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System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson
System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson
System Analysis, Design,
and Development
Concepts, Principles, and Practices
Charles S. Wasson
A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
System Analysis, Design,
and Development
System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson
System Analysis, Design,
and Development
Concepts, Principles, and Practices
Charles S. Wasson
A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under
Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of
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Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print, however,
may not be available in electronic format.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Wasson, Charles S., 1948–
System analysis, design, and development : concepts, principles, and practices / by Charles S. Wasson.
p. cm.
“A Wiley-Interscience publication.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13 978-0-471-39333-7
ISBN-10 0-471-39333-9 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. System design. 2. System analysis. I. Title.
QA76.9.S88W373 2005
004.2¢1—dc22
2004061247
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
“If an error or omission is discovered, please notify the publisher with corrections in writing.”
at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions
Table of Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xii
1 Introduction 1
2 Book Organization and
Conventions 3
Part I System Analysis Concepts
System Entity Concepts Series
3 What Is a System? 17
4 System Attributes, Properties,
and Characteristics 27
5 System Roles and Stakeholders 39
6 System Acceptability 46
7 The System/Product Life Cycle 59
System Architecture Concepts Series
8 The Architecture of Systems 67
9 System Levels of Abstraction
and Semantics 76
10 The System of Interest
Architecture 86
11 The Operating Environment
Architecture 97
12 System Interfaces 110
System Mission Concepts Series
13 Organizational Roles, Missions,
and System Applications 122
14 Understanding the Problem,
Opportunity, and Solution
Spaces 135
15 System Interactions with its
Operating Environment 146
16 System Mission Analysis 159
17 System Use Cases and Scenarios 167
System Operations Concepts Series
18 System Operations Model 178
19 System Phases, Modes, and
States of Operation 189
20 Modeling System and Support
Operations 206
System Capability Concepts Series
21 System Operational Capability
Derivation and Allocation 217
22 The Anatomy of a System
Capability 229
System Concept Synthesis
23 System Analysis Synthesis 241
v
Part II System Design and
Development Practices
System Development Strategies Series
24 The System Development
Workflow Strategy 251
25 System Design, Integration, and
Verification Strategy 265
26 The SE Process Model 275
27 System Development Models 290
System Specification Series
28 System Specification Practices 302
29 Understanding Specification
Requirements 315
30 Specification Analysis 327
31 Specification Development 340
32 Requirements Derivation,
Allocation, Flow Down,
and Traceability 358
33 Requirements Statement
Development 370
System Development Series
34 Operational Utility, Suitability,
and Effectiveness 390
35 System Design To/For Objectives 400
36 System Architecture Development 410
37 Developing an Entity’s
Requirements Domain Solution 430
38 Developing an Entity’s Operations
Domain Solution 439
vi Table of Contents
39 Developing an Entity’s Behavioral
Domain Solution 451
40 Developing an Entity’s Physical
Domain Solution 465
41 Component Selection
and Development 480
42 System Configuration
Identification 489
43 System Interface Analysis,
Design, and Control 507
44 Human–System Integration 524
45 Engineering Standards, Frames
of Reference, and Conventions 544
46 System Design and Development
Documentation 562
Decision Support Series
47 Analytical Decision Support 574
48 Statistical Influences
on System Design 586
49 System Performance Analysis,
Budgets, and Safety Margins 597
50 System Reliability, Availability,
and Maintainability (RAM) 615
51 System Modeling and Simulation 651
52 Trade Study Analysis of
Alternatives 672
Verification and Validation Series
53 System Verification
and Validation 691
54 Technical Reviews 710
55 System Integration, Test,
and Evaluation 733
System Deployment, Operations,
and Support Series
56 System Deployment 758
Table of Contents vii
57 System Operations
and Support (O&S) 773
Epilogue 788
Index 789
System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson
Preface
As a user, acquirer, or developer of a system, product, or service, have you ever been confronted
with one of the situations listed below?
• Wondered if the people who designed a product bothered to ask potential users to simply try
it before selling it to the public.
• Found that during a major program review prior to component development that someone
thought a requirement was so obvious it didn’t have to be written down.
• Participated in a new system development effort and discovered at Contract Award that team
members were already designing circuits, coding software, and developing mechanical draw-
ings BEFORE anyone understood WHAT system users expected the system to provide or
perform?
• Procured one of those publicized “designed for assembly” products and discovered that it
was not designed for maintainability?
• Interacted with a business that employed basic business tools such as desktop computers,
phones, and fax machines that satisfied needs. Then, someone decided to install one of those
new, interactive Web sites only to have customers and users challenged by a “new and
improved” system that was too cumbersome to use, and whose performance proved to be
inferior to that of the previous system?
Welcome to the domain of system analysis, design, and development or, in the case of the scenar-
ios above, the potential effects of the lack of System Engineering (SE).
Everyday people acquire and use an array of systems, products, and services on the pretense
of improving the quality of their lives; of allowing them to become more productive, effective, effi-
cient, and profitable; or of depending on them as tools for survival. The consumer marketplace
depends on organizations, and organizations depend on employees to ensure that the products they
produce will:
1. Perform planned missions efficiently and effectively when called upon.
2. Leverage user skills and capabilities to accomplish tasks ranging from simple to highly
complex.
3. Operate using commonly available resources.
4. Operate safely and economically in their intended environment with minimal risk and intru-
sion to the general public, property, and the environment.
5. Enable the user to complete missions and return safely.
6. Be maintained and stored until the next use for low cost.
7. Avoid any environmental, safety, and health risks to the user, the public, or the
environment.
In a book entitled Moments of Truth, Jan Carlzon, president of an international airline, observed
that every interaction between a customer and a business through product usage or service support
is a moment of truth. Each customer–product/service interaction, though sometimes brief, produces
and influences perceptions in the User’s mind about the system, products, and services of each
ix
organization. Moment of truth interactions yield positive or negative experiences. Thus, the expe-
riences posed by the questions above are moments of truth for the organizations, analysts, and
engineers who develop systems.
Engineers graduate from college every year, enter the workforce, and learn system analysis,
design, and development methods from the bottom up over a period of 10 to 30 years. Many spend
entire careers with only limited exposure to the Users of their designs or products. As engineers
are assigned increasing organizational and contract responsibilities, interactions with organizational
customers also increase. Additionally, they find themselves confronted with learning how to inte-
grate the efforts of other engineering disciplines beyond their field. In effect, they informally learn
the rudiments of System Engineering, beginning with buzzwords, from the bottom up through
observation and experience.
A story is told about an engineering manager with over 30 years of experience. The manager
openly bragged about being able to bring in new college graduates, throw them into the work envi-
ronment, and watch them sink or swim on their own without any assistance. Here was an individ-
ual with a wealth of knowledge and experience who was determined to let others “also spend 30
years” getting to comparable skill levels. Granted, some of this approach is fundamental to the
learning experience and has to evolve naturally through personal trials and errors. However, does
society and the engineering profession benefit from this type of philosophy.
Engineers enter the workplace from college at the lowest echelons of organizations mainly to
apply their knowledge and skills in solving unique boundary condition problems. For many, the
college dream of designing electronic circuits, software, or impressive mechanical structures is
given a reality check by their new employers. Much to their chagrin, they discover that physical
design is not the first step in engineering. They may be even startled to learn that their task is not
to design but to find low-cost, acceptable risk solutions. These solutions come from research of the
marketplace for existing products that can be easily and cost-effectively adapted to fulfill system
requirements.
As these same engineers adapt to their work environment, they implicitly gain experience in
the processes and methods required to transform a user’s operational needs into a physical system,
product, or service to fulfill contract or marketplace needs. Note the emphasis on implicitly. For
many, the skills required to understand these new tasks and roles with increasing complexity and
responsibility require tempering over years of experience. If they are fortunate, they may be
employed by an organization that takes system engineering seriously and provides formal training.
After 10 years or so of experience, the demands of organizational and contract performance
require engineers to assimilate and synthesize a wealth of knowledge and experience to formulate
ideas about how systems operate. A key element of these demands is to communicate with their
customers. Communications require open elicitation and investigative questioning, observation, and
listening skills to understand the customer’s operational needs and frustrations of unreliable, poorly
designed systems or products that:
1. Limit their organization’s ability to successfully conduct its missions.
2. Fail to start when initiated.
3. Fail during the mission, or cause harm to its operators, the general public, personal prop-
erty, or the environment.
Users express their visions through operational needs for new types of systems that require appli-
cation of newer, higher performance, and more reliable technologies, and present the engineer with
the opportunity to innovate and create—as was the engineer’s initial vision upon graduation.
Task leads and managers have a leadership obligation to equip personnel with the required
processes, methods, and tools to achieve contract performance—for example, on time and within
x Preface
budget deliverables—and enterprise survival over the long term. They must be visionary and pro-
active. This means providing just-in-time (JIT) training and opportunities to these engineers when
they need these skills. Instead, they defer training to technical programs on the premise that this is
on-the-job (OJT) training. Every program is unique and only provides a subset of the skills that
SEs need. That approach can take years!
While browsing in a bookstore, I noticed a book entitled If I Knew Then What I Know Now
by Richard Elder. Mr. Elder’s book title immediately caught my attention and appropriately cap-
tures the theme of this text.
You cannot train experience. However, you can educate and train system analysts and engi-
neers in system analysis, design, and development. In turn, this knowledge enables them to bridge
the gap between a user’s abstract operational needs and the hardware and software developers who
design systems, products, and services to meet those needs. You can do this in a manner that avoids
the quantum leaps by local heroes that often result in systems, products, or services that culminate
in poor contract program performance and products that fail to satisfy user needs.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that organizations waste vast amounts of resources by failing to
educate and train engineers in the concepts, principles, processes, and practices that consume on
average 80% of their workday. Based on the author’s own experiences and those of many others,
if new engineers entering and SEs already in the workplace were equipped with the knowledge
contained herein, there would be a remarkable difference in:
1. System development performance
2. Organizational performance
3. Level of personal frustrations in coping with complex tasks
Imagine the collective and synergistic power of these innovative and creative minds if they
could be introduced to these methods and techniques without having to make quantum leaps. Instead
of learning SE methods through informal, observational osmosis, and trial and error over 30+ years,
What if we could teach system, product, or service problem-solving/solution development as an
educational experience through engineering courses or personal study?
Based on the author’s experience of over 30 years working across multiple business domains,
this text provides a foundation in system analysis, design, and development. It evolved from a need
to fill a void in the core curriculum of engineering education and the discipline we refer to as system
engineering.
Academically, some people refer to System Engineering as an emerging discipline. From the
perspective of specific engineering disciplines, System Engineering may be emerging only in the
sense that organizations are recognizing its importance, even to their own disciplines. The reality
is, however, the practice of engineering systems has existed since humans first employed tools to
leverage their physical capabilities. Since World War II the formal term “system engineering” has
been applied to problem solving-solution development methods and techniques that many specific
engineering disciplines employ. Thus, system engineering concepts, principles, and practices
manifest themselves in every engineering discipline; typically without the formal label.
In the chapters ahead, I share some of the If I Knew Then What I Knew Now knowledge and
experiences. Throughout my career I have had the good fortune and opportunities to work and learn
from some of the world’s best engineering application and scientific professionals. They are the
professionals who advanced the twentieth century in roles such as enabling space travel to the Moon
and Mars, creating new building products and approaches, developing highly complex systems, and
instituting high-performance organizations and teams.
This is a practitioner’s textbook. It is written for advancing the state of the practice in the dis-
cipline we refer to as System Engineering. My intent is to go beyond the philosophical buzzwords
Preface xi
that many use but few understand and address the HOWS and WHYS of system analysis, design,
and development. It is my hope that each reader will benefit from my discussions and will endeavor
to expand and advance System Engineering through the application of the concepts, principles, and
practices stated herein. Treat them as reference guides by which you can formulate your own
approaches derived from and tempered by your own unique experiences.
