims that very few leaders are both task motivated and
relationship motivated. Most leaders are motivated by only one
style. Before learning more
about Fiedler’s Contingency Model, complete The Least-
Preferred Coworker Scale.

Directions: We have all worked better with some people than
with others at one time or another. Think of the one person in
your life with whom you have worked
least well, a person who might have caused you difficulty in
doing a job or completing a task. Select someone with whom
you currently have a relationship, have
worked recently, or have interacted in the past. This person
must be the single individual with whom you have had the most
difficulty getting a job done, the person
with whom you would least want to work in the future.
On the following scale, describe this person by selecting the
number that best represents your perception of this person.
There are no right or wrong answers. Do
not omit any items, and select a single number for each item.
given situation is determined by “three primary factors
that control the amount of influence a leader has over fol-
lowers.” These situational factors are (1) leader–member
relations, (2) task structure, and (3) leader power.
• Leader–member relations
Leader–member relations describes the extent to
which a leader gets along with group members.

Because leader–member relations can be positive,
neutral, or negative, they affect the way an effective
leader mobilizes a group toward achieving a common
goal. A strong and positive leader–member relation-
ship is characterized by loyalty, friendliness, trust, and
respect. Fiedler claims that leader–member relations
“are the most important single aspect of situational
control.”52
Scoring: Obtain your Least-Preferred-Coworker (LPC) score by
adding up the 18 numbers you selected. Your score should be
somewhere between 18 and 144.
Relationship-Motivated Leader. If your score is 73 or more, you
derive satisfaction from good relationships with group members.
You are most successful when a
situation has just enough uncertainty to challenge you: moderate
leader–member relationships, moderate task structure, and
moderate power.
Task-Motivated Leader. If your score is 64 or less, you derive
satisfaction from getting things done. You are most successful
when a situation has clear guidelines or
no guidelines at all: excellent or poor leader–member

relationships, highly structured or unstructured tasks, and high
or low power.
Relationship- and Task-Motivated Leader. If your score is
between 65 and 72, you may be flexible enough to function in
both leadership styles.
Group Leadership 89
forms well in extremes—when the leader has a great deal
of control, can devote time to developing good relation-
ships with group members, and when the group’s task is
clear. Task-motivated leaders are also effective when the
situation comes with little control, poor leader–member
relationships, or an unstructured task. In this second
extreme, a task-motivated leader performed well by being
tough and commanding in order to complete the task at
hand. Task-motivated leaders do well in extreme situations
because their primary motivation is to take charge and get
the job done.
Relationship-motivated leaders are most effective
when there is a moderate level of situational factors.

There is just enough uncertainty to challenge them
without increasing their stress or losing sight of the
group’s goal. When they face highly structured tasks
with uncooperative groups of followers relationship-
motivated leaders use diplomacy and work with group
members to improve leader–member relationships. If
there are good leader–member relationships but an
unstructured task, relationship-motivated leaders may
rely on the resources of the group to develop a rational
plan of action. Relationship-motivated leaders depend
on the group to help them adapt to situational factors.
Rather than relying on a leader to take charge of or
modify the situation, the group collaborates with its
leader to find ways of adapting to situational factors.
Fiedler understood that your leadership style, be it
task or relationship motivated, is part of who you are
and very difficult to change. Thus, if you face a situation
that does not match your leadership style, you may be
more successful if you can re-engineer the task’s situa-
tional factors:54
• Improve leader relations by spending more time with
group members and providing positive feedback.

• Meet informally with a few group members at a time
to get to know them better and give them the opportu-
nity to know you better.
• Modify the task structure by working with members to
come up with a practical plan or set of procedures they
support.
• Divide a task into smaller, easier-to-achieve subunits,
or collaborate with and encourage group members to
develop a structured, organizational plan for doing
the work.
• Modify your power by asking members to participate
in decision making and problem solving, or assert
your power by demonstrating your expertise and
ability to make effective decisions in a crisis. If you
have a great deal of power and run the risk of intimi-
dating group members, you may want to delegate
some of your duties and power to capable group
members.55
Highly
Effective

Less
Effective
RELATIONSHIP-
MOTIVATED
LEADERS
TASK-
MOTIVATED
LEADERS
High Control of
Leader–Member
Relationships,
Task Structure,
and Power
Low Control of
Leader–Member
Relationships,
Task Structure,
and Power
E
ff

ec
ti
ve
L
ea
d
er
sh
ip
P
er
fo
rm
an
ce
Situational

Factors
Figure 5.9 Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership
Effectiveness
• Task structure
Task structure describes the degree to which a group’s
task is structured or unstructured, well-organized, or
disorganized. Whereas highly structured tasks have
clear goals, specified procedures for achieving the goal,
and measurable outcomes, unstructured tasks can be
accomplished in a variety of ways with a variety of
outcomes. Building a bridge and performing brain sur-
gery are highly structured tasks. Planning and manag-
ing the celebration of a college’s 100th anniversary,
however, requires creativity, flexibility, and resource-
fulness. To determine the degree of task structure, ask
yourself the following questions: Is the goal clearly
stated? Are there standard procedures for achieving
the goal or are there many ways to do this? Are there
well-established criteria for measuring success or can a
variety of outcomes be successful?
• Leader power

The third situational factor is leader power, the extent to
which a leader has the ability to influence members,
shape decisions, and control resources through a variety
of means. Although leaders can be granted position
power (derived from job responsibilities or official sta-
tus) and/or earn personal power (derived from the
leader’s character, competence, and earned status),
effective leadership is based on members’ willingness to
accept the leader’s right to lead. Fiedler sees power as
the least important of the three situational factors. He
notes that, no matter how much power you have, it may
not be enough “to prevent sabotage . . . or to evoke more
than grudging effort from an uncooperative group.”53
MaTChing LEadErship sTyLEs TO ThE siTuaTiOn
Fiedler’s research suggests that there are ideal matches
between a leader’s style and a group situation. As shown
in Figure 5.9, a task-motivated leader derives major satis-
faction from getting things done. This type of leader per-
90 Chapter 5

All of the theories in this section rightfully assume that there
are no simple or right ways that work in every situation or
with every group. They differ in terms of the factors that shape
leadership choices. For example, the Hersey–Blanchard model
tells a leader what to do in four different types of situations,
regardless of whether the leader has the aptitude or skill to do
what the situation calls for. The Fiedler model is more com-
plex. It explains that an effective leader’s style and skills must
match the nature of the group and the situation. In other
words, leaders who are very effective in one kind of situation
and with particular types of groups may be less successful in
another situation and with other types of group members.
One central principle is common to all of the theories
in this section: The ability to understand and select appro-
priate communication strategies and to communicate skill-
fully are critical components of effective leadership.
5.5: The 5M Model of
Leadership Effectiveness
5.5 Review the importance of each function in the 5M
Model of Leadership Effectiveness
Given the millions of words about leadership published by

scholars, management gurus, and popular press writers,
you may have difficulty sorting out the dos and don’ts of
effective leadership. To help you understand and apply the
Theory in Groups
An Abundance of Leadership
Theories
Objective: Evaluate the role of communication skills in the con-
text of Servant, Charismatic, Transformational, and Functional
Leadership Theories.
Contemporary theorists and researchers have gone well beyond
trait, styles, and situational approaches in search of new expla-
nations and models of effective leadership. Sometimes it seems
as though there are as many theories about leadership as there
are leadership theorists. The following are four other theories
you
may encounter as you learn more about leadership and observe
how excellent (and not-so-excellent) leaders lead:
• Servant Leadership Theory focuses on how leaders
serve the needs of followers by motivating them to collabo-
rate with one another in pursuit of a common goal. Servant
leaders display many of the communication strategies and

skills we emphasize in this textbook: listening, empathy,
persuasion, and team building. A servant leader is ready,
willing, and able to work alongside group members. High
in integrity, servant leaders model leadership behavior.
They consistently walk the walk, practice what they preach,
keep their promises, and display personal humility.
• Charismatic Leadership Theory focuses on leaders who
exhibit a special dynamism, captivating charm and/or vision-
ary appeal that inspires loyalty to the leader and arouses
enthusiasm for a group’s common goal. Charismatic lead-
ers often possess referent power, expert power, and the
ability to get members excited and highly involved in the
task.56 Michael Hackman and Craig Johnson, two well-
known leadership experts, write, “We believe that charisma is
the product of communication”57 (italics in original). Hack-
man and Johnson identify Steve Jobs, the former Apple
CEO, as a self-confident and visionary charismatic leader
with extraordinary communication skills.58 Researchers
have even isolated specific vocal qualities in Jobs’ natural
“charismatic executive voice,” such as a “varied tonal range”
and an “abrupt increasing and decreasing vocal pitch.”59
• Transformational Leadership Theory focuses on how
leaders inspire group members, embrace change, and

achieve vision-based goals. When the CEO of a large con-
sulting firm was asked about her managerial hiring practices,
she responded that she looks “for transformational leader-
ship—leaders who actually drive transformation rather than
just reacting to it.”60 Transformational leaders rely on their
personal energy, persuasiveness, and integrity to make a
shared vision come true. They are also highly creative, inter-
active, visionary, empowering, and passionate.61 Unfortu-
nately, leaders without these innate traits may never reach
the heights of transformational leadership.
• Functional Leadership Theory focuses on the com-
municative behavior of leaders and group members that
enable a group to achieve its common goal. Functional
leadership is not the sole responsibility of the leader; it is
a job, not a person. Thus, anyone in the group can
assume leadership functions such as those comprised in
a variety of group roles: coordinator, information pro-
vider, opinion provider, questioner, clarifier, ana-
lyzer, implementer, harmonizer, motivator,
supporter, gatekeeper, or team builder.62
Servant
Leadership

Theory
Functional
Leadership
Theory
Transformational
Leadership
Theory
Charismatic
Leadership
Theory
Figure 5.10 Additional Leadership Theories
Group Leadership 91
2. Publicly champion your group and its goals. In addition to

praising group members directly, praise them to others
outside the group.
3. Speak and listen effectively and confidently. In addition to
speaking well, listen to group members as you would
have them listen to you.
4. Behave consistently, conscientiously, and assertively. Think
about how you would want to be treated and make
sure to follow your own golden rule.
5. Demonstrate competence and integrity. Roll up your
sleeves and take on difficult tasks. Stick with the task
and the group until the goal is achieved. Honor your
commitments and keep your promises. Do the right
thing—and do it consistently.
5.5.2: Motivate Members
Motivation provides the inspiration, incentives, and rea-
sons that move group members to work together to achieve
a common goal. Without motivation, members may know
what they need to do and even how to do it, but lack the
will and energy to get it done. Effective leaders tap into
essential intrinsic motivators to promote a sense of mean-
ingfulness, a sense of choice, a sense of competence, and

a sense of progress.
Mike Krzyzewski (“Coach K”), the highly successful
men’s basketball coach at Duke University, believes that
motivating team members is the key to his success.
As a coach, leader, and teacher, my primary task is
motivation. How do I get a group motivated, not only
to be their individual best but also to become better as
a team?65
Motivating leaders guide, develop, support, defend,
and inspire group members. They develop relationships
that “match the personal needs and expectations of fol-
lowers.”66 Effective leaders use carrots, not sticks, to moti-
vate members. Four leadership skills are central to
motivating members:
1. Seek members’ commitment to the group’s common goal.
Even if it takes extra time and effort, make sure mem-
bers genuinely support a clear and elevated goal.
2. Appropriately reward the group and its members. You can
be firm as long as you are fair in recognizing and
rewarding outstanding group work.

3. Help solve interpersonal problems and conflicts. Use appro-
priate, validated communication strategies and skills
to resolve conflicts constructively.
4. Adapt tasks and assignments to members’ abilities and
expectations. Don’t try to fit the “square peg” mem-
ber into a “round hole” role. Use group members’
talents to enhance group productivity and member
satisfaction.
contributions made by these various approaches, we offer
an integrated model of leadership effectiveness that focuses
on specific communication strategies and skills that may
vary for a particular group in a particular context.
As shown in Figure 5.11, the 5M Model of Leadership
Effectiveness identifies five interdependent leadership
functions:
1. Model leadership,
2. Motivate members,
3. Manage group process,

4. Make decisions, and
5. Mentor members.
These strategies incorporate the features of several the-
ories and provide a set of critical leadership behaviors.63
Motivate
Members
Manage
Group
Processes
Make
Decisions
Model
Leadership
Behavior
Mentor
Members

Figure 5.11 The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness
5.5.1: Model Leadership Behavior
Effective leaders project an image of confidence, compe-
tence, trustworthiness, and optimism. They provide a
model of leadership behavior and member effectiveness
while building a climate of mutual trust between the leader
and group members. Yet no matter how much you may
want to be a model leader, only your followers can grant
you that honor. In The Leadership Secrets of Colin Powell, the
author quotes Powell’s view on modeling behavior:
The leader sets an example. Whether in the Army or in
civilian life, the other people in an organization take their
cue from the leader—not from what the leader says but
what the leader does.64
We recommend the following strategies for modeling
effective leadership:
1. Exhibit exemplary participant behavior. Demonstrate the
value of adhering to constructive group norms, chal-
lenging nonproductive norms, and assuming essential
group roles.

92 Chapter 5
interpret your “out-loud” ideas as an order, the entire
group will benefit by discussing proposed options. If
a leader says, “I wonder if we should . . . ,” the group
should not necessarily assume the leader is telling the
group to do that.
3. Listen to members’ opinions, arguments, and suggestions.
When you listen effectively, you may discover that
group members need only a little help to make a deci-
sion or solve a problem on their own.
4. Explain the rationale for an impending intended decision.
When you are about to make a decision, let your group
know. They will not only be prepared for the outcome,
but may help you make an even better decision.
5.5.5: Mentor Members
Most successful leaders share stories about significant men-
tors who helped them mature and move ahead. The word
mentor comes from ancient Greece. In Homer’s Odyssey,

Mentor was the tutor and adviser to the hero Odysseus’s son.
Thus, the word mentor has come to mean a person who
teaches and gives advice to a less experienced and often
younger mentee—that is, the person being mentored. In his
book Great Leadership, Anthony Bell urges would-be leaders
to find a mentor, because a good “mentor will challenge you
to ask (and answer) the tough questions.”70
Good leaders are very busy people, particularly if they
model leadership, motivate members, manage group process,
and make decisions. Great leaders find the time and energy to
mentor others. They know that effective mentoring does
more than teach someone how to do a job—it also motivates
that person to set high standards, seek advice when needed,
and develop the skills characteristic of an excellent leader.
Effective mentors cultivate high-quality leader–member
relationships in which mentees develop a strong “commit-
ment to the organization, give it more energy and time,
take on greater responsibility,” and produce “positive out-
comes such as strong teamwork and performance beyond
job requirements.”71 The following strategies can help a
leader decide when and how to mentor group members:
1. Be ready and willing to mentor every group member.

Although you cannot be a full-time mentor for every-
one, you should be open to requests for advice. Even-
tually, you may develop close relationships with a few
mentees who share your vision.
2. Encourage and invite others to lead. Look for situations in
which group members can assume leadership respon-
sibilities. Ask them to chair a meeting, take responsibil-
ity for a group project, or implement a group’s decision.
And make sure they know you’re there as backup.
3. Inspire optimism. When problems or setbacks occur, do
not blame the group or its members. Instead, convert
the situation into a teachable moment and make sure
5.5.3: Manage Group Process
From the perspective of group survival, managing group
process is a critical function of leadership.67A group cannot
be effective if it is disorganized, lacks sufficient informa-
tion to solve problems, or is unable to make important
decisions. Four leadership skills can enhance your ability
to manage group process:
1. Organize and fully prepare for group meetings and work
sessions. You may take more time to prepare for a meet-

ing in order to effectively lead it.
2. Understand and adapt to members’ strengths and weak-
nesses. Capitalize on member strengths and help other
members overcome or minimize their weaknesses.
3. Help solve task-related problems and procedural problems.
When group members are working productively, help
them organize their tasks and adjust timetables, and
secure the necessary resources.
4. Monitor group interaction and intervene to improve group
performance. If you see a problem developing, inter-
vene and assist members before it becomes a crisis.
5.5.4: Make Decisions
Effective leaders make appropriate, timely, and responsible
decisions. Too often, we hear disgruntled group members
talk about their leader’s inability to make critical decisions
and act decisively. A high school teacher described this
fatal leadership flaw as follows:
Everyone agrees that our principal is a “nice guy” who
wants everyone to like him. He doesn’t want to “rock the
boat” or “make waves.” As a result, he doesn’t make deci-

sions or take decisive action when it’s most needed. He lis-
tens patiently to a request or to both sides of a dispute, but
that’s all he does. Our school comes to a standstill because
he won’t “bite the bullet.” The teachers have lost respect
for him, students and their parents know that they’ll get
what they want if they yell loudly or long enough, and the
superintendent often intervenes to fix the problem.
When you assume a leadership role, you must accept
the fact that some of your decisions will be unpopular, and
some may even turn out to be wrong. You still have to
make them, however, “for if you are seen as chronically
indecisive, people won’t let you lead them.”68 One com-
pany executive noted that as much as you may value col-
laborative consensus, “sometimes you just need to make a
decision.”69 The following strategies can help you deter-
mine when and how to intervene and make a decision:
1. Make sure that everyone shares and comprehends the infor-
mation needed to make quality decisions. Explain your
decision-making criteria to the group.
2. If appropriate, discuss your pending decision and solicit
feedback from members. As long as members don’t

Group Leadership 93
5.5.6: Balancing the 5 Ms
of Leadership Effectiveness
The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness is not a to-do
list, but a catalog of leadership strategies and skills you can
call on when needed. In some cases, you may model leader-
ship behavior without paying much attention to motivating
an already motivated group or focusing on group process
and procedures when the existing ones work well. Both the
Hersey–Blanchard Situational Leadership Model and
Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness
emphasize that effective leaders choose strategies appropri-
ate for a particular group in a particular context. If, for
example, you face a group with an unclear or unstructured
task, you may spend time managing the group process. If
motivated group members are unable to work because they
lack knowledge or skills, the obvious course of action is to
tell them what they need to know, explain how to do a job,
mentor members in need, and praise good work.
Effective leadership is a matter of balancing the com-
plex and often contradictory tensions that arise in groups.

Understanding the nature of the task and the group as well
as your own attributes and experiences can help you
choose the most effective strategies and skills for helping a
group achieve its common goal.
members learn to accept personal responsibility for a
problem and its consequences.72
Effective mentors create appropriate balance and
boundaries. They know when to intervene and when to
back off. A mentor is neither a psychiatric counselor nor a
group member’s best friend. At some point, even the best
mentors must let their mentees succeed or fail on their own.
Figure 5.12 The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness
in Action
While you read about each leader, think about which Ms best
exem-
plify their leadership.
Pope Francis
Pope Francis’s achievements go
well beyond his popularity. Although

he listens and takes advice from
others, he is not afraid to ignore
advice that runs counter to his
faith and the goals of the Church.
Bono
Bono is a U2 rock star and activist
who has become one of the world’s
most influential humanitarians and
leaders. His Global Fund has com-
mitted $19 billion to fight AIDS,
tuberculosis, and malaria in 144
countries.
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, an opposition
political leader in Myanmar (formerly
Burma), was placed under house
arrest by the government for 15
years until 2010. She won the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, and in
November 2015, her National
League for Democracy (NLD) party

won a majority in parliament, end-
ing a half century of dominance by
the military.
Geoffrey Canada
Geoffrey Canada is an American
educator and social activist. He has
been president of the Harlem Chil-
dren’s Zone, an organization that
states its goal is to increase high
school and college graduation rates
among Harlem students; has
served as the chairman of Chil-
dren’s Defense Fund’s board of
directors; and was featured in the
2010 documentary film “Waiting for
Superman.”
WRITING PROMPT
The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness
To what extent do these leaders exemplify the behaviors
described in the 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness? Select

two other well-known leaders and identify these leaders do not
exemplify one or more of the 5Ms in the 5M Model of
Leadership
Effectiveness.
your instructor.
Submit
Watch the video clip from “The Politics of Sociology,” which
illustrates concepts in this section of the chapter.
94 Chapter 5
5.6: Diversity and
Leadership
5.6 identify strategies for overcoming barriers to
female and minority leadership

Effective leaders employ a variety of strategies to help
them understand, respect, and adapt to member diversity.
In terms of leadership, these challenges become more com-
plex and demanding for both leaders and group members.
For example, why are most of the celebrated leaders in the
United States white males? Is it because white males are
the nation’s “founding fathers” and the traditional model
for the leaders who followed? Is it because prejudices
barred and continue to bar “others” from assuming lead-
ers? Is it because homogeneous groups prefer to work with
similar members? Whatever the answers to these ques-
tions, the fact remains that the most influential positions in
government and corporate institutions in the United States
are held by white males. The same is true in many commu-
nity, work, and service groups.
In this section, we examine leadership diversity at two
levels. First, we focus on the barriers that often prevent
women from becoming and succeeding as leaders; second,
we address the challenge of leading multicultural groups.
5.6.1: Gender and Leadership
In early studies of leadership, there was an unwritten pre-
requisite for becoming a leader: Be a man. Even today,

despite the achievements of exceptional women leaders,
some people still question the ability of women to serve in
leadership positions.
Numerous research studies conclude that, in general,
men are viewed as more capable leaders and “are rewarded
more highly than women—just having a male name is
more likely to get you the job. If you are a mother, your
chances of getting the job are reduced by 70%.”75 Research
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Balancing the 5Ms of Leadership Effectiveness
1. The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness described in the
textbook includes modeling leadership behavior, motivating
members, managing group process, making decisions, and
mentoring members. Using this model, how effective is the
lead-

ership in this group?
2. How well did the group’s leader (Steve), demonstrate
effective
leadership skills? What could he have done, if anything, to
improve his leadership?
3. To what extent did any of the faculty members assume a
leader-
ship function?
Virtual Teams
Sharing Virtual Leadership
Functions
Objective: Recommend strategies for addressing the unique
leadership challenges in virtual teams.
Virtual teams need strong leadership. According to Jessica
Lipnack and Jeffrey Stamps, the authors of Virtual Teams,
“each member of a virtual team must adopt a leadership per-
spective.”73 Why? Consider the added responsibilities required
of someone who leads a virtual team—be it a teleconference,
an email discussion, or an intercontinental video conference.
Virtual team leaders are often required to explain technical pro-

cedures and instructions, adapt to differences in time and
place, and motivate members to participate actively in the
group process? Add these requirements to the research find-
ing that face-to-face groups were “generally more cohesive,
more accepting of a group’s decisions, and exhibited a greater
amount of synergy than did virtual teams.”74
When participants live in different locations or time zones,
arranging a virtual meeting can be more difficult than calling a
regular meeting in a conference room down the hall. To pre-
pare members for a virtual meeting, effective leaders must:
• Develop and send a detailed agenda to all members well
in advance.
• Make sure that the technology required for the confer-
ence is up and running.
• Lead the discussion in which participants may neither see
nor hear one another in real time.
Effective virtual teams manage these added tasks by
sharing leadership roles rather than by assuming that one
superhuman leader can handle all of these challenges.

We strongly recommend applying the 5M Model of
Leadership Effectiveness to improving the five interdepen-
dent leadership functions. When virtual teams first “meet,”
they often depend on a leader to model appropriate behavior
for other group members. Motivating a virtual team can be
more difficult than motivating participants in a face-to-face
discussion because unmotivated members can easily ignore
messages or respond infrequently. When this happens, a
group is vulnerable to miscommunication, poor quality of
work, missed deadlines, frustration, inefficiencies, and a lack
of cohesion.
Managing group process may necessitate training in the
use of specialized software as well as making decisions about
when the virtual team will “meet,” the rules of interaction, and
the criteria for group decision making. In addition, leaders can
mentor members who are apprehensive about interacting in a
virtual environment or members who lack the technical skills
needed to keep up with the group.
Group Leadership 95

Fortunately, there is good news about the future of
female leadership. German chancellor Angela Merkel, the
East German–raised politician with a doctorate in physical
chemistry, is considered the most powerful woman on the
planet.79 Some argue that, after the president of the United
States, the most influential U.S. leader whose decisions
directly affect the daily lives of every American is Janet Yel-
len, chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
System. Aung San Suu Kyi, after 15 years of house arrest in
Myanmar (formerly Burma) and leader of the National
League for Democracy (NLD) party, won a majority in par-
liament, ending half a century of dominance by the mili-
tary. As we write this chapter, an unprecedented 20 of the
100 U.S. senators are women. Female leaders have come a
long way in recent years but still have a lot more to do as
they seek equality with male leaders.
Leadership is a difficult task for both women and men.
Effective leaders exhibit a balance of gender characteristics.
They can be both demanding and nurturing; independent
and collaborative; logically objective and emotionally intel-
ligent. In the best groups, effective leaders “narrow the
gender gap by combining the talents traditionally thought
of as masculine and feminine to create a well-balanced
leadership style.”80 Rather than focusing on the differences

between female leaders and male leaders, it is better to ask
whether a leader is effective, regardless of gender.
gLass CEiLing Despite evidence showing only slight
differences between men and women in leadership roles,
negative beliefs about female leaders persist.81 Perhaps
nothing explains this better than the familiar concept of the
glass ceiling and a newer concept—the glass cliff. The glass
ceiling describes a seemingly invisible barrier that pre-
vents women from moving up into senior management
and leadership positions. As of 2015, there has never been a
female president or vice president of the United States
even though there are 25 female heads of state among the
countries belonging to the United Nations.82 Of the top 500
companies in the United States in 2015, only 23 women—
4.6 percent—are Chief Executive Officers.83
gLass CLiff More recently, the glass cliff has become a
way of describing the terrible fall of many women who do
become leaders. The glass cliff is a phenomenon in which
women are more likely to rise to positions of organizational
leadership in times of crisis, and men are more likely to
achieve or take over those positions in prosperous times.84
As one researcher put it when describing the resignation of
Secret Service Director Julia Pierson in 2014, “Time and

again, women are put in charge only when there’s a mess,
and if they can’t engineer a quick cleanup, they’re shoved
out the door.”85 And if a woman does succeed in cleaning
up “a mess,” she is often followed or replaced by a male
leader. After getting the car out of the ditch, repairing it,
and putting it back on the road, the female leader is often
studies also conclude that women are still less likely to be
selected as leaders, and the same leadership behavior is
often evaluated more positively when attributed to a male
than a female.76
Even when women talk early and often, are well pre-
pared and always present at meetings, and offer valuable
ideas and opinions, a man who has done the same things is
more likely to emerge as a leader. “Even though male and
female leaders may act the same, there is a tendency for
women to be perceived more negatively or to have to act
differently to gain leadership.”77 A recent study examining
14 million reviews posted on RateMyProfessors.com demon-
strates this unconscious bias. In general, male professors
were much more likely to be described as a star or genius.
Female professors were disproportionately described as
nasty, ugly, bossy, and disorganized. If, by chance, you find
yourself agreeing with these assessments, it’s time for some

serious introspection. In a follow-up study of online classes,
researchers assigned female names to the male instructors
and male names to the female instructors. Students rated
the female instructors with male names more positively.78
Negative, biased perceptions make it difficult for
women to assume and succeed in leadership positions. If
their behavior is similar to that of male leaders, they are
perceived as unfeminine. If they act “like a lady,” they are
viewed as weak or ineffective. One professional woman
described this dilemma as follows:
I was thrilled when my boss evaluated me as “articulate,
hard-working, mature in her judgment, and a skillful dip-
lomat.” What disturbed me were some of the evaluations
from those I supervise or work with as colleagues.
Although they had a lot of good things to say, a few of
them described me as “pushy,” “brusque,” “impatient,”
“a disregard for social niceties,” and “hard-driving.”
What am I supposed to do? My boss thinks I’m energetic
and creative, while other people see the same behavior as
pushy and aggressive.
Researchers conclude that women are less likely to be selected
as

leaders and that the same leadership behavior is often evaluated
more positively when attributed to a male than a female.
96 Chapter 5
quickly. We believe that the place to begin this process is
increasing the sensitivity, supportiveness, and skill of all
leaders. Management scholar Andrew DuBrin claims that
successful leaders—regardless of gender, culture, or
socioeconomic status—must have “the skills and atti-
tudes to relate effectively to and motivate people across
race, gender, age, social attitudes, and lifestyles.”88 If you
lack such skills, you run the risk of alienating and offend-
ing some group members while unfairly favoring and
rewarding others. For example, if you strongly and pub-
licly advocate group goals, you may upset members from
high-context cultures who would be less direct. Your way
of modeling leadership behavior may not reflect their
view of a model leader.
COnsidEr CuLTuraL diffErEnCEs People from
Western cultures (the United States, Canada, and Europe)
often assume that all group members are motivated by per-

sonal achievement and status, but the same motivational
strategies may not work for group members with cultural
backgrounds grounded in collectivism, in which loyalty to
the group is more important than personal achievement or
material gain.89
The decision-making style of a leader may not match
that of all members in a culturally diverse group. Members
from a low-power distance culture will not welcome an
authoritarian leader who takes control of all decision mak-
ing. Conversely, a leader who prefers a more democratic
approach to decision making may frustrate members who
come from high-power distance cultures, in which leaders
make most decisions with little input from group members.
prOMOTE CuLTuraL synErgy A large study project,
Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effective-
ness (GLOBE), examined leadership attributes in a variety
of cultures to determine which ones are associated with
outstanding leaders. Their results show that some leader-
ship traits are universal regardless of culture, but others are
valued only in some cultures.90 For example, most people
want their leaders to be trustworthy, just, honest, and deci-
sive.91 These characteristics also represent the key compo-
nents of leadership integrity described in the Ethics in

Groups feature earlier in this chapter. Balancing the needs
of culturally diverse group members may be difficult, but it
is essential for effective leadership and for making the non-
discriminatory path to leadership available to everyone.
Researcher Nancy Adler offers the concept of cultural
synergy as “an approach to managing the impact of diver-
sity” in or among organizations. We have modified her def-
inition to focus on the role of group leadership in this
process. As we see it, cultural synergy is a leadership goal
and approach that brings culturally diverse members
together to create a more productive and supportive com-
munication climate based on the combined strengths, per-
spectives, and skills of members. To achieve cultural
replaced by a male leader who takes the keys, gets behind
the steering wheel, and drives away on a clear highway.
Will women revert to yearning for glass slippers rather
than hitting glass ceilings and falling off glass cliffs? Abso-
lutely not. Fortunately, women can use several strategies to
earn, succeed in, and keep leadership positions. One is to
include more women in the group. Not only do more
female members help deter outright sexism, they also
make a group smarter as demonstrated in the research on

collective intelligence.86
A significant amount of the research on leadership diver-
sity focuses on gender issues because the two traditional
genders—female and male—are more available, easier to
study, and less politically charged than studying leader-
ship in terms of sexual orientations (e.g., gay, lesbian,
bisexual). The task of studying the thousands of cultures
and co-cultures throughout the world is even more over-
whelming.
inCLudE undErrEprEsEnTEd grOups Like
females, African Americans are poorly represented among
influential public and corporate leaders in the United
States. Certainly, the election of Barack Obama put an end
to the idea that the President of the United States is a “for
whites only” office. As of 2016, there have been 1,963 mem-
bers of the United States Senate, but only nine have been
African American. In 2016, there were only five African
American chief executive officers leading one percent of
the nation’s 500 largest companies—down from a peak of
seven CEOs in 2007. These “numbers are especially star-
tling, given that 13.2% of the U.S. population is African
American.”87

Increasing the number of leaders from underrepre-
sented cultural groups is an important and praiseworthy
goal that unfortunately will not be achieved easily or
An effective team leader must understand, respect, and adapt to
the
diversity of every group member.
5.6.2: Leading Multicultural Groups
Group Leadership 97
synergy group members become mindful, culturally aware,
and competent intercultural communicators. Adler recom-
mends a four-step method that helps both the leader and
members form a stronger and more collaborative group.92
Describe the
Cross-Cultural
Situation
• Are there any
intercultural

problems
evident
among a few
or all group
members?
• Can you
paraphrase
the concerns
from each
member’s
perspective?
• Discuss how
cultural
similarities
and differences
among group
members help
explain why
group members
think and act
as they do.
• What cultural

assumptions
do group
members share?
Interpret
the Cultures
• Ask questions
that encourage
group members
to apply the
thinking styles
and distinctive
skills of their
cultures to
group tasks.
Increase
Cultural
Creativity
• Use cultural
diversity as a
resource that
fosters cultural

synergy.
Create
Cultural
Synergy
Figure 5.13 How to Achieve Cultural Synergy
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Promote Cultural Synergy
A work group decides it needs more time to discuss several
critical
issues related to recommending a solution to a problem that
must
be presented on Monday morning. The chair suggests that
members stay late at work on Friday and, if needed, get together
on

Saturday morning to resolve the issues and make a decision. A
Muslim member objects because he will be at the Mosque on
Friday
night as does a Jewish member who does not work on the Jewish
Sabbath—from Friday at sundown until Saturday at sundown.
Both members want to contribute and be part of the decision-
making process.
How would you help this group move through Adler’s four steps
in order to achieve group synergy and have a set of
recommendations
ready to present on Monday morning?
Summary: Group Leadership
5.1: What Is Leadership?
• Leadership is the ability to make strategic decisions
and use communication effectively to mobilize group
members toward achieving a common goal.
• Successful leaders effectively manage many dialec-
tic tensions, especially the dialectics of individual
goals 4 group goals, conflict 4 cohesion, and struc-
ture 4 spontaneity.

