Writing a Quality Thesis Dissertation for MS or PhD Degree.pdf

J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 5(1): 301-308, 2012 ISSN 1999-7361
.
Writing a Quality Thesis/Dissertation for MS or PhD Degree – A Note for
Researchers, MS and PhD Students
M. T. Islam1
and M. A. Baten2
1
Graduate Training Institute, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh
2
Department of Environmental Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh
Abstract
Thesis or dissertation is a research report concerns a problem or series of problems in the area of applied or basic research.
Abstract should contain all elements of the thesis in an extreme shorter form. Need to try to accommodate the description of the
works including introduction, design and methodology within 2-3 sentences. Key findings of the experiments should be written in
very brief. After findings, key words are written. The key words have to be different from the words in the title and to be arranged
alphabetically. Introduction covers (i) identification of scientific problem stated in brief, (ii) critical analysis of relevant
background information of the study to justify the problem using past research reports, (iii) identification of scientific information
gap based on background analysis, (iv) formulation of the hypothesis, i.e making researcher’s best guess at the answer to the
problem, and (v) formulation of specific objective(’s) of the work. Review of literature has two reasons. One is to explain the
results, need to collect only the relevant information and the other is to find out the gap or unexplored area for the study, that the
designed work is either original or some works done still gaps are remained and/or different workers on the line to find contrast
results. In materials and methods, the materials including treatments used in the study are recorded. Listed parameters are also
mentioned. New technique(’s) should be described in detail, other wise mention name only if necessary giving a brief note.
Mention the layout/design of the experiments and analysis procedure. In results and discussion, we describe results
chronologically and conclude logically. Presentation of the same result both in table and graph is prohibited. Summary and
conclusion include introduction (importance) about the works, methodology, design/layout, etc. in very brief. In conclusion key
message should be provided.
Key words: Preparation, Procedure, Scientific report
Introduction
Thesis
A thesis consists of an argument or a series of
arguments combined with the description and
discussion of research you have undertaken. In the
case of a PhD, and to a lesser extent, a Masters
(research) thesis, the research is expected to "make a
significant contribution to the chosen field" (Phillips
and Pugh, 1994). Minor theses (e.g., for coursework
Masters programmes or Honours theses) may also
contribute to the knowledge in the field, though the
main requirement is that they provide evidence of an
understanding of the field.
Writing
Thesis writing is not an easy task. However, research
guide/supervisor gives simple and practical advice on
the problems of getting started, getting organized,
dividing the huge task into less formidable pieces and
working on those pieces. However, once started it
will seem less threatening. The examiners evaluate
the thesis. They are the experts in the general field of
your thesis but, on the exact topic of your thesis, you
are the world expert - keep this in mind: you should
write to make the topic clear to readers using your
own language. Copying or stealing sentences of other
authors’ work or writing is strictly prohibited and in
such cases, thesis supervisor or thesis evaluator may
reject your thesis or paper containing valuable
information.
An outline
First make up a thesis outline: several pages
containing chapter headings, sub-headings, some
figures, tables and some other notes and comments.
There is a thesis structure and it is given below:
Thesis structure
The list of contents and chapter headings below is
appropriate for some theses. ‘Results and Discussion’
are usually combined but in some theses, they may be
separated. Think about the plan of chapters and
decide what is best to report the work. Then make a
list, in point form, of what will go in which chapter.
Once a complete list of things to be reported or
explained, under each chapter heading prepared,
thesis writing becomes an easy job. In an
experimental thesis, the ‘Materials and Methods’
chapter is often the easiest to write – just write down
what you did; carefully, formally and in a logical
order.
In making the outline, all the figures should be
assembled in order that will be used and explained.
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Once you have an outline, discuss it with your
adviser. This step is important: s/he will have useful
suggestions, but it also serves notice that s/he can
expect a steady flow of chapter drafts that will make
high priority demands on his/her time. If you have a
co-adviser, discuss the outline with him/her as well,
and present all chapters to both advisers for
comments.
Organization
You should also have a physical filing system: a
collection of folders with chapter numbers on them.
This will make you feel good about getting started
and also help clean up your desk. Your files will
contain not just the plots of results and pages of
calculations, but all sorts of old notes, references,
calibration curves, suppliers' addresses,
specifications, speculations, letters from colleagues
etc., which will suddenly strike you as relevant to one
chapter or other. Stick them in that folder. Then put
all the folders in a box or a filing cabinet. As you
write bits and pieces of text, place the hard copy, the
figures etc in these folders as well. Touch them and
feel their thickness from time to time – ah, the thesis
is taking shape.