Remember, every engineering situation is unique. As an engineer, you and your organization
bear sole responsibility and accountability for the actions and decisions manifested in the systems,
products, and services you design, develop, and deliver. Each user experience with those products
and services will be a moment of truth for your organization as well as your own professional rep-
utation. With every task, product, or service delivery, internally or externally, make sure the user’s
moment of truth is positive and gratifying.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was made possible by the various contributions of the many people identified below.
My special debt of gratitude goes to Dr. Charles Cockrell, mentor, teacher, and leader; Neill
B. Radke; Gerald “Jerry” Mettler; and Robert “Bob” M. Love who persevered through countless
hours and iterations reviewing various sections of this work. Likewise, a special appreciation to
Dr. Gregory M. Radecky for his technical counsel and commentary. Special thanks go to Sandra
Hendrickson for support in revising the manuscript, to Lauren and Emily, and to Sharon Savage-
Stull, and to Jean for coordinating the distribution of draft copies to reviewers. I thank members
of the JPL—Brian Muirhead, Howard Eisen, David Miller, Dr. Robert Shisko, and Mary Beth
Murrill—for sharing their time and experiences. Additionally, I thank Larry Riddle of the Univer-
sity of California, San Diego, and David Weeks for graphics submittals. Thanks also to INCOSE
President-Elect Paul Robitaille and to William E. Greenwood and JoAnne Zeigler for their obser-
vations. To those true leaders who provided insightful wisdom, knowledge mentoring, training, con-
cepts, and opportunities along my career path, I give a special word of recognition and appreciation.
These include Bobby L. Hartway, Chase B. Reed, William F. Baxter, Dan T. Reed, Spencer and Ila
Wasson, Ed Vandiver, and Kenneth King.
Finally, no words can describe how much I appreciate the dedication and caring of my loving
wife and children who endured through the countless hours, weekends, and holidays and provided
support over many years as this work evolved from concept to maturity. I couldn’t have done this
without you.
Charles S. Wasson
July, 2005
xii Preface
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 FRAMING THE NEED FOR SYSTEM ANALYSIS,
DESIGN, AND DEVELOPMENT SKILLS
One of the most perplexing problems with small, medium, or large system development programs
is simply being able to deliver a system, product, or service without latent defects on schedule,
within budget, and make a profit.
In most competitive markets, changes in technology and other pressures force many organi-
zations to aggressively cut realistic schedules to win contracts to sustain business operations. Many
times these shortcuts violate best practices through their elimination under the premise of “selec-
tive tailoring” and economizing.
Most programs, even under near ideal conditions, are often challenged to translate User needs
into efficient and cost-effective hardware and software solutions for deliverable systems, products,
and services. Technical program leads, especially System Engineers (SEs), create a strategy to
bridge the gap. They translate the User’s abstract vision into a language of specifications, archi-
tectures, and designs to guide the hardware and software development activities as illustrated in
Figure 1.1. When aggressive “tailoring” occurs, programs attempt to bridge the gap via a quantum
leap strategy. The strategy ultimately defaults into a continuous build–test–redesign loop until
resources such as cost and schedules are overrun and exhausted due to the extensive rework.
Systems delivered by these approaches are often patched and are plagued with undiscovered latent
defects.
Bridging the gap between User needs and development of systems, products, and services to
satisfy those needs requires three types of technical activities: 1) system analysis, 2) system design,
and 3) system development (i.e., implementation). Knowledge in these areas requires education,
training, and experience. Most college graduates entering the workforce do not possess these skills;
employers provide very limited, if any, training. Most knowledge in these areas varies significantly
and primarily comes from personal study and experience over many years. Given this condition,
programs have the potential to be staffed by personnel lacking system analysis, design, and devel-
opment skills attempting to make a quantum leap from user needs to hardware and software
implementation.
Technically there are solutions of dealing with this challenge. This text provides a flexible,
structural framework for “bridging the gap” between Users and system developers. Throughout this
text we will build on workflow to arrive at the steps and practices necessary to plan and implement
system analysis, design, and development strategy without sacrificing best practices objectives.
Part II System Design and Development Practices presents a framework of practice-based
strategies and activities for developing systems, products, and services. However, system develop-
ment requires more than simply implementing a standard framework. You must understand the
1
System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
foundation for the framework—HOW TO analyze systems. This requires understanding WHAT
systems are; HOW the User envisions deploying, operating, supporting, and disposing of the
system; under WHAT conditions and WHAT outcome(s) they are expected to achieve. Therefore,
Part I addresses System Analysis Concepts as a precursor to Part 2.
This text identifies fundamental system analysis, design, and development practices that in the
author’s experiences are applicable to most organizations. The concepts, principles, and practices
presented in Parts I and II represent a collection on topics that condense the fundamentals of key
practices. Some of these topics have entire textbooks dedicated to the subject matter.
Your experiences may be different; that’s okay. You and your organization are responsible and
accountable for identifying the key concepts, principles, and practices unique to your line of busi-
ness and programs and incorporate them into its command media—namely policies and procedures.
Using this knowledge and framework, personnel at all levels of the organization are better postured
to make informed decisions to bridging the gap from User needs to system, product, and service
solutions to meet those needs without having to take a quantum leap.
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
Hardware
Engineering
Software
Engineering
Operational
Need(s)
Solutions Specialty
Engineering
User System Developers
Systems Engineering
Concepts, Principles, & Practices
Operational Need Requirements
Figure 1.1 Systems Engineering—Bridging the Gap from User Needs to System Developers
Chapter 2
Book Organization and Conventions
2.1 HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED
There is a wealth of engineering knowledge that is well documented in textbooks targeted specif-
ically for disciplinary and specialty engineers. In effect, these textbooks are compartmentalized
bodies of knowledge unique to the discipline. The challenge is that SE requires knowledge, appli-
cation, and integration of the concepts in these bodies of knowledge. The author’s purpose in writing
this book is not to duplicate what already exists but rather to complement and link SE and devel-
opment to these bodies of knowledge as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
To accomplish these interdisciplinary linkages, the topical framework of the book is organized
the way SEs think. SEs analyze, design, and develop systems. As such, the text consists of two
parts: Part I System Analysis Concepts and Part II System Design and Development Practices. Each
part is organized into series of chapters that address concepts or practices and include Definitions
of Key Terms and Guiding Principles.
Part I: System Analysis Concepts
Part I provides the fundamentals in systems analysis and consists of a several series of topics:
• System entity concepts
• System architecture concepts
• System mission concepts
• System operations concepts
• System capability concepts
Each series within a part consists of chapters representing a specific topical discussion. Each chapter
is sequentially numbered to facilitate quick location of referrals and topical discussions. The intent
is to isolate topical discussions in a single location rather than a fragmented approach used in most
textbooks. Due to the interdependency among topics, some overlap is unavoidable. In general, Part
I provides the underlying foundation and framework of concepts that support Part II.
Unlike many textbooks, you will not find any equations, software code, or other technical
exhibits in Part I. SE is a problem solving–solution development discipline that requires a funda-
mental understanding in HOW to think about and analyze systems—HOW systems are organized,
structured, defined, bounded, and employed by the User.
3
System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Part II: System Design and Development Practices
Part II builds on the system analysis concepts of Part I and describes the system design and devel-
opment practices embodied by the discipline we refer to as system engineering. Part II contents
consists of several series of practices that include:
• System development strategies
• System specification
• System design
• Decision support
• System verification and validation
• System deployment, operations, and support
Each series covers a range of topical practices required to support the series.
2.2 DEFINITIONS
SE, as is the case with most disciplines, is based on concepts, principles, processes, and practices.
The author’s context for each of these terms can be better understood as follows:
• Concept A visionary expression of a proposed or planned action that leads to achievement
of a disciplinary objective.
• Principle A guiding thought based on empirical deduction of observed behavior or prac-
tices that proves to be true under most conditions over time.
• Process A sequence of serial and/or concurrent operations or tasks that transform and/or
add value to a set of inputs to produce a product. Processes are subject to external controls
and constraints imposed by regulation and/or decision authority.
4 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions
User
Operational Need(s)
• Aerospace Engineering
• Civil Engineering
• Electrical Engineering
• Industrial Engineering
• Mechanical Engineering
• Nuclear Engineering
• Software Engineering
• Test Engineering
• Product Engineering
• Human Factors Engineering
• System Safety Engineering
• System Security Engineering
• Reliability Engineering
• Maintainability Engineering
Disciplinary & Specialty Engineering
Abstract
Physical
System
Analysis,
Design, &
Development
Bridging
the G
ap
Systems, Products,
& Services
Users
• Systems Engineering
Figure 2.1 Book Scope
• Operation A collection of outcome-based tasks required to satisfy an operational
objective.
• Task The application of methods, techniques, and tools to add value to a set of inputs—
such as materials and information—to produce a work product that meets “fitness for use”
standards established by formal or informal agreement.
• Practice Asystematic approach that employs methods and techniques that have been demon-
strated to provide results that are generally predictable and repeatable under various operating
conditions. A practice employs processes, operations, or tools.
• Best or Preferred Practice A practice that has been adopted or accepted as the most suit-
able method for use by an organization or discipline. Some individuals rebuff the operative
term “best” on the basis it is relative and has yet to be universally accepted as THE one and
only practice that is above all others. Instead, they use preferred practice.
2.3 TEXT CONVENTIONS
This textbook consists of several types of annotations to facilitate readability. These include
referrals, author’s notes, guideposts, reference identifiers, and examples. To better understand the
author’s context of usage, let’s briefly summarize each.
Referrals. SE concepts, processes, and practices are highly interdependent. Throughout the book
you will find Referrals that suggest related chapters of the book that provide additional information
on the topic.
Author’s Notes. Author’s Notes provide insights and observations based on the author’s own
unique experiences. Each Author’s Note is indexed to the chapter and in sequence within the chapter.
Guideposts. Guideposts are provided in the text to provide the reader an understanding of
WHERE you are and WHAT lies ahead in the discussion. Each guidepost is indexed to the chapter
and sequence within the section.
Reference Identifiers. Some graphics-based discussions progress through a series of steps that
require navigational aids to assist the reader, linking the text discussion to a graphic. Reference
Identifiers such as (#) or circles with numbers are used. The navigational reference IDs are intended
to facilitate classroom or training discussions and reading of detailed figures. It is easier to refer to
“Item or ID 10” than to say “system development process.”
Examples. Examples are included to illustrate how a particular concept, method, or practice is
applied to the development of real world systems. One way SEs deal with complexity is through
concepts such as abstraction, decomposition, and simplification. You do not need a Space Shuttle
level of complexity example to learn a key point or concept. Therefore, the examples are intended
to accomplish one objective—to communicate. They are not intended to insult your intelligence or
impress academic egos.
References. Technical books often contain pages of references. You will find a limited number
of references here. Where external references are applicable and reinforce a point, explicit call-outs
are made. However, this is a practitioner’s text intended to equip the reader with the practical
knowledge required to perform system analysis, design, and development. As such, the book is
2.3 Text Conventions 5
intended to stimulate the reader’s thought processes by introducing fresh approaches and ideas for
advancing the state of the practice in System Engineering as a professional discipline, not
summarizing what other authors have already published.