• Groups in balance value both leadership and follower-
ship by understanding that without the input and will-
ingness of followers, it would be impossible to lead.
5.2: Becoming a Leader
• Designated leaders are selected by group members or
by an outside authority. Emergent leaders gradually
achieve leadership by interacting with group mem-
bers and contributing to the achievement of the
group’s goal.
• Strategies for becoming a leader include talking early
and often, knowing more than others, and expressing
your opinion. At the same time, aspiring leaders
should listen to others, share information, and wel-
come disagreement.
• Once you become a leader, you will find it advanta-
geous to listen rather than talk, rely on the knowledge
of others, and seek a wide range of opinions from
group members.
5.3: Leadership and Power
• Power is the ability and/or authority of leaders to

influence members, shape decisions, and control
resources through a variety of means.
• Power associated with the position of leadership can be
categorized as legitimate power, informational power,
coercive power, or reward power.
• Power associated with the personal characteristics of
the leader can be categorized as referent power, expert
power, persuasive power, or charismatic power.
• Leaders with integrity consistently do what is right
and ethical, regardless of the circumstances.
5.4: Leadership Theories
• Trait Leadership Theory identifies the key characteristics
and behaviors of effective leaders.
• Styles Leadership Theory identifies three distinct styles:
autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire.

98 Chapter 5
• The Hersey–Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
links specific leadership styles to the readiness of
group members. The more willing and able a group is
to work together, the more a leader should rely on rela-
tionship behaviors (and less on task behaviors).
• Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership Effective-
ness contends that effective leadership occurs only
when there is an ideal match between the leader’s
style and the group’s situation.
• Effective leaders balance two leadership dimensions:
professional will and personal humility.
• Four additional leadership theories—Servant Leader-
ship Theory, Charismatic Leadership Theory, Transfor-
mational Leadership Theory, and Functional Leadership
Theory—focus on distinct communication strategies
and skills that are central to leadership effectiveness.
5.5: The 5M Model of Leadership
Effectiveness

• The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness identifies
five interdependent leadership functions: (1) Model
leadership, (2) Motivate members, (3) Manage group
process, (4) Make decisions, and (5) Mentor members.
• The additional responsibilities of virtual team leaders
enlarge the scope of the 5M Model of Leadership Effec-
tiveness by delegating some procedural, technical, and
leadership tasks.
5.6: Diversity and Leadership
• In general, women are less likely to be selected as lead-
ers, and the same leadership behavior is often evaluated
more positively when attributed to a man rather than to
a woman. Chapter 5 Quiz: group Leadership
class discussion.

ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: The LeadeR IN SheeP’S CLOThING
As a designated leader, can Dupree adapt his leadership
style more effectively to accommodate his veteran staff
members?
• Barriers such as the glass ceiling and the glass cliff
will persist until women are recognized and appreci-
ated as leaders with the ability to enhance a group’s
productivity and collective intelligence.
• Negative stereotypes about leaders from underrepre-
sented groups make it more difficult for such members
to gain leadership positions.
• Cultural synergy—the process of bringing differences
in cultural dimensions together in order to form a

strong group of collaborative members—is best
achieved through a four-step process: define the situa-
tion, interpret the culture, increase cultural creativity,
and create cultural synergy.
99
your own nonverbal behavior
appropriately
6.6 Analyze the effects of room arrangements
and different zones of interpersonal space
on group communication
6.7 Summarize specific methods for adapting
to gender and cultural differences in
nonverbal behavior
6.8 Contrast the pairs of behaviors that
influence the group communication
climate
6.1 Identify the differences between verbal

communication and nonverbal
communication
6.2 Give examples of the six dimensions of
effective team talk
6.3 Identify specific language-based obstacles
to effective communication
6.4 Recommend appropriate responses to
gender-influenced and culture-based
differences in language use
6.5 Examine the challenges of interpreting
nonverbal messages and adapting
Learning Objectives
Chapter 6
Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication in Groups
Effective verbal and nonverbal skills promote group
productivity and a supportive communication climate.

100 Chapter 6
legislature will write it for us—and that’s the last thing any
of us want. Right? Right!”
As she spoke, Joan could see the four committee mem-
bers basking in her praise. Barton Mayflower scowled. He
could see that the rest of the delegates were buying into the
policy even though Joan hadn’t begun to describe its con-
tent. Much to his chagrin, no one saw his annoyance
because they were looking at and listening to Joan.
answer
the following questions about this case study:
1. How did Joan use the seating arrangement to her
advantage?
2. In what ways did Joan use the principles of team talk to
address the group?

3. How did Joan’s physical behavior enhance her credibility
and competence?
4. What signs did Barton Mayflower notice that told him he had
little hope of derailing Joan and her committee?
6.1: Two Essential Tools
6.1 Identify the differences between verbal
communication and nonverbal communication
Every group member uses verbal and nonverbal communi-
cation to create messages that generate meaning. Verbal
communication is the way in which the words in a language
are used to generate meaning.1 Interaction may be “face to
face, fax to fax, over the phone, or through electronic mail,
but regardless of the channel used, groups do their work
through language.”2 Without language, you cannot have a
group discussion; you cannot follow an agenda, take min-
utes, read a report, or interact effectively with other group
members. Linguists Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman
note, “Whatever else people do when they come together—
whether they play, fight, make love, or make automobiles,
they talk. We live in a world of language.”3

The other essential communication medium, nonver-
bal communication, is just as important as language. Non-
verbal communication is the use of message components
other than words to generate meaning. Without the non-
verbal component, it is difficult to interpret the meaning of
spoken language. Tone of voice, directness of eye contact,
and physical proximity of group members can reveal at
least as much about their thoughts and feelings as the
words they speak. Some researchers claim that we convey
as much as two-thirds of our meaning through nonverbal
behavior.4 Generally, verbal messages express the literal
content of messages, while nonverbal messages express
the emotional meaning.5
Case Study: How to Sink
the Mayflower
The minute Joan Archer walked into the conference room,
she knew she’d have a fight on her hands. Administrators
from each state college were finding seats along the sides
of a long conference table. Sitting at the far end of the
table was Dr. Barton Mayflower III, a representative from
the state Board of Higher Education and the person most
likely to cause problems. He had the large picture win-
dows at his back to make sure the sun was not shining in

his eyes.
Joan looked at the table. There were empty seats along
the sides, but no one had chosen the seat at the other end of
the table. Realizing that she had to be seen and heard by
everyone at this meeting, she planted herself in the unoccu-
pied end seat.
The group was meeting to discuss and recommend a
policy for accepting college credits from students transfer-
ring from one state college to another. As chair of the com-
mittee charged with drafting a policy, Joan had written
most of the document herself. Given the difficulty of
scheduling face-to-face meetings, the five-person commit-
tee had interacted only through conference calls and email.
Two of the members made almost no contributions. The
other two had faithfully read her draft and suggested
changes. Fortunately, everyone on the committee had
endorsed the draft policy and had asked Joan to present it
at the statewide meeting.
Barton Mayflower called the meeting to order. As
usual, he wore a well-cut dark suit with a starched white
shirt and silk tie. His gray hair was meticulously groomed
and his shoes shined. The delegates had always deferred to

his leadership and guidance. Without looking at Joan or
addressing her by name, he used his “I’m in charge” voice
and asked that the chair of the policy committee present
her report.
Joan stood. She put a stack of neatly stapled reports in
front of her, made eye contact with group members around
the table, and smiled. Although the sun was in her eyes, the
group could see her quite well without straining their eyes.
She began her presentation with these words:
“Beth, Aaron, Walter, Alicia, and I are pleased to share
this report with you. If nothing else, we can now involve all
of you in making this policy stronger and better. All of us
fully endorse this policy—the vote was unanimous. The
committee has asked me to present the report on their
behalf. I think you’ll see that we’ve addressed your con-
cerns and come up with a plan that will help our students
move from one college to another while ensuring that we
maintain high academic standards. And please remember
that if we don’t come up with an acceptable policy, the state
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 101

Table 6.1 The Dimensions of Team Talk8
Term Definition
Identification
Talk
Use plural rather than singular pronouns. Mem-
bers use plural pronouns rather than singular ones
when talking about the group and its work.
Interdependence
Talk
Use collective language such as we and our.
Members use language that acknowledges shared
needs, solicits opinions, and expresses the need for
collaboration.
Balanced Power
Differentiation
Talk
Use considerate and equitable language. Mem-

bers talk to one another on equal terms.
Social Equality
Talk
Use casual, informal language. Members use
casual language, nicknames, slang. Members
express empathy and liking and avoid titles.
Conflict Manage-
ment Talk
Use collaborative, nonjudgmental language.
Members express interest in solving problems, use
a nonthreatening tone and nonjudgmental language,
and paraphrase others.
Negotiation Talk Use exploratory and problem-solving
language.
Members ask “What if?” questions, propose objec-
tive criteria for solutions, and summarize areas of
agreement.
6.2: Team Talk
6.2 Give examples of the six dimensions of effective

team talk
Sociologist Anne Donnellon coined the term team talk to
describe the language group members should use when
working together in pursuit of a common goal. “The types
of words, sentences, and patterns of speech” reveal how
group members “think and feel about each other and
about their task.”6 Language also “creates thoughts, feel-
ings, and behaviors” in group members, which affect the
ways in which the group “uses power, manages conflict,
and negotiates” solutions.7 As we see it, team talk is the
means we use to achieve group goals, the stimulus we use
to build group relationships, and the evidence we use to
assess group work.
6.2.1: The Dimensions
of Team Talk
Donnellson strongly urges group members to listen care-
fully for words, sentences, and patterns of speech used
repeatedly during discussions and meetings. By listening
to and analyzing how the group uses language, members
can identify how such language fits into six dimensions of
team talk and discover how the group’s language fosters or
inhibits success. Table 6.1 illustrates six dimensions of team

talk and provides examples of successful and unsuccessful
language use.
Now that you have reviewed the dimensions, let’s
consider some examples of successful and unsuccessful
language use (Table 6.2).
Verbal Communication Nonverbal Communication
Figure 6.1 Balancing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
Table 6.2 Examples of Successful and Unsuccessful
Team Talk
Team Talk
Dimensions
Unsuccessful
Examples
Successful
Examples
1. Identification
Talk

“I don’t think you
should quit until you’ve
finished.”
“I’m pleased the discus-
sion took so little time.”
“Let’s keep working on
this until we’re ready for
lunch.”
“We’ve finished this in
record time.”
2. Interdependence
Talk
“Emilia and I can develop
this plan without input
from the group.”
“If there’s no agreement
here, the group must
vote.”
“If we can develop a
clear plan, our work will

be much easier. What
do you all think?”
“What changes to the
plan should we make?
3. Balanced Power
Differentiation
Talk
“Stop and tell me what’s
happened so far.”
“I don’t like this. If Fred
can’t do it, we’ll give it
to someone else.”
“I’m sorry. My other
meeting ran overtime.
How I can catch up?”
“Fred, would you tell me
a bit more about that?”
4. Social Equality
Talk
“The secretary should

review our report thus
far.”
“Mr. Nunez, contact Dr.
Ford after the meeting.”
“Ladies and gentlemen,
. . . ”
“Jason, try to find out
where Marie stands on
this.”
“Hey, guys!”
5. Conflict
Management
Talk
“How many of you think
that Joshua is right?”
“We’re not getting any-
where, so I’ll take it up
with Dr. Lenski after the
meeting.”
“Could we back up and
look at this from a dif-

ferent angle?”
“Let me make sure I
understand this. . . .”
6. Negotiation Talk “We’ve always done it
this way.”
“You might as well
change your mind;
can’t you see you’re
outnumbered?”
“What if we wrote up a
justification for the
cost?”
“Does this meet our
standard?”
In dialectic terms, effective group members rely on
both verbal and nonverbal communication to generate
meaning (Figure 6.1). For example, people in high-con-
text cultures put more emphasis on nonverbal codes
and interpersonal relationships to generate and inter-
pret meaning. In low-context cultures, most people rely
on words to generate and interpret the meaning of a
message.

102 Chapter 6
Group Assessment Auditing Team Talk
The ways in which group members use language are important
indicators of how well members work together to achieve a
common goal. Team talk promotes
group cohesion and contributes to effective conflict
management, problem-solving, and positive relationships among
group members. Complete the Auditing Team
Talk assessment to determine the extent to which your group
engages in team talk.
Directions: Rate how well the members of your group engage in
productive team talk by evaluating the degree to which members
engage in the following
behaviors Use the following scale:
1 = Never; 2 = Rarely; 3 = Sometimes; 4= Often; and 5 =
Always.
Scoring: Analyze your perceptions of your group’s team talk by
adding the numbers you selected. Your total score should range

between 15 and 75.The more
times you selected 4 or 5 as your answer to an item, the more
likely it is that your group engages in productive team talk. The
more times you selected 1 or 2 in
response to an item, the more likely the way in which they use
language inhibits the progress and success of your group.
15–45 The group engages in very little team talk and should
work on creating a more collaborative work environment.
46–60 The group uses some team talk but could work on
improving communication within the group.
61–75 The group effectively engages in team talk to promote a
collaborative and productive work environment.
Once group members analyze the nature of team talk,
they can take steps to modify the way they interact and
work with one another. The following recommendations
can produce a stronger and more collaborative group that
uses team talk effectively:
• Use the plural pronouns we, us, and our when referring
to the group and its work.
• Express shared rather than individual needs: “We
need to . . . ” rather than “I want . . . ”

• If you are in a leadership position, don’t talk more,
interrupt more, or ask more questions than other
members.
• Speak in a specific and active voice: “I haven’t
finished the report due next week” rather than an
abstract and passive voice: “The task hasn’t been
completed.”
• Ask group members to address you by your first name
or nickname.
• Encourage group members to express disagreement
and listen patiently to dissenters.
• Ask more “What if?” questions and make fewer “We
can’t do it” statements.
• When in doubt, rephrase or ask questions about what
someone else has said to ensure understanding.

6.3: Language Challenges
6.3 Identify specific language-based obstacles to
effective communication
Although words have great power, they also pose challenges.
As Mark Twain, the great American humorist, observed,
The difference between the almost right words and the
right words is really a large matter—’tis the difference
between the lightening bug and the lightening.11
Mike Krzyzewski, Duke University’s basketball coach,
also recognizes the power of language:
I believe that my work is as much about words as it is
about basketball. Choosing the right words is no less
important to the outcome of a game than choosing the
right players and strategies for the court.12
Group members can avoid many misunderstandings
by overcoming language-based obstacles to communica-
tion. Among the most common language difficulties are
abstract words, bypassing, offensive language, and jargon

(Figure 6.2).
6.2.2: Use I, You, and We
Language Appropriately
The ways in which group members use personal pronouns
say a great deal about member attitudes and communica-
tion skills. Pronouns such as I, You, and We can be appro-
priate, responsible, and beneficial to group work. When
used inappropriately, the same pronouns can discourage
members and disrupt the group process.
When you use the word I appropriately, you take
responsibility for your own feelings and actions: I feel
great; I am a straight-A student; I am worried about the
team’s work on this project.
When you use the word I to brag and show off or to
put yourself above other members, you appear highly
self-centered and oblivious to the talents and needs of
other members.
Unfortunately, some members avoid I language when it is
most important. Instead of taking resonsiblity by using I, they
shift responsibility from themselves to others by using the
word you. Sometimes, the word you is implied, as in

• “Stop telling me what to do.”
• “What a stupid thing to do.”
You language may express judgments about others.
When the judgments are positive—“You did a great job” or
“We know we can trust and depend on you!”—there’s
rarely a problem. Group members appreciate praise and
the positive climate that comes with it.
When you is used to accuse, blame, or criticize, it can
arouse defensiveness and anger. Consider the following
statements:
• “You make me angry.”
• “You drive too fast.”
Less accusatory approaches might include
• “I’m upset.”
• “I’d feel more comfortable if we drove slower.”
Successful teams use the plural pronouns we and you

when talking to one another.9 Plural pronouns are inclu-
sive. They imply that members are interdependent. The use
of we suggests that the group depends on everyone rather
than on a single member.
Plural pronouns also share credit for team achieve-
ments.10 Members committed to collaboration say we, us,
and our when talking about the group and its work. When
members say you, as a plural pronoun they are usually
addressing the whole group.
6.3.1: Abstract Words
You can minimize the misinterpretation of words by rec-
ognizing the ways in which different levels of meaning
affect communication. The more abstract your language
is the more likely group members will interpret its
meaning other than the way you intended. An abstract
word refers to an idea or concept that cannot be per-
ceived by the five senses. Words such as fairness, freedom,
and love do not have the same meaning for everyone.
Reliance on abstract words increases the chances of mis-
understanding. A concrete word refers to a specific thing
Abstract Words
• Abjure

• Acumen
• Adumbrate
• Alacrity
• Anathema
• Aspersion
Jargon
• RINO
• SCOTUS
• RFP
• Rough-in
• SWOT
Offensive Language
• Raghead
• Fag
• Nigger
• Bitch
• #@&%!
Bypassing
• Biweekly (twice
a week or twice
a month?)
• Next Wednesday

(this week or next
week?)
Figure 6.2 Common Language Challenges
104 Chapter 6
that is perceived with one of the senses—something you
can see, hear, touch, smell, or taste. Concrete words nar-
row the number of possible meanings and decrease the
likelihood of misinterpretation.
Avoid using overly abstract words when working in
groups. Use words that refer directly to observable objects,
people, or behavior. For example, saying, “Greg’s behavior
was disruptive” could imply many things. Did he yell at a
group member, use profanity, or refuse to participate?
Instead, use concrete words that clearly identify the prob-
lem, such as, “Greg arrived 15 minutes late to the meet-
ing,” or “Greg interrupted the speaker three times during
her presentation.”
6.3.2: Bypassing

When group members use different meanings for the same
words and phrases, they run the risk of bypassing and
“miss each other with their meanings.”13 Bypassing is the
miscommunication that occurs when people have different
meanings for the same words or phrases. An entire group
project may falter or fail if there are differences in the inter-
pretation of a single word or phrase. Keep in mind that
meanings are in people not in words. Note the problems
created by the following example of bypassing:
At a routine staff meeting, a vice president tells her man-
agers, “Survey the members of your department to find
out whether they are satisfied with the new conference
call system.” During the following week, the vice presi-
dent receives a copy of a memo from one manager
requesting that everyone in his department fill out a
two-page questionnaire about the conference call sys-
tem. The vice president telephones the manager and
asks, “What’s this questionnaire all about?” The man-
ager replies, “I thought you said I have to survey every-
one in my department.”
What the vice president had in mind was for the man-
ager to informally ask staff members for their initial
impressions rather than ask for a detailed analysis of the

new system. Although the manager heard the vice presi-
dent’s words, the communicators “missed” each other’s
meaning.
“Communicators who habitually look for meanings in
the people using words, rather than in the words themselves,
are much less prone to bypass or to be bypassed.”14 In short,
what’s important is not what words mean to you, but what
group members mean when they use or hear the same words.
6.3.3: Exclusionary Language
Exclusionary language demeans, inappropriately excludes,
or stereotypes people. For example, sexist language may
alienate and offend both male and female group mem-
bers. Referring to women as “girls” implies that women
are childlike and not capable of adult thought and
responsibilities. Avoid words that specify the gender of
individuals in particular roles or occupations. Instead,
use words that refer to both men and women. For exam-
ple, instead of referring to the chairman, use the term
chair or chairperson.
Poorly chosen words can perpetuate discrimination.
Avoid language that stereotypes people based on their cul-

ture, race, religion, age, physical ability, sexual orientation,
or lifestyle.
Words such as cripple, old lady, nigger, trailer trash, and
faggot are offensive and degrading. Is it okay to use such
words if none of your group members would be targeted by
them? Absolutely not! This type of language can offend and
alienate everyone in a group.
A member of an insurance investigation team recounted
the following experience:
We were meeting to discuss ways to recognize fraudulent
claims. At one point, another member said, “I’m working
on a claim involving a carload of wetbacks.” I couldn’t
believe he used that term. He obviously didn’t know that
my husband is Latino. I was insulted. Other group mem-
bers were offended, too.
6.3.4: Jargon
Jargon is the specialized or technical language of a profes-
sion. Groups use jargon as “verbal shorthand that allows
members to communicate with each other clearly, effi-
ciently, and quickly.”15 In some groups and in some set-
tings, such as at a meeting of doctors, attorneys, information

technology professionals, or accountants, the ability to use
Members of the Westboro Baptist Church often protest at events
with
signs displaying offensive and exclusionary language. Such
language
is unethical, hurtful to others, and escalates conflict.
jargon properly is a sign of team membership. It helps a
team accomplish its work quickly and efficiently. For
example, imagine how it would slow down a surgical
team if every medical term and procedure had to be
expressed in full Standard English instead of using short
and concise jargon!
Even though jargon can be useful and efficient, it can
also make ideas difficult to understand and, in some
cases, can conceal the truth. Members who are unfamiliar
with a group’s jargon are easily intimidated and frus-
trated. Consider the experience of the vice president of a
large corporation:

When I first joined the company, I had to learn the lingo
of the various groups in which I worked. I remember
attending my first CMG meeting (I didn’t even know
what that meant at the time) and listening to people talk
about red files and green files. Do we color-code files? No.
Rather, the terms red file and green file refer to different
pricing structures for our products. I also discovered that
the same term might be used differently from one group
to another. For instance, in some meetings IP refers to
Internet provider. As an attorney, I use the term to refer to
intellectual property. I’m now familiar with the language
of our company, but I know how confusing it can be when
you’re new to the team.
Some group members may use unnecessary jargon to
impress colleagues or a leader with their specialized
knowledge. Others use jargon when they have nothing to
say. They just string together nonsense and hope no one
notices their lack of content.16 Such tactics usually fail to
inform others and often result in misunderstandings and
resentment. Use jargon only when you are sure that all the
members of your group will understand it. If some of the
jargon or technical terms of a field are important, take time
to explain those words to new members.

Ethics in Groups
Sticks and Stones May Break
Your Bones, but Words Can
Hurt Forever
Objective: Demonstrate appropriate strategies for responding to
abusive language.
When assaulted by abusive language, group members
may become angry, discouraged, and withdrawn, or even
be provoked into shouting matches with their attacker.
Abusive language has the “immediate result of spoiling
relationships (and productivity based on such relation-
ships), and the long-term effect of ruining morale, team-
work, and loyalty.”17
Here are several characteristics of verbal abuse:
• Tone of voice: Harsh, sarcastic, angry, belittling
• Content: Sexual references, racial slurs, cruel comments
about someone’s appearance
• Language choice: Foul, obscene, or accusatory words

• Nonverbal cues: Insulting facial expressions, gross ges-
tures, threatening movements
• Speaking volume: Loud, screaming voice or hissed
messages18
Ethical communicators both take responsibility for
what they say and take action when others use abusive
language.
Have you ever been in a discussion where someone used
inappropriate or offensive language? What did you do in this
situation? Several strategies can help you avoid or confront
verbal abuse:
1. Express your objections. At the first sign of verbal abuse,
calmly explain that you are offended by someone’s use
of offensive language, but are willing to continue the dis-
cussion if the language becomes less intolerant.
2. Ask for repetition. Ask the person to repeat what he or she
has just said, as in, “Please repeat that. I want to make
sure I heard what you said.”

3. Step back. When someone is verbally abusive, step back
a few steps, as if to say that you will talk about the prob-
lem, but that you won’t put up with yelling and insults. If
the abuse continues, walk away.
4. Quote the law. When a discussion becomes abusive,
quote the law or group norms: “That kind of language is
inappropriate in this group,” or, “That word violates the
company’s civility policy.”
5. Take a time out. Say “Time out” when a discussion becomes
uncomfortable or abusive. Follow that with, “Let’s take a
minute to calm down before we continue.”
6. Practice what you preach. If you take action against
others, make sure that you avoid all forms of verbal
abuse:
• Do not raise your voice.
• Do not swear.
• Do not call members insulting names.
• Do not use sarcasm to hurt others.

7. Listen. Listen more than you speak when you’re upset,
particularly if you’re so mad that you’re afraid of what
you might say. As you listen, try to calm down physically
and mentally.19
If you are angry or unaware of the negative impact your
words have on others, remember the Golden Rule: How would
you feel if other people used the same words to describe you
and what you do?
106 Chapter 6
that conveys uncertainty or timidity, such as maybe and per-
haps. A tag question is a brief question added to the end of
a statement. For instance, “It may be time to move on to
our next point, don’t you think so?” is a tentative statement
with a qualifier and a tag question. This style does not nec-
essarily represent a lack of confidence. Instead, it can be a
cooperative approach that encourages others to respond.
Unfortunately, listeners may interpret such word choices
as signs of insecurity, incompetence, powerlessness, and
lack of intelligence.

Rather than stereotyping men and women, we see
these differences as tendencies rather than characteristics.
One style of communication is no better than another; the
two are simply different. As Dana Ivy writes in GenderSpeak,
“What’s going on here is that, in general, women and men
use communication for different purposes.”23 Furthermore,
research on gender and communication reveals far more
similarities than differences in women’s and men’s use of
language. Every group member should monitor and adapt
to the different ways in which women and men express
their opinions. Ideally, group members speak and respond
to one another “in the most effective manner possible,
unencumbered by what is expected or stereotypical for
each sex.”24
6.4.2: Language and Culture
Twenty-one percent of the U.S. population speaks a lan-
guage other than English at home, resulting in more than
300 different languages spoken in the United States.25
Spanish is the most common non-English language, with
more than 37 million Spanish speakers in the United
States.26 While the majority of people who speak a lan-
guage other than English at home are also fluent in Eng-
lish,27 many speak with an accent.

An accent is the sound of one language imposed on
another language. For example, a person from Japan may
speak English with a Japanese accent in which an l
sounds more like an r. Unfortunately, non-native English
speakers are often perceived as less influential and less
competent in spite of their expertise and knowledge.28
Group members should exercise patience, listen respect-
fully, and avoid stereotyping a member who speaks Eng-
lish with an accent.
For most groups, a single language is the medium
of interaction, even though members from different
backgrounds, generations, and geographic areas may
speak the same language quite differently. A dialect is
the distinct regional and cultural variations in vocabu-
lary, pronunciation, syntax, and style that distinguishes
speakers from different ethnic groups, geographic areas,
and social classes. For example, a New Yorker and a
Texan speak different dialects of American English. All
of us have dialects depending on where we come from,
your instructor.

Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Sticks and Stones May Break Your Bones, but Words Can
Hurt Forever
Think about a group situation you have experienced or
witnessed-
involving verbal abuse. Which of the seven techniques were
used
or not used? Which techniques could have been helpful in
mediat-
ing the difficult situation?
6.4: Language Differences
6.4 Recommend appropriate responses to gender-
influenced and culture-based differences in
language use
Speakers at the United Nations present their remarks using one
of
the organization’s six official languages: English, Spanish,

Chinese,
French, Russian, or Arabic. Interpreters then translate their
remarks
into the other five languages.
Group member diversity influences how we use and listen
to language. Although there is nothing right or wrong
about the different ways in which people use language,
these differences can create misunderstandings among
group members.
6.4.1: Language and Gender
Some researchers suggest that men and women use lan-
guage differently. They claim that women tend to use lan-
guage to reinforce relationships and promote cooperation,
whereas men tend to use language to exchange informa-
tion or content.20
In terms of traditional gender roles, male speech is
generally more direct and forceful, whereas women may
speak more tentatively.21 Female speech is more likely to
contain qualifiers and tag questions.22 A qualifier is a word

where we live, the types of people and friends with
whom we associate, and how we want to be perceived
by others. In the United States, there are Southern dia-
lects, New England dialects, and Brooklyn dialects,
among others.
In the United States, Standard American English is the
most commonly accepted dialect spoken by as much as 60
percent of the U.S. population. If, however, you enjoy piz-
zer and beah instead of pizza and beer, you may be from Mas-
sachusetts. If you say, “Ah nevah go theyuh,” you could be
from Alabama or parts of Texas. Unfortunately, studies
repeatedly find that “most nonstandard dialects of English
are frequently accorded less status and are often consid-
ered inappropriate or unacceptable in education, business,
and government.”29 The implications of such research are
clear: Group members who do not use Standard American
English in business and academic settings may be viewed
as less articulate or less competent. In other words, the dia-
lect you speak at home may not be the best way to commu-
nicate in a business meeting. Because dialects have the
potential to influence the perceptions of group members,
many speakers use codeswitching to avoid negative ste-

reotypes related to language.
Codeswitching refers to the ability to shift from the
dialect of your own culture and adopt the dialect of
another cultural group. Many African Americans switch
their linguistic codes depending on the culture and gender
of others in a group.30 They may speak one way among
white people or in business settings (Standard English)
and quite differently at home (Black English). Linguist
John McWhorter notes that many middle-class African
Americans typically speak both Black English and Stan-
dard English, switching constantly between the two, often
in the same sentence.31 As a result, many African Ameri-
cans are competent in two sophisticated dialects of Eng-
lish.32 The same is true in immigrant families whose
members may use the “old country” language or a simpli-
fied version of English in private, while they use Standard
English in public.
The ways in which you use language can also affect
how others judge you and your ability to communicate.
Communication scholar Carley Dodd concludes that:
(1) people judge others by their speech, (2) upward mobil-
ity and social aspirations influence whether people

change their speech to the accepted norms, (3) general
American speech is most accepted by the majority of the
American culture, and (4) people should be aware of
these prejudices and attempt to look beyond the surface.33
Mindful group members understand, respect, and
adapt to the accents and dialectics of others. They also
appreciate how challenging it may be for such members to
communicate when their speech is different from the
majority of speakers.
Theory in Groups
The Whorf Hypothesis
Objective: Explain the Whorf Hypothesis and its implications
for
intercultural communication.
One of the most significant and controversial language theo-
ries attempts to explain why people from different cultures
speak and interpret messages differently from one another.
Linguist Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Whorf, spent
decades studying the relationship among language, culture,
and thought. Whorf’s most controversial theory contends that
the characteristics of a language determine how we see, expe-

rience, and interpret the world around us. For example, if we
don’t have a word for red, we won’t be able to see red or
separate it from other colors we do see.
Benjamin Whorf observed that the Hopi Indians of Ari-
zona make no distinction in their language among past, pres-
ent, and future tenses. In English, we understand the
grammatical differences between “I saw the girl,” “I see the
girl,” and “I will see the girl.” The Hopi do not make such clear
distinctions in their words. Whorf concluded that therefore
they must perceive the world very differently. He also noted
that the Hopi have a single word, masa’ytaka, for everything
that flies, from insects to airplanes. Does that mean the Hopi
cannot think about tomorrow and cannot see the differences
between an airplane and a fly? Originally, many linguists
believed that the answer was yes. Now linguists understand
that the Hopi do think about tomorrow but perceive it quite dif-
ferently than those of us who have the word tomorrow. Lan-
guage does not determine everything we think. At the same
time, it does influence the way we perceive others and the
world around us.34
Like many controversial theories, the Whorf Hypothesis
(also referred to as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) has been
accepted, rejected, resurrected, and amended—several

times. Today, most linguists accept a more moderate version
of the Whorf Hypothesis: Language is influential in “shaping
how people think and experience the world,” which in turn
influences how the speakers of a language come to think,
act, and behave.35 For example, in English, terms that end
with man, such as chairman, fireman, and policeman, may
lead us to view certain roles and jobs as only appropriate for
men. Substituting words such as chairperson, firefighter, and
police officer may change perceptions about who can work
in these careers. Interestingly, in Finland there is only one
pronoun for the words he and she, which avoids the ten-
dency to link certain behaviors or jobs to either men or
women. During the tense negotiations during the financial
crisis in Greece, Germany adopted an uncompromising posi-
tion and demanded that the Greeks greatly reduce their debt
and institute harsh austerity measures. This hardline stance
was explained, in part, by an economic historian who noted
that the German word for debt, schuld, also means “moral
fault or blame.”36 The Whorf Hypothesis is still alive and well
all over the world.
108 Chapter 6

6.5.1: Personal Appearance
When group members meet for the first time, they know
very little about one another beyond what they see. Physi-
cal appearance influences first impressions. Based on
members’ physical appearance, we draw conclusions
about their “credibility, sociability, ability to work with
others, and so forth.”41 For better or worse, we tend to see
attractive people as friendlier and as more credible than
those who are less attractive.
Even the clothes you wear send messages to other
group members. Nonverbal communication scholar Peter
Andersen maintains that “effective small group members
should view clothes and hair styles as an important silent
statement made to the group. Dress that is appropriate is
perhaps most important.”42 Casual attire is more accept-
able in informal groups, whereas a professional appear-
ance is expected in most business settings and important
group presentations. Your appearance should communi-
cate that you respect the group and take its work seriously.
6.5.2: Facial Expression
and Eye Contact
Your face can produce more than a thousand different
expressions.43 The facial expressions of group members let

you know if they are interested in, agree with, or under-
stand what you have said. Research suggests that smiling
may even influence a group member’s ability to emerge as
6.5: Nonverbal
Communication
6.5 Examine the challenges of interpreting nonverbal
messages and adapting your own nonverbal
behavior appropriately
Every group member relies on verbal and nonverbal messages to
generate meaning. What messages might the facial expressions
and
body language of the two front-facing members be
communicating
to the third member?
Nonverbal communication refers to the behavioral elements
of messages other than spoken words. Your appearance,
posture, and facial expressions send messages. Some
research suggests that nonverbal behavior accounts for
between 60 and 70 percent of all meaning.37 That is, people
base their understanding of what you mean not only on
what you say, but also on how you use nonverbal cues.