If any of your data exist only on paper, copy them and
keep the copy in a different location. Consider
making a copy of your lab book. This has another
purpose beyond security: usually the lab book stays in
the lab, but you may want a copy for your own future
use. Further, scientific ethics require you to keep lab
books and original data for at least ten years, and a
copy is more likely to be found if two copies exist.
While you are being organised, you should deal with
any university paperwork. Examiners have to be
nominated and they have to agree to serve. Various
forms are required by your department and by the
university administration.
Supervisor’s opinion
Your adviser will expect to read each chapter in draft
form. S/he (adviser) will then return it to you with
suggestions and comments. Do not be upset if a
chapter---especially the first one you write--- returns
covered in red ink (or its electronic equivalent). Your
adviser will want your thesis to be as good as
possible, because his/her reputation as well as yours
is affected. Scientific writing is a difficult art, and it
takes a while to learn. As a consequence, there will be
many ways in which your first draft can be improved.
So, take a positive attitude to all the scribbles with
which your adviser decorates your text: each
comment tells you a way in which you can make your
thesis better.
As you write your thesis, your scientific writing is
almost certain to improve. Even for native speakers of
English who write very well in other styles, one
notices an enormous improvement in the first drafts
from the first to the last chapter written. The process
of writing the thesis is like a course in scientific
writing, and in that sense each chapter is like an
assignment in which you are taught, but not assessed.
Remember, only the final draft is assessed: the more
comments your adviser adds to first or second draft,
the better.
Before you submit a draft to your adviser, run a spell
check so that s/he does not waste time on those. If
you have any characteristic grammatical failings,
check for them.
The length
Once your thesis has been assessed, the only further
readers are likely to be people who are seriously
doing research in just that area. Good referencing also
tells the reader which parts of the thesis are
descriptions of previous knowledge and which parts
are your additions to that knowledge.
Writing style
Short, simple phrases and words are often better than
long ones. It is not the place of elegance or efficient
communication. In certain cases you may need a
complicated sentence because the idea is complicated.
Some lengthy technical words will also be necessary
in many theses, particularly in fields like
biochemistry, biology, environmental science, etc. Do
not sacrifice accuracy for the sake of brevity.
Sometimes it is easier to present information and
arguments as a series of numbered points, rather than
as one or more long and awkward paragraphs. A list
of points is usually easier to write but in thesis
writing, this format is not creditable.
One important stylistic choice is between the active
voice and passive voice. The active voice is simpler,
and it makes clear what you did and what was done
by others. The passive voice makes it easier to write
ungrammatical or awkward sentences. If you use the
passive voice, be especially wary of using participles.
The active voice is desirable because it is clearer,
more logical and makes attribution simple. The only
arguments for avoiding the active voice in a thesis are
(i) many theses are written in the passive voice, and
(ii) some very polite people find the use of "I"
immodest. Use the first person singular, not plural,
J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 5(1): 301-308, 2012
302

when reporting work that you did yourself: the
editorial 'we' may suggest that you had help beyond
that listed in your acknowledgments.
Presentation
There is no need for a thesis to be a masterpiece of
desk-top publishing. Your time can be more
productively spent improving the content than the
appearance.
In many cases, a reasonably neat diagram can be
drawn by hand faster than with a graphics package,
and you can scan it, we should mention that
photographs look pretty but take up a lot of memory,
still it is preferred. About figures and photographs- in
the digital version of thesis, do not save ordinary
photographs or other illustrations as bitmaps, because
these take up a lot of memory and are therefore very
slow to transfer. Nearly all graphics packages allow
saving in compressed format as .jpg (for photos) or
.gif (for diagrams) files.
Components of a Thesis
Functions and characteristics
Theses come in various sizes. The components of
many theses are similar although their functions and
requirements may differ according to the degree they
are presented for. The components and their functions
and characteristics are set out below. Note that not all
theses must contain all components. Consult with
your supervisor and the regulations governing your
degree to identify which components you need.
Notable exceptions from the following format are
theses that do not have an empirical element, and
historical studies. The ways in which data are related
to the literature can vary enormously, so that there
may be no clearly defined differentiation of function
amongst your chapters regarding literature and data
presentation.
Title
The title announces the problem. In a sequential
combination of the keywords, a title is a meaningful
expression that adequately describes the content of a
scientific paper. Thus, title of a paper is not merely a
sentence with the usual arrangement of subject, object
and/ or verb. Title of a paper is a label of the content.
Thesis writing must have proper and informative titles.
It must be self explanatory.
Cover/ Title page
Title page may vary among institutions but there main
purpose is to identify topic, writer, institution, degree
and date/ academic session.