Naming Conventions. Some discussions throughout the book employ terms that have generic
and reserved word contexts. For example, terms such as equipment, personnel, hardware, software,
and facilities have a generic context. Conversely, these same terms are considered SE system
elements and are treated as RESERVED words. To delineate the context of usage, we will use
lowercase spellings for the generic context and all capitals for the SE unique context—such as
EQUIPMENT, PERSONNEL, HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, and FACILITIES. Additionally,
certain words in sentences require communication emphasis. Therefore, some words are italicized
or CAPITALIZED for emphasis by the author as a means to enhance the readability and
communicate key points.
2.4 GRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS
System analysis and design are graphics-intensive activities. As a result a standard set of graphical
conventions is used to provide a level of continuity across a multitude of highly interdependent
topics. In general, system analysis and design employ the following types of relationships:
1. Bounding WHAT IS/IS NOT part of a system.
2. Abstractions of collections of entities/objects.
3. Logical associations or relationships between entities.
4. Iterations within an entity/object.
5. Hierarchical decomposition of abstract entities/objects and integration or entities/
objects that characterized by one-to-many and many-to-one entity or object
relationships—for example, parent or sibling.
6. Peer-to-peer entity/object relationships.
7. Time-based, serial and concurrent sequences of workflow, and interactions between enti-
ties.
8. Identification tags assigned to an entity/object that give it a unique identity.
There are numerous graphical methods for illustrating these relationships. The Object Management
Group’s (OMG) Unified Modeling Language (UML®
) provides a diverse set of graphical symbols
that enable us to express many such relationships. Therefore, diagrams employing UML symbol-
ogy are used in this book WHERE they enable us to better communicate key concepts. UML anno-
tates one-to-many (i.e., multiplicity) entity relationships with “0 . . . 1,” “1,” “1 . . .*,” and so forth.
Many of the graphics contain a significant amount of information and allow us to forgo the multi-
plicity annotations. Remember, this text is intended to communicate concepts about system analy-
sis, design, and development; not to make you an expert in UML. Therefore, you are encouraged
to visit the UML Web site at www.omg.org for implementation specifics of the language. Currently,
SE versions of UML®
, SYSML, is in the process of development.
System Block Diagram (SBD) Symbology
One of the first tasks of system analysts and SE is to bound WHAT IS/IS NOT part of the system.
System Block Diagrams (SBDs), by virtue of their box structure, offer a convenient way to express
these relationships, as illustrated at the left side of Figure 2.2.
6 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions
If we attempt to annotate each system input/output relationship with lines, the chart would
become unwieldy and difficult to read. Using the left side of Figure 2.2 as an example, External
System 1 interfaces with Entity A; External System B interfaces with Entities A through D. Exter-
nal System 2 could be the natural environment—consisting of temperature, humidity, and the life—
that affects Entities A through D within your system.
Where a system such as External System B interfaces with ALL internal entities, we simplify
the graphic with a single arrow touching the outer boundary of the system—meaning your system.
Therefore, any arrow that touches the boundary of an entity represents an interface with each item
with the entity.
Aggregation and Composition Relationships Symbology
Object-oriented and entity relationship methods recognize that hierarchical objects or entities are
comprised of lower level sibling objects or entities. Two types of relationships exist in these cases:
aggregation versus generalization. Let’s elaborate on these further.
Aggregation (Composition). Aggregation represents the collection of entities/objects that
have direct relationships with each other. Composition, as a form of aggregation, characterizes
relationships that represent strong associations between objects or entities as illustrated in Figure
2.3. Entity A consists of Entities A1, A2, A3, and A4 that have direct relationships via interfaces
that enable them to work together to provide entityA’s capabilities. Consider the following example:
EXAMPLE 2.1
An automobile ENGINE consists of PISTONS that have direct relationships via the engine’s SHAFT.
Therefore, the ENGINE is an aggregation of all entities/objects—such as ENGINE SHAFT and
PISTONS—required to provide the ENGINE capability.
2.4 Graphical Conventions 7
Physical Representation Simplified Symbolic Representation
A B
C D
Your System
A B
C D
External
System #1
External
System #2
Your System
External
System #1
External
System #2
External System B interfaces with Entities A, B, C, and
D of Your System.
To simplify the diagram for analysis, we employ a
symbolic convention whereby the intersection of
External System #2 interface with the dashed line of
Your System represents Exte rnal System B interfaces
with each entity - i.e. A - D.
Figure 2.2 Symbolic Interface Representation Convention
UML symbology for aggregation or composition is represented by a filled (black) diamond shape,
referred to as an aggregation indicator, attached to the aggregated object/entity as illustrated at the
left side of Figure 2.3. The diamond indicator is attached to the parent entity, System A, with link-
ages that connect the indicator to each object or entity that has a direct relationship.
Author’s Note 2.1 As a rule, UML only allows the aggregation indicator to be attached to the
aggregated entity/object on one end of the relationship (line). You will find instances in the text
whereby some abstractions of classes of entities/objects have many-to-many relationships with each
other and employ the indicator on both ends of the line.
Generalization. Generalization represents a collection of objects or entities that have loose
associations with each other as illustrated in Figure 2.3. Entity B consists of sibling Entities B1,
B2, B3, and B4, which have not direct relationship with each other. Consider the following example:
EXAMPLE 2.1
A VEHICLE is a generalization for classes of trucks, cars, snowmobiles, tractors, and the like, that have the
capability to maneuver under their own power.
UML®
symbology for generalization is represented by an unfilled (white) triangular shape as illus-
trated as the right side of Figure 2.3. The triangle indicator is attached to the parent entity with
linkages that connect the indicator to each lower level object or entity that have loose associations
or relationships.
8 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions
Entity
A1
Entity
A1
Entity
A2
Entity
A2
System A
System A
Entity
B1
Entity
B1
Entity
B2
Entity
B2
Entity B
Entity B
Aggregation (Composition)
Consists of sets of entities with CLOSE associations or
interdependencies that comprise a higher level entity
Entity
A3
Entity
A3
Entity
A4
Entity
A4
Entity
B3
Entity
B3
Entity
B4
Entity
B4
Entity
A1
Entity
A2
Entity
A3
Entity
A4
Entity A
Entity
B1
Entity
B2
Entity
B3
Entity
B4
Entity B
Aggregation
(Composition)
Indicator
Generalization
Indicator
UML
Symbology
UML
Symbology
Generalization
Consists of sets of entities with LOOSE
associations that comprise a higher level entity
= Strong Association
= Weak Association
Figure 2.3 Hierarchical Aggregation and Generalization Symbology
Relationship Dependencies
In general, this text employs three types of line conventions to express entity/object relationship
dependencies as illustrated in Figure 2.4.
• Instances of a Relationship That May or May Not Exist (Panel A) Since there are instances
that may or may not contain a specific relationship, a dashed line is used for all or a part of
the line. Where an aggregated entity/object may or may not have all instances of siblings,
the parent half of the line is solid and the sibling half may be dashed.
• Electronic/Mechanical Relationships (Panel B) Some graphics express electronic relation-
ships by solid lines and mechanical relationships by dashed lines. For example, a computer’s
electronic data communications interface with another computer is illustrated by a solid line.
The mechanical relationship between a disc and a computer is illustrated by a dashed line
to infer either a mechanical or a temporary connection.
• Logical/Physical Entity Relationships (Panels C and D) Since entities/objects have logical
associations or indirect relationships, we employ a dashed line to indicate the relationship.
Interaction Diagrams
UML accommodates interactions between entities such as people, objects, roles, and so forth, which
are referred to as actors via interaction or sequence diagrams, as illustrated in Figure 2.5. Each
actor (object class) consists of a vertical time-based line referred to as a lifeline. Each actor’s
lifeline consists of activation boxes that represent time-based processing. When interactions occur
between actors, an event stimulates the activation box of the interfacing actor. As a result, a simple
sequence of actions will represent interchanges between actors.
2.4 Graphical Conventions 9
Relationship Instances that May or May Not Exist
Entity A
A
Entity A1 Entity A2
Entity A Entity B Entity A Entity B
Entity C
Where:
Entity
A
Entity
B
Electrical/Mechanical
Relationships
All Instances of A1
Exist (Solid Line)
Specific Instances of A2
May or May Not Exist
(Dashed Line)
= Data Flow (Solid Line)
= Mechanical Interfaces (Dashed)
Physical Relationship or Association
(Solid Line)
Direct Physical
Associations or Relationships
Logical
Associations or Relationships
Logical Relationship or Association
(Dashed Line)
C D
B
Figure 2.4 Dashed Line Conventions
Process Activity Graphics
Systems processing consists of sequential and concurrent process flows and combinations of the
two. Key UML elements for representing process flow consist of initial/final states, activities, deci-
sion blocks, and synchronization bars (forks and joins), as illustrated in Figure 2.6.
Initial and Final States. To isolate on specific aspects of process flow, a process requires a
beginning referred to as an INITIAL STATE and an ending we refer to as a FINAL STATE. UML
symbolizes the INITIAL STATE with a filled (black) circle and the FINAL STATE with a large
unfilled (white) circle encompassing a filled (black) circle.
Activities. Activities consist of operations or tasks that transform and add value to one or mode
inputs to produce an objective-based outcome within a given set of performance constraints such
as resources, controls, and time. UML graphically symbolizes activities as having a flat top and
bottom with convex arcs on the left and right sides.
Decision Blocks. Process flows inevitably have staging or control points that require a decision
to be made. Therefore, UML uses a diamond shape to symbolize decisions that conditionally branch
the process flow to other processing activities.
Synchronization Bars. Some entity processing requires concurrent activities that require
synchronization. For these cases, synchronization bars are used and consist of two types: forks and
joins. Forks provide a means to branch condition-based processing flow to specific activities. Joins
synchronize and integrate multiple branches into a single process flow.
Hierarchical Decomposition Notation Conventions
Systems are composed of parent–sibling hierarchies of entities or objects. Each object or entity
within the diagram’s structural framework requires establishing a numbering convention to uniquely
10 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions
Actor B1
(Class)
Actor B2
(Class)
2
1
4
3
Entity B
Actor A
(Class)
Lifelines
Activation
Sequence
(Author’s Convention)
Box
Events
Figure 2.5 UML®
Sequence Diagram Symbology
2.5 Exercises 11
Actor #1 Actor #2 Actor #3
Initial
State
Final
State
Decision
Activity
11
Activity
21
Activity
22
Activity
31
Activity
32
Activity
12
Activity
13
Activity
14
Swimlane
Swimlane Swimlane
Synchronization
Bar (Fork)
Synchronization
Bar (Join) Condition 21
Condition 22
Condition 32
Condition 31
Figure 2.6 UML Activity Diagram Symbology
identify each entity. In general, there are two types of conventions used in the text: decimal based
and tag based.
Decimal-Based Notation. SEs employ decimal notation to delineate levels of information with
the most significant level being in the left most digit position as illustrated in Figure 2.7. Lower
levels are identified as extensions to the previous level such as 1.0, 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.1.1 and so forth.
Tag-Based Notation. In lieu of the decimal system in which the decimal point can be misplaced
or deleted, numerical tags are used without the decimal points as illustrated in the right side of
Figure 2.7. Rather than designating these lower level entities with names such as B, C, and D, we
need to explicitly identify each one based on its root traceability to its higher level parent. We do
this by designating each one of the entities as A_1, A_2, and A_3. Thus, if entity A_2 consists of
two lower level entities, we label them as A_21 and A_22. A_21 consists of A_211, A_212, and
A_213. Following this convention, entity A_212 is an element of entity A_21, which is an element
of entity A_2, which is an element of entity A.
2.5 EXERCISES
Most sections of the text consist of two types of exercises: general exercises and organizational
centric exercises.
General Exercises
General exercises are intended to test your understanding of each chapter’s topic to two types of
problems:
1. What You Should Learn from This Chapter questions presented in the Introduction of each
chapter.