Group members often rely more on your nonverbal behav-
ior than your words to interpret meaning. Thus, nonverbal
communication “is arguably one of the most powerful
methods of communication.”38
Group communication researcher Robert Cathcart and
his colleagues note that “groups provide a rich source of non-
verbal messages because so many behaviors occur simulta-
neously.”39 Unfortunately, we often put more thought into
choosing the best words than into selecting the most appro-
priate behavior for conveying our ideas. Group members
send messages through their personal appearance as well as
through their facial, vocal, and physical expression. When all
of these nonverbal elements are combined, they add enor-
mous complexity and subtlety to group interaction.
Speak “Silently”
The well-known phrase Silence is golden may be based on a
Swiss saying, Sprechen ist silbern, Schweigen ist golden, which
means “Speech is silver; silence is golden.” This metaphor
suggests that although speech is important, silence may be
even more significant. The power of silence is recognized and
embraced in many cultures:

• Those who know do not speak. Those who speak do not
know. (Tao Te Ching)
• Silence is also speech. (African proverb)
• Silence is a friend who will not betray. (Confucius)
• A loud voice shows an empty head. (Finnish proverb)
Understanding the communicative value of silence is
important for several reasons. We use silence to communicate
many things: to establish interpersonal distance, to put our
thoughts together, to show respect for another person, or to
modify others’ behaviors.40 When you work in groups, your
silence may communicate a lot more than speech. If you are a
talkative extrovert, silence gives you time to think and gives
introverts a chance to speak. If someone’s nasty tone during a
heated discussion bothers you, silence can communicate your
unwillingness to join the fray. Silence can also signal agree-
ment, particularly when a group has talked an issue to death.
Your silence might say, “We’ve said it all; now let’s vote or
move on to another issue.” Finally, remember that members
from collectivist cultures assign great meaning to silence. “Lis-
tening” to their silence can tell you more than any words.

• Is this the report you want me to read? (Meaning: Are
you asking me to read the report rather than listening
to and relying on the summary?)
Although the same words are used in all three sen-
tences, the meaning of each question can be quite different.
6.5.4: Physical Expression
Kinesics is the study of body movement and physical
expression. Gestures are one of the most animated forms of
kinesics. They can emphasize or stress parts of a message,
reveal discomfort with the group situation, or convey a
message without the use of words. For example, Jeff points
to his watch to let the chairperson know that they will soon
run out of time. At the end of a discussion, a thumbs-up
gesture from group members signals that they are satisfied
with the group’s progress. Many people have difficulty
expressing their thoughts without using gestures. Why
else would we gesture when we are speaking on the
phone? Research suggests that gesturing helps ease the

mental effort when communication is difficult.50 Gesturing
may also influence perceptions of leadership. People who
use animated gestures are often perceived as more credible
and as having more leadership potential.51
Even your posture can convey moods and emotions.
For example, if you slouch back in your chair, others may
interpret your posture as lack of interest or dislike for the
group. However, sitting upright and leaning forward com-
municate interest and are signs of attentive listening.
Research links body movement to perceptions of leader-
ship. Group members who lean forward and assume a
relaxed posture are more likely to emerge as group leaders
and to be viewed as attractive by other group members.52
One of the most potent forms of physical expression is
touch. Touch can convey a wide range of meanings. In
groups, members often use brief touch to express encourage-
ment, support, or happiness. Peter Andersen points out that
“touch in a small group may establish greater teamwork,
solidarity, or sharing.”53 Keep in mind that the use and mean-
ing of touch may differ depending on the situation or type of
group. For example, church group or support group mem-
bers engage in more touch than do colleagues in a profes-
sional business meeting. Some work settings may even

discourage touch among coworkers beyond a handshake.
Some group members are more comfortable with touch
than others. At one end of a continuum are touch avoiders;
at the other end are touch approachers. Misunderstandings
can occur between these two kinds of people. Touch
approachers are comfortable being touched and initiating
touch with others. Touch avoiders are less comfortable being
touched and touching others. Approachers may view avoid-
ers as cold and unfriendly; avoiders may perceive approach-
ers as invasive and rude. It is important to remember that
gender and culture influence touch avoidance. Women are
a leader.44 Facial expressions supplement and complement
the verbal messages of group members.45 Good listeners
look at a speaker’s facial expressions in order to compre-
hend the full message.
Of all your facial features, your eyes are the most
revealing. Generally, North Americans perceive eye con-
tact as an indicator of attitude. People who maintain eye
contact are perceived as more sincere and more trustwor-
thy.46 Lack of eye contact is frequently perceived as signify-
ing inattentiveness, indifference, nervousness, or dishonesty.
However, it’s important to realize that perceptions about eye

contact vary in different cultures; we discuss these cultural
variations later in this chapter.
Eye contact influences interaction in groups. A seating
arrangement that allows group members to face one
another and establish eye contact helps maintain interac-
tion. Eye contact also tells others when you want to speak.
Returning eye contact to a group leader indicates that you
are ready to respond, whereas avoiding eye contact is typi-
cally perceived as an attempt to avoid interaction. Estab-
lishing eye contact with other members can promote
interaction and virtually oblige group involvement.47
6.5.3: Vocal Expression
Vocal expression is variations in pitch, volume, speak-
ing rate, and word stress. It is the way you say a word
rather than the word itself. Four vocal qualities—pitch,
volume, rate, and word stress—add meaning, emphasis,
and authority to your voice. Pitch refers to how high or
low the voice sounds. Variations in pitch can communi-
cate a range of emotions. For example, a low pitch may
suggest sadness, higher pitches may express anger or
surprise, and an even pitch may convey interest.48 Vol-
ume refers to the loudness of the voice. A loud voice can
imply anger, excitement, or dominance. Group members

speaking quietly may signal that information is confiden-
tial. Rate refers to the speed at which a person speaks in
terms of words per minute. A group may be bored by or
stop listening to a member who speaks too slowly or in a
monotone voice. A speaking rate that is too fast makes it
difficult to understand the message. Adjust your pitch,
volume, and rate to the group setting and type of activity.
Word stress refers to the “degree of prominence given
to a syllable within a word or a word within a phrase or
sentence.”49
Notice the differences in meaning when using pitch,
volume, rate, and/or word stress to emphasize a particular
meaning of the italicized word in the same sentence:
• Is this the report you want me to read? (Meaning: Are
you asking me to read this report rather than the one
we discussed yesterday?)
• Is this the report you want me to read? (Meaning: Am I
the only one who should read this report?)
110 Chapter 6

more likely to avoid opposite-sex touch, whereas men often
avoid same-sex touch. In particular, Far Eastern women
exhibit more touch avoidance than people from other cul-
tures.54 Make sure you know the members of your group
very well before hugging them or putting your arm around
their shoulder. A handshake is usually the safest option.
In theory, textspeak and emoticons serve as substitutes
for nonverbal behavior. However, research suggests that emot-
icons have little or no effect on the interpretation of a typed
message.55 Thus, virtual group members are more likely to rely
on your words than on your emoticons when interpreting the
intention of your message. Linguist John McWhorter points out
that emoticons are limited in how much they can communicate.
“You have to know what you’re talking about, what happened,
when, and so on. Emoticons don’t do that.”56
Although textspeak has become more common in busi-
ness settings, it may also be perceived as unprofessional.
Before using textspeak in a work situation “make sure it’s
appro-
priate for ‘u’ to be that informal.”57 In their book Rules of the
Net,
Thomas Mandel and Gerard Van der Leun offer the following

suggestion: “Nothing—especially the symbols on the top row of
your keyboard—can substitute for a clear idea simply
expressed.
Avoid :-) and all associated emoticons as you would avoid cli-
chés—for example, like the plague.”58 Generally, we advise
you
to avoid emoticons in professional contexts. However, if using
emoticons is a norm within your group, away.
Watch Virtual Misunderstanding
Watch the video clips from “Virtual Misunderstanding,” which
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Virtual Misunderstanding
1. In a teleconference, participants must rely on what they hear

because they cannot see one another. What did the tone of
voice used by Eva (Project Manager), Ellen (Staff Writer) and
Charlie (Designer) tell you about them, their attitude, and their
professionalism?
2. To what extent did language challenges (abstract words,
bypass-
ing, offensive language, and jargon) lead to misunderstandings
among group members? For example, how did you react to
Eva’s
use of the word guys to refer to both Ellen and Charlie?
3. During the teleconference Charlie is heard but never seen in
the
video. How does the lack of visible nonverbal elements affect
your impressions of Charlie and his comments? If everyone in
the group had been able to see Ellen, would her behavior have
changed? Why or why not?
Virtual Teams
Expressing Emotions Online
Objective: Interpret common examples of textspeak and explain
the challenges of expressing emotions via technology.

When groups meet face to face, members can listen to other
members’ tone of voice and can observe their nonverbal
behavior. However, most virtual groups rely on technologies
that don’t allow the members to hear or see one another. Par-
ticipants can’t see the facial expressions, head nods, gestures,
or posture of other group members.
To compensate for the lack of nonverbal communication
many people use textspeak and emoticons to function in place
of nonverbal cues. Textspeak is a brief form of written commu-
nication that uses abbreviations, acronyms, initials, and emoti-
cons to shorten a message and/or convey emotion. For example,
LOL (laughing out loud), OMG (oh my gosh), and JK (just
kidding)
are examples of textspeak commonly seen in text messages.
Emoticons are a grouping of typographical characters used to
express emotion when communicating via technology. For
example, , :-), ;-), :-(, and :-D are commonly used emoticons
that convey smiles, winks, frowns, and laughing.
Emoticons function as nonverbal cues in computer-mediated
communication. However, research suggests that virtual
group members are more likely to rely on words than on
emoticons to determine meaning. In your opinion, do
emoticons effectively clarify the meaning of a message or do

they distract the reader?
ing everyone to participate.62 These two locations put the
leader in a position to see and be seen by everyone in the
group. Choosing one of the centrally located positions as
depicted in Figure 6.3 also makes it easier for a member to
gain speaking opportunities.
Even the arrangement of a room or the shape of a
conference table sends a message to group members. A
long, rectangular table gives a group’s leader a special
place of prominence at its head. A round table allows all
members to sit in equally important positions. The Paris
Peace Talks that helped end the war in Vietnam bogged
down for eight months until delegates from South Viet-
nam, the National Liberation Front, and the United States
agreed to a round table as the setting for negotiation.
When the leaders of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia met at
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio in 1995, the
United States made sure that each party had equal seating
space around a modest but perfectly round table. The

arrangement of space is not a trivial matter when the suc-
cess of a group is so consequential.
In addition to seating arrangement, the décor and
atmosphere of a room can have a direct influence on a
6.6: The Nonverbal
Environment
6.6 Analyze the effects of room arrangements and
different zones of interpersonal space on group
communication
Seating arrangements can affect group interaction in significant
ways.
For example, arrangements that bring people closer together and
permit
direct eye contact among all members promote group
interaction.
Nonverbal communication extends beyond the behavior of
group members—it also includes the group’s environment.
Two important aspects of a group’s nonverbal environ-
ment are the arrangement of space and perceptions of per-
sonal space.

6.6.1: Arrangement of Space
Seating arrangements can affect group interaction in sig-
nificant ways. Arrangements that physically separate
group members make group interaction difficult. Arrange-
ments that bring people closer together and permit direct
eye contact among all members promote group interaction.
Group members arranged in a circle or around a table can
interact with one another more easily.
Your choice of seating position in groups has a direct
effect on interaction and influence.59 Several studies note
that group members prefer corner-to-corner or side-by-
side seating for cooperative activities.60 Such an arrange-
ment allows them to be close enough to share materials.
Members who anticipate competition or disagreement
often choose seats across from each other.61
A member’s seating position often reflects the person’s
official position and amount of power. Group leaders are
more likely to choose (or be assigned) a seat at the head of
a table. Task-oriented leaders are attracted to the head of a
table, while the middle position at the side of a table
attracts more socially oriented leaders—members who are
more concerned about group relationships and encourag-

Corner-to-corner
Cooperative Seating
Side-by-side
Cooperative Seating
Seating arrangements in which members sit side-by-side
promote
more interaction, cooperation, and collaboration.
Face-to-face
Competitive Seating
Competitive Seating
Seating arrangements in which members sit across from each
other,
especially when separated by a physical barrier such as a table,
can
provoke competition rather than cooperation and collaboration.

Figure 6.3 Seating Arrangements
This figure shows four seating arrangements and includes
descrip-
tions and the pluses and minuses of using each one.
112 Chapter 6
a cross between a hospital room and a police interrogation
room. The solution: a total redesign and redecoration. The
company expanded the room and gave it long, gently
curved walls. Soft, indirect light filtered in through curved
windows. Participants could choose to sit in armchairs or
on small couches surrounding circular coffee tables. The
results were better than expected. There were no more fist-
fights; instead, group members became much more coop-
erative and positive.
group and its work. Spaces that are too warm, too cold, or
too crowded can discourage interaction. A room that is
too hot may even promote aggressive behavior. Low lev-
els of lighting encourage social conversation, whereas
higher lighting levels encourage task-oriented activities.
At the same time, poor lighting may contribute to nega-

tive moods.63
A New England advertising agency learned the impor-
tance of nonverbal environments when heated arguments
and even a fistfight broke out during meetings in which
representative consumers were brought together to evalu-
ate a new product or an advertising message.64 Facilitators
reported that regardless of the discussion topic, no one
ever seemed happy in these meetings. Participants were
grumpy, negative, and resistant to new ideas. Eventually,
the company determined that the problem was the room
itself: It was cramped, poorly ventilated, and forbidding—
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Arrangement of Space
Which type of seating arrangement would be ideal for a group
of

seven people discussing new social media strategies for a com-
pany? Explain why.
6.6.2: Perceptions of Personal Space
Groups and their members may function quite differently
depending on how they perceive the space around them as
well as the people and objects within that space. The ways
in which we protect and defend our space, invade the
space of others, “put distance between ourselves and oth-
ers, and avoid using certain spaces” represent a human
need to “stake out space to call our own.”65 In the study of
groups, two important spatial variables are territoriality
and space distances.
TERRIToRIAlITy Territoriality is the sense of personal
ownership attached to a particular space. For instance, in
most classrooms, students sit in the same place every day. If
you have ever walked into a classroom and found another
person in “your” seat, you may have felt that your territory
was violated. Objects acting as territorial markers often des-
ignate ownership of space. Placing a coat or books on a
chair lets others know that the space is taken. As a group
develops, members often establish their individual territo-
ries and view members who fail to respect others’ territory
as violating a group norm. Many group members will sit in

the same place near the same people during every meeting.
SPACE DISTANCES Anthropologist Edward T. Hall used
the term proxemics to describe the study of how we per-
ceive and use space within the context of a culture. He is
best known for his descriptions of the personal spaces that
surround individuals. From a communication perspective,
we call these varying spaces zones of interaction, the vari-
able psychological space surrounding each person that
expands or contracts in different contexts. The spaces have
been described as an invisible “bubble” that surrounds you
More Interaction
Roundtable Discussion
Roundtable Discussion
Seating arrangements in which all members sit in equally
important
positions and allow members to engage in direct eye contact
pro-
mote group interaction, cooperation, and collaboration.
Classroom Seating

Less Interaction
Classroom Seating
Seating arrangements that make direct eye contact among group
members difficult or impossible inhibit group interaction,
coopera-
tion, and collaboration.
Figure 6.3 (Continued)
interactions with new acquaintances and strangers.
Groups in which members use the outer limits of this
zone may find it difficult to interact with others and
literally feel “distanced” from the group.
• Public distance is the zone of interaction extending
beyond 12 feet, typically used for large audiences.
Speakers use this distance for lectures and presenta-
tions. In interpersonal settings, people perceive this

large distance between communicators as impersonal
and relatively anonymous. Groups are unlikely to use
this zone unless they are making a presentation to a
large audience.
In general, we are comfortable with less distance in
informal situations and with people we know well and
like, whereas we prefer greater personal distance in
more formal settings and/or with people who are less
familiar to us. Keep in mind that the range of distances
described here is typical of North Americans. Not sur-
prisingly, cultural and co-cultural norms about these
spaces vary widely.
and that becomes larger or smaller in different situations
and with different people. For example, you may feel more
comfortable with a family member standing very close to
you during a conversation, but prefer more distance
between you and a public speaker when sitting in the audi-
ence. Hall identifies four zones of interaction used by most
North Americans as shown in Figure 6.4.66
Zone Distance
Purpose
and Context

Communication
Characteristics
Loving, comforting,
protecting, fighting
Conversations with
intimates, friends,
acquaintances
Touch possible, more
eye contact and visual
details
Impersonal, business,
and social gatherings
Minimal talk, can smell
and touch the other,
little eye contact
1.5–4 feet
INTIMATE

PERSONAL
0–1.5 ft.
4–12 feet
SOCIAL
12+ feet
PUBLIC
More formal tone,
loses some visual detail,
eye contact likely
Lectures, concerts,
plays, speeches,
ceremonies
Subtle details lost, only
obvious details noticed
Figure 6.4 Zones of Interaction
• Intimate distance is the zone of interaction ranging

from touching to approximately 18 inches apart, which
is typically reserved for interaction with close friends,
some family members, and lovers. Unless you develop
a very close relationship with a fellow group member,
you will rarely interact with other members in this
very private zone. Peter Andersen notes that “at such
close distances group members will feel inhibited from
interacting and will make an attempt to restore their
personal space bubble by moving back even if that
means leaving the group.”67
• Personal distance is the zone of interaction ranging
from approximately 18 inches to 4 feet apart, which is
typically used for routine interactions with friends,
acquaintances, and many business associates. The
average distance during a conversation in this zone is
an arm’s length away from the other person. Members
of most well-established groups interact with one
another at this distance because it allows them to feel
close enough to engage in discussion but far enough
away to be comfortable. This distance is sometimes
referred to as the business zone, and is typical for inter-
actions in the work place with colleagues who are
familiar with one another, or when coworkers engage
in personal or casual conversations.68

• Social distance is the zone of interaction ranging from
approximately 4 to 12 feet, which is typically used for
6.7: Nonverbal Differences
6.7 Summarize specific methods for adapting to
gender and cultural differences in nonverbal
behavior
When shaking hands with President Park Geun-hye of Korea,
Bill
Gates did not realize that putting his other hand in his pocket is
considered rude in many Asian countries, signifying that one
person
is purposefully expressing superiority to the other.
Group member diversity affects the way we use and listen
to language. The same is true for the way we use nonverbal
communication. If you understand, respect, and adapt to
the different ways in which members express themselves
nonverbally, you and your group will be able to avoid mis-
understandings and help one another achieve your group’s
common goal.

114 Chapter 6
Some Americans feel uncomfortable when traveling to
countries in which people “invade” their space. A hug and
then a kiss on each cheek in Italy or a forehead-to-forehead
greeting from a New Zealand Maori can at first be a shock
and cause travelers to feel uneasy or to back away.
Cultural differences also are evident when measuring the
amount and directness of eye contact. Americans, British,
Canadians, and eastern Europeans tend to prefer direct eye
contact.74 However, many other cultures avoid eye contact.
For example, “direct eye contact is a taboo or an insult in
many Asian cultures.”75 Similarly, African Americans may
avoid direct eye contact as a sign of respect. As a result, if a
white North American supervisor criticizes an employee who
comes from one of these cultures, the employee may respond
by looking downward rather than looking at the supervisor.
In some cases, the employee’s response may offend the super-
visor, who interprets it as inattention or defiance.
There is a danger, however, of stereotyping people
from different backgrounds and cultures on the basis of

their nonverbal behavior. You may meet a Latino, Arab, or
Greek group member who is not comfortable with less per-
sonal space than a North American. Asian or African
American employees may look directly at a white supervi-
sor with respect. When interpreting nonverbal behavior,
then, it is important to try to understand, respect, and
adapt to individual differences rather than assuming that
all people from a particular culture behave alike.
6.7.1: Nonverbal Communication
and Gender
As with the use of verbal communication, there are differ-
ences in the ways that men and women use nonverbal
communication. The stereotypical belief is that women are
nonverbally more “expressive, involved, warm” and better
at interpreting nonverbal messages.69 But are these stereo-
types accurate? Communication scholar Judith Hall sur-
veyed the research and identified the following differences
in the ways in which women and men use nonverbal com-
munication.70
Women tend to
• Use more facial expression

• Smile more
• Use more eye contact
• Use more expressive movements
• Touch others more (especially other women)
• Notice nonverbal behavior more
Men tend to
• Use more expansive movements
• Appear more relaxed
• Appear less involved
• Touch others less (especially other men)
• Shake hands more
• Use a larger personal distance
Judith Hall concluded that these stereotypes “are over-

whelmingly correct in substance.”71 Research continues to
confirm that women are more sensitive to nonverbal com-
munication and more accurately interpret the meaning of
nonverbal behaviors across various contexts.72 Of course,
there are many men and women who do not exhibit stereo-
typical nonverbal behavior. Ultimately, group members
must understand, respect, and adapt to the nonverbal dif-
ferences of both male and female group members.
6.7.2: Nonverbal Communication
and Culture
When we interact with group members from different cul-
tural backgrounds, interpreting their nonverbal behavior
may be as difficult as translating an unfamiliar foreign lan-
guage. The multiple meanings of nonverbal communica-
tion in other cultures can be illustrated by focusing on two
elements: personal space and eye contact.
Research on how we use the space around us reveals
that our preferences are culture-specific. Generally, people
from North America, northern Europe, Asia, Pakistan, and
India prefer more distance during interactions than do
people from southern Europe, Latin America, and Arab
countries that use less space than North Americans do.73

GroupWork
What is Nonverbally Normal?
76
Every culture sees certain nonverbal behaviors as acceptable
and normal. When people from different cultures interact, “nor-
mal” behaviors may see inappropriate and strange. Group mem-
bers who understand, respect, and adapt to the different ways
in which members express themselves nonverbally will be able
to avoid misunderstandings and help one another achieve the
group’s common goal.
Directions: Read the following 12 scenarios. Think about the
response that best expresses your reaction—very common,
common, neutral, unusual, very unusual. Then consider where
this scenario would be normal.
Scenario
1 A man wearing a skirt in public
2 Two women holding hands in a park
3 A woman breastfeeding her child in public

4 Talking with someone who does not look you in the eye
5 A woman refusing to shake hands with a man
6 A family taking a communal bath
7 Interacting with senior professors on a first-name basis
(continued )
A supportive climate is a communication environment
in which members feel free to share their opinions and feel-
ings. Synergy occurs only when a group functions in a sup-
portive climate. Table 6.3 describes the behaviors of each
climate in pairs, one the opposite of the other, with defensive
behaviors on the left and supportive behaviors on the right.
8 Praying to many gods
9 A man wearing Bermuda shorts to a fine restaurant

10 Eating a formal meal without utensils
11 A man who stands so close you can smell his breath
12 People who will not eat the food in your home
Answers to Where would this be normal?
1. Scotland
2. Many major cities and small villages throughout the world
3. Some U.S. and European cities, non-Muslim African
countries
4. Parts of Africa and Asia
5. Muslim and Orthodox Jewish women
6. Japan
7. Varies—United States, Australia
8. India, Asia

9. Varies—Bermuda, English Caribbean, northern Australia
10. Several African cultures
11. Several Arab cultures
12. Orthodox Jews in non-kosher homes
6.8: Creating a Supportive
Communication Climate
6.8 Contrast the pairs of behaviors that influence the
group communication climate
The way we use and react to language and nonverbal com-
munication establishes a unique group atmosphere, or cli-
mate. Specifically, a group’s communication climate is the
atmosphere characterized by group members’ degree of
comfort or discomfort when interacting with one another.
In some groups, the climate is warm and supportive, and
members like and trust one another as they work toward a
common goal. In chillier group climates, defensiveness
and tension pollute the atmosphere, one where members
may feel threatened by and suspicious of one another.

6.8.1: Defensive and Supportive
Behaviors
In 1961, sociologist Jack Gibb identified six pairs of com-
munication behaviors that influence whether a group’s cli-
mate is defensive or supportive (Figure 6.5).77
A defensive climate is a communication environment
that triggers the instinct for self-protection in reaction to
verbal criticism and dominance. Even though such reac-
tions are natural, they hinder productive group interac-
tion. When the group climate is defensive, members
devote attention to defending themselves and defeating
perceived opponents.
• Evaluative
• Controlling
• Strategic
• Neutral
• Superiority

• Certain
• Descriptive
• Problem Oriented
• Spontaneous
• Empathetic
• Equality
• Provisional
Defensive
Behaviors
Supportive
Behaviors
Figure 6.5 Gibb’s Six Pairs of Communication Behaviors
Table 6.3 Gibb’s Defensive and Supportive Group Behaviors
Defensive Behaviors Supportive Behaviors

Evaluative:
Making judgmental and critical
statements about a situation or
another person
Examples:
“Why did you insult Sharon like
that?
Explain yourself!”
“What you did was terrible.”
Descriptive:
Stating facts about a situation or
another person and using appropri-
ate “I” and “we” language
Examples:
“When we heard what you said to
Sharon, we were really embar-
rassed for her.”
“I’m sorry you did that.”
Controlling:
Dominating a situation or imposing
a decision on others

Examples:
“Give me that report, and I’ll make
it better.”
“Since I’m paying for the vacation,
we’re going to the resort I like
rather than the spa you like.”
Problem Oriented:
Seeking mutually agreeable
solutions
Examples:
“Okay. Let’s see what we can do
to get that report finished to
specifications.”
“Let’s talk and figure out how both
of us can enjoy our vacation.”
Strategic:
Manipulating others and concealing
hidden agendas or personal motives
Examples:
“Frankie’s going to Florida over

spring break.”
“Remember when I helped you
rearrange your office?”
Spontaneous:
Being straightforward, direct, open,
and honest
Examples:
“I’d like to go to Florida with Frankie
over spring break.”
“Would you help me move some
heavy boxes?”
Neutral:
Appearing withdrawn, detached,
indifferent, and unwilling to take a
position
Examples:
“You can’t win them all.”
“Life’s a gamble.”
“It doesn’t matter to me.”
“Whatever.”

Empathetic:
Expressing acceptance, under-
standing, and caring of others and
their feelings
Examples:
“I can’t believe she did that. No
wonder you’re upset.”
“It sounds as though you’re having
a hard time deciding.”
(continued )
116 Chapter 6
According to Martin Remland’s review of nonverbal
group behavior, nonverbal response styles are conta-
gious.78 He also notes that the more cohesive the group is,
the more uniform their style of emotional expression.79
Now ask yourself this question: Which kind of “contagion”
is better for your group—nonverbal behavior that creates a
supportive climate, or nonverbal behavior that leads to a
defensive climate? Not surprisingly, defensive climates

spread negative emotions and increase stress and burnout.
However, supportive climates increase the expression of
positive emotions and promote group productivity, mem-
ber satisfaction, and genuine cooperation.80
6.8.2: Immediacy in Groups
In general, we tend to avoid or are cautious around group
members who are cold, unfriendly, or hostile. In contrast,
we feel more comfortable with group members who are
warm and friendly. Researchers have identified a concept
called immediacy, the degree to which a person seems
approachable and likable.81
Research has identified various nonverbal behaviors
that contribute to positive impressions and promote
immediacy. Leaning forward, smiling, nodding your
head, being vocally expressive, engaging in appropriate
touch, gesturing, using more eye contact, and having a
relaxed open body position are all behaviors that promote
immediacy and may make others more comfortable
approaching you.82 Verbal communication can also con-
tribute to immediacy. Instead of using you or I, use the
pronouns us or we. Respond to other group members with
encouraging and supportive statements such as, “That’s a
great idea,” or “Wow, I can see you put a lot of effort into

this report.”83
The concept of immediacy applies directly to group
interaction. When group members are physically comfort-
able with one another, they work in a more supportive cli-
mate. Just think of the opposite behaviors and you’ll see
why members become more defensive in the absence of
immediacy behaviors. Rather than leaning forward and
closer in an open position, nonimmediate members lean
back, sit farther away, and cross their arms or hunch over.
Rather than facing members directly and establishing eye
contact, nonimmediate members sit sideways and rarely
make eye contact. Rather than smiling at others, nonimme-
diate members have no expression or even scowl. If you find
yourself leaning back, sitting in a rigid posture, or looking at
everything but the members of your group during a discus-
sion, it may be time to change your nonverbal behavior to
mannerisms and actions that communicate greater physical
closeness to or liking of others. Once you take on a more
relaxed posture and smile, you may even find yourself enjoy-
ing the group experience and the company of members.
Avoid taking an either/or approach to Gibb’s six pairs of
supportive and defensive behaviors. The paired communica-
tion behaviors are not strictly classified as “good” or “bad”

behaviors. Rather, they represent dialectic tensions. There
may be times when you should express yourself in evaluative,
controlling, strategic, neutral, superior, or certain terms. For
example, you may behave strategically when you have
important and strong personal motives. You may express
certainty when your expertise is well recognized and a criti-
cal decision must be made. And you may respond neutrally
when the issue is of little consequence to you or others.
Take one more look at Gibb’s six pairs of communica-
tion behaviors in Table 6.3. Every one of these behaviors
can be expressed verbally and nonverbally. Now observe
how Table 6.4 depicts verbal and nonverbal differences
between defensive and supportive behaviors.
Defensive Behaviors Supportive Behaviors
Superiority:
Promoting resentment and jealousy
by implying that your experience and
opionions are better than others
Examples:
“Hey—I’ve done this a million
times—let me have it. I’ll finish in

no time.”
“Is this the best you could do?”
Equality:
Making sure that everyone has the
opportunity to contribute
Examples:
“If you don’t mind, I’d like to explain
how. I’ve handled this before. It may
help.”
“Let’s tackle this problem together.”
Certain:
Expressing inflexible positions and
refusing to consider the ideas and
opinions of others
Examples:
“I can’t see any other way of doing
this that makes sense.”
“There’s no point in discussing this
any further.”
Provisional:

Offering tentative suggestions
but also accepting ideas from
others
Examples:
“We have a lot of options here—
which one makes the most sense?”
“I feel strongly about this, but I
would like to hear what you think.”
Table 6.4 Nonverbal Examples of Defensive and Supportive
Behaviors
Defensive Supportive
• She rolls her eyes or audibly
sighs when other members
make suggestions.
• He always listens carefully to
other members and speaks
kindly even when he disagrees.
• She often intimidates others by
standing and looking down at

them or by interrupting them
when they speak.
• He avoids bragging about his
own accomplishments but is
quick to smile and applaud the
group and its efforts.
• If group members need help,
she looks the other way or con-
centrates on her own work.
• When other members need help,
he stops what he’s doing to lis-
ten and, if possible, helps them.
• Everything about her—the way
she walks, dresses, stands, and
speaks—conveys her conviction
that she is right and better than
other group members.
• He smiles, leans forward, nods
his head, maintains eye contact,
and is physically close to others.

• Most members dislike her
because she seems cold, arro-
gant, and impatient.
• Most members like and respect
him, largely because he radiates
honesty, warmth, and openness.
Summary: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups
6.1: Two Essential Tools
• Whereas verbal communication focuses on how you
use words and language, nonverbal communication
refers to message components other than words that
generate meaning.
• In dialectic terms, effective group members rely on
both verbal and nonverbal communication to generate
meaning. When verbal and nonverbal messages con-
tradict one another, a group can become confused and

defensive.
6.2: Team Talk
• Team talk is the means used to achieve group goals,
the stimulus to build group relationships, and the evi-
dence used to assess group work.
• Effective team talk uses plural pronouns as well as col-
lective, considerate, casual, collaborative, and explor-
atory language.
6.3: Language Challenges
• Use specific, understandable concrete words rather
than less tangible, abstract words.
• Avoiding bypassing and exclusionary language and
minimizing jargon can improve group understanding.
• Ethical communicators take responsibility for what they
say and take action when others use abusive language.
6.4: Language Differences
• Some women tend to use a more tentative language

style, whereas men’s language tends to be more direct
and to the point.
GroupWork
How Immediate Are You?
Immediacy refers to the degree to which a person seems
approach-
able and likable. Researchers have identified various verbal and
non-
verbal behaviors that contribute to positive impressions and
promote
immediacy. Not surprisingly, the concept of immediacy applies
directly to group interaction. When group members engage in
more
immediate communication behavior with one another, they
create a
more supportive and productive environment for group work.
Directions: Use the following scale to rate whether you fre-
quently, sometimes, or rarely/never use the ten communication
behaviors listed below. In other words, to what extent do you
use
immediacy strategies when you communicate in groups?