For an example: Title/author’s Examination Roll No.,
Registration No./ Session/Semester (for MS) /Thesis
submitted to the Department of Environmental
Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy/ Master of
Science in Environmental Science/…./date. In
addition, another page for approval of the style and
content of thesis by Supervisor, Co-supervisor and
Chairman of the Examination Committee & Head of
the Department (consult with old thesis for getup) is
needed.
Declaration
Many universities require some declaration while
others not. If so check whether there is a standard
format and the wording required by your institution
and do accordingly. Normally it is required to state
that (i) this submission is his own work and it
contains no material written by another person and
(ii) the material presented has not been used for any
other degree award, and that all sources are
acknowledged, etc.
Acknowledgments
Most thesis authors put in a page of thanks to those
who have helped them in matters scientific/
intellectually, and also indirectly by providing such
essentials as food, education, financial help, advice,
friendship etc. It is not wise to include a name that
has no contribution. The supervisor generally receives
the first vote of thanks.
Abstract
Of all the theses, this part will be most widely
published and most read because it would be
published in Dissertation Abstracts International. It is
best written towards the end.
A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is
important. It then goes on to give a very short
summary of your major results. The final sentences
explain the major implications of your work. A good
abstract must be self-contained, a distillation of the
thesis, a concise description of the problem(s)
addressed, methods employed for solving it/them,
results and conclusions. All are in concise, readable,
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and quantitative without any citation. Answers to the
questions what, why and how research was conducted
and why does it matter should be found in the
abstract. The length should be less than one paragraph
having approximately within 150-400 words.
Contents
This will contain list of all headings and subheadings
with page numbers.
Table 1. Contents of a thesis in the Department of Environmental Science
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE #
Acknowledgments
Abstract
Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
1 Introduction
subheads ...?
2 Review of Literature
subheads ...?
3 Materials and Methods
subheads ...?
4 Results and Discussion
subheads ...?
5 Summary and Conclusions
6 Recommendations/ Suggestions
References
Appendices
List of tables
List page numbers of all tables: The list should
include a short title for each table but not the whole
caption.
List of figures
List page numbers of all figures: The list should
include a short title for each figure but not the whole
caption.
Introduction
Introduction is the first event of communication acts
as a bridge between the writers and readers providing
background information from general to specific,
known to unknown. Fill up the information gap
between the readers’ and writers and helps the readers
to grasp quick understanding the message contained
in the article. Statement of the problems with
importance and justification with concluding remarks
(final argument). Finally, formulate correct and
specific objective (hypothesis) of the study.
According to Ernst, Chief Editor, Journal of
Experimental and Environmental Botany (2001)
mentioned in his editorial note that introduction
covers (i) identification of scientific problem stated in
brief, (ii) critically analysis of relevant background
information of the study to justify the problem using
past research reports, (iii) identification of scientific
information gap based on background analysis, (iv)
formulation of the hypothesis, i.e making researcher’s
best guess at the answer to the problem, and (v)
formulation of specific objective(s) of the work.
There should be a relation in the message given in the
‘Title’ with objective(s).
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Especially in the introduction, do not overestimate the
reader's familiarity with your topic. You are writing
for researchers in the general area, but not all of them
need to be specialists in your particular topic. The
introduction should be interesting. If you bore the
reader here, then you are unlikely to revive his/her
interest in the remaining sections.
Review of literature
Only the relevant literature should be reviewed. The
main objectives of this chapter is to (i) prove the
reader/examiner that the researcher is familiar with
issues and debates in the field that needed to explain
and discuss to sole the problem(s), (ii) demonstrate
the reader that there is an area in this field to which
researcher can contribute (thus, the review must be
critically analytical), (iii) identify from where does
the problem come? What is already known about this
problem? What other methods have been tried to
solve it? However the main purposes of review of
literature are 1) to explain the results: collect only the
relevant information to explain the results. And to
find out the gap or unexplored area for your study:
show that your work is either original or some works
are done still gaps are remained or different workers
on the line find contrast results .
This is the section where other’s finding are used.
Here the verb tense becomes most important in
conveying subtle meanings, where you must beware
of unwarranted repetition. This is where plagiarism
becomes an issue. Researcher should write a
summary (anything from a couple of sentences to a
couple of pages, depending on the relevance adding
key words and comments about its importance,
relevance to its quality).
How many papers? How relevant do they have to be?
It is a matter of judgment. For PhD thesis hundred is
reasonable, but it will depend on the field. Now the
thesis writer is the world expert on the (narrow) topic
of the thesis: it must be demonstrated.