2. Progressive application of knowledge to a selected system as listed is Table 2.1.
Organizational Centric Exercises
Organizational Centric Exercises are intended for organizations that may conduct internal SE train-
ing programs. SEs work within the framework of organizational command media such as policies
and procedures and apply that knowledge to contract programs. Therefore, these exercises consists
of two types of problems: research of organizational command media concerning SE topics of inter-
est and interviewing technical leadership of contract programs to understand how they:
1. Approached various facets of SE on their programs.
2. What best or preferred practices were used?
3. What lessons were learned?
2.6 TEAM DECISION MAKING
Team decision making is all about consensus. Development teams such as Integrated Product Teams
(IPTs) consist of personnel from different disciplines that bring knowledge and levels of experi-
ence; some senior level, some young, others in between. The context of the term consensus through-
out this book refers to root wisdom decision making that stands the test of time. It’s NOT about
one person, one vote; seniority; dominating personalities; or compromise. It’s not about show-
casing IPTs to customers while continuing to do business the OLD way.
12 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions
Hierarchical Decomposition Relationships
Decimal-Based Notation
Hierarchical Decomposition Relationships
Tag-Based Notation
Entity
A
Process
2.0
Process
1.0 3.0
Process
3.0
Entity
A_1
Entity
A_2
Entity
A_3
Process
2.1
Process
2.2
Process
2.3
Entity
A_22
Entity
A_21
Process
2.2.1
Process
2.2.2
Process
2.2.3 Entity
A_211
Entity
A_212
Entity
A_213
Figure 2.7 Hierarchical Decomposition Relationship Notations
Team decision making involves eliciting and integrating team member knowledge and expe-
rience to make choices that clearly represent a path to success and avoid a path to failure. It may
require smart, informed assessments of risk and reward decision making. The bottom line is that
it’s about making technical decisions everyone can and will proactively support.
2.7 WARNINGS AND CAUTIONARY DISCLAIMERS
As a professional, you and your organization are solely responsible and accountable for the appli-
cation and implementation of the concepts, principles, processes, and practices discussed in this
book, the quality of work products produced, and the impact of those actions on society, colleagues,
and the environment. As a practitioner’s book, the discussions reflect experiences that may or may
not be relevant to you, your organization, or program.
You are advised to supplement this information with personal study, education, research, and
experience to enhance your competency skills to the level of performance required and expected
by your organization, contract, profession, and applicable laws and regulations. Where specialized
expertise is required, employ the services of highly qualified and competent subject matter expert
(SME) professionals.
2.7 Warnings and Cautionary Disclaimers 13
Table 2.1 Sample systems for application to General Exercises
Individual Project Suggestions Team-Based Project Suggestions
1. Mechanical pencil 1. Exercise room treadmill
2. Desktop stapler 2. Snowmobile
3. Disposable camera 3. Automobile
4. Personal digital assistant (PDA) 4. Word processor
5. Cellular phone 5. Voice mail system
6. Desktop or laptop computer 6. Sports utility vehicle (SUV)
7. Computer mouse 7. Doctor’s office
8. Computer scanner 8. Automatic car wash
9. Computer printer 9. Fast food restaurant with drive—through window
10. Computer display monitor 10. Store (video, grocery, bookstore, etc.)
11. CD/DVD player 11. Shopping mall
12. TV/CD/DVD remote control device 12. Hospital
13. Television 13. School
14. MP3 player 14. Fire department
15. Home 15. Overnight package delivery
16. Residential mailbox 16. Restaurant
17. Lawn mower 17. Garbage collection system
18. Lawn edger 18. Recyclable materials station
19. Hand-held calculator 19. Community landfill
20. Ceiling fan 20. Emergency response system (ERS)
21. Web site 21. City rapid transit system or an element
22. Fast food restaurant drive through 22. Professional sports stadium
23. Airport check-in kiosk 23. Organization within an enterprise
24. Voice mail system 24. Fighter aircraft
25. Commercial jet aircraft
26. NASA Space Shuttle
27. International Space Station (ISS)
System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson
Part I
System Analysis
Concepts
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The foundation of any discipline resides in its concepts and guiding principles. Part 1 is structured
around five thematic concepts that are fundamental to understanding systems—WHAT a system is;
WHO its users and stakeholders are; WHY it exists and HOW it benefits its users and stakehold-
ers; HOW it is structured; and HOW it operates, is supported, and disposed. Chapters 3–22 are
grouped and presented in a sequence that supports the five concepts listed below:
• System Entity Concepts
• System Architecture Concepts
• System Mission Concepts
• System Operations Concepts
• System Capability Concepts
These basic concepts serve as the foundation for understanding Part II System Design and
Development Practices. This foundation fills the void for people and organizations that restrict their
education and training to the philosophy of SE and attempt to make a quantum leap from specifi-
cations to point design solutions due to a lack of understanding of these fundamental concepts.
To better understand what each of these concepts entails, let’s explore a brief introductory
synopsis of each one.
System Entity Concepts
Our first series of discussions focus on a simple concept, the system as an entity. The System Entity
Concepts consist of Chapters 3–7. These discussions: define what a system is; identify attributes,
properties, and characteristics common to most systems; address organizational systems roles and
stakeholders; identify key factors that impact user acceptability of a system, and define a model for
the system/product lifecycle.
Given an understanding of the System Entity Concepts, our next discussions shift to under-
standing HOW systems and their operating environments are organized and structured.
System Architecture Concepts
Most people think of a system and its operating environment in physical terms; however, some
systems may be virtual such as those centered around political or cultural systems. Regardless of
System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
16 Part I System Analysis Concepts
whether a system is physical or virtual, we can characterize them in terms of form, fit, and func-
tion using their structural framework as the point of reference.
Our second series, System Architecture Concepts, decomposes the system into its constituent
parts via its architectural framework. Chapters 8–12 establish a high level analytical framework
for analyzing how a system interacts with itself and its operating environment. Analyses and obser-
vations of these interactions reveal that we can characterize a SYSTEM OF INTEREST (SOI)
and its operating environment via system elements—EQUIPMENT, PERSONNEL, MISSION
RESOURCES, PROCEDURAL DATA, and FACILITIES. Our discussions include establishment
of a semantics convention to minimize confusion relating to how developers communicate about
multi-level components within a system and relate to higher-level systems.
Based on an understanding of the System Architecture Concepts, we are ready to explore WHY
a system exists and how an organization employs it as an asset via the System Mission Concepts.
System Mission Concepts
Every system has a mission or a reason for its existence as envisioned by its acquirer, users, and
stakeholders who expect the system to provide purposeful value and a return on investment (ROI).
The System Mission Concepts series consisting of Chapters 13–17 describe HOW systems are
employed by organizations and assigned performance-based outcome missions to fulfill specific
aspects of organizational objectives.
Our discussions trace the origins of a system from an organization’s operational need to HOW
users envision operating and supporting the system to perform missions that satisfy that need. We
investigate how systems interact with their operating environment during missions, how missions
are planned, and explore how the user(s) expect the system to perform specific actions related to
achieving mission objectives.
The System Mission Concepts, which define WHAT a system is to accomplish and HOW WELL
from an organizational perspective, provide the foundation for our next topic, the System Opera-
tions Concepts.
System Operations Concepts
System missions require timely execution of a series of performance-based operations and tasks.
The System Operations Concepts series consisting of Chapters 18–20 explore how users prepare
and configure a system for a mission, conduct the mission, and perform most-mission follow-up.
Analysis and observations of systems reveals that we can create a tailorable System Operations
Model that serves as a basic construct to facilitate identification of phase-based operations common
to all human-made systems. We employ the model’s framework to illustrate how system interac-
tions with its operating environment are modeled for various types of single use and multi-use
applications.
The System Operations Concepts, which structure a system mission into specific operations
and tasks, serve as a framework for identifying system capabilities to be provided by the system
to accomplish mission objectives. This brings us to the final topic of Part I, System Capability
Concepts.
System Capability Concepts
The System Capability Concepts series consist of Chapters 21 and 22. We explore HOW to derive
and allocate mission operational capabilities to integrated sets of system elements. Whereas most
people believe a capability is an end in itself, our discussions reveal that a capability has a common
construct that can be universally applied to specifying and implementing all types of capabilities.
Chapter 3
What Is a System?
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Analysis, design, and development systems, products, or services requires answering several fun-
damental questions:
1. WHAT is a system?
2. What is included within a system’s boundaries?
3. WHAT role does a system perform within the User’s organization?
4. What mission applications does the system perform?
5. WHAT results-oriented outcomes does the system produce?
These fundamental questions are often difficult to answer. If you are unable to clearly and con-
cisely delineate WHAT the system is, you have a major challenge.
Now add the element of complexity in bringing groups of people working on same problem
to convergence and consensus on the answers. This is a common problem shared by Users,
Acquirers, and System Developers, even within their own organizations.
This chapter serves as a cornerstone for this text. It answers the first question, What is a system?
We begin by defining what a system is and explain the meaning of structural phrases within the
definition. Based on the definition, we introduce various categories of systems and describe the dif-
ferences between systems, products, and tools. We introduce the concept of precedented and
unprecedented systems. Finally, we conclude by presenting an analytical and graphical represen-
tation of a system.
What You Should Learn from This Chapter
• What is a system?
• What are some examples of types of systems?
• What are the differences between systems, products, and tools?
• What is the difference between a precedented system and an unprecedented system?
• How do we analytically represent a system?
System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
17
3.2 DEFINITION OF A SYSTEM
The term “system” originates from the Greek term systēma, which means to “place together.” Mul-
tiple business and engineering domains have definitions of a system. This text defines a system as:
• System An integrated set of interoperable elements, each with explicitly specified and
bounded capabilities, working synergistically to perform value-added processing to enable
a User to satisfy mission-oriented operational needs in a prescribed operating environment
with a specified outcome and probability of success.
To help you understand the rationale for this definition, let’s examine each part in detail.
System Definition Rationale
The definition above captures a number of key discussion points about systems. Let’s examine the
basis for each phrase in the definition.
• By “an integrated set,” we mean that a system, by definition, is composed of hierarchical
levels of physical elements, entities, or components.
• By “interoperable elements,” we mean that elements within the system’s structure must be
compatible with each other in form, fit, and function, for example. System elements include
equipment (e.g., hardware and software, personnel, facilities, operating constraints, support),
maintenance, supplies, spares, training, resources, procedural data, external systems, and
anything else that supports mission accomplishment.
Author’s Note 3.2 One is tempted to expand this phrase to state “interoperable and comple-
mentary.” In general, system elements should have complementary missions and objectives with
nonoverlapping capabilities. However, redundant systems may require duplication of capabilities
across several system elements. Additionally, some systems, such as networks, have multiple
instances of the same components.
• By each element having “explicitly specified and bounded capabilities,” we mean that every
element should work to accomplish some higher level goal or purposeful mission. System
element contributions to the overall system performance must be explicitly specified. This
requires that operational and functional performance capabilities for each system element
be identified and explicitly bounded to a level of specificity that allows the element to be
analyzed, designed, developed, tested, verified, and validated—either on a stand-alone basis
or as part of the integrated system.
• By “working in synergistically,” we mean that the purpose of integrating the set of elements
is to leverage the capabilities of individual element capabilities to accomplish a higher level
capability that cannot be achieved as stand-alone elements.
• By “value-added processing,” we mean that factors such operational cost, utility, suitability,
availability, and efficiency demand that each system operation and task add value to its inputs
availability, and produce outputs that contribute to achievement of the overall system mission
outcome and performance objectives.