Do you . . . Frequently Sometimes Rarely or Never
1. Use humor when interacting with group members
2. Willingly engage in conversations and discussions
3. Use inclusive language such as “we” and “us”
4. Offer constructive feedback to group members
5. Seek feedback from group members
6. Smile while participating in a group discussion
7. Establish direct eye contact with group members
8. Speak expressively
9. Have a relaxed posture and natural movement
10. Comfortably stand and sit close to group members
11. Gesture when you talk to people

12. Touch other people on their shoulder or arm when talking to
them
How often did you select Frequently _____; Sometimes _____;
and Rarely or Never_____?
The more you selected frequently and sometimes, the more
you are and would be seen as an immediate (approachable and
likable) group member. The more you selected sometimes and
rarely, the less likely you are or seem to be an immediate group
member.
118 Chapter 6
• When interpreting nonverbal behavior, try to under-
stand, respect, and adapt to individual differences
rather than assuming that all people from a particular
culture behave alike.
6.8: Creating a Supportive Communication
Climate

• Jack Gibb identifies six pairs of defensive and sup-
portive communication behaviors: evaluative versus
descriptive, controlling versus problem oriented,
strategic versus spontaneous, neutral versus empa-
thetic, superiority versus equality, certain versus
provisional.
• Group members in supportive climates exhibit imme-
diacy—behaviors that promote perceptions of
approachability or the likability of others.
• Codeswitching refers to the ability to change from the
dialect of your own cultural setting and adopt the lan-
guage of the majority in particular situations.
• According to the Whorf Hypothesis, language is influ-
ential in shaping how people think and experience the
world, which in turn influences how the speakers of a
language come to think, act, and behave.
6.5: Nonverbal Communication
• Nonverbal communication can convey as much or
more meaning than do words.

• Effective group members understand the communica-
tive value of silence.
• Group members send messages through their personal
appearance as well as through their facial, vocal, and
physical expressions.
• Eye contact can significantly influence group interaction.
• Vocal characteristics include pitch, volume, rate, and
word stress.
• Physical expression includes gestures, posture, and touch.
• Members are more likely to rely on words rather than
textspeak or emoticons when interpreting messages in
virtual groups.
6.6: The Nonverbal Environment
• Group seating arrangements can promote or discour-
age communication. Leaders tend to sit in centrally
located positions.
• Territoriality refers to a sense of ownership of a partic-

ular space.
• Proxemics refers to the study of how we perceive and use
personal space, particularly in terms of the four zones of
interaction: intimate, personal, social, and public.
6.7: Nonverbal Differences
• Women tend to be more nonverbally expressive and
are generally more accurate in interpreting nonverbal
behavior.
Chapter 6 Quiz: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
in Groups
class discussion.
ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: hOW TO SINk The MayflOWeR

How effectively did Joan use team talk and nonverbal mes-
sages when she addressed the group?
119
keting proposal for a small business in the community. The
members of Group 4 are Lilly, Wendy, Michael, John, and
Peter.
Today, Group 4 is holding its eighth meeting at the
usual time and place: 2:00 p.m. in Library Study Room
303B. Members are worried because they haven’t finished
Case Study: That’s Not
What I Said

A junior-level marketing class has been divided into four
project teams. Each team must research and prepare a mar-
7.4 Summarize how differences in gender,
personality, culture, and hearing
ability affect interactions among group
members
7.1 Identify the effects of listening strengths and
weaknesses on group effectiveness
7.2 Compare the six major components of the
HURIER listening model
7.3 Explain how each of six listening strategies
can enhance a group’s ability to achieve its
common goal
Learning Objectives
Chapter 7
Listening and Responding
in Groups

Successful group members listen effectively and respond
appropriately and constructively.
120 Chapter 7
“Now we know Lilly had some health problems early
in the semester and we agreed to make some allowances
for her,” Peter reminds the group. “Certainly everyone
knows that Lilly often comes up with some great ideas.”
John throws up his hands, “Does that mean we have to
make allowances when Jack shows up for two days of sex?”
The rest of the members cringe, fearing that he may
have gone too far. “Out of line. Out of line,” murmurs
Michael in an audible whisper.
Lilly stands glaring at the group. “Well,” she says, “if
that’s how all of you feel, I guess you don’t need my work.
Oh—and thanks for ruining my day.” With that, Lilly picks
up her books and strides out of the room.
The remaining group members look at one another in

frustration and begin talking about whether they should
suck it up and do Lilly’s work or ask the professor if they
can “fire” Lilly.
answer the following critical thinking questions about this
case study:
1. What role did hearing play in the case study?
2. To what extent did members effectively hear, understand,
remember, interpret, evaluate, and respond to one another’s
statements and questions?
3. Which members, if any, demonstrated good listening skills?
4. What group roles and related listening skills could group
members have used to resolve the problem and get their
work done?
the research portion of the project and the due date for their
marketing project and group presentation is three weeks
away. It’s now 2:15, and everyone is there except Lilly.

“Hi!” shouts a bright-eyed Lilly as she rushes into
the room.
“Lilly,” says John crisply, “before you get carried away
with something else, please tell us that you brought the
research we need in order to finish this part of the project
report. At our last meeting, you said you’d have it done
before today or, at the latest, would give it to us at today’s
meeting.”
The other group members nod as John speaks. They
are impressed with how well he is addressing what has
become a growing problem.
“Guess what?” Lilly throws her books down on the
table and leans forward. “Jack is coming to visit this
weekend! He didn’t think he could get away until Thanks-
giving break, but he just called—that’s why I’m late—to
say he got two days off. He’s leaving in the morning to
drive down!”
“That’s great, Lilly,” nods Peter, acknowledging Lilly’s
excitement and happiness. “But could we talk about your
good news after the meeting? We have a lot to do today.”

Lilly laughs. “Yeah, I know. Work, work, work and no
play makes us dull boys and girls. You guys are worse task
masters than our professor.”
Michael looks up and takes out his earbuds. “What? Is
there a problem here?”
Everyone rolls their eyes. “Go back to dreamland!”
snaps Peter.
“Lilly,” says Wendy in a hopeful tone, “we need to go
through your research and see whether we’re ready to
move ahead with our marketing plan.”
“I’m just so excited,” says a grinning Lilly. “Just two
more days ‘til he’s here.”
“Excuse me,” John interrupts, “but what about the
research? I didn’t get an email from you with it attached.
Did anyone? You said you’d have it by today. Come on,
Lilly, this isn’t the first time you’ve let us down.”
Lilly is no longer smiling. “That’s not what I said. What
I said was that I’d try to get it done by today. Look, it’s not
that big a deal. We can go ahead and work on the market-

ing plan with or without this research because there’s noth-
ing in it we don’t already know. I’m still tweaking the data
and I didn’t have time to finish the graphics. We can add
the research later and then adjust the report.”
Michael, who’s been paying attention now that he’s
turned off his iPhone, can no longer sit still. “Damn it, Lilly,
you haven’t been part of this group since day one. We’re
always waiting for you to show up. And when you take on
a task, you either don’t do it or finish it late. What’s up with
you? Don’t you care?”
“Of course I care,” Lilly retorts.
7.1: The Challenge
of Listening in Groups
7.1 Identify the effects of listening strengths and
weaknesses on group effectiveness
How well do you listen? Most students answer this question
with a confident “Very well!” or “I always pay attention.”
Nevertheless, most students—like most people—overesti-
mate how well they listen. Here are some questions to help
you rethink your answer:

• Do you make yourself listen even when the topic or a
group member is boring or difficult to understand?
• Do you listen respectfully and objectively when you
don’t agree with a group member?
• Do you ask questions if you don’t understand what
someone says?
• Can you summarize the main points of a discussion
after a meeting?
Listening and Responding in Groups 121
7.1.2: The Need for Better Listening
Despite the enormous amount of time we spend listening,
most of us are not very good listeners. In fact, we tend to
think we’re better listeners than we really are. Several stud-
ies report that immediately after listening to a short talk,
most of us cannot accurately report 50 percent of what was
said. Without training, we listen at only 25 percent effi-
ciency;6 of that 25 percent, most of what we remember is a

distorted or inaccurate recollection.7
Surveys of business leaders often point to listening as
the communication skill most lacking in new employees.8
Fortune 500 company managers report that “poor listening
performance is ranked as a serious problem during meet-
ings, performance appraisals, and superior–subordinate
communication.”9
Effective leaders engage in listening more than talk-
ing and ask more than they tell.10 Skillful listening is also
a critical component of managing conflict, succeeding as
a leader, and creating a positive work climate.11 When
asked why teams fail, a successful aerospace leader
declared: “The worst failing is a team leader who’s a
nonlistener. A guy who doesn’t listen to his people—
and that doesn’t mean listening to them and doing
whatever the hell he wants to do—can make a lot of
mistakes.”12 Peter Nulty, an editor for Fortune maga-
zine, agrees: “Of all the skills of leadership, listening is
the most valuable—and one of the least understood.”
He adds that great leaders “never stop listening. That’s
how they get word before anyone else of unseen prob-
lems and opportunities.”13

If you answered yes to all or most of these questions,
you are probably an effective listener and valued group
member. If you answered no or sometimes to many of the
questions, you have a lot to learn about listening.
Effective listening in a two-person conversation is
challenging, but listening in groups is even more chal-
lenging because there are multiple speakers, perspectives,
and goals. In a group, you both listen and respond to unex-
pected news, unusual ideas, and conflicting points of
view. Instead of concentrating on what one person says
and does, you must pay attention to everyone. In a group
discussion, a short daydream or a side conversation can
result in missed information, misunderstood instructions,
or inappropriate reactions. In addition, the social pres-
sure to listen is not as strong in groups as it would be in a
two-person conversation. If one group member doesn’t
listen or respond, others usually will. Consequently,
group members may not listen well because they count
on others to listen for them. In short, it is especially
important to balance listening and speaking in groups
(Figure 7.1).
Listening Speaking

Figure 7.1 Balancing Listening and Speaking
7.1.1: The Nature of Listening
Listening is the ability to understand, analyze, respect, and
respond appropriately to the meaning of another person’s
spoken and nonverbal messages. Initially, listening may
appear to be as simple and natural as breathing, but in fact,
nothing could be further from the truth. Although most of
us can hear, we often fail to listen to what others say. Hear-
ing is relatively easy (unless there is a genetic, develop-
mental, or environmental impediment) and requires only
physical ability, whereas effective listening requires knowl-
edge, skills, and motivation. Listening is hard work “when
potential distractions are leaping into your ears every fifty-
thousandths of a second—and pathways to your brain are
just waiting to interrupt your focus.”1 Listening—just like
speaking, reading, and writing—is a complex process that
goes beyond “You speak, I listen.”
Listening is our number-one communication activity.
A study that accounted for Internet and social media use
among college students found that listening occupies
more than half of their communicating time.2 In the corpo-
Listening

40–70%
Speaking
20–35%
Reading
10–20%
Writing
5–10%
Figure 7.2 Time Spent Communicating
rate world, managers may devote more than 60 percent of
their workday listening to others.3 Chief executives may
spend as much as 75 percent of their communicating time
listening.4 Percentages vary from study to study, but Fig-
ure 7.2 shows how most of us divide up our daily commu-
nicating time.5
122 Chapter 7
Group Assessment Student Listening Inventory

In traditional face-to-face classes, students spend most of their
time listening to the instructors and other students. Even online,
students may listen to mediated
instruction rather than reading text. Unfortunately, most
students cannot focus their attention on any lecture—no matter
how brilliant—for more than 18 minutes.
Complete the Student Listening Inventory14 to better
understand how well you listen to learn.
Directions: This inventory helps identify your listening
strengths and weaknesses. In order to provide a consistent
situation and experience, we use the context of
a college classroom. The word “Speaker” can mean the
instructor or another student. Also, remember that most of us
overestimate how well we listen. Give some
serious and realistic thought to each statement before
responding.
Use the following scale to indicate how often you engage in
these listening behaviors:
1 = Almost never, 2 = Not often, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = More
often than not, 5 = Almost always.
(continued )

Effective listening does not mean that you know exactly
what another person thinks or feels; instead, it is a genuine
willingness and openness to listen and discover.16
In this chapter, we provide guiding principles of good
listening (knowledge) and explain how to listen (skills). Yet
we know that desire to listen (motivation) must come from
you. Effective listening relies as much on your attitude as
on your knowledge and skills.
Unfortunately—for lack of knowledge, skills, and/or
motivation—many group members have poor listening hab-
its that prevent their group from achieving its common goal.
Examine the list of poor listening habits in Table 7.1
and ask yourself two questions:
• Do I ever do this?
• Do members of a group to which I belong do this?

Notice that the options do not include “always” and
“never” because none of us is a perfect listener 100 percent
of the time.
7.1.3: The Habits of Listeners
You know what a habit is: It’s something you do so frequently
and have done for so long that you no longer think about why
and how you do it. Most people have a lot of good habits (e.g.,
brushing their teeth, exercising regularly, saying “Please” and
“Thank you”) and some bad habits (e.g., biting their nails,
cracking knuckles, smoking). Habits are difficult to break. Peo-
ple who exercise regularly may feel restless, anxious, or even ill
if they stop exercising—as do people who try to stop smoking.
Effective listening can become an enduring habit—
something that becomes second nature to you. Stephen R.
Covey, the author of The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Peo-
ple, maintains that habits require knowledge, skills, and
desire. We prefer the term motivation to desire when describ-
ing the characteristics of a habit (Figure 7.3).
Effective
Habits

Motivation
(want to do it)
Skills
(how to do it)
Knowledge
(what to do,
why to do it)
Figure 7.3 Effective Habits
Table 7.1 Poor Listening Habits17
What follows is a list of poor listening habits. How frequently
do you
or group members use these poor listening habits? Try to answer
with an Often, Sometimes, or Rarely as you read each one.
Poor Listening Habits
How frequently do you or

group members use these
poor listening habits?
Pseudo listening. Faking attention or
pretending to listen, particularly when
your mind is elsewhere, you are bored,
or you think it pleases a member
Often Sometimes Rarely
Selective Listening. Listening only to
messages with which you agree; avoid-
ing listening to complex or highly tech-
nical information; listening for faults in
what other members say
Superficial Listening. Paying more
attention to how members look and
speak rather than to what they say;
drawing conclusions about what mem-
bers mean or claim before they have
finished talking

Defensive Listening. Assuming that
critical remarks made by other group
members are personal attacks; focusing
on how to respond to or challenge
members rather than listening objectively
Disruptive Listening. Interrupting
members, exaggerating negative non-
verbal responses, and/or withholding
your attention while others are speaking
Scoring: Add up your scores for all of the questions. Use the
following general guidelines to assess how well you think you
listen. Please note that your score only
represents your perceptions about your listening behavior and
skills.
Score Interpretation

0–62 You perceive yourself to be a poor classroom listener.
Attention to all of the items on the inventory could improve
your listening effectiveness.
63–86 You perceive yourself to be an adequate listener in the
classroom. Learning more about listening and listening skills
could improve your
overall effectiveness as a communicator.
87–111 You perceive yourself to be a good listener in the
classroom, but you could still improve your listening skills.
112–125 You perceive yourself to be an outstanding classroom
listener.
Three interrelated components must be present for
effective listening to become an enduring habit:15
1. Knowledge. I may be ineffective when interacting with
my work associates, my friends, my spouse, or my
children because I constantly tell them what I think,
but I never really listen to them. Unless I understand
the principles, importance, and functions of listening, I
may not even know I need to listen.

2. Skills. Even if I know that I should listen to others, I
may not have the skills. I must learn how to listen com-
prehensively, analytically, and empathically.
3. Motivation. Knowing I need to listen and knowing how
to listen are not enough. Unless I want to listen, it won’t
become a natural, lifelong practice.
Highly effective listeners let go of what’s on their mind
long enough to hear what’s on the other person’s mind.
124 Chapter 7
“Theory in Groups” feature. Like any model—be it a paper
airplane or detailed architectural plans—a listening model
gives you a way of understanding the complex interactions
of elements in the listening process.
Theory in Groups
The HURIER Listening Model
Objective: Describe how, according to the HURIER listening
model, listening filters, purpose, and context affect the listening

process in groups.
Judi Brownell, a leading listening researcher, designed a listen-
ing model that20
• identifies the basic components of the listening process.
• demonstrates how these basic components relate to and
affect one another.
• explains the strengths and weaknesses of a person’s lis-
tening behavior.
• applies contemporary research to how the listening pro-
cess operates.
The HURIER Listening Model distinguishes six interre-
lated components of the listening process. Each of the letters
in HURIER represents one of six components: Hearing, Under-
standing, Remembering, Interpreting, Evaluating, and
Responding. Brownell links each of these components to
appropriate listening attitudes, relevant listening principles, and
methods for improving your listening skills (Figure 7.4).21
The HURIER Model recognizes you are constantly influ-

enced by listening filters, which are “internal and external
Figure 7.4 Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model
Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model
Organizational
role
Attitudes
HEARING
Understanding Interpreting
R
em
em
be
rin
g
Evaluating

RESPONDING
INDIVIDUAL LISTENING FILTERS
Previous
experiences
Values Bias Etc.
If you answered with an honest rarely to most of the
above questions, you are probably a good listener and valued
group member. If you answered Often or Sometimes to several
of these questions, you face the challenge of trying to break
these counterproductive listening habits. The same criteria
would apply if you were assessing a group member’s listen-
ing habits. Accordingly, we devote the remainder of this chap-
ter to the challenge of improving listening in groups.18
7.2: The Listening Process
7.2 Compare the six major components of the HURIER
listening model
Communication researchers, cognitive scientists, and neu-

rologists describe listening as a complex process. In com-
munication studies, we view listening as two inseparable
kinds of behavior: uncontrolled and controlled. Automatic,
uncontrolled listening is the universal processing your brain
uses to accept input and then transfer and store that input,
possibly for future use. Mindful, controlled listening is the
purposeful act of applying specific listening strategies and
skills that help you hear, understand, remember, interpret,
evaluate, and appropriately respond to the meaning of another
person’s spoken and nonverbal messages.19 There isn’t much
you can do about the automatic, uncontrolled mechanics of
listening; however, what you can do is learn how to control
your behavior as you mindfully listen to others.
The fundamental nature of effective listening is best
described by using the listening model presented in the
factors that color your perceptions and subsequent interpreta-
tions” of the messages you hear.22 Listening filters include
your role in the group as well as your attitudes, values, biases,
and previous experiences.23 For example, a group’s leader

who functions as a coordinator or gatekeeper may listen
quite differently than a member who typically assumes the
roles of analyzer or opinion provider. If you frequently argue
with a particular member or dislike his or her opinions, you are
more likely to listen to that person quite differently than you
would to a member who shares your views.
The HURIER Model recognizes that how you listen
becomes more or less important depending on both your pur-
pose and the nature of the communication context.24 For exam-
ple, when you’re listening to a group member or a guest who’s
a topic expert, you may listen conscientiously to learn as much
as you can. In contrast, you may listen more critically when a
less-informed member presents a questionable proposal for
solving a problem. If your group is working in a hot, noisy
room
in the late afternoon, contextual factors may make it difficult
for
members to devote their full attention and energy to listening.
The HURIER Model is a useful guide for understanding
listening in groups because it takes into account the group’s
goal, the interdependence of group members, and the task
and social dimensions that affect how group members work
with one another.

Table 7.2 identifies, defines, and provides sample state-
ments of the six key components in the HURIER Listening
Model.
7.2.1: Listening to Hear
Listening to hear is the ability to make clear, aural distinc-
tions among the sounds and words in a language and is the
“prerequisite to all listening.”25
Table 7.2 Components of Listening
Types of
Listening Definition Example
Hearing The ability to make clear
distinctions among the
sounds and words in a
language
I sometimes have trouble
hearing a soft-spoken
person, particularly if
there’s background noise.
Understanding The ability to accurately

grasp the meaning of
someone’s spoken and
nonverbal messages
When you say “Wait,” do
you mean we should wait
a few more minutes or
wait until Carrie gets here?
Remembering The ability to store, retain,
and recall information
that has been heard
Hi George, I remember
you were having trouble
with your printer. Did you
fix it or get a new one?
Interpreting The ability to empathize
with another person’s
feelings
It must be frustrating to
have such an unsympa-
thetic instructor.

Evaluating The ability to analyze and
make a judgment about
the validity of a message
I see two reasons why that
proposal will be difficult to
implement. They are . . .
Responding The ability to respond in
a way that indicates full
understanding of a
message
You seem to be saying
that it’s not a good time
to confront Chris. Am I
right?
Listening to understand is the ability to focus on accurately
grasping the meaning of spoken and nonverbal messages;
it is also known as comprehensive listening. After all, if you
don’t understand what someone means, how can you
respond in a reasonable way?

For example, Geneva makes the following suggestion
to a group of students: “Let’s have a party on the last day
of class.” Someone who is primarily listening to under-
stand may wonder whether Geneva means that:
1. We should have a party instead of an exam.
2. We should ask the instructor whether we can have a party.
3. We should have a party after the exam.
Misinterpreting the meaning of Geneva’s comment
could result in an inappropriate response. Answering the
7.2.2: Listening to Understand
For most college students, listening to understand is their
primary
source of learning.
In describing hearing ability, science writer
Seth Horowitz explains, “You and every other vertebrate . .
. have been doing it for hundreds of millions of years. It is
your life line, your alarm system, your way to escape dan-
ger and pass on your genes.”26

Answering the following questions can help you
understand why listening to hear is the gateway to effec-
tive listening.
• Can you make clear, aural distinctions among the
sounds and words you hear?
• Do you often ask group members to repeat what they
have said or misunderstand what they have said
because you did not hear them accurately?
• Do you notice nonverbal messages expressed in
members’ facial expressions, gestures, posture, move-
ment, and vocal sounds (e.g., sighs, groans, laughter,
gasps)?
126 Chapter 7
ately after hearing it. At the same time, your ability to
remember directly affects how well you listen.
When we ask students or colleagues, “How good is

your memory?” they often answer, “It depends.” For
example, if you’re very interested in what someone’s say-
ing, you’re more likely to remember the conversation, dis-
cussion, or presentation. However, if you’re under a lot of
stress or preoccupied with personal problems, you may
not remember anything. Here are just just a few sugges-
tions that, with practice, can improve how well you listen
to remember:
• Repeat
Repeat an important idea or information right after you
hear it; say it aloud if you can. For example, if you’ve just
learned that your group report is due on the 22nd, say this
date several times (“Let’s see how many meetings we
need to have before the 22nd” and “We’ll need to have our
first draft done a week ahead of time—22 minus 7 is 15”).
If you’re in a situation where it’s not appropriate to do this
aloud, repeat the information in your mind several times.
• Associate
Associate a word, phrase, or idea with something that
describes it. For example, when you meet someone
whose name you want to remember, associate the name

with the context in which you met the person (Steve in
biology class) or with a word beginning with the same
letter that describes the person (Blonde Brenda).
• Visualize
Visualize a word, phrase, or idea. For example, when a
patient was told she might need to take calcium chan-
nel blockers, she visualized a swimmer trying to cross
an English Channel filled with floating calcium pills.
• Use mnemonics
A mnemonic is a memory aid based on something
simple, such as a pattern or rhyme. For example, the
acronym HURIER in Brownell’s Model of Listening
is a mnemonic that represents the first letter of each
of the six listening components. Many people remem-
ber which months of the year have 30 days with the
poem that begins “Thirty days hath September. . . .”
In fact, by rearranging these four methods of improv-
ing your memory, you might be able to remember
them more easily as MARV (mnemonics, associate,
repeat, visualize).

7.2.4: Listening to Interpret
Listening to interpret is the ability to recognize, empathize,
and respond appropriately to someone else’s situation or
feelings. This type of listening does not demand that you
feel the exact same emotions or “walk in their shoes.”
Rather, it focuses on how well you interpret what others
feel and why they feel that way. Your response should
7.2.3: Listening to Remember
How good is your memory? How well do you store, retain,
and recall information? Do you ever forget what you’re
talking about during a discussion? Can you remember a
person’s name or a phone number even before you have a
chance to write it down? Occasionally, everyone experi-
ences memory problems.
Listening to remember is the ability to accurately recall
what you hear. As we noted earlier in this chapter, most
people cannot recall 50 percent of what they hear immedi-
Ask Questions to Enhance
Comprehension
Asking good questions can enhance listening comprehen-
sion.27 The listening strategies that follow constitute a

blueprint
for determining what a person means.
1. Have a plan. Make sure your questions are clear and appro-
priate so they will not be misunderstood or waste time.
2. Keep the questions simple. Ask one question at a time
and make sure it’s relevant to the discussion.
3. Ask nonthreatening questions. Avoid questions that begin
with “Why didn’t you . . .?” or “How could you . . .?”
because they can create a defensive climate in the group
and among members. There’s a big difference between
“Who screwed up?” and “Why did we miss the deadline?”
4. Ask permission. If a topic is sensitive, explain why you are
asking the question and ask permission before continuing.
“You say you’re fearful about sharing this report with Tom.
Would you mind helping me understand why you’re so
apprehensive?”
5. Avoid biased or manipulative questions. Tricking someone
into giving you the answer you want can erode trust and
group cohesion. “Will you vote for this proposal, or are you
going to stall and quibble to prevent us from voting?” and

“Does anyone here have some better ideas?”
6. Wait for the answer. In addition to asking good questions,
make sure you respond appropriately. After you ask a
question, give group members time to think and then wait
for the answer.
following questions can help you focus on several charac-
teristics of effective comprehensive listening.
• Do you understand the meaning of words spoken by
another person?
• Do you generally interpret nonverbal behavior
accurately?
• Can you accurately identify the precise meaning of a
speaker’s message?
Recognizing that a group member is trying to influ-
ence or persuade—rather than merely inform—is the first

step in improving your evaluative listening. Answering
the following questions can help you assess how well you
listen to evaluate:31
1. Do you recognize persuasive strategies?
2. Can you tell when a group member appeals to your
emotions and/or to your critical thinking ability?
3. Do you know how to assess the quality and validity of
arguments and evidence?
7.2.6: Listening to Respond
Listening to respond is the ability to react appropriately to
others in a way that indicates comprehension or apprecia-
tion of a message. Although responding may seem odd in a
list of listening components and skills, group members will
“make judgments about the quality of your listening
largely based” on how you respond.32 You may ask a ques-
tion, provide support, offer advice, or share your opinion
in a response. You may frown, smile, laugh, shrug, or look
confused. In the most effective groups, members listen to
hear, understand, remember, interpret, evaluate, and “lis-
ten” to one another’s nonverbal cues before responding.
Use the following guidelines to improve how well you lis-

ten to respond by providing constructive feedback and
reacting appropriately to what others say:
• Focus on behavior (not the person).
• Describe the behavior (don’t judge it).
• Provide factual observations (not assumptions).
• Choose an appropriate time and place to respond
(don’t ignore the circumstances).
• Provide supportive feedback to help others (not to
meet your own needs).33
THE NaTURE of PaRaPHRasINg Fortunately, there is
a critical responding skill that can help you more fully lis-
ten to and understand someone else’s meaning. Paraphras-
ing is a form of feedback that uses different words to
restate what others say in a way that indicates you under-
stand them. When you paraphrase, you go beyond the
words you hear to accurately identify the feelings and
underlying meanings that accompany the words. Too
often, we jump to conclusions and incorrectly assume that
we know what a speaker means and feels.

Depending on the people involved, the circumstances,
and the setting, paraphrasing has many useful functions,
such as:
• ensuring comprehension before evaluation
• reassuring others that you want to understand them
• clearing up confusion and asking for clarification
• summarizing lengthy comments
demonstrate that you care and want to help. Listening to
interpret involves putting your emotions and your agenda
on hold in order to identify with others.28
By not listening to interpret, you may overlook the
most important part of a message. Even if you understand
every word a person says, you can still miss anger, enthu-
siasm, or frustration in a group member’s voice. As an
empathic listener, you don’t have to agree with or feel the
same way as other group members, but you do have to try
to understand the type and intensity of feelings that those
members are experiencing. For example, during an after-

class discussion about having a party on the last day of
class, Kim exclaims: “A class party would be a waste of
time!” An empathic listener may wonder whether Kim
means that (1) she has more important things to do during
exam week, (2) she doesn’t think the class or the instructor
deserves a party, or (3) she doesn’t want to attend such a
party. Empathic listening is difficult, but it also is “the pin-
nacle of listening” because it demands “fine skill and
exquisite tuning into another’s mood and feeling.”29
Answering the following questions can help you
understand the scope of empathic listening:
• Do you show interest and concern about other group
members?
• Does your nonverbal behavior communicate friendli-
ness and trust?
• Do you avoid highly critical reactions to others?
• Do you avoid talking about your own experiences and
feelings when someone else is describing theirs?30
7.2.5: Listening to Evaluate

Listening to evaluate is the ability to analyze critically
and make objective judgments about the validity of a mes-
sage. A valid message is logically sound and factually
accurate.
Evaluative listeners understand why they accept or
reject another member’s ideas and suggestions. They make
judgments based on their answers to the following ques-
tions: Is the group member right or wrong? Logical or
illogical? Biased or unbiased? Skilled evaluative listeners
are open-minded, putting aside their own biases or preju-
dices when analyzing the validity of a message.
Russell makes the following proposal: “We can really
impress Professor Hawkins if everyone chips in and gives
him a gift at the party.” An evaluative listener might
think:
1. the instructor could misinterpret the gift as an effort to
raise the group’s grade,
2. some class members may not want to contribute, or
3. there may not be enough time to collect money and
buy an appropriate gift.

128 Chapter 7
• helping others uncover their own thoughts and feelings
• providing a safe and supportive communication climate
• encouraging others to reach their own conclusions34
Paraphrasing is a form of feedback—a listening
check—that asks, “Am I right? Is this what you mean?”
Paraphrasing is not repeating what a person says; it requires
finding new words to describe what you have heard. If you
want to clarify someone’s meaning, you might say, “When
you said you were not going to the conference, did you
mean that you want one of us to go instead?” If you want to
make sure that you understand a person’s feelings, you
might say, “I know you said you approve, but I sense that
you’re not happy with the outcome—am I way off?” If you
are summarizing someone’s comments, you might respond
to a speaker’s lengthy list of reasons to stick with the status
quo by responding, “What you seem to be saying is that it’s
not the best time to change this policy, right?”

THE ComPLExITIEs of PaRaPHRasINg Paraphras-
ing is difficult. Not only are you putting aside your own
interests and opinions, you are also finding new words that
best match someone else’s meaning. Paraphrasing is
another way of saying, “I want to listen to what you have
to say, and I want to fully understand what you mean.” If
you paraphrase accurately, the other person will appreciate
your concern and support. And if you don’t get the para-
phrase right, your feedback provides another opportunity
for the speaker to explain. Table 7.3 shows how a para-
phrase can vary in four critical ways: content, depth, mean-
ing, and language.35
Table 7.3 Types of Paraphrasing
Type of Paraphrasing
Recommended
Technique
Statement to Be
Paraphrased
Effective Paraphrase
Example

Ineffective Paraphrase
Examples
Paraphrase Content Find new words to express
the same meaning. Para-
phrase, don’t parrot.
Marina: “I never seem to get
anywhere on time, and I don’t
know why.”
“What I’m hearing is that
you’ve tried to figure out why
you’re often late but can’t. Is
that what you’re saying?”
You: “Ah, so you don’t know
why you never seem to get
anywhere on time?”
Marina: “Yeah, that’s what I
just said.”
Paraphrase Depth Match the emotions to the
speaker’s meaning.

Avoid responding lightly to a
serious problem and vice
versa.
Marina: “People, including my
boss, bug me about being
late, and sometimes I can tell
that they’re pretty angry.”
“When you say that people
are angry, you sound as
though it’s become serious
enough to put your job at risk
or damage your relationships
with your boss and cowork-
ers; is that right?”
You: “In other words, you
worry that other people are
upset by your lateness.”
Paraphrase Meaning Do not add unintended
meaning or complete the per-
son’s sentence.

Marina: “I really don’t
know . . .”
“Let me make sure I under-
stand what you’re saying. Is
it that you don’t know why
you’re always late, or that
you wish you had a better
idea of how to manage your
time?”
You: “. . . how to manage
your time?”
Marina: “. . . what to do.”
Paraphrase Language Use simple language to
ensure accuracy.
Marina: “I never seem to get
anywhere on time and I don’t
know why.”
“It sounds as though being
late has become a big prob-
lem at work and you’re look-

ing for ways to fix it. Right?”
You: “Ahh, your importunate
perplexities about punctuality
are inextricably linked.”
Marina: “Huh?”
GroupWork
Practice Paraphrasing
The art of paraphrasing is difficult to learn and master. When
paraphrasing, use new words to accurately rephrase what some-
one has said. Skilled paraphrasing requires undivided attention
to
the meaning of the verbal, vocal, and nonverbal components of
a message.36 Carefully read the directions and analyze the sam-
ple before completing the Practice Paraphrasing activity.
Directions: Read the four statements made by group members
and write the response you would make that best paraphrases
their meaning. As a guide, we recommend that you include at
least three components in your paraphrase:
1. State your interest in understanding the other person; exam-
ples include “I sense that . . .”, “If I understand you correctly,
you . . .”, and “It sounds as if you. . . .”