Materials and Methods
Methods
Methodology provides the framework for getting
answers to the questions “What did you do using
what and how did you do to pose in the purpose of the
work”. Here, you have to illustrate the materials and
the methods you used in your work. Therefore it is an
easy part of the paper to write. However, you must
make sure that you have described everything in
enough detail. It should include all the detail that will
make it possible for any reader to repeat the work
easily without asking for more detail to the author. In
this section no interpretation is needed but
presentation of a rationale for the methodological
approach is essential. Descriptions and justifications
of the methods of research and analysis are vital
points. If the research is survey type descriptions of
the processes for selection of site, participants,
sampling, data gathering and analysis are the critical
points.
Researcher has to justify his/her preference of one
method or technique over others available by stating
the assumptions made. This will provide the
examiners during examination and finally the readers
when the report is published to understand clearly.
The most important thing is to impart just enough
detail to allow other scientists to judge the validity
and accuracy of results, soundness and pertinence of
interpretation of that results. Any researcher can
repeat the experiment to get the same results.
Mentioned parameters included in your study.
Follow a logical order in describing the methods
(First pot experiments then field). New technique(s)
should be described in detail, other wise mentioned
name only if necessary give brief description (not the
list of solutions, glassware’s, etc.).
The materials
Descriptions of used animals, plants, microorganisms,
chemicals, materials, equipment, machinery, study
populations, human cells, plant tissues, geographical
locations etc. should be provided. Clear identification
of new equipment and description of chemical
compounds, with specification of concentration and
fertilizers doses are essential, so the workers will be
able to obtain the exactly the same materials or use
the same concentration of active ingredients.
Name of materials
Internationally recognized name/nomenclature for
materials, and standard unit preferably metric units
should be used. If any local name is used, Latin or
Scientific Name, at least English common name is
must for international readers.
Sources of the materials and equipment
In case of common materials it can be said that the
animals/plants/seeds used in present study were
grown/ reared/ raised/ sown or procured/ obtained/
provided/ purchased/ bought/ acquired from the field
laboratory of the Department of Environmental
Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University.
305

Place of the experiment
Author should mention about the location of the
experiment place or of the sampling or survey sites.
Duration and time of experiment
Timing for conducting research and duration of the
experiment are very important because the weather
and other environmental parameters vary with the
season. Therefore, clear description in a concise form
is essential.
Treatments
In field, plot and laboratory experiments describe in
detail with all the parameters including treatments,
replications, etc. is a must for this section.
Maps, figures, photographs
In survey type experiment, map of study area is
essential because geographical locations have a
prominent effect on the outcome of the experiment.
The maps must be very clear, bold patterns, must
show longitudes and latitudes, a scale and a side
locator.
Statistical analysis
In survey, sampling techniques, collection of data,
and in field experiments design of experiment and
statistical techniques that are used for data analysis
and other purposes should be mentioned. Most
common tests are well known and do not need much
description. If any uncommon technique used then it
need to be explained thoroughly.
It should be remembered that Materials and Methods
is a ital part of a thesis writing and needs careful
consideration. Citations in this section should be
limited to data sources and references of where to find
more complete descriptions of procedures. Do not
include any unnecessary descriptions or
results. Mention the layout/design of the experiments
and analysis procedure.
Results and Discussion
It seems a sensible decision to combine the results
and discussion in a single chapter in theses. The
division of Results and Discussion material into
chapters is usually best done according to subject
matter.
Results presentation
To present the results break up the results into logical
segments by using subheadings and key results
should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of
paragraphs mentioning the table/figure number where
results can be seen.
Statistics helps in presenting complex data in a
suitable tabular, diagrammatic and graphic form for
an easy and clear comprehension and facilities
comparison, forecasting, formulating and test
hypothesis. Statistics also helps to improve the quality
of data with the design of experiments and survey
sampling. It provides tools for prediction and
forecasting using data and statistical models. Before
result presentation appropriate statistical analysis
should be done to simplify and analyse data to
information, from information to facts, and finally,
from facts to knowledge.
The graphs are finished and scored, researchers
present the information on graph, the
observations/conclusions they drew from the graphs.
In plotting data it should bear in mind that bar
diagram is normally used for simple comparisons,
linear graph is used for trend analysis and/or
progressive growth while pie chart is used for
contribution/share representation. The trend such as
increase in production with increasing amount of row
materials, relationship and measure of strength are
expressed by correlation and regression graphs and
finally by the regression and correlation coefficient.
Analysis of variance is used to compare the
differences in means and finally means separation test
is most widely used to compare treatment means
simultaneously.
Presentation of some result in table and graph should
be avoided (i.e. present in one form)
Results discussion
In most cases results need discussion. What do they
mean? How do they fit into the existing body of
knowledge? Are they consistent with current
theories? Do they give new insights? Do they suggest
new theories or mechanisms? etc.