• By “enable a user to predictably satisfy mission-oriented operational needs,” we mean that
every system has a purpose (i.e., a reason for existence) and a value to the user(s). Its value
may be a return on investment (ROI) relative to satisfying operational needs or to satisfy
system missions and objectives.
18 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
• By “in a prescribed operating environment,” we mean that for economic, outcome, and
survival reasons, every system must have a prescribed—that is, bounded—operating
environment.
• By “with a specified outcome,” we mean that system stakeholders (Users, shareholders,
owners, etc.) expect systems to produce results. The observed behavior, products, by-
products, or services, for example, must be outcome-oriented, quantifiable, measurable, and
verifiable.
• By “and probability of success,” we mean that accomplishment of a specific outcome
involves a degree of uncertainty or risk. Thus, the degree of success is determined by various
performance factors such as reliability, dependability, availability, maintainability, sustain-
ability, lethality, and survivability.
Author’s Note 3.1 Based on the author’s experiences, you need at least four types of agree-
ment on working level definitions of a system: 1) a personal understanding, 2) a program team
consensus, 3) an organizational (e.g., System Developer) consensus, and 4) most important, a con-
tractual consensus with your customer. Why?
Of particular importance is that you, your program team, and your customer (i.e., a User or
an Acquirer as the User’s technical representative) have a mutually clear and concise under-
standing of the term. Organizationally you need a consensus of agreement among the System Devel-
oper team members. The intent is to establish continuity across contract and organizations as
personnel transition between programs.
Other Definitions of a System
National and international standards organizations as well as different authors have their own def-
initions of a system. If you analyze these, you will find a diversity of viewpoints, all tempered by
their personal knowledge and experiences. Moreover, achievement of a “one size fits all” conver-
gence and consensus by standards organizations often results in wording that is so diluted that many
believe it to be insufficient and inadequate. Examples of organizations having standard definitions
include:
• International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
• International Standards Organization (ISO)
• US Department of Defense (DoD)
• US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
• US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
You are encouraged to broaden your knowledge and explore definitions by these organizations.
You should then select one that best fits your business application. Depending on your personal
viewpoints and needs, the definition stated in this text should prove to be the most descriptive
characterization.
Closing Point
When people develop definitions, they attempt to create content and grammar simultaneously.
People typically spend a disproportionate amount of time on grammar and spend very little time
on substantive content. We see this in specifications and plans, for example. Grammar is impor-
3.2 Definition of a System 19
tant, since it is the root of our language and communications. However, wordsmithed grammar has
no value if it lacks substantive content.
You will be surprised how animated and energized people become over wording exercises.
Subsequently, they throw up their hands and walk away. For highly diverse terms such as a system,
a good definition may sometimes be simply a bulleted list of descriptors concerning what a term
is or, perhaps, is not. So, if you or your team attempts to create your own definition, perform one
step at a time. Obtain consensus on the key elements of substantive content. Then, structure the
statement in a logical sequence and translate the structure into grammar.
3.3 LEARNING TO RECOGNIZE TYPES OF SYSTEMS
Systems occur in a number of forms and vary in composition, hierarchical structure, and behavior.
Consider the next high-level examples.
EXAMPLE 3.1
20 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
• Economic systems
• Educational systems
• Financial systems
• Environmental systems
• Medical systems
• Corporate systems
• Insurance systems
• Religious systems
• Social systems
• Psychological systems
• Cultural systems
• Food distribution systems
• Transportation systems
• Communications systems
• Entertainment systems
• Government systems
Legislative systems
Judicial systems
Revenue systems
Taxation systems
Licensing systems
Military systems
Welfare systems
Public safety systems
Parks and recreation systems
Environmental systems
If we analyze these systems, we find that they produce combinations of products, by-products, or
services. Further analysis reveals most of these fall into one or more classes such as individual
versus organizational; formal versus informal; ground-based, sea-based, air-based, space-based, or
hybrid; human-in-the-loop (HITL) systems, open loop versus closed loop; and fixed, mobile, and
transportable systems.
3.4 DELINEATING SYSTEMS, PRODUCTS, AND TOOLS
People often confuse the concepts of systems, products, and tools. To facilitate our discussion, let’s
examine each of these terms in detail.
System Context
We defined the term system earlier in this section. A system may consist of two or more integrated
elements whose combined—synergistic—purpose is to achieve mission objectives that may not be
effectively or efficiently accomplished by each element on an individual basis. These systems typ-
ically include humans, products, and tools to varying degrees. In general, human-made systems
require some level of human resources for planning, operation, intervention, or support.
Product Context
Some systems are created as a work product by other systems. Let’s define the context of product:
a product, as an ENABLING element of a larger system, is typically a physical device or entity
that has a specific capability—form, fit, and function—with a specified level of performance.
Products generally lack the ability—meaning intelligence—to self-apply themselves without
human assistance. Nor can products achieve the higher level system mission objectives without
human intervention in some form. In simple terms, we often relate to equipment-based products as
items you can procure from a vendor via a catalog order number. Contextually, however, a product
may actually be a vendor’s “system” that is integrated into a User’s higher-level system. Effectively,
you create a system of systems (SoS).
EXAMPLE 3.1
A hammer, as a procurable product has form, fit, and function but lacks the ability to apply its self to ham-
mering or removing nails.
EXAMPLE 3.2
A jet aircraft, as a system and procurable vendor product, is integrated into an airline’s system and may possess
the capability, when programmed and activated by the pilot under certain conditions, to fly.
Tool Context
Some systems or products are employed as tools by higher level systems. Let’s define what we
mean by a tool. A tool is a supporting product that enables a user or system to leverage its own
capabilities and performance to more effectively or efficiently achieve mission objectives that
exceed the individual capabilities of the User or system.
EXAMPLE 3.3
A simple fulcrum and pivot, as tools, enable a human to leverage their own physical strength to displace a
rock that otherwise could not be moved easily by one human.
EXAMPLE 3.4
A statistical software application, as a support tool, enables a statistician to efficiently analyze large amounts
of data and variances in a short period of time.
3.5 PRECEDENTED VERSUS UNPRECEDENTED SYSTEMS
Most human-made systems evolve over time. Each new evolution of a system extends and expands
the capabilities of the previous system by leveraging new or advanced technologies, methods, tools,
techniques, and so forth. There are, however, instances where system operating environments or
needs pose new challenges that are unprecedented. We refer to these as precedented and unprece-
dented systems. Although we tend to think in terms of the legal system and its precedents, there
are also precedents in physical systems, products, and services.
3.5 Precedented Versus Unprecedented Systems 21
3.6 ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION OF A SYSTEM
As an abstraction we symbolically represent a system as a simple entity by using a rectangular box
as shown in Figure 3.1. In general, inputs such as stimuli and cues are fed into a system that
processes the inputs and produces an output. As a construct, this symbolism is acceptable; however,
the words need to more explicitly identify WHAT the system performs. That is, the system must
add value to the input in producing an output.
We refer to the transformational processing that adds value to inputs and produces an output
as a capability. You will often hear people refer to this as the system’s functionality; this is par-
tially correct. Functionality only represents the ACTION to be accomplished; not HOW WELL as
characterized by performance. This text employs capability as the operative term that encompasses
both the functionality and performance attributes of a system.
The simple diagram presented in Figure 3.1 represents a system. However, from an analytical
perspective, the diagram is missing critical information that relates to how the system operates and
performs within its operating environment. Therefore, we expand the diagram to identify these
missing elements. The result is shown in Figure 3.2. The attributes of the construct—which include
desirable/undesirable inputs, stakeholders, and desirable/undesirable outputs—serve as a key
checklist to ensure that all contributory factors are duly considered when specifying, designing, and
developing a system.
22 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
System Entity
Processing
Output Response(s)
Input(s)
· Stimuli
· Cues
·Products
·By-Products
·Services
Figure 3.1 Basic System Entity Construct
System Entity
(Any Level of Abstraction)
• Attributes
• Capabilities
• Performance
Acceptable Inputs
Unacceptable Inputs
Acceptable Outputs
Unacceptable Outputs
Stakeholders
Threats
Roles,
Missions, &
Objectives
• Products
• By-Products
• Services
Opportunities
Resources
Controls
Physical
Constraints
Figure 3.2 Analytical System Entity Construct
3.7 SYSTEMS THAT REQUIRE ENGINEERING
Earlier we listed examples of various types of systems. Some of these systems are workflow-based
systems that produce systems, products, or services such as schools, hospitals, banking systems,
and manufacturers. As such, they require insightful, efficient, and effective organizational structures,
supporting assets, and collaborative interactions.
Some systems require the analysis, design, and development of specialized structures, complex
interactions, and performance monitoring that may have an impact on the safety, health, and well-
being of the public as well as the environment, engineering of systems may be required. As you
investigate WHAT is required to analyze, design, and develop both types of systems, you will find
that they both share a common set concepts, principles, and practices. Business systems, for
example, may require application of various analytical and mathematical principles to develop busi-
ness models and performance models to determine profitability and return on investment (ROI) and
statistical theory for optimal waiting line or weather conditions, for example. In the case of highly
complex systems, analytical, mathematical, and scientific principles may have to be applied. We
refer to this as the engineering of systems, which may require a mixture of engineering disciplines
such as system engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and software engi-
neering. These disciplines may only be required at various stages during the analysis, design, and
development of a system, product, or service.
This text provides the concepts, principles, and practices that apply to the analysis, design, and
development of both types of systems. On the surface these two categories imply a clear distinc-
tion between those that require engineering and those that do not. So, how do you know when the
engineering of systems is required?
Actually these two categories represent a continuum of systems, products, or services that range
from making a piece of paper, which can be complex, to developing a system as complex as an
aircraft carrier or NASA’s International Space Station (ISS). Perhaps the best way to address the
question: What is system engineering?
What Is System Engineering?
Explicitly SE is the multidisciplinary engineering of systems. However, as with any definition, the
response should eliminate the need for additional clarifying questions. Instead, the engineering of
a system response evokes two additional questions: What is engineering? What is a system? Pur-
suing this line of thought, let’s explore these questions further.
Defining Key Terms
Engineering students often graduate without being introduced to the root term that provides the
basis for their formal education. The term, engineering originates from the Latin word ingenerare,
which means “to create.” Today, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET),
which accredits engineering schools in the United States, defines the term as follows:
• Engineering “[T]he profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural sci-
ences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways
to utilize economically the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.”
(Source: Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology [ABET])
There are a number of ways to define SE, each dependent on an individual’s or organization’s per-
spectives, experiences, and the like. System engineering means different things to different people.
You will discover that even your own views of SE will evolve over time. So, if you have a diver-
3.7 Systems That Require Engineering 23
sity of perspectives and definitions, what should you do? What is important is that you, program
teams, or your organization:
1. Establish a consensus definition.
2. Document the definition in organizational or program command media to serve as a guide
for all.
For those who prefer a brief, high-level definition that encompasses the key aspects of SE, con-
sider the following definition:
• System Engineering (SE) The multidisciplinary application of analytical, mathematical,
and scientific principles to formulating, selecting, and developing a solution that has accept-
able risk, satisfies user operational need(s), and minimizes development and life cycle costs
while balancing stakeholder interests.
This definition can be summarized in a key SE principle:
Principle 3.1 System engineering BEGINS and ENDS with the User.
SE, as we will see, is one of those terms that requires more than simply defining WHAT SE does;
the definition must also identify WHO/WHAT benefits from SE. The ABET definition of engi-
neering, for example, includes the central objective “to utilize, economically, the materials and
forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.”