2. Interpret the other person’s emotion or feeling, but make
sure you find alternatives to the words being used. For exam-
ple, if a person says, “I’m angry,” you will need to decide
whether this means that the person is annoyed, irritated, dis-
gusted, or furious. Try to find a word that matches the per-
son’s meaning and emotion.
3. Describe the situation, event, or facts in your own words.
Sample Situation and Paraphrase:
Group Member: I get really frustrated when André yells at one
of us during a meeting.
Paraphrase: You’re saying that André shouts at you or
another group member, and that this upsets you a great deal.
Am I right?
(continued )
7.3: Key Listening

Strategies and Skills
7.3 Explain how each of six listening strategies can
enhance a group’s ability to achieve its common goal
You will spend the vast majority of your time in groups
listening to others. Even during a half-hour meeting of five
people, it is unlikely that any member will talk more than a
total of ten minutes—unless that member wants to be
accused of dominating the discussion.
There is an unfortunate tendency to focus on the contri-
butions and importance of group members who talk more
than those who listen. “This unbalanced emphasis, especially
as it actually affects persons in real discussions, could be an
important cause of the problems that speaking is supposed
to cure.”37 In other words, if you only focus on what you
intend to say in a group discussion, you can’t give your full
attention to what others say. Several key listening strategies
and skills can help you listen to hear, understand, remember,
interpret, and evaluate what other group members say. They
can also help you frame appropriate responses.
7.3.1: Use Your Extra Thought Speed
Most people talk at about 125 to 150 words per minute.

There is good evidence that if thoughts were measured in
words per minute, we’d find that most of us can think at
three to four times the rate at which we speak.38 Thus, we
have about four hundred extra words of spare thinking
time during every minute a person is talking to us.
Thought speed is the speed (in words per minute) at
which most people can think compared to the speed at
which they speak. Listening researcher Ralph Nichols asks
the obvious question: “What do we do with our excess
thinking time while someone is speaking?”39 Poor listeners
use their extra thought speed to daydream, to plan how to
confront the speaker, to take unnecessary notes, or to
engage in side conversations (which is increasingly being
done through electronic means such as texting, instant mes-
saging, and emailing). Most people do not use their extra
thought speed efficiently or productively. When listening,
use your thought speed intentionally and methodically to
• make sure you can hear what group members say.
• understand the intended meaning of a member’s
message.
• identify and summarize key ideas.

• interpret statements by members who express strong
emotions.
• analyze and evaluate the validity of arguments.
• interpret the meaning of nonverbal behavior.
• determine the most appropriate way to respond.
7.3.2: Apply the Golden
Listening Rule
The golden Listening Rule is easy to remember: Listen to
others as you would have them listen to you.
Unfortunately, this rule can be difficult to follow. Like
the more familiar Golden Rule, it asks you to set aside your
own needs in order to meet those of another.
The Golden Listening Rule is not so much a “rule” as it
is a positive listening attitude. If you aren’t motivated, you
1. Group Member: I have the worst luck with laptops. Every
single one I’ve used has had problems. Just when the war-
ranty runs out, something goes wrong and I have to spend a

lot of money to get it fixed. The laptop I have now has crashed
twice, and each time I lost most of my documents. I’ve tried to
find out if I’m doing something wrong, but I’ve never been able
to get an answer. Why me? I must be cursed or something.
2. Group Member: I hope Anita doesn’t react too strongly to
Chris and Manuel’s concerns about the scope of our project
at today’s meeting. She can be very emotional when she
feels strongly about something she really believes in.
3. Group Member: I dislike saying no to anyone in our group
who asks for help, but if I agree to help everyone who asks me,
then I have to rush or stay up late to get my own work done. I
want to help, but I also want to do my own job—and do it well.

4. Group Member: How on Earth are we going to get an A on
this assignment if we can’t even find time to meet?
130 Chapter 7
seating, or noisy and annoying outside activities are all
environmental distractions. Distractions also occur when
members speak too softly, too rapidly, or too slowly; when
someone speaks in a monotone or with an unfamiliar
accent; or when a member has unusual or annoying man-
nerisms. It is difficult to listen when other members are
fidgeting, doodling, tapping their pencils, texting, or
openly reading or writing something unrelated to the dis-
cussion.
When a distraction is environmental, you can get up

and shut the door, open the window, or turn on more
lights. When another member’s behavior is distracting,
you can try to minimize or stop the disruption. If members
speak too softly, have side conversations, or use unread-
able visual aids, a conscientious listener will ask them to
speak up, postpone their side conversations, or move
closer for a better view.
7.3.5: Listen Before You Leap
One of the most-often-quoted pieces of listening advice
comes from pioneer listening researcher Ralph Nichols:
“We must always withhold evaluation until our comprehen-
sion is complete.”43 Good listeners make sure that they
understand a speaker before they respond.
Has a friend ever told you to count to ten when you
became angry? This is also good advice when you listen.
Counting to ten involves more than Nichols’ withhold-
ing evaluation until comprehension is complete. You
may comprehend a speaker perfectly but be infuriated or
offended by what you hear. If an insensitive leader opens
a meeting by ordering, “One of you girls take minutes,”
it may take a count to 20 to collect your thoughts before
you can respond to this sexist comment in a professional
manner (“Dave, did you mean to ask a volunteer to take

minutes today?”). If a group member tells an offensive
joke, you may have multiple reactions—anger at the
speaker and disappointment with those who laugh. Lis-
tening before you leap gives you time to adjust your
reaction in a way that will help, rather than disrupt a
group discussion further.
7.3.6: Take Relevant Notes
Given that most of us only listen at 25 percent efficiency,
why not take notes and write down important facts and
big ideas? Research has found that note takers recall mes-
sages in more detail than non-note takers.44 The inclina-
tion to take notes is understandable. After all, that’s what
we do in a classroom when an instructor lectures. Taking
notes makes a great deal of sense, but only if it is done
skillfully.
There are several reasons why note taking is less than
ideal in a group. If you are like most listeners, only one-
7.3.3: “Listen” to Nonverbal
Behavior
Speakers do not communicate all of their meaning through
words. Often, you can understand others by observing
their nonverbal behavior. A change in vocal tone or volume

may be another way of saying, “Listen up—this is very
important.” Sustained eye contact may be a member’s way
of saying, “I’m talking to you!” Facial expressions can
reveal whether a thought is painful, joyous, exciting, seri-
ous, or boring. Even gestures can express an excitement
that words cannot convey.
It is easy to misinterpret nonverbal behavior. Effective
listeners verbally confirm their interpretations of nonver-
bal communication. A question as simple as, “Do your
nods indicate a yes vote?” can ensure that everyone is on
the same nonverbal wavelength. If, as research indicates,
more than half of a speaker’s meaning is conveyed nonver-
bally,41 you will miss a lot of important information if you
fail to “listen” to nonverbal behavior.
Correctly interpreting nonverbal responses can tell
you just as much as or even more than spoken words. The
nonverbal reactions of listeners (i.e., smiles, frowns, eye
contact, and gestures) can also help you adjust what you
say while you are speaking.
7.3.4: Minimize Distractions
Distractions take many forms in group settings.42 Frequent
interruptions, uncomfortable room temperature and/or

Table 7.4 Positive and Negative Listening Attitudes
How Positive Is Your Listening Attitude?
Positive Listening Attitudes Negative Listening Attitudes
Interested Uninterested
Responsible Irresponsible
Group-centered Self-centered
Patient Impatient
Equal Superior
Open-minded Closed-minded
won’t listen. The best listeners put aside what they think in
order to understand what’s on someone else’s mind. They
transform listening into an enduring habit by understand-
ing the importance of good listening, learning effective lis-
tening skills, and—perhaps most important of all—wanting
to listen. After all, if you aren’t willing to stop talking, you
won’t be able to listen.

An appropriate listening attitude does not mean that
you know exactly what the speaker thinks or feels. Rather,
it requires a strong motivation to listen and learn. The six
positive listening attitudes in Table 7.4 stand opposite their
six negative counterparts.40
fourth of what is said may end up in your notes. Even if
you copy every word you hear, your notes will not include
the nonverbal cues that often tell you more about what a
person means and feels. And if you spend all your time
taking notes, when will you put aside your pen or laptop
and participate fully?
Trying to “robotically” write down every word defeats
the purpose of note taking. Striving to “get it all down”
may interfere with your ability to accurately hear, under-
stand, remember, interpret, evaluate, and respond to what
you hear. Listening expert Ralph Nichols summarized the
dilemma of balancing note taking and listening when he
concluded that “there is some evidence to indicate that the

volume of notes taken and their value to the taker are
inversely related.”45
Thus, the challenge for a group member is this: How
do I take brief, meaningful notes during a group discus-
sion? If a group member takes minutes in a meeting, you
can rely on those minutes as the official record of what took
place. But here, too, there are potential problems. What if
the recorder is a poor listener? What if you need the notes
immediately and can’t wait for the official minutes to be
distributed and approved? Suppose you want more per-
sonalized meeting notes that also record your assignments?
In such cases, minutes may not be enough.
Flexibility is the key to taking useful and personalized
meeting notes. Good listeners adjust their note-taking sys-
tem to the group’s agenda or impose a note-taking pattern
on a disorganized discussion. In some cases, margin notes
on an agenda may be sufficient. If you attend a lot of meet-
ings, you may find it helpful to use a brief notetaking
form—such as the one in Figure 7.5—to record key details,
information, and actions.
The ability to take useful notes depends on how well you listen
and

how wisely you decide which ideas and information should go
in
your notes. When you study the notes you have taken in class,
during a meeting, or while following someone’s verbal
directions,
how helpful are they in remembering what was said?
Virtual Teams
Listening Online
Objective: Summarize the recommendations for adapting the
HURIER Model’s six components to the virtual team
experience.
Effective listening in virtual teams requires adapting to
different
contexts and media. In a sophisticated videoconference, this
adaptation is relatively easy—you can see and hear group
members sitting at a conference table in another place almost
as clearly as you can see and hear colleagues sitting in the
same room. In an email exchange, however, you can neither
see nor hear participants or collaborate in real time, but you
still must “listen” to their messages.
Ironically, it may be easier to “listen” to group members in

some virtual meetings than in a face-to-face setting. In a face-
to-face discussion, you hear what members say and respond
immediately. Members can see you grimace, smile, or roll your
eyes. In an email discussion, you have more time to “listen” to
others and can control the content and style of your responses.
The downside of virtual meetings is that it is easier to fake
listening in voice- or text-only meetings. You can pretend to
participate in a Webex presentation by occasionally typing a
comment. During a teleconference, you can stop listening and
work on other tasks, checking in and responding with an “I
agree” or “Good job” to feign participation. Although it’s also
possible to fake listening in a face-to-face discussion, your
physical presence makes it difficult to “be elsewhere.”
Date/Time/Place of Next Meeting:
Meeting Notes
Group: Goal/Topic:
Date and Time: Place:
Members Attending:

Members Absent:
Vital Information
1.
2.
3.
Decisions Reached
1.
2.
3.
Personal To-Do List Date Due
1.
2.
3.

Figure 7.5 Sample Form for Meeting Notes
132 Chapter 7
7.4: Listening to Differences
7.4 summarize how differences in gender, personality,
culture, and hearing ability affect interactions
among group members
In addition to different cultures, backgrounds, perceptions,
and values, group members differ in the ways they listen.
In a group setting, different listening abilities and styles
can be an asset. For instance, if you have difficulty analyz-
ing an argument, another group member can take on the
task of listening to evaluate. If other members focus only
on words rather than the nonverbal expression of emo-
tions, assign yourself the job of listening to interpret.
How then can you listen well online? A recent study found
that “listeners” who provided voice responses during an online
discussion were rated by group members as good listeners who

also made the “talker” feel good. The researchers concluded
that a listener can be just as helpful on the phone as in
person.46
Even if you are reading rather than hearing a message, do
your best to understand, remember, interpret, evaluate, and
appropriately respond to it. When you listen online, you are
doing
much more than sending and receiving messages. You are dem-
onstrating “to others that they matter; we are, in essence, stop-
ping, encouraging, and planting seeds of kindness and
optimism.”47 You are letting others know that you comprehend
and value their messages. The following recommendations will
help you adapt the HURIER Model to the virtual team
experience:
1. Understand. Pay attention to the ways in which members
use common online devices such as emoticons in the form
of smiley faces or other symbols; textspeak such as LOL,
BTW, OMG, or ALL CAPITAL LETTERS; bold letters; or
highlighting to emphasize a phrase or show an emotion.

Avoid the overuse of punctuation marks, such as exclama-
tion points or a mixed series of question marks or exclama-
tion points, such as “!?!?” When it’s your turn to contribute,
limit the use of these common online devices.
2. Remember. Depending on the importance of a message
in text-only form, you may want to save or copy it as an
electronic document. Face-to-face listeners do not have
that luxury unless they record and transcribe what is said
in a meeting.
3. Interpret. Consider whether a choice of words indicates a
particular frame of mind or emotion. Are the words dull and
ordinary, or highly expressive and emotional? Are there
more positive words than negative words? Is the person
asking for help, advice, sympathy, or agreement—either
directly or indirectly? Answering these questions can help
you frame a responsible and empathic response.
4. Evaluate. Engage your critical thinking skills when read-
ing an online message. Are the facts valid? Are the con-

clusions reasonable? And don’t be afraid of your emotional
responses. If something doesn’t “smell right” (not literally)
about what you’re reading, you may want to look again
for an error or flaw in the message.
5. Respond. Listening to understand, remember, interpret,
and evaluate prepares you to respond. If you don’t under-
stand someone’s meaning, ask that person for more of an
explanation. If you’re not sure whether you need to
remember the message, ask a question about its impor-
tance. If you sense that the other member needs emo-
tional support or is having difficulty phrasing an idea or
argument, paraphrase what their message means to you,
beginning with a phrase, such as, “Let me put this in my
own words to make sure I understand what you’re say-
ing.” And if you question the validity of someone’s mes-
sage, explain why.
When responding to a text message, you have much
more time to think about, develop, and write an appropriate
response. Also, make sure that you “listen” before you leap by
Watch Virtual Misunderstanding
Watch the video clip from “Virtual Misunderstanding,” which

withholding evaluation until comprehension is complete. Many
people enjoy sharing mediated messages by texting because
it’s so much like talking. Now think about your responses to
mediated messages: They’re so much like listening.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Listening Online
1. How well did each member listen to hear, understand,
remem-
ber, interpret, evaluate, and respond appropriately one another
during the discussion?
2. Charlie says that he thought the group did not need anything
more from him. Paraphrase Charlie’s reasons for not responding
to Ellen’s emails and for not doing the required work.

3. Which, if any, of the following poor listening habits
(pseudolis-
tening, selective listening, superficial listening, defensive
listen-
ing, disruptive listening) were evident in this discussion? Which
member exhibited the poorest listening habits?
4. How well did Eva, the project manager, demonstrate effective
listening skills?
7.4.1: Gender Differences
Listening behavior sometimes differs between male and
female members. Men may direct more focus to the content
of a message when they listen, but women may focus more
on the relationships among speakers.48 In other words,
men tend to listen to understand and evaluate, and women
are more likely to listen to interpret.
If it is true that “males tend to hear the facts while
females are more aware of the mood of the communica-

tion,” a group is fortunate to have both kinds of listeners
contributing to the group process.49As more women and
men cross the barriers of traditional, gender-specific roles
and jobs, the distinctions in listening abilities may not be as
clear cut as they were in the past. Like most gender issues,
our socialization and implicit biases affect our expectations
about the way men and women listen.
7.4.2: Personality Differences
The Big five Personality Traits—extroversion, agreeable-
ness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and open-
ness to experience—can affect how group members listen
to one another. Wouldn’t you prefer to work with members
who listen conscientiously and agreeably rather than care-
lessly and disagreeably? Certainly, an emotionally unstable
member can disrupt and permanently damage the ability
of a group to achieve its common goal.
The myers-Briggs Type Indicator® predicts that intro-
verts will be better at listening to understand and interpret
than extroverts, who are eager to speak even when they
haven’t taken the time to fully understand what others
have said or how they feel. sensors may listen for facts and
figures, paying a lot of attention to and remembering
details; intuitives listen for key ideas and overarching

themes, and may easily become bored easily and stop lis-
tening. Thinkers are often effective at listening to evaluate,
in contrast to feelers, who are more likely to be effective at
listening to interpret. Judgers may drive the group to reach
a decision, whereas perceivers take the time to appreciate
what they hear without leaping to immediate conclusions.50
7.4.3: Cultural Differences
Cultural differences have significant effects on the ways in
which group members listen and respond to one another. One
study concludes that international students view U.S. students
as less willing and less patient listeners than students from
African, Asian, South American, or European cultures.51
English is a speaker-responsible, low-context language
in which the speaker structures the message and relies pri-
marily on words to provide meaning. In contrast, Japanese
is a listener-responsible, high-context language in which
speakers indirectly indicate what they want the listener to
know and rely on nonverbal communication and an under-
Learn the Art of High-Context
Listening
Group members from high-context cultures go well beyond a

person’s words to interpret meaning. High-context communica-
tors also pay close attention to nonverbal cues when they listen.
For example, the Chinese symbol for listening includes charac-
ters for eyes, ears, and heart, as well as full attention (Figure
7.6).
Ears
Eyes
Undivided
Attention
Heart
Figure 7.6 Chinese Symbol for Listening
7.4.4: Hearing Ability Differences
According to the National Institute on Deafness and Other
Communication Disorders, about 36 million U.S. adults
report some degree of hearing loss. Given that hearing loss
is usually gradual and cumulative throughout life, older
adults have greater hearing losses than children and young
adults. However, “approximately 15 percent (26 million)
of Americans between the ages of 20 and 69 have high

standing of the relationship between the speaker and the
listener to interpret meaning.52 Thus, English-speaking lis-
teners may believe that Japanese speakers are leaving out
important information or being evasive; Japanese listeners
may think that English speakers are overexplaining or talk-
ing down to them. Such misunderstandings and perceived
discourtesies are the result of speaking and listening differ-
ences rather than substantive disagreement.
For the Chinese, “it is impossible to listen . . . without
using the eyes because you need to look for nonverbal com-
munication. You certainly must listen with ears” because Chi-
nese is a tonal language in which intonation determines
meaning. “Finally, you listen with your heart because” you must
sense the “emotional undertones expressed by the speaker.” In
Korean, nunchi means “communicating through your eyes.”
“Koreans believe that the environment supplies most of the
information that we seek, so there is little need to speak.”53
134 Chapter 7
frequency hearing loss due to exposure to loud sounds or

noise at work or in leisure activities.”54 Researchers at Gal-
laudet University claim that between 2 and 4 people of
every 1,000 in the United States are “functionally deaf”;
more than half of them became deaf relatively late in life.55
Adapting to members who have difficulty hearing
requires a lot more than speaking in a loud voice. In addi-
tion to using an appropriate volume, articulate your
words clearly. Reduce background noise by closing doors
to hallway sounds or turning off noisy equipment. Make
eye contact and begin your message by speaking the per-
son’s name so that he or she knows to pay attention to
you. In addition, make sure you are facing the person
who has difficulty hearing while you are speaking; in this
way, your facial expressions, gestures, and other body
language will help convey your message.56
If a member of your group is deaf, keep in mind that
not all deaf people are alike. Most, but not all, deaf people
are skilled lipreaders. Jamie Berke, a deaf contributor to
About.com, writes: “Lipreading (speechreading) is a skill
that I could not live without. However, it does not replace
written or visual communication. Even the best lipreaders
can miss a good bit because only about 30–40 percent of
speech is visible. Many letters and words look the same on

the lips, which can cause misunderstanding. For example,
p(all), b(all), and m(all) all look the same.”57 Here are some
recommendations for speaking to someone who lipreads:
• Remember that the deaf person needs to see you to
read your lips—don’t turn your back to the person or
put yourself in a setting where it’s difficult to see you.
• Do not exaggerate your speech or talk too loudly.
Exaggeration makes it harder to lipread.
• It can be difficult or impossible to read the lips of a
man with a mustache.
• Using appropriate facial expressions and gestures can
help the deaf person make sense of what you’re trying
to say.58
Ethics in Groups
Self-Centered Listening
Sabotages Success
Objective: Explain how the behaviors of self-centered listeners
fail to uphold several principles in the NCA Credo for Ethical
Com-

munication.
Successful groups are watchful and prepared to deal with
self-centered listeners, group members who pursue their
personal goals by listening and responding in ways that dis-
rupt group progress and demoralize members. Although self-
centered listeners may be excellent comprehensive and
analytical listeners, their listening strategies can be counter-
productive and unethical. They may purposely and persis-
tently exploit poor habits to help them get what they want.
Self-centered listeners may engage in pseudolistening,
selective listening, superficial listening, defensive lis-
tening, and/or disruptive listening as a means of achieving
their personal goals.
Several types of disruptive members—dominator,
obstructionist, attacker, egoist, support seeker, and
nonparticipant—can prevent a group from collaborating
effectively, efficiently, and harmoniously. These same
behaviors are all too evident in self-centered listeners.
Dominators, obstructionists, and attackers may be skilled
listeners who purposely ignore what they hear, or they may
only listen to evaluate in order to expose weaknesses in the
comments made by other group members. Egoists—who only

want others to listen to and admire them—are often incapable
of comprehending or appreciating comments that have noth-
ing to do with them. Support seekers—who want others to
listen only to their problems—may be so preoccupied with
their personal need for attention that they don’t listen to any-
thing that is said. Nonparticipants may avoid listening to any-
thing that would require them to contribute or take on work.
Unethical listening can take one or more of several forms that
only serve the interests of self-centered listeners:
• Listening behavior that shows no respect for the opinions
of others
• Listening for the purpose of criticizing the ideas of others
• Listening for personal information that can be used to
humiliate or criticize others
• Faking listening in order to gain the favor of high-status
members
Deaf communicators speak and listen using sign language and
speech reading. They attentively watch one another’s nonverbal
gestures, facial expressions, and the words formed by their
mouths.

If a deaf group member attends meetings with an
interpreter who can translate your words into sign lan-
guage, do not talk to the interpreter. Look directly at the
deaf member when you speak. If you look only at the inter-
preter, the deaf member may not be able to read your lips
or see your facial expressions and gestures. Even worse,
looking at the interpreter ignores the deaf person and
implies that she or he is invisible.
Summary: Listening and Responding in Groups
7.1: The Challenge of Listening in Groups
• Listening is the ability to understand, analyze, respect,
and respond appropriately to the meaning of another
person’s spoken and nonverbal messages.
• Although listening is our number-one communica-
tion activity, most people cannot accurately report
50 percent of what they hear after listening to a
short talk.

• Most highly effective leaders are also effective listeners.
• Good listening habits require knowledge, skills, and
motivation.
• Poor listening habits include pseudolistening, selec-
tive listening, superficial listening, defensive listening,
and disruptive listening.
7.2: The Listening Process
• There are six components of listening, each of which
calls on unique listening skills. Listening to hear,
understand, remember, interpret, evaluate, and
respond are represented in Brownell’s HURIER Lis-
tening Model.
• Paraphrasing is a form of feedback that uses different
words to restate what others say in a way that indi-
cates understanding.
7.3: Key Listening Strategies and Skills
• Several key strategies can improve how well you listen

in groups: (1) use your extra thought speed, (2) apply
the golden listening rule, (3) “listen” to nonverbal
behavior, (4) minimize distractions, (5) listen before
you leap, and (6) take relevant notes.
7.4: Listening Differences
• Differences in gender, personality, culture, and hearing
ability can have a significant effect on how well group
members listen to one another.
• Unethical, self-centered listening can destroy group
morale and prevent a group from achieving its
common goal.
Chapter 7 Quiz: Listening and Responding in groups
class discussion.

ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: ThaT’S NOT WhaT I SaId
ning of the chapter.
Which group members demonstrated effective listening
skills? How could other members improve their listening skills?
Ethical listening is as important as ethical speaking, par-
ticularly because we spend most of our communicating time
listening. Ethical listeners have a responsibility to hear, under-
stand, remember, interpret, evaluate, and respond appropri-
ately to messages that have personal, professional, political,
and moral consequences for themselves and others.
Disruptive, self-centered listeners violate several princi-
ples in the National Communication Association Credo
for Ethical Communication.59 They have no interest in trying
to “understand and respect” group members “before evaluat-

ing and responding to their messages.” Not only do they “fail to
promote communication climates of caring and understand-
ing,” they do the opposite and take advantage of others to
achieve self-centered goals. Conscientious group members
should apply and enforce a third principle in the credo: Con-
demn member behavior “that degrades individuals . . . through
distortion and intimidation [as well as] . . . and through the
expression of intolerance and hatred.”
Judi Brownell, creator of the HURIER Listening Model, con-
tends that ethical listening “is not a passive activity; as a
listener,
you choose what to listen to and what to do with what you
hear.”
In this sense, self-centered listening is unethical because it pre-
vents a group from achieving its goals and from building
member
“relationships that are healthy and productive.”60 Ethical
listeners
ask themselves, “Would I want this done to me?”
136

Chapter 8
Conflict and Cohesion
in Groups
8.1 Differentiate task, personal, and procedural
conflict
8.2 Summarize strategies that promote
constructive conflict and discourage
destructive conflict in groups
8.3 Identify the conditions in which each of
the five traditional conflict styles may be
appropriate
8.4 Summarize four major strategies
for analyzing and resolving group
conflict
8.5 Analyze how different cultural and gender
perspectives may influence interpersonal
and group conflict

8.6 Describe strategies that promote the four
major types of group cohesion
Learning Objectives
Successful groups balance the need for constructive conflict and
the need to work as a cohesive team.
Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 137
courses. Helen seems very aggravated—maybe she’s heard
all these arguments before, maybe she has a grudge against
Trevor for something he did in the past, maybe she wants
to stay in the department chair’s favor, or maybe she’s just
tired. Georgia seems drained by all the agitation and simply
wants it to stop.
case study:
1. What are the individual conflict styles of Steve, Trevor,

Helen,
Georgia, and Art? How could the group move toward a more
collaborative group conflict style?
2. To what extent do group members’ responses to conflict
reflect diversity factors, such as gender, culture, ethnicity,
seniority, age, and personality traits?
3. Which conflict management strategies have the potential
to resolve the sociology department’s conflict in this
situation?
4. Based on this meeting, how cohesive does the
sociology department appear to be? What strategies
could the department members use to enhance group
cohesiveness?
5. Which dialectic tensions are most evident in this group, and
what could be done to achieve a both/and resolution to
these tensions?
8.1: Conflict in Groups
8.1 Differentiate task, personal, and procedural conflict
The first major term in the title of this chapter is conflict,

the disagreement and disharmony that occur in groups
when differences arise regarding goals, ideas, behavior,
roles, or group procedures. Regardless of how you feel
about member disagreements, conflict is inescapable and
even necessary in most groups. The second major term in
the title of this chapter is cohesion, which is the mutual
attraction and teamwork that hold the members of a group
together. Cohesive groups are unified, loyal to one another,
and committed to achieving a common goal. Later in this
chapter, we examine strategies for enhancing group cohe-
sion without closing the door to new ideas or avoiding
constructive conflict.
Effective groups balance the conflict n cohesion dia-
lectic. Group members with different perspectives and opin-
ions can promote critical thinking and creative problem
solving, but “too many differences, or one difference that is
so strong it dominates group resources, can overwhelm the
group” and its ability to achieve a common goal.1
In a summary of research examining the links
between conflict and cohesion, communication researcher
Case Study: Sociology
in Trouble

Five faculty members in a college sociology department
follow up a brainstorming session with a meeting to dis-
cuss the course offerings for the next semester. Steve, the
department chair, thanks everyone for the work they have
just completed. He then asks the tired faculty members to
address an important issue: Which courses should they
eliminate, and which new courses should they add to the
curriculum? “We need,” he says, “to balance the integrity
of our department and our offerings with the need to bring
in more students and the need to have a strong curricu-
lum.” Although faculty members nod their heads, they
don’t seem to have much enthusiasm for the task.
Trevor declares, “We don’t want enrollment to dictate—
you know—what our offerings . . .” Before he finishes his
sentence, Helen interrupts. “Here we go, here we go.
Trevor, you need to look at the enrollment numbers!” The
group senses that Trevor seems more interested in pre-
serving his own low-enrollment courses than developing
new ones that attract more students. The faculty has dealt
with this issue before. Should they allow professors to
protect their smaller courses, or should they cut these
courses? Should they offer more popular courses to
improve their numbers, even if it means cutting time-
honored sociology courses?

Art interrupts the interaction by telling everyone that
he has an exciting idea for a new course, “The Sociology
of Time.” He explains that the course would look at time
as a commodity that people use for various sociological
purposes. The group has mixed reactions. Trevor ques-
tions whether the course is rigorous enough, and whether
the topic is worthy of a separate course. Georgia just nods
her head at everything group members say. Helen sup-
ports Art’s proposed new course. Steve reminds everyone
that if they add new courses, they must eliminate others.
Group members suggest cutting Trevor’s “Culture of
Consumerism” course. He strongly opposes this move.
Helen raises her voice and declares that the enrollment
numbers speak for themselves. Finally, Georgia suggests,
“We can do this without an argument happening.” Helen
accuses Trevor of living in the past. At this point, the chair
intervenes again and reminds his colleagues that they
need to look at the bigger goal, rather than picking apart
an individual course.
The lines of conflict are drawn. Art wants his new
course on “The Sociology of Time” approved; Trevor
opposes it on academic grounds. He also doesn’t want the
department to cut his “Culture of Consumerism” course.