However, discussion provides findings, drawing out
main achievements and explaining results, makes
links between objectives and findings, formulates
suggestions and recommendations. Describe
chronologically and conclude with yield integrating
the effects of yield contributing characters.
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The student would qualify his/her results by
mentioning any limitations and shortcomings of
his/her experiments.
Results interpretation
After discussion, the researcher should make
necessary explanation and interpretation of his/her
results, primarily to justify the statement made in the
lead sentences. While doing this, the writer should be
careful to avoid unnecessary repetition of data
presented in results. Interpret results in terms of
background laid out in the introduction to show the
relationship of the present results to the original
question. Statistical statements mentioning the level
of significance of those observations best accomplish
this. He/she should also explain the probable
reason(s) of variations. Say for an example: mere
counting the number of tillers, grains or measuring
height of the plants or length of the panicles is not
sufficient for researchers, it is the base for the
scientists to explain the results how and why it differ
from one another. Researchers need to explain
possible reasons of differences and also to relate
findings of other works ( use of the review of the
literature here).
Results comparison
The student should make necessary comparisons of
his/her results with relevant results of others. Clearly
mention the agreement or disagreement with previous
works. Because it is not just mere comparison, rather
this is an effort to show how his/her results fit in the
current state of the knowledge. He/she should
mention if his/her results have anything new or
original. If the results of the researcher are not in
agreement with previous observation of others, he/she
should consider why. In that case, what are the likely
causes, what is the implication of the present results
for other unanswered questions in sciences specially
in ecology and/ environmental policy, etc. should also
be mentioned. Controversial issues should be
discussed fairly and politely. This section should be
rich with references to similar work and background
needed to interpret results.
*Remember Results discussion in a critical part of a
thesis. It should be written very carefully and if
allowed try to accommodate two independent
chapters for these purpose
Summary and Conclusions
A summary of conclusions is usually longer than the
abstract. Introduction (importance) about the works,
methodology, design/layout, etc. should be presented
in very brief
Present all arguments and findings together,
summarizes major findings with implications and
limitations, suggests directions for future research.
Mention the strongest and most important statement
that you can make from your observations. Leaves the
reader with a strong sense that the work you set out to
do has been completed with the fulfillment of the
objectives set for research, and that it was
worthwhile.
References
Literature cited
The Literature Cited section gives an alphabetical
listing of the references that you actually cited in the
body of your paper. Do not label this section
"Bibliography". A bibliography contains references
that you may have read but have not specifically cited
in the text.
Many professional publications often have their own
system style, which introduces specific variations
within these general conventions. There are two main
methods of referencing articles in journal and book
publications. These are known as the Harvard
(author-date) and Vancouver (number-author)
reference systems. However, there are many other
styles too. But there are only two styles used with all
subjects are: (a) Chicago style, e.g. Wilcox, Rhonda
V. 1991. Shifting roles and synthetic women in Star
trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular Culture
13 (2): 53-65. and (b) Turabian style, e.g. Wilcox,
Rhonda V. 1991. Shifting roles and synthetic women
in Star trek: The next generation. Studies in Popular
Culture 13 (June):53-65.
Appendices
If there is material that should be in the thesis but
which would break up the flow or bore the reader
unbearably, include it as an appendix.
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Suggestions to the students
Look at other theses in the field
Hundreds of theses are available in Bangladesh
Agricultural University Library and also in the
Departments concern. Look at ones in your field to
get ideas about the main features and for other
information.
Size
A suggestion on the size of thesis is given below:
 Abstract --- 1 page
 Introduction including objectives of the study ---
2 pages
 Review of Literature - maximum 10% of the total
thesis
 Methodology - 3-5% (as it required) of the total
thesis
 Main Results - 60-70% of the total thesis
 Conclusion --- 2 pages
Paper size
Standard (8.5 x 11)
Font
Font sizes for
 Title :12pt. Bold
 Author(s) :11pt. Normal
 Sub-title :11pt. Normal
 Abstract Body :9pt. Normal
 Others :11pt. Normal
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge Dr. W.H.O. Ernst,
Editor–In-Chief, Journal of Environmental and
Experimental Botany and Professor, Faculty of
Biology, Department of Ecology and Ecotoxicology,
Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV
Amsterdam for providing editorial note (on
25.07.2001) in writing a scientific paper. The
contribution of anonymous reviewer is also
acknowledged.
Reference
Phillips, E. M and Pugh, D. S. 1994. How to get a
PhD : a handbook for students and their
supervisors. Open University Press, Buckingham,
England.
Times New Roman (if not otherwise instructed)
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