Applying this same context to the definition of SE, the User of systems, products, and serv-
ices symbolizes humankind. However, mankind’s survival is very dependent on a living environ-
ment that supports sustainment of the species. Therefore, SE must have a broader perspective than
simply “for the benefit of mankind.” SE must also ensure a balance between humankind and the
living environment without sacrificing either.
3.8 SUMMARY
This concludes our discussion of what a system is. We defined the term “system” and highlighted the chal-
lenges of defining the term within diverse contexts. We also explored examples of types of systems; distin-
guished between precedented and unprecedented systems and considered the context of systems, products,
and tools.
We concluded with the identification of two categories of systems that produce other systems, products,
or services. Some of these require the engineering of systems or system engineering. Therefore, we defined
engineering, which in combination with the definition of a system, leads to defining system engineering.
With this basic understanding, we are now ready to investigate the key attributes, properties, and char-
acteristics that make each system unique.
GENERAL EXERCISES
1. Answer each of the What You Should Learn from This Chapter questions identified in the Introduction.
2. Create your own definition of a system. Based on the “system” definitions provided in this chapter:
(a) Identify your viewpoint of shortcomings in the definitions.
(b) Provide rationale as to why you believe that your definition overcomes those shortcomings.
(c) From an historical perspective, identify three precedented systems that were replaced by unprecedented
systems.
24 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
ORGANIZATION CENTRIC EXERCISES
1. How do you and your organization define a “system”?
2. Do you and your work team have a definition for a “system”? If not, ask members to independently develop
their definition of what a system is. Summarize the results and present individual viewpoints to the team.
Discuss the results and formulate a consensus definition. Report the results to your class. What diversity
of opinions did you observe? What concept or semantic obstacles did the team have to overcome to get to
consensus?
3. Research the definitions for system engineering provided in the list below. Compare and contrast these def-
initions and determine which one best fits your beliefs and experiences?
(a) AFSCM 375-1
(b) Former FM 770-1
(c) Former MIL-STD-499A
(d) EIA/IS-731.1
(e) Defense Systems Management College (DSMC)
(f) International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)
(g) International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
4. For the system, product, or service your organization produces, identify constituent products and tools (e.g.,
external systems) required to create or support it.
5. Identify the paradigms you observe in your: (a) organization, (b) customers, and (c) business domain that
influence system or product design. For each paradigm, what are the characteristic phrases stakeholders
use that make the paradigm self-evident.
6. How does your organization view and define SE?
7. How does the author’s definition of SE compare with your experiences?
8. What challenges and paradigms does your organization or program face in defining SE?
REFERENCE
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Baltimore, MD. URL: www.abet.org
ADDITIONAL READING
Additional Reading 25
ANSI/EIA 632-1999 Standard. 1999. Processes for Engi-
neering Systems. Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA).
Arlington, VA.
Blanchard, B.S. 1998. System Engineering Management.
New York: Wiley.
Blanchard, B.S., and W.J. Fabrycky. 1990. Systems Engi-
neering and Analysis, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Buede, Dennis M. 2000. The Engineering Design of
Systems: Models and Methods. New York: Wiley.
FM 770-78. 1979. System Engineering Field Manual.
Washington, DC: Headquarters of Department of the
Army.
Defense Systems Management College (DSMC). 2001.
Glossary: Defense Acquisition Acronyms and Terms,
10th ed. Defense Acquisition University Press. Ft.
Belvoir, VA.
International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE).
1993. Identification of Pragmatic Principles—Final
Report. SE Practice Working Group, Subgroup on Prag-
matic Principles. Seattle, WA.
IEEE 1220-1998. 1998. IEEE Standard for Application and
Management of the Systems Engineering Process. Insti-
tute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). New
York, NY.
MIL-STD-498 (canceled). 1994. Software Development
and Documentation. Washington, DC: Department of
Defense.
MIL-STD-499B (canceled draft). Systems Engineering.
Washington, DC: Department of Defense. 1994.
26 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), ASD-100 Architec-
ture and System Engineering. 2003. National Air Space
System—Systems Engineering Manual. Washington, DC.
International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE).
2000. System Engineering Handbook. Version 2.0. Wash-
ington, DC.
Sage, Andrew P. 1995. Systems Management for Infor-
mation Technology and Software Engineering. New York:
Wiley.
Defense Systems Management College (DSMC). 2001.
Systems Engineering Fundamentals. Defense Acquisition
University Press. Ft. Belvoir, VA.
NASA SP-6105. 1995. System Engineering Handbook.
Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
Chapter 4
System Attributes, Properties,
and Characteristics
4.1 INTRODUCTION
System engineering requires development of a strong foundation in understanding how to charac-
terize a system, product, or service in terms of its attributes, properties, and performance.
This Chapter introduces system attributes that are common across most natural and human-
made systems. Our discussions address these attributes in terms of a framework that Acquirers
can use as a checklist for system specifications and System Developers/Service Providers can use
to assess the adequacy of those specifications. The intent is to enable you to learn how to: 1) THINK
about, 2) ORGANIZE, and 3) CHARACTERIZE systems. This knowledge equips SEs and
system analysts in two ways. First, when you analyze and evaluate specifications, checklists of
commonly used attributes, properties, and characteristics enable us to perform a reality check
and identify any “holes” in specification requirements. Second, when we develop specifications, it
provides a reference checklist for organizing and specifying key capabilities and their levels of
performance.
Based on this Introduction, let’s identify what you should learn from the chapter’s discussions.
What You Should Learn from This Chapter
1. What is a system attribute?
2. What is a system property?
3. What is a system characteristic?
4. What makes a system, product, or service unique?
5. Understanding categories of system, product, or service performance
6. What are some types of system characteristics?
7. What constitutes a system’s state of equilibrium?
Definition of Key Terms
• Capability An explicit, inherent feature activated or excited by an external stimulus to
perform a function (action) at a specified level of performance until terminated by external
commands, timed completion, or resource depletion.
System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson
Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
27
• Fit An item’s compatibility to interface with another item within a prescribed set of limits
with ease and without interference.
• Form An item’s prescribed shape intended to support one or more interface boundary
objectives.
• Form, Fit, and Function “In configuration management, that configuration comprising the
physical and functional characteristics of an item as an entity, but not including any charac-
teristics of the elements making up the item.” (Source: IEEE 610.12-1990)
• Function An operation, activity, process, or action performed by a system element to
achieve a specific objective within a prescribed set of performance limits. Functions involve
work—such as to move a force through a distance, analyze and process information, trans-
form energy or physical properties, make decisions, conduct communications, and inter-
operate with other OPERATING ENVIRONMENT systems.
• Functional Attributes “Measurable performance parameters including reliability, main-
tainability, and safety.” (Source: ANSI/EIA-649-1998, para. 3.0, p. 5)
• Level of Performance An objective, measurable parameter that serves to bound the ability
of a system to perform a function based on a set of scenario assumptions, initial conditions,
and operating conditions. Examples include system effectiveness, PERSONNEL Element
proficiency, and system efficiency.
• Performance “A quantitative measure characterizing a physical or functional attribute relat-
ing to the execution of an operation or function.” (ANSI/IEEE 649-1998, para. 3.0, p.5)
“Performance attributes include: quantity (how many or how much), quality (how well),
coverage (how much area, how far), timeliness (how responsive, how frequent), and readi-
ness (availability, mission/operational readiness).” (ANSI/IEEE 649-1998, para. 3.0, p. 5)
• Physical Attributes “Quantitative and qualitative expressions of material features, such as
composition, dimensions, finishes, form, fit, and their respective tolerances.” (Source: ANSI/
EIA-649-1998, Section 3.0, p. 6)
4.2 OVERVIEW OF ATTRIBUTES, PROPERTIES,
AND CHARACTERISTICS
You will often hear people refer to a system’s attributes, properties, and characteristics. To the
casual observer who researches the definitions of these terms, most dictionaries define these terms
by referencing the other. For purposes of our discussions, we will employ the following as a means
of delineating the differences between the terms.
Attributes
The term attributes classifies functional or physical features of a system. Examples include gender;
unit cost; nationality, state, and city of residence; type of sport; organizational position manager;
and fixed wing aircraft versus rotor.
Properties
The term, properties, refers to the mass properties of a system. Examples include composition;
weight; density; and size such as length, width, or height.
28 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
Characteristics
The term characteristics refers to the behavioral and physical qualities that uniquely identify each
system. Behavioral characteristics examples include predictability and responsivity. Physical char-
acteristics examples include equipment warm-up and stabilization profiles; equipment thermal sig-
natures; aircraft radar crosssections; vehicle acceleration to cruise speed, handling, or stopping; and
whale fluke markings.
The sum of a system’s attributes, properties, and characteristics uniquely identifies and dis-
tinguishes a system, product, or service from others of the same classification. To illustrate this
uniqueness, let’s explore a few aspects that are common to most systems.
4.3 EVERY SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN UNIQUE IDENTITY
All natural and human-made systems have their own attributes (traits) that uniquely characterize,
for example, their roles, behavioral patterns, temperament, and appearance, even within the same
species. In general, key attributes of uniqueness include the following items, which are described
in Table 4.1.
4.4 UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
In general, system performance is the main factor that determines the ultimate level of success of
a system. System functionality is often viewed as the “qualifying criterion” for systems perform-
ance. From the user’s perspective, will the system be operationally effective in accomplishing its
mission and objectives? Let’s begin our discussion by defining “performance.”
Categories of Performance
When you investigate systems, you soon discover two basic categories of performance: 1) objec-
tive performance and 2) subjective performance. Let’s define these terms:
• Objective Performance Performance that produces measurable physical evidence of
system effectiveness based on pre-defined criteria. For example, the temperature of the water
is 108°F.
• Subjective Performance Performance indicated by a subjective quality that varies by indi-
vidual sensory values, interpretations, or perspectives. For example, is the water “warm or
hot”?
Given these definitions, let’s examine each performance category in greater detail.
Objective Performance
From an SE perspective, especially in writing specifications, a system’s capabilities and expected
levels of performance must be specified with clear, unambiguous, quantifiable, measurable, testable,
and verifiable parameters without the influence of subjective interpretations. Examples of objective
performance include:
4.4 Understanding System Performance 29
30 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
Table 4.1 Descriptions of system attributes, properties, and characteristics
ID Attribute Description
1 System Every system has at least one or more benefactors such as owners,
benefactors administrators, operators, and maintainers, who benefit from its behavior,
products, by-products, or services.
2 System life Every system, product, and service has a life cycle that depicts its level of
cycle maturity.
3 System Every system has an operating domain or “sphere of influence” that bounds its
operating area of coverage, operations, and effectiveness. Humans have learned to extend
domain the area of coverage by employing other assets that enable a specific system to
“amplify” its range.
EXAMPLE 4.1 An aircraft has a specific range under specific operating
conditions such as fuel, payload, and weather. Deploying refueling sources—
airborne tankers—and maintenance facilities along its mission flight path can
extend the range.
4 System frame of Every system at any point in time has a frame of reference that serves as the
reference permanent or temporary:
1. Base of operations for its operating domain.
2. Basis for navigation.
EXAMPLE 4.2 An aircraft may be assigned to a permanent home base that
serves as the center of its operations. The aircraft may be ordered to perform
special (temporary) assignments from a base in Europe. The Apollo Space
Program used the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and the Earth as its frame of
reference.
5 Higher order Every system:
systems 1. Operates as part of a higher order system that may govern, direct, constrain,
or control its operation and performance.
2. Provides resources for missions.
6 Purpose-based Viewing the universe as a “system of systems (SOS),” every natural and man-
role made system has a beneficial role based on a reason for its existence as
envisioned by its original Acquirer or System Owner.
7 System missions Every system performs missions in fulfillment of its purpose to achieve outcome-
based performance objectives established by its owner and Users.