The chair again reminds everyone that if they add new
courses to attract more students, they must cut existing
138 Chapter 8
When a group cannot negotiate a both/and approach to
the individual goals n group goals dialectic, hidden
agendas emerge. When members’ hidden agendas become
more important than a group’s stated goal, the result can
be group frustration, unresolved conflict, and failure.
Dean Barnlund and Franklyn Haiman, two pioneers in the
study of group communication, described hidden agendas
as arising when “there are a significant number of private
motives, either conscious or unconscious, lurking beneath
the surface and influencing the course of the discussion in
subtle, indirect ways.”6 Conflicts become serious prob-
lems when the members’ hidden goals conflict with the
group’s goal.
8.1.2: Personal Conflict
Personal conflict is disagreement among group members
related to differences in personalities and communication
styles, and conflicting core values and beliefs. Personal

conflict also occurs when members do not feel appreciated,
feel threatened by the group, or struggle for power. Per-
sonal conflict is more difficult to resolve than task conflict
because it involves people’s feelings and the way members
relate to one another.
In The Group in Society, John Gastil notes that when a
personal relationship between two group members turns
sour, the entire group may suffer, particularly if the conflict
is characterized by insults, acts of revenge, or loss of time
on task.
“This often leads to avoidance. The parties in the conflict
begin to seek ways to do their work without having to
interact—a serious problem for groups undertaking col-
laborative tasks. From there, the conflict can spread
quickly and change a two-member rift into a group-wide
fault line, with members taking sides in the conflict.”7
Task conflict and personal conflict may occur at the
same time. For example, imagine that students Dee and
Charles are members of the student activities budget com-
mittee. Dee advocates an increase in student fees to fund
more activities. Charles disagrees; he suggests using exist-
ing funds more efficiently rather than placing a larger

financial burden on students. At this point, the conflict is
task-oriented; it focuses on issues. However, when Charles
rolls his eyes and says to Dee, “Only a fool believes higher
fees are the answer,” not only does Dee disagree with
Charles on the issues, but she is also hurt and becomes
angry. The conflict has gone beyond the nature of the task;
it has become personal.
8.1.3: Procedural Conflict
Procedural conflict is disagreement among group mem-
bers about the methods, processes, or policies the group
John Gastil observes that cohesive groups gain a boost in
effectiveness, but conflict—particularly when it is per-
sonal—can have the opposite effect.2 Conflict manage-
ment requires “a delicate balancing act, like that of a
tightrope walker, or a rock climber who must find just the
right handholds.”3 In terms of resolving this dialectic ten-
sion, groups must find ways to balance constructive con-
flict with productive cohesiveness. In short, highly
effective groups are both cohesive and willing to engage in
conflict (Figure 8.1).
Conflict Cohesion

Figure 8.1 Balancing Conflict and Cohesion
Many people believe that effective groups never
have conflicts. Quite the reverse is true: Conflict in
groups is inevitable. Unfortunately, some groups try to
avoid or suppress conflict because they believe that effec-
tive groups are conflict-free. Here, too, researchers claim
the opposite. “Many effective teams look more like bat-
tlegrounds. . . . Teams with vastly competent members
embrace conflict as the price of synergy and set good
idea against good idea to arrive at the best idea.”4 In the
best of groups, conflict is expected, confronted, and effec-
tively resolved.
Too often, group members associate conflict with
fighting, anger, hostility, and negative consequences.
However, when treated as an expression of legitimate dif-
ferences, conflict can improve group problem solving,
promote cohesiveness, increase group knowledge,
enhance creativity, and promote the group’s common
goal. As a way of understanding the nature of conflict in
groups, we examine three types of group conflict: task,
personal, and procedural.5
8.1.1: Task Conflict

Task conflict is disagreement among group members
about issues, ideas, actions, or goals. For example, a debate
among members of a hiring committee about the strengths
and weaknesses of their top two applicants is task conflict,
because it focuses on the group’s goal of selecting the best
person for the job. Task conflict in a group is inevitable,
and provides an opportunity to resolve misunderstand-
ings, to engage in creative problem solving, and to make
effective decisions.
should use. For example, some group members may want
to begin a discussion by suggesting solutions to a problem,
but others may want to gather information first. Some
members may want to vote using secret ballots; others may
want a show of hands.
Procedural conflict is an opportunity to discuss
policies and processes that help the group accomplish
its common goal. Successful groups minimize and are
better able to manage both task conflict and personal con-
flict by developing clear policies and procedures. Agree-

ment on decision-making and problem-solving
procedures can ensure that all viewpoints are considered
carefully. Policies that discourage impolite or disrespect-
ful behavior allow group members to avoid destructive
personal conflict.
Task Conflict
(Ideas and Issues)
Procedural Conflict
(Methods and
Processes)
Personal Conflict
(Emotions and
Personalities)
Group Conflict
Figure 8.2 Sources of Group Conflict
GroupWork
Conflict Awareness Log9
Conflict is inevitable when working in groups. Group mem-

bers who fully engage in the effort to achieve a common goal
are likely to disagree with one another. Rather than seeking
ways to avoid such conflict, ask yourself, “How can I better
respond to conflict when it occurs?” The Conflict Awareness
Log is an opportunity to assess your reactions in previous
conflict situations and develop strategies for better managing
conflict in the future.
Directions: Recall two memorable conflict situations in which
you did not behave in a way that helped minimize or resolve
the conflict. Complete the following Conflict Awareness Log
to help you identify effective strategies to use in the future
when you are called on to minimize or resolve conflict in
groups.
• In column 1, briefly describe the incident.
• In column 2, explain your actions or the reason(s) for your
unhelpful behavior.
• In column 3, describe what you wish you had said or done to
help resolve the situation.
Incident Example
Unhelpful

Behavior Helpful Behavior
Example: Our group
was preparing a
customer service
training presentation.
I agreed to take the
lead on preparing the
team’s PowerPoint
slides, but Jim
submitted an entire
PowerPoint show to
the group two days
before my deadline
for getting a draft of
the slides to the
group.
Example: I was angry
with Jim for hijacking
my portion of the
group project. His
PowerPoint slides
were no better than
mine. I said nothing

and let Jim take over
that part of the task.
I felt unappreciated
and didn’t want to
contribute to any
other group projects.
Example: I wish I
had spoken up and
suggested that Jim
work with me on the
PowerPoint slides. I
think I could have
made a real contribu-
tion to the group if I
hadn’t given in to the
situation or become
so angry.
Incident 1
Incident 2
8.2: Constructive and
Destructive Conflict

8.2 Summarize strategies that promote constructive
conflict and discourage destructive conflict in
groups
All groups, no matter how conscientious or well man-
nered, experience conflict. In and of itself, conflict is neither
good nor bad; however, the way in which a group expresses
and deals with conflict may be either constructive or
destructive.
Constructive conflict is an approach to disagreement
in which group members express differences in ways that
value everyone’s contributions and promote the group’s
goal. Kenneth Cloke and Joan Goldsmith of the Center for
Dispute Resolution explain that we all have a choice about
how to deal with conflict: We can treat it as dialectic experi-
ences “that imprison us or lead us on a journey, as a battle
that embitters us or as an opportunity for learning. Our
choices between these contrasting attitudes and approaches
will shape the way the conflict unfolds.”8
Destructive conflict is disagreement that is expressed
through behaviors that create hostility and prevent the
group from achieving its goals. Complaining, personal

140 Chapter 8
insults, conflict avoidance, and loud arguments or threats
contribute to destructive conflict.10 The quality of group
decision making deteriorates when members are inflexible
and not open to other views. Destructive conflict has the
potential to disable a group permanently. Table 8.1 charac-
terizes the differences between destructive and construc-
tive conflict.
Table 8.1 Constructive and Destructive Conflict
Constructive Conflict Destructive Conflict
Focused on issues, tasks, and
group goals
Focused on interpersonal
differences
Respectful Disrespectful
Supportive Defensive

Flexible Inflexible
Collaborative Competitive
Cooperative Uncooperative
Committed to the group and its goal Indifferent to the group and
its goal
Groups that promote constructive conflict abide by the
following principles:11
• Members work with one another to achieve a mutu-
ally satisfying resolution of conflict. “We can work this
out. After all, we’re all after the same thing.”
• Lower-status group members are free to disagree with
higher-status members. “I know she’s the CEO, but I
think there are some disadvantages to the approach
she suggests.”
• Disagreement does not result in punishment. “I’m not
afraid of being criticized or reprimanded if I disagree
with powerful members.”

• The group agrees on the approaches to conflict resolu-
tion and decision making. “Our group lets every mem-
ber speak, so I know my ideas will be heard.”
• Members can disagree and still respect one another.
“The group may not like my idea, but members would
never personally attack me for expressing my opinion.”
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Constructive and Destructive Conflict
1. To what extent was there task, personal, and/or procedural
con-
flict in this group?
2. Compare the ways in which group members used constructive
and/or destructive conflict behavior. Was interrupting the psy-

chiatrist a positive or negative strategy?
3. How did differences in status, gender, and personal
involvement
affect the nature of this conflict?
4. What kind of resolution, if any, was reached about how to
help
Annie by the end of the video?
Virtual Teams
Conflict in Cyberspace
Objective: Identify the unique obstacles to resolving conflicts
faced by virtual teams as well as strategies for overcoming
them.
Have you ever received emails or text messages that were
not intended for you and that you found disturbing to read?
Have you ever fired off an angry email or text, only to regret it
later? The efficiency of texts, email, and messaging features
makes it easy to forward messages without reading them
carefully, to reply while you’re still angry, and to send a mes-
sage to many people without knowing if they will interpret it
the same way.

The time, distance, and possible anonymity that sepa-
rate members of virtual teams may increase conflict. Unfortu-
nately, some group members feel less obligated to behave
politely when the interaction isn’t face to face. As a result,
virtual teams tend to communicate more negative and insult-
ing messages than face-to-face groups do.12 In addition, vir-
tual team members are more likely to withdraw from an online
discussion that involves conflict, especially if they don’t have
established relationships with other members.13 However,
just because someone is less likely to challenge or reprimand
you in a virtual team is no reason to abandon civil behavior.
Psychotherapist Kali Munroe notes that “conflict can get
blown out of proportion online. What may begin as a small
difference of opinion, or misunderstanding, becomes a major
issue very quickly.”14
Not responding properly to conflict in a virtual team sig-
nificantly interferes with the group’s ability to solve
problems.15
Some technologies are better suited for dealing with conflict
than others. For example, audio-only (e.g., telephone) and
data-only (e.g., email, text) technologies are less effective for
resolving conflict than videoconferencing, which in turn is less
effective than face-to-face interaction. Virtual team members

Watch Helping Annie
Watch the video clip from “Helping Annie,” which illustrates
concepts in this chapter.
how these styles are positioned in two dimensions: “Con-
cern for Own Goals” and “Concern for Group Goals.”
These two dimensions recognize the dialectic nature of
various conflict styles. The ideal conflict style—the col-
laborating conflict style—sees a both/and approach to
conflict resolution.18
8.3.1: Avoiding Conflict Style
An avoiding conflict style is a passive and nonconfronta-
tional approach to disagreement. Members use an avoiding
conflict style when they are unable or unwilling to accom-
plish their own goals or contribute to achieving the group’s
goal. In some cases, members who care about the group
and its goals may avoid conflict because they are uncom-
fortable with or unskilled at asserting themselves. Group

members who use this conflict style may change the sub-
ject, avoid bringing up a controversial issue, and even deny
that a conflict exists. Avoiding conflict in groups is usually
counterproductive, because it fails to address a problem
and can increase group tensions. Ignoring or avoiding con-
flict does not make it go away.
In some circumstances, however, the avoiding conflict
style can be appropriate, specifically when
• the issue is not that important to you.
• you need time to collect your thoughts or control your
emotions.
• other group members are addressing the problem
effectively.
• there is little or no likelihood of achieving collabora-
tion or an acceptable compromise.
• the consequences of confrontation are too risky.
8.3.2: Accommodating Conflict Style
Group members using the accommodating conflict style

give in to other members at the expense of their own goals.
Accommodators have a genuine desire to get along with
other members. They believe that giving in to others serves
the needs of the group, even when the group could benefit
from further discussion. However, a group member who
always approaches conflict by accommodating others may
be perceived as less powerful and less influential.
An accommodating conflict style may be appropriate
when
• the issue is very important to others but not very
important to you.
• it is more important to preserve group harmony than
to resolve the issue.
• you are unlikely to succeed in persuading the group to
adopt your position.
• you realize you are wrong or you have changed
your mind.
8.3: Conflict Styles
8.3 Identify the conditions in which each of the five

traditional conflict styles may be appropriate
A significant body of research indicates that all of us have
individual conflict styles we tend to use regardless of the
situation.16 Some people will move heaven and earth to
avoid conflict of any kind, but others enjoy a competitive
atmosphere and the exultation of “winning.”
There are five traditional conflict styles: avoiding,
accommodating, competing, compromising, and collabo-
rating.17 These styles reflect the tension between seeking
personal goals and working cooperatively to achieve the
group’s goal. For example, if you are motivated to achieve
your own goals, you may use a competing conflict style.
If you are dedicated to achieving the group’s goals, you
may use an accommodating conflict style or a collaborat-
ing conflict style. Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann
identify five conflict-handling styles (Figure 8.3). Note
must be extra vigilant when conflict threatens to derail group
progress and damage group morale.
The following strategies may help overcome some of the
obstacles to resolving conflict in virtual teams, provided that

you also take into account the nature and importance of the
issues, the characteristics and attitudes of the people involved,
and the particular type of media you are using:
• Don’t respond immediately. Read and process a mes-
sage several times before responding.
• Assume that others mean well unless you have a history
of difficulty with a particular member.
• If you aren’t sure what a member means in a message,
ask for clarification.
• Use “I” statements rather than “you” statements, as the
latter can be interpreted as accusatory.
• Find a topic, idea, or perspective that team members
agree with or have in common.
• Try not to take a message personally.
HighLow
High

Low
Concern for Group Goals
Concern
for
Own Goals
COMPETING
"I win; you lose."
COLLABORATING
"We win!"
AVOIDING
"Leave me alone."
ACCOMMODATING
"I give in."
COMPROMISING
"Give a little; get a little."
Figure 8.3 Conflict Styles

142 Chapter 8
8.3.3: Competing Conflict Style
The competing conflict style is an approach to disagree-
ment in which members are more focused on achieving
their personal goals than on collaborating with others to
achieve a common goal. Competitive members want to
win; they argue that their ideas are superior to alterna-
tives suggested by others. When used inappropriately,
the competing conflict style generates hostility,
ridicule, and personal attacks against group members.
Approaching conflict competitively tends to divide
group members into “winners” and “losers.” Ultimately,
this may damage the relationships among group
members and prevent the group from achieving its com-
mon goal.
However, in certain group situations the competing
conflict style may be appropriate, such as when
• you have strong beliefs about an important issue.

• the group must act immediately on a time-sensitive
issue or in an emergency.
• the consequences of the group’s decision may be very
serious or even harmful.
• you believe that the group may be acting unethically
or illegally.
Know How to Apologize
and When to Forgive
An apology can go a long way toward defusing tension and
opening the door to constructive conflict resolution. An apol-
ogy is a statement that expresses regret for saying or doing
something wrong. Research suggests that appropriate apolo-
gies can improve relationships, restore trust, minimize anger,
and reduce antagonism.19 Apologies may even deter lawsuits.
One study found that 40 percent of medical malpractice plain-
tiffs would not have filed a lawsuit if they had received an apol-
ogy with an explanation. In addition, plaintiffs who received a
full apology were more likely to accept a settlement offer and
avoid a lawsuit altogether.20
In spite of the importance and simplicity of an apology, we

often find it difficult to say, “I’m sorry.” When you apologize,
you
take responsibility for your behavior and the consequences of
your actions. Although you may feel you’ve lost some pride, a
willingness to own up to your actions can earn the respect of
other group members and help build trust.
Have you encountered a situation where you had to apol-
ogize for your behavior? What strategy did you adopt?
Here are some suggestions for making an effective
apology:21
1. Take responsibility for your actions with a simple “I” state-
ment. “I’m sorry.”
2. Clearly identify the behavior that was wrong without blam-
ing others. “I failed to put all of the group members’ names
on the final report.”
3. Acknowledge how others might feel or how they were
affected. “I understand that most of you are probably
annoyed with me.”
4. Acknowledge that you could have acted differently. “I

should have asked the group about this first. Everyone
provided valuable input and should have been acknowl-
edged.”
5. Express regret. “I’m angry with myself for not thinking
ahead.”
6. Describe how you will correct the situation and follow
through. “I’ll send an email out tomorrow acknowledging
that your names should have been included on the
report.”
7. Request, but don’t demand, forgiveness. “This group is
important to me. I hope you will forgive me.”
When an apology is insincere or fails to apply most of
these suggestions, it is unlikely to restore trust or gain forgive-
ness; rather, the supposed apology may be interpreted as an
attempt to justify unacceptable behavior, put the blame on oth-
ers, make excuses, or ignore how a behavior negatively affects
others.22
Forgiveness is the process of letting go of feelings of
revenge and a desire to retaliate.23 Forgiveness does not obli-
gate you to like the other person, forget what happened, or

release the other person from the consequences of bad
behavior.24 However, forgiving someone can help group mem-
bers move beyond conflict and focus on their common goal.
Consider the following guidelines when extending forgiveness
to another group member:25
• Recognize that forgiveness is a process that takes time.
• Acknowledge how others hurt or upset you.
• Allow yourself to feel angry.
• Empathize with others as humans who are flawed and
make mistakes.
• Recognize that others may not change their actions, but
you can choose how to respond to future behavior.
• When a sincere apology is offered, accept it.
• Behave in a manner that suggests you have forgiven the
other group member or members.

your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Know How to Apologize and When to Forgive
Following an argument, Anna says to her friend, “I’m sorry that
I did
not include you, but you can’t expect me to remember everyone!
Can’t we just get past this? I need to get to class.” Is this an
effec-
tive apology? Why or why not?
Research suggests that using a collaborating conflict
style to resolve problems is ideal and results in numer-
ous benefits, including greater understanding of others’
viewpoints, increased likelihood of achieving consensus,
more innovative solutions, and better quality decisions.27

The collaborative process may prompt some members to
rethink their positions or revise their goals as they “gain
insight into their own interests and conclude that what
they originally thought they wanted was not what they
really need.”28 Use the following guidelines for resolving
problems using the collaborating conflict style:29
• Focus on issues, not on personalities.
• Take flexible positions on issues and ideas.
• Express respect for other members’ viewpoints and
ideas.
• Acknowledge not only the weaknesses but also the
strengths of others’ ideas.
• Acknowledge not only the strengths but also the weak-
nesses of your own ideas.
• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a range of
options.
• Treat all members equally, regardless of status and
power differences.

• Use sound reasoning and valid evidence in support of
possible solutions.
8.3.4: Compromising Conflict Style
The compromising conflict style is an approach to dis-
agreement in which group members concede some goals
in order to achieve other more important goals. Compro-
mising is a middle-ground approach. Group members
who approach conflict through compromise argue that it
is a fair method of resolving problems because everyone
loses equally. However, there are disadvantages to relying
on a compromise to resolve conflict. Some members are
unlikely to strongly or enthusiastically support a group
decision reached through compromise if they feel forced
to “give up something they value. With the satisfaction of
achieving some goals comes the bitterness of having to
give up others.”26
The compromising conflict style works best when
• other methods of resolving the conflict are not
working.
• the members have reached an impasse or gridlock,

and are no longer progressing toward a reasonable
solution.
• the group does not have enough time to explore more
collaborative solutions.
8.3.5: Collaborating Conflict Style
The collaborating conflict style is an approach to disagree-
ment that seeks solutions that satisfy all group members
and that also helps achieve the common goal(s). This style
takes a both/and approach, in which both the goals of indi-
vidual members and the group’s common goals are met.
Instead of arguing over who is right or wrong, a collabora-
tive group seeks creative solutions that satisfy everyone’s
interests and needs. The collaborating conflict style pro-
motes synergy and resolves the dialectic tension between
competition and cooperation. It also involves trying to find
a win–win solution that helps the group make progress
toward achieving its common goal.
There are two barriers to collaboration, however.
First, it requires a lot of the group’s time and energy, and
some issues may not be important enough to justify this
investment. Second, avoiders and accommodators can
prevent a group from truly collaborating. Successful col-

laboration requires that all group members participate
fully.
Groups should use a collaborating conflict style when
• they want a solution that satisfies all group members.
• they need new and creative ideas.
• they need a commitment to the final decision from
every group member.
• they have enough time to commit to creative problem
solving.
8.3.6: Choosing a Conflict Style
Elected officials in Amsterdam, New York, negotiate with other
municipalities to bring water service from one town to another.
Successful groups use various conflict styles. Which style or
styles
does this group appear to be using: avoiding, accommodating,
competing, compromising, and/or collaborating?
Successful groups use various conflict styles to respond to

different types and levels of conflict. Although individuals
may be predisposed to a particular style, effective group
members choose the one that is most appropriate for a
particular group in a particular situation. As situations
144 Chapter 8
Group Assessment How Do You Respond to Conflict?30
Ideally, group members respond to disagreements by selecting
an appropriate and effective approach to conflict resolution in a
particular situation—avoiding,
accommodating, competing, compromising, or collaborating.
However, individuals tend to have a preferred style that they are
more comfortable using when
responding to conflict. The How Do You Respond to Conflict?
assessment helps you identify your preferred conflict style or
styles.
The following 20 statements express a variety of ways in which
people respond to conflict. Consider each message separately
and decide how closely it resembles
your attitudes and behavior in a conflict situation, even if the
language is not exactly the way you would express yourself.

Use the following numerical scale to
select the rating that best matches your approach to conflict.
Choose only one rating for each statement.
5 = I always do this. 4 = I usually do this. 3 = I sometimes do
this. 2 = I rarely do this. 1 = I never do this.
Conflict Style Avoiding Accommodating Competing
Compromising Collaborating
Item Scores 1. = 2. = 3. = 4. = 5. =
6. = 7. = 8. = 9. = 10. =
11. = 12. = 13. = 14. = 15. =
16. = 17. = 18. = 19. = 20. =
Total Scores
Your scores identify which conflict style or styles you use most
often. There are no right or wrong responses. Depending on the
issues, the others involved, and the
situation’s context, you may use different conflict styles. The
conflict style or styles with the highest total scores reflect your

behavioral preferences in conflict situations.
8.4.1: The 4Rs Method
To choose the most appropriate conflict management
method, members must fully understand the group’s dis-
agreement. The 4Rs Method of Conflict Management is a
four-step process (reasons, reactions, results, resolution)
for analyzing the nature of a disagreement and selecting an
appropriate conflict management strategy. All of the steps
are accompanied by relevant questions for analyzing the
group’s conflict.32
• Reasons. What are the reasons or causes of the conflict?
Is this a task, a personal, and/or a procedural conflict?
Do most group members agree with the identified rea-
sons for conflict?
• Reactions. How are group members reacting to one
another? Are group members’ reactions constructive
or destructive? How should group members modify
their behaviors in order to engage in constructive

conflict?
• Results. What are the potential consequences of the
current approach to the conflict? Is the conflict serious
enough to jeopardize member relationships or the
group’s ability to achieve its common goal?
• Resolution. What are the best available methods for
resolving the conflict? Which method best matches the
nature of the group and its conflict?
Analyzing and understanding the nature of the dis-
agreement can promote constructive conflict resolution.
The 4Rs Method provides a way of thinking about conflict
and selecting an appropriate approach to conflict manage-
ment. Although it may be difficult to begin this kind of dis-
cussion, a better understanding of the problem’s causes
change, so may the approach. Consider the following
example of a jury:
During the first hour of deliberation, the jury engaged in a
heated debate over a controversial, yet central, issue in the
case. Tyrone was conspicuously silent throughout this dis-
cussion. Jury members asked his opinion several times.

Each time, he indicated that he agreed with the arguments
that Pam presented. On a later issue, Tyrone became a cen-
tral participant. He argued vehemently that one of the
defendants was not guilty. He said, “I’m just not going to
give in here. It’s not right for the man to go to jail over
this.” Eventually, one of the jurors suggested that Tyrone
reexamine a key document presented as evidence of the
defendant’s guilt. Tyrone was quiet for a few minutes and
carefully reviewed the document. He then looked up at
the group and said, “Well, this changes everything for me.
I guess he really was a part of the conspiracy.”
Tyrone used several approaches to deal with conflict
in the group. First, he avoided it altogether; he simply
had nothing to add to the discussion (avoiding conflict
style). Tyrone then became competitive when he thought
that the defendant might be unjustly imprisoned (com-
peting conflict style). He changed his mind, however,
when a review of the evidence convinced him that he had
been wrong (accommodating conflict style). When select-
ing a conflict style, consider the following questions:
• How important is the issue to you?
• How important is the issue to other members?

• How important is it to maintain positive relationships
with group members?
• How much time does the group have to address the
issue?
• How fully do group members trust one another?31
Selecting an appropriate conflict style requires an
understanding and analysis of the group’s goal, member
characteristics and perspectives, and the nature of the
conflict situation. For instance, if group members do not
trust one another, the compromising conflict style is less
appropriate; but if the issue is very important to every-
one and there is plenty of time to discuss it, the collabo-
rating conflict style is ideal. Effective groups do not rely
on a single conflict style; instead, members balance their
preferred conflict styles with the needs of the group.
8.4: Conflict Management
Strategies
8.4 Summarize four major strategies for analyzing and
resolving group conflict

Groups that use appropriate conflict styles are more likely
to resolve disagreements. Sometimes, however, a group
Choose Appropriate Conflict
Management Strategies
We should
bargain fairly
to settle
differences.
We should
express our
concerns and
suggest a
solution.
A-E-I-O-U
Model
Cooperative
Negotiation

We need to
control and avoid
expressing
hostile
feelings.
Anger
Management
We should analyze
the nature of our
disagreement and
options for
resolving conflict.
4 Rs Method
Figure 8.4 Conflict Management Strategies
must set aside the task, personal, or procedural issues

under discussion and address the causes of the conflict
directly. Figure 8.4 summarizes four effective strategies for
analyzing and resolving conflicts.
146 Chapter 8
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
The 4Rs Method of Conflict Resolution
1. Which conflict styles are evident among the members of this
group?
2. What, if any, were the hidden agendas that triggered the
conflict?
3. Use the 4Rs Method of Conflict Management (reasons, reac-

tions, results, resolution) to analyze how the group could have
moved toward resolving the conflict.
4. To what extent did Steve, the chair of the department, help
Trevor, Helen, Art, and Georgia minimize or resolve the
conflict?
Theory in Groups
Attribution Theory and
Member Motives
Objective: Explain how attribution theory may influence the
way group members interpret the motives of others in a conflict
situation.
Attribution theory, the brainchild of psychologist Fritz Heider,
applies to all kinds of human interaction, including groups.33
When you make an attribution about a group member’s
behavior, you are speculating about the causes of that behav-
ior—attributing the behavior to one or more causes. Attribu-
tion theory claims that we tend to interpret behavior in terms
of its causes.
For example, suppose Kim says, “I propose we meet

Thursdays at 3:30 p.m. rather than Mondays at 10:00 a.m.”
You may attribute her statement to one of several motives,
thinking that:
1. She proposed this because she knows only Melinda can’t
attend at that hour. What’s she got against Melinda?
That’s mean, self-centered, and heartless.
attend at that hour. That was an ingenious way of getting
rid of a highly disruptive member who causes most of our
problems. She’s very clever, group-centered, and goal-
focused.
attend at that hour. That’s certainly better than the 10 a.m.
hour, when three other members can’t attend. She’s
found the best option for the most members.
Even though we know that we shouldn’t make snap
judgments about why people behave in a certain way, we
often do exactly that. This response has a name: funda-
mental attribution error, the tendency to identify some-
one’s internal characteristics, attitudes, or motives to

explain a particular behavior, rather than considering the
facts of the situation. For example, “It’s Melinda’s fault we
didn’t finish the project on time,” or, “How could we expect
to finish when three members couldn’t attend the 10 a.m.
meetings?” Perhaps Melinda didn’t finish on time because
the instructions weren’t clear and because she wasn’t given
adequate time to complete the task. Perhaps the three
absent members did not have the knowledge or skills to
help the group.
Subsequent research uses attribution theory and the fun-
damental attribution error to examine group conflict. For exam-
ple, here are three attributions that could prompt anger among
group members:
• What other members do seems to constrain what I want
to do.
• What other members do seems intended to harm me
or others.
• What other members do seems abnormal or illegitimate.34
All these attributions may be erroneous; in fact, members
may not be trying to restrain a member, do harm, or behave

illegitimately. One of the most significant types of attribution
error is the self-serving bias, a tendency to blame negative
consequences on external forces and attribute positive conse-
quences to our own behavior.35 According to the self-serving
bias, if your group has problems, it’s their fault, not yours.
However, if your group succeeds, it’s because of the great
contributions you made.
At the same time, other group members may be thinking
the same thing: “It’s not my fault we’re having problems; it’s
everyone else’s fault,” or, “If I hadn’t stepped in and done
such-and-such, we never would have reached our goal.”
Because fundamental attribution errors and the self-serving
bias occur all the time, group members should watch for and
openly discuss them when they arise.
and effects can prompt a group to resolve the issue more
quickly and effectively.
Watch the video clip from “The Politics of Sociology,” which
illustrates

When group members focus solely on defending their
own positions, the result is winners and losers. When
members focus on group interests, options, and fair crite-
ria, the entire group wins. However, even cooperative
negotiation can become deadlocked when members fail to
recognize or appreciate the needs of others and are unwill-
ing to make concessions. The following strategies can help
avoid or resolve a deadlock:40
• Limit the scope of the problem by dividing it into man-
ageable parts.
• Minimize defensive behavior by having members
explain or paraphrase the other side’s position.
• Summarize areas of agreement to promote cooperation.
• Take a break to relieve group tensions.
• Ask for more information to avoid inaccurate
assumptions.

Clearly, group members must balance a variety of
needs during negotiation. They must be willing to cooper-
ate with one another while attempting to meet as many of
their own needs as possible. They must openly communi-
cate what they are willing to concede, yet not sacrifice more
than is necessary. Members must balance the need to gain
their own short-term goals against the benefits of mutually
desirable long-term conflict resolution and the achieve-
ment of the group’s common goal.
8.4.4: Anger Management
Anger is the most common negative emotion associated
with conflict.41 Anger is an emotional response to unmet
expectations that ranges from minor irritation to intense
rage. Always take time to analyze why you are angry.
8.4.2: The A-E-I-O-U Model
Jerry Wisinski’s A-E-I-O-U Model focuses on what he calls
positive intentionality—the assumption that other people
are not trying to cause conflict.36 In other words, every
group member must want to resolve the conflict. The
A-E-I-O-U Model is an approach to conflict resolution that
involves five steps: Assume that others mean well; Express
your feelings; Identify your goal; clarify expected Out-

comes; and achieve mutual Understanding. If you sense
that some members are not willing to resolve a conflict or
have hidden agendas, the A-E-I-O-U Model may not work.
If your group is working on an important project that is
behind schedule and group members are blaming one
another for the problem, ask them to put aside the blame
game in order to analyze objectively why the group is
behind schedule.
The five steps in the A-E-I-O-U model in Table 8.2 pro-
vide a constructive approach to managing conflict.37
Table 8.2 A-E-I-O-U Model
Description Example
A Assume that others
mean well.
“I know that all of us want this project to
succeed.”
E Express your
feelings.

“Like most of you, I’m frustrated because it
seems we’re not putting in the work that’s
needed.”
I Identify your goal. “All of us need to work late for the next
couple
of days in order to finish this project on time.”
O Outcomes you
expect are made
clear.
“I hope everyone is committed to doing
whatever it takes to complete the project
successfully and on time.”
U Understanding on
a mutual basis is
achieved.
“It sounds like we’re all in agreement. We’ll
stay late tonight and tomorrow and then
evaluate our progress.”
8.4.3: Cooperative Negotiation

Negotiation is often seen as a competitive process result-
ing in compromise, with group members conceding some
issues in order to achieve agreement on other points.
Cooperative negotiation is a more collaborative approach
to bargaining that involves identifying common interests
in order to find a mutually beneficial solution or resolu-
tion to conflict.38 Group members are as concerned with
achieving others’ goals as with meeting their own needs.
Cooperative negotiation does not require group members
to sacrifice what they want, but they must be flexible
and open to other options for achieving both their indi-
vidual goals and the group’s common goal. Group mem-
bers may be more willing to engage in cooperative
negotiation if they believe that they will be no worse off—
and might even be better off—by the end of the process.
Table 8.3 provides guidelines for engaging in cooperative
negotiation.39
Table 8.3 Elements of Cooperative Negotiation
Guideline Description
Separate the
people from the
problem.

Blaming or attacking other members will not resolve
conflict. Set aside your feelings for another person and
focus on the problem that must be addressed.
Focus on com-
mon interests.
Explain your goals and seek to understand the goals of
others. Identify common needs and interests, not a
position or specific point of disagreement.
Share important
information.
Share critical information that may contribute to a fair
outcome. Withholding such information is unethical
and derails negotiation.
Offer
concessions.
Give in on aspects of a position. When a group mem-
ber makes some concessions, other members are
more likely to engage in cooperative behavior.

Explore a variety
of possible
solutions.
Consider multiple options before deciding what to do.
Be creative, flexible, and open to alternatives that are
mutually beneficial to all members.
Use objective
criteria.
Establish fair and objective criteria for evaluating and
choosing a solution or course of action. Objective cri-
teria ensure that a group has a common basis for
decision making.
148 Chapter 8
Remember that anger is a reaction to unmet expectations:
You expect others to be honest, and they’re not; or, you
expect others to treat you with respect, and they don’t.
Uncontrolled anger prevents group members from

engaging in constructive conflict resolution. Effective
groups and group members understand the importance of
skillfully engaging in anger management, the process of
applying appropriate communication strategies for deal-
ing with and expressing personal anger while treating oth-
ers who are angry with understanding and respect.
Some people see anger as a destructive emotion that
should always be suppressed: Hold It In. Others believe in
fully expressing their anger regardless of the consequences:
Let It Out! Both of these extreme views about anger can be
counterproductive to conflict resolution. Use the following
guidelines to engage in appropriate anger management:42
• Understand the reasons for your anger. Make sure your
anger is justified. Try to understand the motives of
other group members. Did they intend to mistreat you,
or was it an innocent mistake?
• Calmly express your anger and the action that was wrong.
Use clear “I” messages that avoid provoking defen-
siveness. For example, “I am angry the group didn’t
tell me that our meeting time was rescheduled.”
• Create a constructive climate for conflict resolution. Avoid

raising your voice, threatening others, or name calling.
Aggressive behavior only fuels anger and escalates
conflict.
• Listen to others. Listening can clarify misunderstand-
ings and provide opportunities to resolve the prob-
lems that led to angry feelings in the first place.
Even if you succeed in understanding your own anger
and expressing it, you have only resolved your own feel-
ings; responding appropriately to others’ anger is the other
half of the anger management equation. If another group
member expresses anger toward you, consider any or all of
the following strategies:43
• Acknowledge the other person’s feelings of anger. “I can see
how upset you are.”
• Identify the issue or behavior that is the source of the anger.
“I don’t believe I promised to write the entire report by
myself.”
• Assess the intensity of the anger and the importance of the
issue. “I know it’s critical that we have a well-written
report to accompany our presentation.”

• Encourage constructive approaches to addressing the source
of anger. “Why don’t we discuss assembling a team of
group members to work on the report with me?”
• Make a positive statement about the relationship. “I enjoy
working with this group and hope we can sort this out
together.”
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Anger Management
Think about the last time someone got angry at you during an
argu-
ment. How would the five anger management strategies
described
have helped you resolve the conflict?