8 Mission goals Each system and mission must be characterized by a set of goals and
and objectives, preferably documented. Goals and objectives provide the
performance fundamental basis for resource expenditures by the system owner and
objectives shareholders based on a planned set of multifaceted accomplishments and an
expected return on investment(ROI). Each goal must be supported by one or
more specific objectives that are quantifiable, measurable, testable, and
verifiable.
9 System Every system, in execution of its mission, is subjected to a set of
operating operating constraints and conditions controlled by higher order
constraints and systems.
conditions
10 System utility Every system must provide a physical, psychological, sociological, financial, and
economic value-added utility to its User. System utility includes ease of use,
usefulness, etc.
(continued)
4.4 Understanding System Performance 31
Table 4.1 continued
ID Attribute Description
11 System Every system has a level of operational suitability to the User in terms of suiting
suitability its planned application and integration into the users organizational system.
EXAMPLE 4.3 A gas-powered lawn edger is suitable for cutting grass around
trees and flower gardens; they are not, however, suitable for mowing lawns
unless you do not own a lawn mower.
12 System success Each system and mission requires a set of success criteria that the system owner
criteria and shareholders agree represent WHAT objective criteria constitute successful
accomplishment of a mission via goals and results-oriented objectives. Ultimate
success resides in User acceptance and level of satisfaction.
13 Mission Every system is characterized by a probability of success in accomplishing
reliability mission objectives for a specified mission duration and set of operating
environment conditions and scenarios.
14 System Every system has some level of cost and technical effectiveness related to
effectiveness accomplishing the system’s mission with an anticipated probability of success
per unit of cost.
EXAMPLE 4.4 Consider the system effectiveness of an educational system or a
health care system. The challenge is: Effectiveness from WHAT stakeholder’s
perspective?
15 System Every system has a degree of efficiency in processing raw materials, information,
efficiency stimuli, cues, etc. As engineers, we assign an efficiency metric that provides a
ratio of the quantity of output produced for a known quantity on input.
16 System Every system has a level of integrity in its ability to deliver systems, products,
integrity and services as required despite operating constraints and conditions.
17 System To ensure success in accomplishing its mission, every system, product, or service
sustainment requires resources such as personnel, funding, consumables, expendables;
corrective and preventive maintenance; and support such as spares, supplies, and
training.
18 System Some systems, namely businesses, promote their systems in anticipation of sales
promotion via demonstrations, advertising, etc. The promotion activities may require
protection and security.
EXAMPLE 4.5 A publisher plans to release a new book in a series on a specific
day and time, promote the book via advertising, and impose sale constraints and
conditions on bookstore owners. The bookstore owners must keep the book
under lock and key (protection) with 24 hour surveillance (security) until the
official release.
19 System threats Every system and its missions may be threatened by competitors or adversaries
in its operating environment that may exhibit friendly, benign, or hostile
intentions or actions.
20 System Because of vulnerabilities or the need for the element of surprise, some systems
concealment require camouflage or concealment to shield or alter their identity.
21 System Every system must have some level of protection to minimize its vulnerability to
protection external threats.
(continued)
Table 4.1 continued
ID Attribute Description
22 System Man-made systems may maintain a level of security such as physical security
security (PHYSEC), communications security (COMSEC), operational security (OPSEC),
and information security (INFOSEC).
23 System Every system consists of a multi-level, logical (functional) and physical structure
architecture or architecture that provides the framework for its form, fit, and function.
24 System Every system, by definition, has inherent capabilities such as processing,
capabilities strengths, transfer functions that enable it to process inputs such as raw
materials, information, and stimuli and to provide a response in the form of
behavior patterns, products, and by-products.
System capabilities, like operating domains, can be extended using tools or
other systems.
25 System concept Every system has a Concept of Operations (ConOps) as envisioned by its system
of operations owner, system developer, and/or system maintainer. The ConOps provides the
(Con Ops) basis for bounding the operating space, system capabilities, interfaces, and
operating environment.
26 System phases, For each system/product life cycle phase, every system, product, or service
modes, and states evolves through a series of phases, modes, and state of operation that may be
of operation cyclical or nonrecurring (single use).
27 Operating Every system employs a set of operating norms, standards, and conventions that
norms, governs its operations, morals, ethics, and tolerances.
standards, and
conventions
28 System Every system should have a system description that characterizes the system
description architecture, its elements, interfaces, etc. Each of these characteristics is
represented by system capabilities and engineering performance parameters that
must be captured and articulated as requirements in the System Performance
Specification (SPS).
29 System Every system has operating constraints and conditions that may be physical
operating (capabilities), imposed by higher order authority—international, governmental,
constraints and environmental, social, economic, financial, psychological, etc.
conditions
30 System sensors Every natural and human-made system possesses some form of sensor that
enables it to detect external stimuli and cues.
31 System behavior Every system is characterized by patterns of behavior.
patterns
32 System Every system possesses performance-based behavioral characteristics, such as
responsiveness throughput, that characterize its ability to process raw materials or stimuli and
and sensitivity provide a response. We refer to the quickness as its responsivity.
EXAMPLE 4.8 Accelerator boards enable computer processors to improve
responsiveness.
33 System Every system has internal and external interfaces that enable it to interact within
interfaces itself and its operating environment.
34 System pedigree Every system has a pedigree derived from predecessor system designs,
technologies, and improvements to those designs to correct for flaws, defects,
deficiencies, errors, etc.
32 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
(continued)
Table 4.1 continued
ID Attribute Description
35 Mission Every system requires inputs such as tasking, expendables, consumables, and
resources operator actions that can be transformed into specific actions required to
(system inputs) stimulate motivate, maneuver, process, and output behavioral and physical
responses.
36 System Every system produces:
products, 1. Value-added products and/or performs services that benefit its stakeholders
services, and 2. By-products that may impact system performance and/or its operating
by-products environment.
EXAMPLE 4.9 By-products include heat, waste products—trash, exhaust,
thermal signatures, and colorations.
37 Procedural data Every human-made system requires procedural data that describe safe operating
procedures related to equipment, services, and operator interfaces and
interfaces with external systems.
38 System lethality Some defensive and offensive systems are characterized by their lethality—their
potential to destroy or inflict damage, disable, neutralize, or otherwise cause
harm to a threat or target.
39 System Every system has some form vulnerability that exposes uncertainties or
vulnerability shortcomings in its behavioral and physical characteristics. Vulnerability
includes physical, psychological, social, economic, security, privacy, and other
factors.
EXAMPLE 4.10 Military tanks have additional layers of protection to
minimize the impacts of direct hits. Internet sites have vulnerabilities to
computer “hackers.”
40 System Every system has degrees of fault tolerance that enable it to perform missions
survivability and achieve mission objectives while operating at a degraded level of
performance for a given set of internal or external induced or malfunctions.
41 System The state of a system’s operational readiness to perform a mission on-demand.
availability Availability is a function of the system’s reliability and maintainability.
42 System Every system possesses psychological or appearance characteristics that appeal
aesthetics to the senses or are aesthetically pleasing to its stakeholders.
43 System Every system is unique in its development. This includes design flaws and
blemishes errors, work quality and material defects, imperfections, etc., that may impact
system performance or cosmetically diminish its value based on appearance.
44 Risk Every system, product, or service has an element of risk related to mission
operations and its operating environment that include:
1. Probability of occurrence.
2. Consequence(s) of failure.
45 System Every human-made system, at various stages of the system/product life cycle,
environmental, may pose environmental, safety, or health risks to system personnel—operators
safety, and and maintainers, private and public property, the environment, etc.
health (ES&H)
46 System health Every system has an operational health status that represents its current state of
status readiness to perform or support User missions.
47 System total cost Every human-made system has a total ownership cost (TOC) over its life cycle
of ownership that includes nonrecurring and recurring development operational costs.
4.4 Understanding System Performance 33
These are just a few examples of objective performance parameters. Now let’s investigate the other
type, subjective performance.
Subjective Performance
Subjective performance is more difficult to characterize and quantify. Interestingly, we can assign
arbitrary quantities to subjective performance parameters that are measurable, testable, and verifi-
able via surveys and interviews, tests. However, when the survey or interview participants are asked
to indicate their degree of preference, agreement, and like/dislike with the measurable statement,
the response still requires interpretation, value judgment, opinion, and so on. Thus, the response
may be aliased based on past experience and lessons learned. Subjective performance examples
include:
• Quality—clarity, appearance, and color
• Affinity
• Likeability
• Opinion
• Smoothness
• Satisfaction—enjoyment and taste
4.5 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
When we characterize systems, especially for marketing or analysis, there are four basic types
of characteristics we consider: 1) general characteristics, 2) operating or behavioral characteristics,
3) physical characteristics, and 4) system aesthetics.
General Characteristics
The high-level features of a system are its general characteristics. We often see general charac-
teristics stated in marketing brochures where key features are emphasized to capture a client or cus-
34 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
• Time
• Distance
• Size
• Length
• Depth
• Thickness
• Weight
• Volume
• Density
• Physical state
• Cost
• Voltage
• Amperage
• Angle
• Displacement
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Thrust
• Hardness
• Softness
• Horsepower
• Viscosity
• Frequency
• Intensity
• Wavelength
• Maintainability
• Reliability
• Productivity
• Effectiveness
• Efficiency
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Humidity
• Number of errors
• Field of view
• Resolution
• Defects
4.5 System Characteristics 35
tomer’s interest. General characteristics often have some commonality across multiple instances or
models of a system. Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLE 4.12
• Automobile General Characteristics Available in two-door or four-door models; convertible or sedan; air-
conditioned comfort; independent suspension; tinted windows, 22mpg city, 30mpg highway.
• Aircraft General Characteristics Fanjet, 50-passenger, 2000 nautical mile range, IFR capabilities.
• Enterprise or Organization General Characteristics 200 employees; staff with 20 PhD, 50 Master, and
30 BS degrees; annual sales of $500M per annum.
• Network General Characteristics Client-server architecture, PC and Unix platforms, firewall security, remote
dial-up access, Ethernet backbone, network file structure (NFS).
Operating or Behavioral Characteristics
At a level of detail below the general characteristics, systems have operating characteristics that
describe system features related to usability, survivability, and performance for a prescribed oper-
ating environment. Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLE 4.17
• Automobile Operating Characteristics Maneuverability, turn radius of 18ft, 0 to 60mph in 6 seconds, etc.
• Aircraft Operating Characteristics All-weather application, speed, etc.
• Network Operating Characteristics Authorization, access time, latency, etc.
Physical Characteristics
Every system is described by physical characteristics that relate to nonfunctional attributes such
as size, weight, color, capacity, and interface attributes. Consider the following examples:
EXAMPLE 4.13
• Automobile Physical Characteristics 2000lbs, curb weight 14.0cu ft of cargo volume, 43.1 of inches
(max). of front leg room, 17.1gals fuel capacity, 240 horsepower engine at 6250rpm, turbo, available in
10 colors.
• Enterprise or Organization Physical Characteristics 5000sq ft of office space, 15 networked computers,
100,000sq ft warehouse.
• Network Physical Characteristics 1.0Mb Ethernet backbone, topography, routers, gateways.
System Aesthetic Characteristics
General, operating, and physical characteristics are objective performance parameters. However,
what about subjective characteristics? We refer to these as system aesthetic characteristics because
they relate to the “look and feel” of a system. Obviously, this includes psychological, sociological,
and cultural perspectives that relate to appealing to the User’s, Acquirer’s, or System Owner’s pref-
erences. Thus, some buyers make independent decisions, while others are influenced by external
systems (i.e., other buyers) in matters relating to community or corporate status, image, and the
like.