Ethics in Groups
The Group and the Doctrine
of the Mean
Objective: Provide examples of how following the doctrine of
the mean can help resolve dialectic tensions and conflict in
groups.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle equates ethics with
virtue (goodness, moral excellence, righteousness, and integ-
rity). Aristotle explains that virtue can be destroyed by too lit-
tle or too much of certain behaviors. For example, someone
who runs away is a coward, whereas someone who fears
nothing is reckless. The virtue of bravery is the mean, an
appropriate point between two extremes. Aristotle offered his
doctrine of the mean as a practical way of looking at ethical
behavior.44 The doctrine of the mean is an ethical virtue
based on moderation and a response somewhere between
the two extremes of expressing mild annoyance and spewing
uncontrolled rage. Thus, according to the doctrine of the
mean, if a group member says something that angers you,
find an appropriate response somewhere between scream-
ing angrily at the other person and simply giving in. It may be
much more appropriate and productive to state your dis-
agreement in a strong but reasoned tone. Aristotle main-

tained that anyone can become angry—that’s easy. But to
be angry at the right things, with the right people, to the right
degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the
right way—is worthy of praise.45 For Aristotle, being brutally
honest in all situations is not an ethical virtue, because your
honesty may do more harm than good.46
In examining the nature and consequences of group conflict,
Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean represents a desirable balance
of
two dialectic extremes. Table 8.4 illustrates dialectic tensions
and the doctrine of the mean for three of Aristotle’s virtues.47
Effective anger management requires that you know
how to manage and express your angry feelings while
treating others with respect. Appropriately expressing and
dealing with anger among group members prevents minor
issues from escalating into major problems, and promotes
constructive conflict resolution.
8.5: Conflict and Member

Diversity
8.5 Analyze how different cultural and gender
perspectives may influence interpersonal and
group conflict
Conflict becomes more complex in diverse groups. Differ-
ences in cultural and gender perspectives may result in
misunderstandings, prejudices, and unintentionally offen-
sive behavior. Organizations and companies that fail to
understand, respect, and adapt to such differences are likely
to have more strikes and lawsuits, low morale among work-
ers, less productivity, and a higher turnover of employees.48
8.5.1: Cultural Responses to Conflict
The cultural values of individual members greatly influence
the degree to which they feel comfortable with conflict, what
they focus on during conflict, and how conflict is resolved.
For example, group members from the United States may
focus on the issues and practicalities of a solution; in contrast,
Mexican or Japanese members may devote more attention to
cultivating personal relationships and building trust.49
Members from collectivist cultures value cooperation,
and are less likely to express disagreement than members

from individualistic cultures. For example, research sug-
gests that many Japanese prefer to use avoiding or accom-
modating conflict styles. Members from Arab, Turkish, and
Jordanian cultures generally prefer cooperative approaches
to conflict resolution rather than competition.50 Whereas
people from Japanese, German, Mexican, and Brazilian cul-
tures tend to value group cooperation, people from the
United States, Britain, Sweden, and France are generally
more comfortable expressing differences.51 Chinese group
members may feel uncomfortable with adversarial
approaches to conflict.52 They may remain silent, postpone a
discussion, or change the subject when they disagree with
someone.53 However, some scholars suggest that the per-
ception of a preference among the Chinese for conflict avoid-
ance is influenced by a Western bias in conflict research.54
For example, in a study that interviewed Chinese managers,
Table 8.4 Dialectic Tensions and the Doctrine
of the Mean
Dialectic Tension Doctrine of the Mean
Cowardice 4 Recklessness Bravery
Shyness 4 Shamelessness Humbleness

Boastfulness 4 Understatement Truthfulness
Let Members Save Face
Collectivist cultures place a high value on face, or the ability
to avoid embarrassment. From a cultural perspective, face
is the positive image a person tries to create or preserve.
Cultures that place a great deal of value on “saving face”
discourage personal attacks and outcomes in which one
person “loses.” Losing face can result in feelings of shame,
guilt, or embarrassment. A member who loses face during
conflict may withdraw from the group, deny responsibility for
an action, or blame others.59 Following are some strategies
that will help you allow other group members to save face
during conflict:60
• Understand and acknowledge the validity of others’ per-
spectives.
• Allow others to explain, and accept what they say as
being honest and accurate.
• Allow others to change their position on issues.

• Acknowledge the importance of others.
The individualism–collectivism cultural dimension
strongly influences how group members communicate. Not
surprisingly, this dimension also explains how members
define and respond to conflict. For example, collectivist mem-
bers may merge concerns related to issues and relationships,
making conflict more personal. As Myron Lustig and Jolene
Koester write in their book Intercultural Competence, “To
shout and scream publicly, thus displaying the conflict to oth-
ers, threatens everyone’s face to such an extreme degree
that such behavior is usually avoided at all costs [in collectiv-
ist cultures].” In individualistic cultures, group members may
express their anger about an issue and then joke and social-
ize with others once the disagreement is over. “It is almost as
if once the conflict is resolved, it is completely forgotten.”61
the Chinese described their approach as “a proactive retreat
for the purpose of advancing” and “pursuing by making a
detour” rather than conflict avoidance.55
Cultural differences may be regional rather than interna-
tional. For example, Franco-Canadians are often more coop-
erative in negotiating a conflict than Anglo-Canadians, who
are slower to agree to a resolution.56 With these generaliza-

tions in mind, it’s important to remember that many indi-
viduals may not approach conflict according to their cultural
norms. Other factors, such as age, status, or group role, may
be just as influential as cultural background in determining
how a group member approaches conflict.57 In describing
the challenges of managing conflict in diverse groups, one
Chinese manager declared that each person has “different
perspectives, different priorities, different backgrounds, and
different interests, and therefore I am exhausted.”58
150 Chapter 8
8.6.1: Enhancing Group Cohesion
Members of cohesive groups are committed to a common goal
and
proud of group accomplishments.
8.5.2: Gender Responses
to Conflict
Researchers have devoted a great deal of time and atten-
tion to investigating gender differences in conflict situa-
tions. Their conclusion is that there is less difference in

the way that women and men respond to conflict than
you might think, at least with regard to conflict styles.
Studies in the late 1990s claimed that women were more
likely to avoid conflict or to leave a group when there was
continuous conflict.62 Deborah Tannen claimed that
women were more likely to address conflict privately
rather than in front of the entire group.63 However, as
Ann Nicotera and Laura Dorsey conclude in their 2006
study, “conflict style is not driven by biological sex,
regardless of how many studies try to find the effect; it’s
simply not there.”64
That said, there are differences in how people
may expect women to think and behave in a conflict
situation. Women are often expected to value relation-
ships and to be nice and supportive when they encoun-
ter conflict, and men are expected to be more assertive
and focus on the task. And when women use competi-
tion conflict styles, “there is some evidence that they
are evaluated more negatively than are men who
compete.”65
8.6: Group Cohesion
8.6 Describe strategies that promote four major types

of group cohesion
Working in groups requires cohesion. A shorthand term
for solidarity and loyalty to a group and its members, cohe-
sion embodies the ability “to stick together, to work for the
good of all, to make the group’s goal one’s own, [and] to
help one another.”66 One for all and all for one!
Cohesive groups feel committed and unified; mem-
bers develop a sense of teamwork and pride in the group’s
accomplishments. Research suggests that cohesive groups
outperform less cohesive groups. When a cohesive group
has a high level of “interpersonal liking, task commitment,
and/or group pride,” there can be a 5 to 10 percent gain in
efficiency.67
Most people prefer and like working in a cohesive
group. Such groups are “alluring, for they seem to offer
their members advantages that no humdrum, uninvolving
group can.”68
Table 8.5 summarizes the five major types of group
cohesion.
Table 8.5 Types of Group Cohesion69

Type of
Cohesion Definition Example
Social Cohesion Group unity that results
when members like
each other
“My group members are
my friends.”
Task Cohesion Group unity that results
when group members
are committed to a
common goal
“We’re all working
together to accomplish
the same thing.”
Collective
Cohesion
Group unity that results
when group members

identify with a group and
feel a sense of belonging
“There is no ‘I’ in the
word team!”
Emotional
Cohesion
when group members
experience positive
emotions while interact-
ing with other members
“I enjoy working with the
people in this group.”
Structural
Cohesion
when group members
embrace clear norms
and well-defined roles

“We operate as easily
and smoothly as a
well-oiled machine.”
Some groups become cohesive with very little effort,
either by chance or because members are chosen care-
fully. Members of such groups bond with one another
almost magically in pursuit of a worthy goal. Other
groups may wait forever for the magic to happen,
because they don’t realize that achieving group cohesion
requires determination and work. Fortunately, several
strategies can be used singly or combined to help a group
become more cohesive:70
• Establish a group identity and traditions. Members of
a cohesive group use terms such as we and our instead
of I and my. Some groups create more obvious signs of
identity, such as a group name, logo, or motto. Many
groups develop rituals and ceremonies to reinforce

their traditions.
• Emphasize teamwork. Members of a cohesive group
believe that their combined contributions are essential
to the group’s success. Group members feel responsi-
bility for and take pride in both the work that they do
and the work of other members. Instead of individual
members taking credit for success, a cohesive group
emphasizes the group’s accomplishments.
• Recognize and reward contributions. Some group
members become so involved in their own work that
they don’t praise others for their contributions; other
members are quick to criticize. Cohesive groups estab-
lish a supportive climate in which members continu-
ally thank others for their efforts. Groups may also
reward member contributions more formally with cel-
ebrations, letters of appreciation, certificates, and gifts.
• Respect group members. When members of a group
have strong interpersonal relationships, they become
more sensitive to one another’s needs. Treating mem-
bers with respect, showing concern for their personal
needs, and appreciating diversity all promote a cli-
mate of acceptance.

8.6.2: Groupthink
Too much of a good thing has its drawbacks. Although group
cohesiveness benefits groups in many ways, too much of it
can result in a phenomenon that Yale University psycholo-
gist Irving Janis identified as groupthink, “a mode of think-
ing that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a
cohesive in-group, when the members’ strivings for unanim-
ity override their motivation to realistically appraise alterna-
tive courses of action. . . . Groupthink refers to a deterioration
of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment that
results from in-group pressure”71 (Figure 8.5).
GROUPTHINK
The group is highly cohesive
The group has structural flaws
The situation is volatile
Figure 8.5 Groupthink May Occur When . . .
Janis identified three major factors that contribute to
groupthink:

• The group is highly cohesive. As a result, members may
overestimate their competence and perceptions of
rightness. To maintain cohesiveness and total consen-
sus, members may discourage disagreement.
• The group has structural f laws. Such flaws “inhibit
the flow of information and promote carelessness in
the application of decision-making procedures.”72
For example, the leader or a few members may have
too much power and influence, or the group’s pro-
cedures may limit access to outside or contrary
information.
• The situation is volatile. When a group must make a
high-stakes decision, stress levels are high. Members
may rush to make a decision (that turns out to be
flawed), and they may close ranks and shut out other
reasonable options.73
The homogeneous n heterogeneous dialectic is par-
ticularly important when dealing with groupthink. The
more members have in common, the more cohesive they
may become. However, they also run the risk of being
“more insulated from outside opinions, and therefore more

convinced that the group’s judgment on important issues
must be right.”74
SyMPTOMS Of GROUPThInk Irving Janis developed
the theory of groupthink after recognizing patterns in
what he called “policymaking fiascoes.” He suggested
that groupthink was a significant factor in several major
political policy decisions with adverse consequences,
including the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba, the esca-
lation of the Vietnam War in the 1960s, and the 1972 Water-
gate burglary and subsequent cover-up.75 Groupthink
may also have contributed to the explosion of the space
shuttle Challenger76 in 1986 and the U.S. decision to invade
Iraq in 2003.77
Unfortunately, groupthink occurs well beyond the
groups that decide to invade other countries, cover up
politically motivated break-ins, and send crews to space
stations on a cold morning. There is good evidence that
groupthink may be, at least in part, responsible for more
recent fiascos. For example, economists—as well as
banks, investment firms, corporations, and government
agencies—missed the ominous signs and seriousness of
the 2008 financial crisis and then boldly and mistakenly
over-predicted the U.S. economy’s strength and speed

of recovery.78 Then there are the ways in which the
cover-up of child-sexual abuse committed by Jerry San-
dusky, a retired assistant football coach at Penn State
152 Chapter 8
Table 8.6 Groupthink
Groupthink
Symptom Description
Expression of
Groupthink
Invulnerability Is overly confident; willing
to take big risks
“We’re right. We’ve done
this many times, and
nothing’s gone wrong.”
Rationalization Makes excuses; dis-
counts warnings

“What does Lewis know?
He’s been here only three
weeks.”
Morality Ignores ethical and moral
consequences
“Sometimes the end jus-
tifies the means.”
Stereotyping
Outsiders
Considers opposition too
weak and stupid to make
real trouble
“Let’s not worry about
the subcommittee—they
can’t even get their own
act together.”
Self-Censorship Doubts his or her own
reservations; unwilling to
disagree or dissent

“I guess there’s no harm
in going along with the
group—I’m the only one
who disagrees.”
Pressure on
Dissent
Pressures members to
agree
“Why are you trying to
hold this up? You’ll ruin
the project.”
Illusion of
Unanimity
Believes everyone agrees “Hearing no objections,
the motion passes.”
Mindguarding Shields members from
adverse information or
opposition

“Rhea wanted to come
to this meeting, but I
told her that wasn’t
necessary.”
After analyzing many of these policy decisions, Janis
identified the eight symptoms of groupthink summarized
in Table 8.6.80
PREvEnTInG GROUPThInk The best way to deal with
groupthink is to prevent it from happening in the first place.
For example, when commenting on the raid of Osama bin
Laden’s compound in May 2011, President Barack Obama
told a reporter that he encourages all White House team
members to speak their minds and express any doubts they
may have when a decision is to be made.81 The president
met with senior intelligence, military, and diplomatic teams
in the Situation Room days before the raid to review several
options. His advisers were divided about which option to
choose. Obama encouraged them to speak their minds
openly and freely express their doubts (a strategy for avoid-
ing groupthink). In the end, it was the President who made
the decision.

Jerry Sandusky, former Pennsylvania State University assistant
football coach, was convicted of sexual abuse following a
highly
publicized trial.
University, led to groupthink and tragic consequences.
The reactions of a highly cohesive group of university
administrators, the athletic director, a much-revered
football coach, and others created a situation ripe for
groupthink. “How” asked writers in Time Magazine,
“could these intelligent and dedicated men have failed
so dramatically to defend young children, while going
overboard to protect their public image, their football,
their Jerry, their JoePa?”79
The following list provides practical ways to mini-
mize the potential for groupthink.82 Choose the methods
that are most appropriate for your particular group and
its goal:
• Ask each member to serve in the role of critical
evaluator. Consider having members take turns
President Obama and his national security team watch a live

video of
the mission to capture and kill Osama bin Laden.
Summary: Conflict and Cohesion in Groups
8.1: Conflict in Groups
• Conflict is the disagreement and disharmony that
occur in groups when members express differences
regarding group goals, member behavior and roles,
and group procedures.
• There are three types of conflict: task (disagreement
over information, ideas, and issues), personal (inter-
personal disagreement), and procedural (disagree-
ment over processes).
8.2: Constructive and Destructive Conflict
• Constructive conflict results when group members
express differences in ways that value everyone’s con-
tributions and promote the group’s goals.

• Destructive conflict results when group members
engage in behaviors that create hostility and prevent
the group from achieving its goals.
• The time, distance, and anonymity that separate members
of virtual teams may increase the potential for conflict.
8.3: Conflict Styles
• Each of the five conflict styles—avoiding, accommo-
dating, competing, compromising, and collaborating—
reflects the individual goals 4 group goals dialectic
tension.
• Effective groups choose conflict styles appropriate for
their members and the particular situation. A group’s
conflict style may change as the situation changes.
• Apologizing when appropriate and forgiving other
members for mistakes can contribute to constructive
conflict resolution.
8.4: Conflict Management Strategies
• The 4Rs Method is a four-step process for analyzing

the nature of a disagreement and selecting an appro-
priate conflict management strategy. The four steps
require members to ask questions about Reasons,
Reactions, Results, and Resolutions.
• According to Attribution Theory, we tend to interpret
behavior in terms of its causes.
• The A-E-I-O-U Model is a five-step approach to con-
flict resolution in which concerns are expressed and
alternatives proposed in a supportive and constructive
manner.
• Cooperative negotiation is a collaborative approach
to bargaining that involves identifying common
interests in order to find a mutually beneficial resolu-
tion to a conflict.
• Effective anger management requires that you know
how to manage and appropriately express your angry
feelings while treating others with respect.
serving as a devil ’s advocate, someone who argues
against a proposal or takes an opposite side in an

argument in order to provoke discussion, test the
quality of an argument, or subject a plan to thor-
ough examination.
• The group leader should, at least initially, remain neu-
tral and avoid expressing a preference or strong opin-
ion before other members have expressed their
thoughts and feelings.
• If possible, ask more than one group member to work
on the same problem independently.
• Discuss the group’s progress with someone outside
the group. Report that feedback to the entire group.
• Periodically invite an expert to join your meeting and
encourage constructive criticism.
• Discuss the potential negative consequences of any
decision or action.
• Follow a formal decision-making procedure that
encourages expression of disagreement and evalua-
tion of ideas.

• Ask questions, offer reasons for positions, and demand
justifications from others.
• Before finalizing the decision, give members a second
chance to express doubts.
In the short term, groupthink decisions are easier—the
group finishes early and doesn’t have to deal with conflict.
However, such decisions are often misguided and may
result in serious harm. Spending the time and energy to
work through differences results in better decisions with-
out sacrificing group cohesiveness.
154 Chapter 8
Chapter 8 Quiz: Conflict and Cohesion in Groups
class discussion.

ShaRed WRITING
CaSe STudy: SOCIOlOGy IN TROuble
Which conflict management strategy or strategies could
have helped resolve the sociology department’s conflict in this
situation? Who should initiative or employ these strategies?
• The doctrine of the mean is a principle of ethical
behavior based on moderation, and an appropriate
response somewhere between two extremes.
8.5: Conflict and Member Diversity
• The cultural values of individual group members influ-
ence their degree of comfort with conflict and how it is
resolved.

• Men and women from similar cultures do not differ
significantly in terms of conflict strategies and styles.
However, they may differ in terms of their expecta-
tions of one another in conflict situations.
8.6: Group Cohesion
• The five major types of group cohesion are social cohe-
sion, task cohesion, collective cohesion, emotional
cohesion, and structural cohesion.
• Groups can promote cohesion by establishing a group
identity and group traditions, emphasizing team-
work, recognizing and rewarding contributions, and
respecting individual members’ needs.
• Groupthink occurs when group members value con-
sensus so highly that they fail to think critically about
their decisions. Highly cohesive groups have a greater
risk of succumbing to groupthink.
155

9.4 Describe strategies that enhance creative
thinking and innovation in group problem
solving
9.5 Explain how politics, preexisting
preferences, power, and organizational
culture can affect group decision making
and problem solving
9.1 List the five prerequisites for group decision
making and problem solving
9.2 Analyze the advantages and disadvantages
of various decision-making methods and
decision-making styles
9.3 Compare the key elements of Brainstorming,
the Nominal Group Technique, the DOT
method, and the Progressive Problem
Solving Method
Learning Objectives
Chapter 9

Decision Making and Problem
Solving in Groups
Highly effective groups have a clear goal, quality content,
structured procedures, a commitment to
deliberation, and a collaborative communication climate.
156 Chapter 9
Sally interrupts and beseeches the group to slow down
before deciding what to do. She tries to include everyone in
the discussion by turning the meeting into a brainstorming
session. Sally explains brainstorming “rules” and asks the
group to think creatively about ways to increase business.
If nothing else, the brainstorming session succeeds in
reducing tensions between the two factions.
case study:

1. How, if at all, would you change the wording or list of
Sally’s
five agenda questions?
2. Was choosing consensus as the decision-making method
appropriate for this group? Why or why not?
3. Which dialectic tensions are likely to affect the group’s
ability
to achieve its goal?
4. How well did the group select and use a structured, problem-
solving procedure or a creative, problem-solving method?
5. How did politics, preexisting preferences, power, and/or
organizational culture affect the group’s ability to make
decisions and solve problems?
9.1: Understanding Group
Decision Making and
Problem Solving
9.1 List the five prerequisites for group decision
making and problem solving

You make hundreds of decisions and resolve many prob-
lems every day. You decide when to get up in the morning,
what to wear, when to leave for class or work, and with
whom you spend your leisure time. Many factors influence
how you make these decisions—your culture, age, family,
education, social status, and religion, as well as your
dreams, fears, beliefs, values, interpersonal needs, and per-
sonal preferences.1 Now take five people, put them in a
room, and ask them to make a group decision. As difficult
as it can be to make personal decisions, the challenge is
multiplied many times over in groups.2
Fortunately, and in large part because of the many dif-
ferences among members, effective groups have the poten-
tial to make excellent decisions because more minds are at
work on the problem. Groups have the potential to accom-
plish more and perform better than individuals working
alone. So, although the road may be paved with challenges,
group decision making and problem solving can be highly
satisfying, creative, and effective.
Although the terms decision making and problem solv-
ing are often used interchangeably, their meanings differ.
Case Study: No More Horsing

Around
Horseback-riding stable owners in the county meet to
develop a joint plan for attracting more customers, particu-
larly in light of a recent economic downturn. Three group
members own prestigious private stables that board and
train horses for their owners. Four members own open-to-
the public stables that rent horses by the hour and offer
riding lessons. Sally—who owns one of the public stables—
agrees to chair the group’s meetings.
All seven group members are competent, hardwork-
ing, and interested in increasing business at their stables.
At the first meeting, they agree to seek consensus when
making decisions; all members must be satisfied with the
final group decision. They also talk about the need for a
promotional campaign to increase their business.
At the second meeting, Sally works diligently to
encourage equal participation by everyone in the group.
Within a short time, however, things are not going well.
Tension runs high because the private stable owners and
the public stable owners see the problem quite differently.
The three members who own private stables are very force-
ful and insistent. Perhaps because these members are
wealthy and highly respected among horse professionals,

the rest of the group lets them do most of the talking. The
private owners want to place full-color ads in specialized
horse publications, while the public owners are more inter-
ested in getting free publicity about their stables and in
funding a few small ads in public outlets. Even though
they constitute a majority, the public stable owners feel
powerless; they resent the unspoken power and influence
of the other three members.
In an attempt to broaden the scope of the discussion,
Sally distributes a list of questions she believes the group
should talk about and answer:
• How serious is our decline in business?
• Why do we have fewer customers?
• How have stables in other counties responded to the
problem?
• What limitations do we face in addressing this problem
(lack of finances, lack of public relations expertise)?
• What should we do?

The three private stable owners jump to the last ques-
tion. One of them says, “We know the answers to these
questions. We need a good PR campaign. So let’s stop talk-
ing about other things and decide how to do this—as soon
as possible.” Rhett, the owner of a public stable, responds
quickly with, “Whoa, there. The last thing I want to do is
spend a lot of money on fancy-pants ads that none of my
customers will see.”
Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 157
9.1.1: Clear Goal
Effective groups have a clear, common goal that everyone
understands and supports. One strategy for understand-
ing the nature of the group’s goal is to word it as a ques-
tion, as explained in the following Theory in Groups feature.
The question format helps a group decide whether it
should accept, reject, or suspend judgment about an idea,
belief, or proposal.
Decision making is the act of making a judgment, choos-
ing an option, or reaching a conclusion. In a group setting,
decision making results in a position, opinion, judgment,

or action. For example, hiring committees, juries, and fam-
ilies engage in decision making when they decide which
applicant is best, whether the accused is guilty, and whom
to invite to a wedding, respectively. Management expert
Peter Drucker put it simply: “A decision is a judgment. It
is a choice between alternatives.”3
Most groups make decisions, but not all groups solve
problems. Problem solving is a complex process in which
groups make multiple decisions as they analyze a problem
and develop a plan for solving the problem or reducing its
harmful effects. For instance, if student enrollment has
declined significantly, a college faces a serious problem
that must be analyzed and dealt with if the institution
hopes to survive. Fortunately, decision-making and problem-
solving strategies can help a group “make up its mind”
and resolve a problem (Table 9.1).
Table 9.1 Decision Making and Problem Solving
Decision
Making
A Judgment:
The group chooses

an alternative
Guilty or not guilty
Hire or not hire
Spend or save
Voting or consensus seeking
Asks who, what,
where, and when
Whom should we invite?
What should we discuss?
Where should we meet?
When should we meet?
Problem
Solving
A Process: The
group studies a
problem and develops
an achievable plan

Analyze the problem
Develop options
Debate the pros and cons
Select and implement a solution
Asks why and how
Why don’t more students vote in
student government elections?
How should we publicize and
persuade students to vote?
Now think about what groups must do when they
make collective decisions. Should they use logic, trust
their instincts, rely on majority rule, or pass it on to a
higher authority? As hard as it is to make a personal
decision, the difficulties of group decision making are
multiplied many times. When, however, a task is com-
plex and the answers or solutions are unclear, groups
make better decisions than individuals working alone.
In this chapter, we examine the many ways in which
groups address the challenges of making decisions and
solving problems.
However, before taking on such challenges, five pre-

requisites should be in place: a clear goal, quality content,
structured procedures, commitment to deliberation, and a
collaborative communication climate.
Theory in Groups
Asking Single and Subordinate
Questions
Objective: Create a single question about a topic that lends
itself
to group decision making, as well as related sub questions of
fact, conjecture, value, and policy.
Frank LaFasto and Carl Larson’s thorough study of problem-
solving groups led them to propose an approach that
requires groups to ask “What is the single question, the
answer to which all group members should know” in order
achieve a common goal?4 The Single Question Format is
a problem-solving approach that focuses group analysis on
answering a single, agreed-upon question in order to arrive
at a solution. After creating a single question for the group’s
overall goal, members should analyze the question and iden-
tify (a) the central issues raised by the single question, (b) the
information and expert opinions needed as the basis for
well-founded decisions, and (c) the criteria for selecting a

reasonable solution.
In addition to generating a single, agreed-upon question,
classify the group’s single question and any sub questions as
question of fact, conjecture, value, or policy. Categorizing
these questions can help group members clarify what they
need to know, discuss, and do in order to answer their single
question and achieve their common goal. In order to explain
the purposes of and differences among these four types of
sub questions, we offer a hypothetical example. Suppose a
group of friends will be traveling to Colorado in a few months.
Their Single Question is: Should we purchase and sample
legal marijuana when we’re in Colorado?
Questions of Fact
Questions of fact ask whether something is true or false,
whether an event did or did not occur, or whether something
caused this or that. A conscientious group uses questions of
fact to investigate what is true and not true, whether the
facts are consistent, and the cause or causes of a situation
using the best information available. The group traveling to
Colorado may ask: “Are all of the marijuana ‘dispensaries’
legal?” “Can we smoke marijuana in our car, in public, or in a
hotel room?” A question such as “How do proportions of the
two major chemicals in marijuana—tetrahydrocannabinol

(THC) and cannabidiol (CBD)—affect users?” calls for an
158 Chapter 9
informed understanding of the nature, percentage, and dif-
ferent effects of these ingredients. When a group confronts
questions of fact, it must seek and evaluate the best infor-
mation available.
Questions of Conjecture
Questions of conjecture ask whether something will hap-
pen. They examine the possibility of something happening in
the future using legitimate facts, valid data, and expert opin-
ions to reach the most probable conclusion.5 Group mem-
bers in our example may ask themselves: “Will we have
negative reactions to using marijuana?” and/or “Will mari-
juana be legalized in most states within a few years?” Unlike
a question of fact, only the future holds the answer to this
type of question. Instead of focusing on what is, the group
does its best to predict the future. If a group waits until the
future arrives, it may be too late to make a good decision or
solve a problem.

Questions of Value
Questions of value ask whether something is worthwhile:
Is it good or bad; right or wrong; moral or immoral; best,
average, or worst? Questions of value are difficult to answer
because they depend on the attitudes, beliefs, and values
of group members. In many cases, the answer to a question
of value may be, “It depends.” Does the sale of legal mari-
juana in Colorado benefit or harm the state and its citizens?
The answer depends on how legalization affects different
people and groups. Is legal marijuana justifiable for patients
with medical conditions or for recreational users who give
up illegal drugs? Does legalization harm recreational users
who may become less competent workers, drivers, stu-
dents, and parents?
Questions of Policy
Questions of policy ask whether and how a specific course
of action should be implemented to address a problem.
Questions of policy ask: “What should we do about a particu-
lar problem?” Here are some questions of policy from our
Colorado example: “What changes, if any, should Colorado
make to its marijuana laws?” “Should legal marijuana use be
expanded and permitted in certain public settings?” “Should
stricter safety regulations be instituted to ensure the responsi-

ble growth, strength, detailed labeling, and sale of legal mari-
juana?” Policy questions often require answers to subquestions
of fact, conjecture, and value.
Use All Four Types of Questions
Problem-solving groups rarely focus on one type of question.
Dennis Gouran, a pioneer in group communication research,
notes: “A fascinating aspect of many policy discussions is
that in trying to determine the most suitable course of action,
group members must deal with the other . . . kinds of ques-
tions.”6 For example, the group in the hypothetical example
might start with questions of fact and conjecture: “What
restrictions are there about where and when it is legal to use
marijuana in Colorado?” “How much do various marijuana
products cost?” Then the discussion could move to ques-
tions of value: “Will our use of marijuana be viewed nega-
tively by our friends (or parents, teachers, boss, coworkers)?”
“Is it wrong to use a drug that is illegal in other states and
disapproved of by people we know?” Finally, the group
should be prepared to conclude with a question of policy:
“Should we purchase and sample legal marijuana when we
go to Colorado?”
Table 9.2 Identify the Questions of Fact, Conjecture, Value, and
Policy

Directions: The following activity offers examples of questions
of fact, conjecture, value, or policy. Can you correctly identify
each type?
Questions
Question
of Fact
Question of
Conjecture
Question of
Value
Question of
Policy
1. What are the causes of climate change?
2. Is a community college a better place than a prestigious
university
to begin higher education?
3. Will company sales increase next quarter?

4. Which political party’s candidate should we support for
president
of the United States in the next election?
5. Where does the United States rank among industrialized
nations in terms
of literacy, infant mortality, and life expectancy?
6. What should be done to reduce the number of killings of
young African
American males by white police officers?
7. What is the probability that an avowed atheist will be elected
as
President of the United States in the next 20 years?
8. Does the government have the moral right to institute strict
gun control,
legalize or ban abortions, and enforce childhood vaccinations?
Answers: 1. Fact, 2. Value, 3. Conjecture, 4. Policy, 5. Fact, 6.
Policy, 7. Conjecture, 8. Value
In many cases, a group must address all four types of
questions to make a rational decision or solve a complex

problem. When preparing for a group meeting or discus-
sion, make sure you are prepared to share accurate and rel-
evant facts, make informed projections, support your
opinions with strong arguments, and offer logical and real-
istic solutions to a problem.
There are, however, many different problem-solving
procedures, including complex, theory-based problem-
solving models as well as creative decision-making meth-
ods designed for tasks such as idea generation, assessing
options, and solution implementation. Effective groups
maintain a balance between independent, creative think-
ing and structured, coordinated work.9
9.1.4: Commitment to Deliberation
Effective decision making and problem solving require a
commitment by all members to be well prepared and will-
ing to tackle challenging tasks, to meet the needs of mem-
bers, and to balance competing tensions. Put another way,
group members are committed to engaging in constructive
deliberation, a collective group process that calls for

thoughtful arguments, critical listening, civility, and
informed decision making.10
Before your group embarks on a decision-making and
problem-solving journey, make sure that all members are
ready, willing, and able to deliberate. Your group should
share a strong commitment to the following:
• sharing and weighing ideas, information, and opin-
ions carefully and fairly
• balancing different positions based on supporting
evidence
• allowing all participants equitable speaking opportu-
nities
• encouraging active listening by all participants, par-
ticularly when there is disagreement
• understanding, respecting, and adapting to differences
among participants’ diverse ways of thinking, speak-
ing, and listening11
Knowing what deliberation is—and what it should

do—will not accomplish anything unless group mem-
bers apply its principles. Although most juries deliberate
fairly and intelligently, some juries seem unable to evalu-
ate evidence and argue thoughtfully, to listen to one
another comprehensively and analytically, and to bridge
differences among jurors. Even a small, self-contained
work group can spend hours talking, but fail to accom-
plish anything because its members are not committed to
constructive deliberation.
9.1.5: Collaborative Communication
Climate
A group with a clear goal, quality content, a structured
process, and a commitment to deliberation can fail if it
does not build and maintain a collaborative communica-
tion climate. Group communication scholars strongly agree
that “communication is the instrument by which members
or groups, with varying degrees of success, reach decisions
9.1.2: Quality Content
Well-informed groups are more likely to make good deci-
sions. The amount and accuracy of information available
to a group are critical factors in predicting its success.
The key to becoming a well-informed group lies in the
ability of members to collect, share, and analyze the

information needed to achieve the group’s goal. When a
group lacks relevant and valid information, effective
decision making and problem solving become difficult,
or even impossible.
Group communication scholar Randy Hirokawa
writes that a group’s “ability to gather and retain a wide
range of information is the single most important determi-
nant of high-quality decision making.”7 During the early
stages of group development or at an introductory group
meeting, members should discuss, in general terms, how
to become better informed about the topic or problem they
will address. Here are just a few suggestions on how to
begin this process:
• Assess the group’s current knowledge. What do members
believe they know, and what don’t they know?
• Identify areas needing research. Ask members to suggest
areas in which research is needed.
• Assign research responsibilities. If possible, delegate
responsibilities for research based on member exper-
tise and interests.

• Set initial research deadlines. Set a reasonable deadline
for finding, assessing, and sharing valid information
from credible sources.
• Determine how to share and analyze information effec-
tively. Depending on the group, significant informa-
tion can be shared during a meeting or exchanged
electronically.
9.1.3: Structured Procedures
Groups need clear procedures that specify how they will
make decisions and solve problems. Group communication
scholar Marshall Scott Poole claims that structured proce-
dures are “the heart of group work [and] the most powerful
tools we have to improve the conduct of meetings.”8
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Asking Single and Subordinate Questions

What is the single question faced by a group deciding whether
to
organize a neighborhood cleanup on Earth Day? What are the
subor-
dinate questions of fact, conjecture, value, and policy?
160 Chapter 9
9.2: Group Decision
Making
9.2 Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of
various decision-making methods and decision-
making styles
There are many advantages to making decisions and solv-
ing problems in groups. Sheer numbers enable a group to
generate more ideas than a single person working alone.
Even more important, a group is better equipped to find
rational and workable solutions to complex problems. As a
rule, group decision making generates more ideas and
information, tests and validates more arguments, and pro-

duces better solutions to complex problems.13
The structure n spontaneity dialectic recognizes that
structured procedures help groups balance participation,
resolve conflicts, organize discussions, and empower
members. They also help groups solve problems. If a
group becomes obsessed with procedures, however, it
loses the benefits of spontaneity and creativity. Every
group must strive for a balance between structure and
spontaneity (Figure 9.1). Group communication scholar
Marshall Scott Poole notes: “Too much independence may
shatter group cohesion and encourage members to sacri-
fice group goals to their individual needs. . . . Too much
structured work . . . is likely to regiment group thinking
and stifle novel ideas.”14
and generate solutions to problems.”12 However, if the
communication climate of a group is hostile, defensive,
apathetic, ruthlessly competitive, and/or inconsiderate,
group morale and productivity will quickly decline.
Groups are more likely to thrive if they work in a sup-
portive climate in which members agree upon a list of “We
will” statements designed to foster open discussion and
participation. For example:

• We will listen to all points of view.
• We will ask for facts as well as opinions.
• We will be tough on issues but not on one another.
• We will openly identify and put aside our personal
biases and agendas.
If a group fails to create a collaborative climate for dis-
cussion, the process could deteriorate into unending con-
flicts and flawed decision making. The rest of this chapter
goes beyond these prerequisites and offers theories, strate-
gies, and skills that enhance the efficiency and effective-
ness of group deliberation, especially in the face of
decision-making and problem-solving challenges.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT

Collaborative Communication Climate
1. To what extent are the five prerequisites for effective group
deci-
sion making and problem solving (clear goal, quality content,
structured procedures, commitment to deliberation, and a col-
laborative communication climate) evident in this group?
2. What strategies could one or more members have used to
improve the way in which the group tried to achieve the goal of
helping Annie.
3. How well did the group engage in constructive deliberation in
terms of the following qualities: using thoughtful arguments,
crit-
ical listening, civility, and informed decision making?
9.2.1: Decision-Making Methods
There are many ways to make group decisions. A group
can let the majority have its way, reach a decision that
everyone can live with, or leave the final decision to some-
one else. Effective groups match the virtues of each method
to the needs and purpose of the group and its task.

Voting Voting is the easiest and most obvious way to
make a group decision. No other method is more efficient
and decisive. Nevertheless, voting may not be the best way
to make important decisions. When a group votes, some
members win, but others lose.
A majority vote requires that more than half the
members vote in favor of a proposal. When a group
makes a major decision, there may not be enough support
Structure Spontaneity
Figure 9.1 Balancing Structure and Spontaneity
Watch Helping Annie
Watch the video clip from “Helping Annie,” which illustrates
AUTHORITY RULE Sometimes groups use authority
rule, in which a single person within the group or an out-

side authority makes final decisions for the group. Groups
using this method gather information and recommend
decisions to another person or to a larger group. For exam-
ple, an association’s nominating committee may consider
potential candidates and recommend a slate of officers to
the association. A hiring committee may screen dozens of
job applications and submit the top three to the person
making the hiring decision.
Authority rule can have detrimental effects on a group.
If a leader or an outside authority ignores or reverses group
recommendations, members may become demoralized,
resentful, or nonproductive on future projects. Even within
a group, a strong leader or authority figure may use the
group and its members only to give the appearance of col-
laborative decision making. The group thus becomes a
rubber stamp and surrenders its will to authority rule.
9.2.2: Decision-Making Styles
The way you make decisions may be very different from
other group members. Two related personality traits from the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator—thinker and feeler—focus
on how we make decisions. Thinkers are task-oriented
to implement the decision if only 51 percent of the mem-

bers agree on it. The 49 percent who lose may resent
working on a project they dislike. Some groups use a two-
thirds vote rather than majority rule.
In a two-thirds vote, at least twice as many group
members vote in favor of a proposal as those who vote to
oppose it. A two-thirds vote ensures that a significant num-
ber of group members support the decision.
Voting works best when
• a group is pressed for time.
• the issue is not highly controversial.
• a group is too large to use any other decision-making
method.
• there is no other way to break a deadlock.
• a group’s constitution or rules require voting on cer-
tain types of decisions.
CONSENSUS Because voting has built-in disadvan-
tages, many groups rely on consensus to make decisions.

A consensus decision is one “that all members have a
part in shaping and that all find at least minimally
acceptable as a means of accomplishing some mutual
goal.”15 Consensus does not mean 100 percent agree-
ment; rather, it reflects a sincere effort and willingness to
make an acceptable decision that helps the group achieve
its common goal.
When reached, consensus can unite and energize a
group. Not only does consensus avoid a disruptive win/
lose vote, but it also presents a united front to outsiders.
Table 9.3 lists guidelines for seeking consensus.
Table 9.3 Guidelines for Achieving Group Consensus
Do This Don’t Do This
• Listen carefully to and respect
other members’ point of view.
• Try to be logical rather than
emotional.
• If there is a deadlock, work to
find the next best alternative that
is acceptable to all.

• Make sure that members not
only agree but also will be com-
mitted to the final decision.
• Get everyone involved in the
discussion.
• Welcome differences of opinion.
• Don’t be stubborn and argue
only for your own position.
• Don’t change your mind to avoid
conflict or reach a quick decision.
• Don’t give in, especially if you
have a crucial piece of informa-
tion or insight to share.
• Don’t agree to a decision or solu-
tion you can’t possibly support.
• Don’t use “easy” or arbitrary
ways to reach a solution, such

as flipping a coin, letting the
majority rule, or trading one
decision for another.
Consensus does not work well for all groups. Imagine
how difficult it would be to achieve genuine consensus if a
leader had so much power that group members were
unwilling to disagree or express their honest opinions.
Consensus works best when members have equal status,
or where there is a supportive climate in which everyone
feels comfortable expressing their views.
Avoid False Consensus
Many groups fall short of achieving their common goal because
they believe the group must reach consensus on all decisions.
The problem of false consensus haunts every decision-making
group. False consensus occurs when members give in to group
pressure or an external authority and accept a decision that they
do not like or support. Rather than achieving consensus, the
group has agreed to a decision masquerading as consensus.16
In addition, the all-or-nothing approach to consensus
“gives each member veto power over the progress of the
whole group.” To avoid an impasse, members may “give up

and give in” or seek a flawed compromise. When this happens,
the group falls short of success as “it mindlessly pursues 100%
agreement.”17
In The Discipline of Teams, Jon Katzenbach and Douglas
Smith observe that members who pursue complete consen-
sus often act as though disagreement and conflict are bad for
the group. Nothing could be further from the reality of effective
group performance.
“Without disagreement, teams rarely generate the best, most
cre-
ative solutions to the challenges at hand. They compromise . . .
rather than developing a solution that incorporates the best of
two
or more opposing views. . . . The challenge for teams is to learn
from disagreement and find energy in constructive conflict, not
get ruined by it.”18
162 Chapter 9
members who use logic when making decisions, whereas
feelers are people-oriented members who want everyone to

get along, even if it means compromising to avoid interper-
sonal problems. When thinkers and feelers work together,
misunderstandings often occur. However, when thinkers
and feelers appreciate their differences as decision makers,
they become an unbeatable team. Thinkers make decisions
and move the group forward, while feelers make sure the
group is working harmoniously.
GroupWork What Is Your Decision-Making Style?19
Most of us rely on one or two ways of making decisions. Some
people list the pros and cons of potential decisions; others rely
on their instincts and make quick
decisions. In order to avoid having to make decisions, someone
may just go along with the decision of another person or the
whole group. Before learning more
about the variety of approaches to decision making, complete
the What Is Your Decision-Making Style? survey and identify
the primary way or ways in which you
make decisions.
Directions: For each of the following statements, indicate the
degree to which you agree or disagree by selecting a number
based on the following scale:

1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Undecided; 4 =
Agree; 5 = Strongly agree
There are no right or wrong answers. Respond to the statements
as honestly as you can. Think carefully before choosing option
3 (Undecided)—it may suggest
that you cannot make decisions.
Scoring: To determine your score in each category, add the total
of your responses to specific items for each type of decision
making. Your higher scores identify
your preferred decision-making style(s).
Answers to items 3 and 5 = Rational Decision Maker
Answers to items 4 and 8 = Intuitive Decision Maker
Answers to items 1 and 9 = Dependent Decision Maker
Answers to items 2 and 6 = Avoidant Decision Maker
Answers to items 7 and 10 = Spontaneous Decision Maker
In Decision Making Style, Suzanne Scott and Reginald
Bruce take a detailed look at various decision-making
styles.20 They describe five styles, all of which have the
potential to improve or impair group decision making:
• rational Decision Maker. “I’ve carefully considered all

the issues.” Rational decision makers carefully weigh
information and options before making a decision.
They use logical reasoning to reach and justify their
conclusions. However, they must be careful not to ana-
lyze a problem so long that they never make a decision.
• intuitive Decision Maker. “It just feels like it’s the
right thing to do.” Intuitive decision makers make
decisions based on instincts and feelings. They may
not always be able to articulate specific reasons for
decisions, but know that their decisions “feel” right.
• Dependent Decision Maker. “If you think it’s okay,
then I’ll do it.” Dependent decision makers seek the
advice and opinions of others before making a decision.
They feel uncomfortable making decisions that others
may disapprove of or oppose. They may even make a
decision they aren’t happy with just to please others.
• Avoidant Decision Maker. “I just can’t deal with this
right now.” Avoidant decision makers are uncomfort-
able and reluctant when asked to make decisions. As a

at the same time. Procedures also ensure that group
members do not skip or ignore major discussion items.
• Group empowerment. Procedures provide a sense of con-
trol. “This happens when members know they have
followed a procedure well, managed conflict success-
fully, given all members an equal opportunity to par-
ticipate, and as a result have made a good decision.”22
Although there are many problem-solving methods,
there is no “best” model or magic formula that ensures effec-
tive problem solving. However, as groups gain experience
and succeed as problem solvers, they learn that some proce-
dures work better than others depending on the problem,
the context, and the characteristics and talents of members.
In other cases, groups modify problem-solving techniques
to meet their tasks and social needs. Next we present four
problem-solving methods: Brainstorming, the Nominal
Group Technique (NGT), the Decreasing Options Technique
(DOT), and the Progressive Problem Solving Method, with
advice about when and how to use each of them (Figure 9.2).

result, they may not think about a problem at all, or they
delay making a final decision until the very last minute.
• spontaneous Decision Maker. “Let’s do it now and
worry about the consequences later.” Spontaneous deci-
sion makers make quick decisions impulsively and on
the spur of the moment. Sometimes their instincts and
decisions are right on target. However, more often than
not they make impulsive decisions they later regret.
Consider the ways in which different decision-making
styles could improve or impair group decision making. For
example, what would happen if half of the group were
rational decision makers and the other half were intuitive
decision makers? Also, consider the potential pitfalls of
having only one type of decision-making style in a group,
such as dependent or avoidant decision makers. Effective
groups respect, adapt to, and benefit from members’ differ-
ent decision-making styles.
your instructor.
Submit

WRITING PROMPT
What Is Your Decision-Making Style?
Is your score on the Decision-Making Style survey consistent
with
how you perceive your decision-making style? Do you use
different
decision-making styles in different situations? Explain your
answers.
9.3: Group Problem
Solving
9.3 Compare the key elements of Brainstorming, the
nominal group technique, the Dot method, and
the Progressive Problem solving Method
Structured procedures are “the heart of group work [and]
the most powerful tools we have” for improving the quality
of group work.21 Even a simple procedure, such as con-
structing and following a short agenda, enhances meeting
productivity. Time and effort spent on developing and using
a well-planned, structured procedure has many benefits:

• Balanced participation. Procedures can minimize the
impact of powerful leaders or members by making it
difficult for them to dominate a group’s discussion.
• Conflict resolution. Procedures often incorporate guide-
lines for managing conflict, resolving disagreements,
and building genuine consensus.
• Organization. Procedures require members to follow a
clear organizational pattern and focus on the same thing
Problem-Solving Procedures
Progressive Problem
Solving Method
PDecreasing Options
Technique (DOT)
DNominal Group
Technique (NGT)
Brainstorming

Figure 9.2 Problem-Solving Procedures
All four of these methods can be used independently
or in combination with one another depending on the
nature of the task; the size and expertise of the group; and
the need for maximizing input, creativity, and analysis
from all group members. In order to understand both the
similarities and the differences among these procedures,
let’s follow a hypothetical example that illustrates how
these methods facilitate group problem solving.
Fallingstar State College
For three consecutive years, Fallingstar State College
has experienced declining enrollment and no increase in
funding from the state. To balance the budget, the college
has had to raise tuition every year. There are no prospects
for more state funding in the near future. Even with sig-
nificant tuition increases, overall college revenue is down.
The College Planning Council, composed of representa-
tive vice presidents, deans, faculty members, staff employ-
ees, and students, has been charged with answering the
following question: Given the severe budget constraints
and declining enrollment, how can the college preserve
high-quality instruction and student services?

Although the Fallingstar example does not offer many
details, it helps demonstrate the ways in which a group may
use a variety of structured procedures to solve problems.
164 Chapter 9
9.3.1: Brainstorming
In 1953, Alex Osborn introduced the concept of brain-
storming in a now-classic text entitled Applied Imagina-
tion.23 Brainstorming is a structured problem-solving
procedure that encourages group members to generate as
many ideas as possible in a non-evaluative atmosphere. It
assumes that postponing the evaluation of ideas enhances
both the quantity and quality of member input. More
than 70 percent of businesspeople use brainstorming.24
Unfortunately, many groups fail to use brainstorming
effectively.
Brainstorming PrinciPles and guidelines
Brainstorming is based on two key principles:
1. deferring judgment improves the quality of input, and

2. the quantity of ideas and output breeds quality.
The idea that quantity breeds quality comes from the
notions that the first ideas we come up with are usually the
most obvious, and that truly creative ideas emerge only
after we have gotten the obvious suggestions out. The
guidelines in Table 9.4 present six strategies and related
skills for an effective brainstorming session.
Table 9.4 Brainstorming Guidelines25
Sharpen the focus • Start with a clear question or statement of
the
problem.
• Give members a few minutes to think about
possible ideas before brainstorming begins
Display ideas for all
to see
• Assign someone to write down the group’s ideas.
• Post the ideas where everyone can see them.

Number the ideas • Numbering can motivate a group, e.g.,
“Let’s try
to list 20 to 30 ideas.”
• Numbering makes it easier to jump back and
forth among ideas.
Encourage creativity • Announce that wild and crazy ideas are
welcome.
• Announce that quantity is more important than
quality.
Emphasize input,
prohibit put-downs
• Keep the ideas coming.
• Evaluate the ideas only after brainstorming is
over.
Build and jump • Build on, modify, or combine ideas offered by
others to create new ideas.
In the case of Fallingstar State College, the planning

council could use brainstorming to identify areas for
potential budget cuts that also preserve high-quality
instruction. Administrators might suggest reducing the
number of part-time employees in areas where work-
study students could fill the positions. A student might
point to the imbalance in administrators and administra-
tive assistants compared to the number of full-time faculty
as a place to look for reductions in staff. If nothing else,
this brainstorming session would create a wide range of
suggestions for consideration.
When to use Brainstorming Brainstorming is a
great way to tackle open-ended, unclear, or broad prob-
lems. If you’re looking for lots of ideas, it is a very useful
technique. But if you need a formal plan of action or you
have a critical problem to solve that requires a single
“right” answer, you may be better off trying another
method. There are several group circumstances and tasks
for which brainstorming is inappropriate. Do not use
brainstorming:
• in a crisis. If the group needs to make decisions
quickly or is required by an organization to follow a
leader’s orders.

• to repair. If the group knows what went wrong and
how to fix it, organize a repair team.
• For planning. If the group knows exactly what it has
to do to reach its goal, hold a planning session to map
out details.
Even under the best of circumstances, several fac-
tors can derail a brainstorming session.26 For example, if
dominant members speak first and at length, they may
influence and limit the direction and content of subse-
quent input and ideas. In an effort to be more demo-
cratic, some brainstorming groups require members to
speak in turn. However, this approach can prevent a
group from building momentum and will probably
result in fewer ideas. If all members are trying to write
down every idea, they may become so focused on note
taking that they neglect to contribute. Instead, one per-
son should record and post the ideas contributed by all
of the group members.
Finally, brainstorming can be counterproductive. For
example, the comments of a powerful member or “the boss”
may influence and limit the development and direction of
ideas. In some cases, group members may not participate in

Brainstorming is based on two key principles: (1) Deferring
judgment improves the quality of input, and (2) the quantity of
ideas and output breeds quality. In many situations,
brainstorming
can be chaotic and messy, but effective in generating many
good
ideas.
9.3.2: Nominal Group
Technique (NGT)
Andre L. Delbecq and Andrew H. Van de Ven developed
the Nominal Group Technique as a way of maximizing
participation in problem-solving and program-planning
groups while minimizing some of the interpersonal prob-
lems associated with group interaction.30 The term nominal
means “existing in name only”; thus, a nominal group is a
collection of people who, at first, work individually rather
than collectively. The nominal group technique (ngt)
combines aspects of silent voting with limited discussion
to help a group build consensus and arrive at a decision.31

ngt PrinCiPLes AnD guiDeLines A Nominal Group
Technique session has two phases: an idea-generation phase
(Phase 1) and an evaluation/voting phase (Phase 2). During
Phase 1, group members assemble and write down their
ideas without interacting with one another. During Phase
2—the second, evaluative phase—group members discuss
the recorded ideas face-to-face or online and then vote for
the ideas they like the best. By tabulating the votes, the
group can rank the ideas in order of preference (Table 9.5).
group brainstorming if they are introverts, experience high
levels of communication apprehension, become distracted
by member comments, or leave it to others to come up with
good ideas.27 Studies also show that people who use brain-
storming rules when working alone came up with more and
better ideas than they would have contributed when work-
ing in groups.28
In addition to the traditional brainstorming process,
groups can employ the principles of brainstorming using
online techniques called electronic brainstorming, brainwrit-
ing, and brainnetting. Online brainstorming products, such
as Stormboard, MindManager, and Teamput, hype their soft-
ware, and inevitably will be replaced with “new and

improved” products.
Some studies have found that online brainstorming
produces “more high quality ideas and have a higher aver-
age of creative ideas per person, as well as resulting in
higher levels of satisfaction with the ideas.”29
The following reasons help explain why online brain-
storming is often superior to face-to-face brainstorming:
1. Group members have more opportunities to con-
tribute. In face-to-face meetings, brainstorming can
become unmanageable when the number of mem-
bers reaches ten and beyond.
2. Group members who dominate a face-to-face discus-
sion will not deter others from participating because
everyone submits suggestions online. No one can
dominate when everyone contributes simultaneously.
3. Group members can truly feel anonymous and not feel
intimidated by others.
4. Group members can write down suggestions in
advance to be better prepared for the brainstorming

session, or pause during a session to think through
additional and more creative ideas.
Although brainstorming is popular, its effectiveness
depends on the nature of the group and its members. If a
group is self-conscious and sensitive to implied criticism,
brainstorming can fail. If a group is comfortable with a
freewheeling process, brainstorming can enhance creativ-
ity and produce many worthwhile ideas.
your instructor.
Submit
WRITING PROMPT
Brainstorming
1. Should a group faced with solving the problem of a leaky
roof
use brainstorming? Why or why not?
2. Why, in some situations, is virtual (online or networked

comput-
ers) brainstorming superior to in-person brainstorming?
Table 9.5 NGT Phases32
PHASE 1: IDEA GENERATION
Step No. Task Description
1. Each group member generates and records ideas and sugges-
tions on paper.
2. When members have finished writing their individual ideas, a
structured sharing of ideas takes place. Individual members,
in turn, present one idea from their written lists.
3. A recorder writes the ideas on a board or flip chart (or posts
ideas using computer projections) in full view of other mem-
bers. There is no discussion at this point—only the recording
of member ideas.
4. Round-robin listing continues until all members have no
further
ideas to share.

PHASE 2: IDEA EVALUATION AND VOTING
Step No. Task Description
1. Members discuss each idea before independent voting.
2. Members may clarify or state their support or nonsupport for
each listed item.
3. Members vote by ranking or rating ideas privately, in writing.
4. The group decision is the mathematically pooled outcome of
the individual votes.
Returning to the case of the Fallingstar College Plan-
ning Council, members could use Phase 1 of NGT to gener-
ate a list of possible causes of declining enrollment or a list
of possible solutions. The listing of ideas in an NGT session
is different from brainstorming because each member
works alone to generate ideas.
NGT works particularly well when individual judg-
ments and expertise are valued. In Phase 2, after planning
council members examine a consolidated list of possible

166 Chapter 9
Creativity claims that the number of ideas generated in a
period of time using NGT almost always exceeds the num-
ber generated from group brainstorming; furthermore, the
quality of ideas resulting from brainstorming usually fails to
match the quality of ideas resulting from NGT.35 Another
researcher maintains that brainstorming “doesn’t work
because sharing ideas one at a time, by talking no less, is
incredibly inefficient.” He poses this question: “Why do we
need to talk in the first place?” Why not generate those
ideas, simultaneously, in writing?36 Such conclusions may
be explained in several ways:37
• Because members of a brainstorming group must wait
their turn before speaking (rather than write down
ideas simultaneously in advance), thinking becomes
disrupted and production of ideas slows.
• Because of the fear of being evaluated by others, members
of a brainstorming group may withhold sharing their
ideas, even if the group has been told to defer judgment.

• Not all brainstorming group members perform
equally. Some may loaf or coast along, letting others
do all the thinking and talking.
• Typically, when one or two group members in a brain-
storming session contribute more than other members,
be it face-to-face or online, the status of the high con-
tributors increases. This new hierarchy tends to dis-
courage others from speaking.
• Extroverted group members produce significantly
more unique and diverse ideas than introverted group
members, regardless of whether members engage in
face-to-face or computer-mediated communication.38
NGT avoids most of these problems because members
have time to think and write during the idea-generating
process. Group members who want to avoid such prob-
lems may decide to work at networked computers to
generate a master list of ideas simultaneously and anony-
mously.39
Although NGT may be more effective in generating a
large quantity of high-quality ideas in most circumstances,
brainstorming does have its advantages: It can enhance

group morale, create a supportive communication climate,
and is easy for any group to set up and do.
9.3.3: Decreasing Options
Technique (DOT)
When a group generates dozens of ideas, recommenda-
tions, or potential solutions, the number of suggestions can
overwhelm a group and discourage members from partici-
pating. Valuable meeting time can be consumed by dis-
cussing every idea, regardless of its merit or relevance. The
Decreasing options technique (Dot) is a procedure that
helps groups reduce and refine a large number of sugges-
tions into a manageable number of options40 (Table 9.6).
causes, they should discuss each cause and justify why these
are real and significant causes. Once that discussion con-
cludes, the group would rate or rank the causes as a way of
determining the most probable causes of the problem.
Groups use NGT to rank job applicants, determine
which of many possible solutions receives the most sup-
port, establish budget priorities, and reach consensus on
the major causes of a problem. The highly structured NGT
process guarantees equal participation during the idea
generation phase and provides opportunities for discus-

sion and critical evaluation in the second phase. NGT can
also be useful when dealing with a sensitive or controver-
sial topic on which contrary opinions or a myriad of details
could paralyze the discussion.33
An NGT session requires a great deal of time and a
skilled moderator to make it work efficiently and effec-
tively. Given NGT’s highly structured format, it is difficult
to adjust or modify suggested items, and this may frustrate
group members who prefer spontaneous interaction. At
the same time, NGT can curb members who dominate or
block the ideas and comments of others.
Like brainstorming, computer-networked and online
technology adds a highly efficient and effective medium
for conducting NGT sessions.34 Given that Phase 1 of NGT
requires group members to write down their ideas without
interacting with one another, the Internet is a perfect
medium. Following are the steps for Phase 1:
1. Members write their ideas and/or suggestions using
compatible computer software prior to the NGT session.
2. Members join the NGT group online; the facilitator
requests that members post their ideas on a central site.

3. The facilitator consolidates the items that seem alike
into a master list in consultation with the members,
and posts the resulting list for all to see.
4. Members are invited to comment on the master list or
ask questions about items that are unclear.
5. Members vote by assigning a 5 to the best or most
important idea, a 4 to the next best item, etc.
6. The facilitator adds up the points to determine the
group’s most favored ideas. If needed, the group may
have a “comment period” to discuss the results and
their implications.
A mediated NGT session gives all members an equal
opportunity to contribute and to do so anonymously. And
by taking time to write their ideas or suggestions ahead
before the session begins, members often come up with
better and more creative ideas.
When to use ngt Despite the fact that NGT is more
labor intensive and subject to a few problems, researchers
comparing the effectiveness of brainstorming and NGT con-

clude that when it comes to generating numerous and cre-
ative ideas, NGT works best. An article in the Encyclopedia of
suggestions. Groups can generate and submit ideas before
the group meets or work alone on this task at the beginning
of a meeting. For example, when creating an ethics credo for
a professional association, participants contributed words
such as honesty, respect, and truthfulness.42 In the hypotheti-
cal case of Fallingstar State College, each planning commit-
tee member could generate and record ideas for generating
more funds for the college. Those ideas could range from
hiring a professional development officer to overseeing and
improving Foundation and grant proposal writing to seek-
ing additional state funding and increasing student fees.
Post Ideas for All to See Each idea should be written on a
separate sheet of paper in large, easy-to-read letters—only
one idea per page. These pages are posted on the walls of
the group’s meeting room for all to see and consider. Post-
ings should be displayed only after all members have fin-
ished writing their ideas on separate sheets of paper.

Sort Ideas Not surprisingly, many group members will
contribute similar or overlapping ideas. When this happens,
sort the ideas and post similar ideas close to one another. For
example, when facilitating the development of a vision
statement for a local college, we posted phrases such as aca-
demic excellence, quality education, and high-quality
instruction
near one another. In the case of our fictitious Fallingstar
State College, ideas focused on raising fees for student activ-
ities, library charges, and parking would be placed together
on the wall. After everyone is comfortable with how the
postings are sorted, give a title to each grouping of ideas. In
the vision statement session just described, the term quality
education was used as an umbrella phrase for nearly a dozen
similar concepts. The Fallingstar suggestions could be clus-
tered in a category simply named increase fees.
Prioritize Ideas At this point, individual members decide
which of the displayed ideas are most important. Which
words best reflect the vision we have for the local college?
Which concepts must be included in our association’s eth-
ics credo? Which suggestions best produce budget cuts or
raise funds without jeopardizing the quality of education
at Fallingstar State College, and which recommendations

must be included in the report to the college president and
board of trustees?
In order to prioritize ideas efficiently, every member
receives a limited number of sticker dots. They use their
stickers to “dot” the most important ideas or options. In the
local college example, each member of the vision statement
group was given 10 dots and asked to dot the most impor-
tant concepts from among the 20 phrases posted on the
walls. After everyone has finished walking around the room
and posting dots, the most important ideas usually become
very obvious. Some ideas will be covered with dots, others
will be speckled with only three or four, and some will
remain blank. After a brief review of the outcome, the group
can eliminate some ideas, decide whether marginal ideas
In our work as professional facilitators, we have used
this technique to assist small and large groups facing a
variety of problem-solving tasks, such as creating an ethics
credo for a professional association or drafting a vision
statement for a local college. The DOT method works best
when a group needs to sort through a multitude of ideas
and options. In addition to what we call the DOT method,
there are other versions with names such as Dot Voting,
Multi-Voting, and the cleverly named Dotmocracy.41 All

these methods have a similar goal: to measure levels of
agreement among a large number of people (Figure 9.3).
Table 9.6 Criteria for Using the Decreasing Options
Technique (DOT)
When to Use the DOT Method
• When the group is so large that the open discussion of
individual ideas
is unworkable
• When a significant number of competing ideas are generated
that must
be evaluated.
• When members want equal opportunities for input.
• When dominant members do not exert too much influence.
• When there is not enough time to discuss all the ideas.
stePs in the Dot MethoD
Generate Individual Ideas The beginning of the DOT pro-
cess is much like Phase 1 in NGT—each group member gen-
erates and records ideas or suggestions related to a specific

topic on paper. Ideas can be single words or full-sentence
4.
3.
2.
1.
Prioritize Ideas
Sort Ideas
Post Ideas
Generate Ideas
Figure 9.3 Steps in the DOT Method
The Decreasing Options Technique (DOT) helps groups reduce,
refine, and prioritize ideas.

168 Chapter 9
problem identification, fact-finding, and issues analysis,
and followed by solution criteria, limitations, options,
evaluation, selection, and implementation.
The Progressive Problem Solving Method integrates
major steps in Dewey’s Reflective Thinking Process as well
as procedures from several other problem-solving steps
into a single model45 (Figure 9.4).
should be included, and end up with a limited and manage-
able number of options to consider and discuss.
ADVAntAges oF the Dot MethoD Perhaps the great-
est advantage of DOT is its most obvious feature: It is visual.
In his book Visual Meetings, David Sibbet notes that adding a
visual component to group decision making and problem
solving enhances both the efficiency and effectiveness of
group work. Two of the factors that support his claim are
directly applicable to the reason the DOT method succeeds:
1. Participation and engagement explode when group
members’ contributions are posted for all to see.

2. Groups get smarter when they can see the big picture
that allows for comparisons and pattern finding.43
When a group generates dozens of ideas, valuable
meeting time is consumed by discussing every idea, regard-
less of its merit or relevance. The DOT method reduces the
quantity of ideas to a manageable number. Despite its
advantages, DOT may not be appropriate in some circum-
stances. A group may decide to generate ideas in an
extended brainstorming or NGT session to increase the
quantity and improve the quality of ideas. When a simple
dot does not provide enough information about why it was
affixed to a particular idea, members may write questions,
suggestions, and clarifications on the dotted sheets or
explain why they did not dot an idea on a particular sheet.
Although these examples describe face-to-face interac-
tions, the DOT strategy also works very well in virtual
environments. Individual members of virtual teams can
generate and post ideas anonymously in a formatted online
space. The task of sorting ideas can be tackled by the entire
group or by two or three members. Instead of distributing
a limited number of colored dots, virtual team members
can be restricted to voting for a limited number of ideas.
Whether all group members are in the same building or

spread out across the world, a virtual team can follow the
same DOT method procedure using email or networked
software designed for interactive group work.
9.3.4: The Progressive Problem-
Solving Method
The founding father of problem-solving procedures is John
Dewey, a U.S. philosopher and educator. In 1910, he wrote
How We Think, in which he described a set of practical steps
that a rational person should follow when solving a prob-
lem.44 These guidelines are known collectively as the
reflective thinking Process, a problem-solving approach
that focuses on understanding a problem before develop-
ing and selecting a solution.
The Progressive Problem solving Method is a proce-
dure that guides a group through a series of systematic
problem-solving steps, beginning with task clarification,
tAsk CLAriFiCAtion The first step is making sure that
everyone understands the task or assignment. For exam-
ple, the planning council at Fallingstar State College could
dedicate the beginning of its first meeting to reviewing the
council’s goal and deadlines as well as the need to produce
written recommendations. During this phase, group mem-

bers ask questions about their roles and responsibilities in
the problem-solving process.
ProBLeM iDentiFiCAtion Once a group understands
and supports its common goal, members should focus on
understanding the nature of the problem and developing a
set of key questions. Begin by identifying the all-important
single question, the answer to which is all that the group
needs to know in order to accomplish its agreed-upon goal.
Although reaching agreement on the single question may
take many hours, the investment of time is essential.46
Suppose, for example, that the Fallingstar council
phrases its single problem-solving question as, “Given the
severe budget constraints and declining enrollment, how
can the college preserve high-quality instruction and stu-
dent services?” This is a question of policy that also requires
answering subquestions of fact, conjecture, and value.
Overlooking this second step can send a group in the
wrong direction. In the case of Fallingstar State College,
there may be many different ways to define the college’s
problem. Is declining enrollment a problem? Some group
members may consider this an advantage rather than a dis-
advantage, because having fewer students can result in

smaller classes, more individualized instruction, less chaos
at registration, and easier parking. Is the problem a lack of
money? Although lack of money seems to be a universal
problem, perhaps Fallingstar is being run inefficiently. If
that’s the case, the planning council could find that in fact,

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