4.6 THE SYSTEM’S STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM
Every natural and human-made system exists in a state of equilibrium relative to its operating envi-
ronment. In general, we refer to this as the “balance of power.” The state of equilibrium depends
on how a system exists through its own: 1) level of dominance or 2) subordination by other systems.
At any instance of time, a system is typically described by an INITIAL STATE—with conditions,
statics, dynamics, strengths, weaknesses, or stabilization—and a FINAL STATE—with behavior,
product, by-product, or service-oriented result controlled by the balance of power.
Prerequisite Conditions
System stability, integrity, and consistency of performance require that transitions between system
phases, operations, and tasks have clean unambiguous transitions with no ramifications. Thus,
systems are assumed by designers to have pre-requisite or initial conditions or criteria that must
be accomplished prior to entering the next phase, operation, or task. By definition, since a system
is composed of a set of integrated elements, this is important to ensure that all elements of the
system are synchronized and harmonized.
Initial Operating Conditions and State
A system’s initial operating conditions consist of the physical and operational states of the system
and its surrounding operating environment at the beginning of a system mission phase, operation,
or task. Since analyses often require the establishment of basic assumptions for investigating some
facet of system phases, operations, or task, initial conditions serve as a “snapshot” or starting point
that captures the assumptions. To illustrate this concept, consider the following example:
EXAMPLE 4.14
The aircraft took off in a crosswind of 35 knots; the early morning rush hour began as a blizzard with 30mph
windgusts moved through the area.
Statics
When we analyze systems, a key basis for the analysis is often the physical state of the system at
a given “snapshot of time.” Statics are used to characterize a system’s current orientation, such as
state vector or orientation within a larger system. From an overall system perspective, an aircraft
sitting in a hanger, an automobile in a driveway, a network computer system with no message traffic,
and a lighting system in the ON or OFF state, all represent a system in its static state. In contrast,
lower level system components may have a static condition while the system as a whole is in a
dynamic condition.
Mission Dynamics
Every natural and man-made system conducts missions in its operating environment in some form
of dynamic, physical state. Dynamics are a time-based characterization of system statics over a
defined timeframe within its operating environment. The dynamics may range from slow changes—
rock anchored on a hillside—to moderate changes—temperature variations—to violent, sudden
changes—earthquakes or volcanoes.
Dynamics occur as inconsistencies, perturbations, and instabilities in the balance of power in
the local or global environment. Mankind has always been intrigued by the study of dynamics and
36 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
puits, et se mirent à traquer les Arabes comme s’ils eussent été des bêtes
fauves.
La joie des Espagnols fut immense. «Les lances de nos ennemis sont
brisées! disait leur poète Ablî[280]. Nous avons rabaissé leur orgueil! Ceux
qu’ils appelaient la vile canaille ont sapé les fondements de leur puissance.
Depuis combien de temps leurs morts, que nous avons jetés dans ce puits,
attendent-ils en vain un vengeur!»
La situation des Arabes était d’autant plus dangereuse qu’ils étaient
désunis. L’anarchie dans laquelle on était tombé avait donné une vigueur
nouvelle à la funeste rivalité des Maäddites et des Yéménites; dans
plusieurs districts, comme dans celui de Sidona, ces deux races se
combattaient à outrance. Dans la province d’Elvira, alors qu’il s’agissait de
donner un successeur à Yahyâ, les Yéménites, qui semblent avoir eu la
supériorité du nombre, contestaient aux Maäddites leurs droits à
l’hégémonie. Se quereller dans un moment aussi critique, c’était s’exposer à
une ruine complète. Heureusement pour eux, les Yéménites le comprirent
encore à temps; ils cédèrent, et, de concert avec leurs rivaux, ils donnèrent
le commandement à Sauwâr[281]. Ce chef intrépide devint le sauveur de son
peuple, et plus tard on disait souvent: «Si Allâh n’avait pas donné Sauwâr
aux Arabes, ils auraient été exterminés jusqu’au dernier.»
Caisite, de même que Yahyâ, Sauwâr devait naturellement avoir à cœur
de venger la mort de son contribule; mais il avait de plus à prendre une
revanche: lors de la prise de Monte-sacro, il avait vu les Espagnols tuer son
fils aîné. A partir de ce moment, il avait été dévoré de la soif de la
vengeance. D’après son propre témoignage, il était déjà vieux; «les femmes
ne veulent plus de mon amour, depuis que mes cheveux ont blanchi,» disait-
il dans un de ses poèmes, et de fait, il apportait à la tâche sanglante qu’il
allait accomplir, une obstination et une férocité, que l’on s’expliquerait
difficilement dans un jeune homme, mais qui se conçoivent dans un
vieillard qui, dominé par une seule et dernière passion, a fermé l’âme à
toute pitié, à tout sentiment humain. On serait porté à penser qu’il se crut
l’ange exterminateur, et qu’il étouffa ses instincts plus doux, s’il en avait,
par la conscience de sa mission providentielle.
Après avoir réuni autant d’Arabes que possible sous sa bannière, son
premier soin fut de se remettre en possession de Monte-sacro. En ceci il
avait un double but: il voulait posséder une forteresse qui pût servir de base
à ses opérations ultérieures, et assouvir sa rage dans le sang de ceux qui
avaient tué son fils. Quoique Monte-sacro eût une garnison nombreuse, les
Arabes prirent cette forteresse d’assaut. La vengeance de Sauwâr fut
terrible: il passa au fil de l’épée tous les soldats de la garnison, au nombre
de six mille. Ensuite il attaqua et prit d’autres châteaux. Chacun de ses
succès entraîna une horrible boucherie; jamais et dans aucune circonstance,
cet homme terrible ne fit grâce aux Espagnols; des familles entières furent
exterminées jusqu’au dernier membre, et pour une foule d’héritages il n’y
eut point d’héritiers.
Dans leur détresse, les Espagnols d’Elvira supplièrent Djad, le
gouverneur de la province, de les aider, en promettant de lui obéir
dorénavant. Djad consentit à leur demande. A la tête de ses propres troupes
et des Espagnols, il alla attaquer Sauwâr.
Le chef arabe l’attendit de pied ferme. Le combat fut vif des deux côtés;
mais les Arabes remportèrent la victoire, poursuivirent leurs ennemis
jusqu’aux portes d’Elvira et leur tuèrent plus de sept mille hommes. Djad
lui-même tomba entre les mains des vainqueurs.
L’heureuse issue de cette bataille, connue sous le nom de bataille de
Djad, remplit les Arabes d’une joie indicible: s’étant bornés jusqu’alors à
l’attaque des châteaux, ils avaient, pour la première fois, vaincu leurs
ennemis en rase campagne, et ils avaient immolé bien des victimes aux
mânes de Yahyâ. Voici en quels termes un de leurs plus braves chefs, qui
était en même temps un de leurs meilleurs poètes, Saîd ibn-Djoudî, exprima
leurs sentiments:
Apostats et incrédules, qui, jusqu’à votre dernière heure, déclariez fausse
la vraie religion[282], nous vous avons massacrés, parce que nous avions à
venger notre Yahyâ. Nous vous avons massacrés: Dieu le voulait! Fils
d’esclaves, vous avez imprudemment irrité des braves qui n’ont jamais
négligé de venger leurs morts; accoutumez-vous donc à endurer leur fureur,
à recevoir dans vos reins leurs épées flamboyantes.
A la tête de ses guerriers qui ne souffrent aucune insulte et qui sont
courageux comme des lions, un illustre chef a marché contre vous. Un
illustre chef! Sa renommée surpasse celle de tout autre; il a hérité la
générosité de ses incomparables ancêtres. C’est un lion; il est né du sang le
plus pur de Nizâr; il est le soutien de sa tribu comme nul autre ne l’est. Il
allait venger ses contribules, ces hommes magnanimes qui avaient cru
pouvoir se fier à des serments réitérés. Il les a vengés! Il a passé les fils des
blanches au fil de l’épée, et ceux d’entre eux qui vivent encore gémissent
dans les fers dont il les a chargés. Nous avons tué des milliers d’entre vous;
mais la mort d’une foule d’esclaves n’est point un équivalent pour celle
d’un seul noble.
Ah, oui! ils ont assassiné notre Yahyâ quand il était leur hôte!
L’assassiner n’était pas une action sensée.... Ils l’ont égorgé, ces méchants
et méprisables esclaves; tout ce que font les esclaves est vilain. En
commettant leur crime, ils n’ont pas fait une action sensée; non, leur sort,
qui n’a point été heureux, a dû les convaincre qu’ils avaient été mal
inspirés. Vous l’avez assassiné en traîtres, infâmes, après bien des traités,
après bien des serments!
Après l’éclatante victoire qu’il avait remportée, Sauwâr, qui venait de
conclure des alliances avec les Arabes de Regio, de Jaën, et même de
Calatrava, recommença ses déprédations et ses massacres. Les Espagnols,
entièrement découragés, n’imaginaient plus d’autre voie de salut que de se
jeter dans les bras du sultan. Ils implorèrent donc sa protection. Le sultan la
leur eût volontiers accordée, s’il eût été en état de le faire. Tout ce qu’il
pouvait dans les circonstances données, c’était de promettre son
intervention amicale. Il fit donc dire à Sauwâr qu’il était prêt à lui donner
une large part dans la direction des affaires de la province, mais qu’il
attendait de lui en retour l’obéissance à ses ordres et la promesse de laisser
les Espagnols en paix. Sauwâr accepta ces conditions; lui et les Espagnols
jurèrent solennellement la paix, et l’ordre matériel fut rétabli dans la
province; malheureusement c’était un calme trompeur, le trouble et la
passion étaient au fond de toutes les âmes. Ne trouvant plus dans son
voisinage des ennemis à exterminer, Sauwâr attaqua les alliés et les vassaux
d’Ibn-Hafçoun. Au bruit de ses exploits et de ses cruautés, aux cris de
détresse de leurs compatriotes, le sentiment national se réveilla soudain
chez les habitants d’Elvira. D’un commun élan, ils reprirent les armes, toute
la province s’insurgea à leur exemple, le cri de guerre retentit dans toutes
les familles, et les Arabes, partout attaqués, partout battus, allèrent chercher
en toute hâte un asile dans l’Alhambra.
Pris par les Espagnols, repris par les Arabes, l’Alhambra n’était plus
qu’une ruine majestueuse et presque hors de défense. Et pourtant c’était le
seul refuge qui restât aux Arabes; s’ils se le laissaient prendre, ils pouvaient
être certains d’être égorgés jusqu’au dernier. Aussi étaient-ils fermement
résolus à le défendre à toute outrance. Tant que le soleil était à l’horizon, ils
repoussaient vigoureusement les attaques sans cesse renouvelées des
Espagnols, qui, la rage dans le cœur, comptaient bien en finir cette fois avec
ceux qui avaient été si longtemps leurs oppresseurs impitoyables. La nuit
venue, ils rebâtissaient, à la lumière des flambeaux, les murailles et les
bastions de la forteresse; mais les fatigues, les veilles, la perspective d’une
mort certaine au cas où ils faibliraient un seul instant, tout cela les jetait
dans un état de surexcitation fébrile qui ne les disposait que trop à se laisser
gagner par des terreurs superstitieuses dont ils auraient rougi dans d’autres
circonstances. Or, une nuit qu’ils travaillaient aux fortifications, il arriva
qu’une pierre passa par-dessus les murs et vint tomber à leurs pieds. Un
Arabe l’ayant ramassée, il y trouva attaché un morceau de papier qu’il
déroula et sur lequel il vit écrits ces trois vers, qu’il lut à haute voix tandis
que ses compagnons l’écoutaient dans le plus profond silence:
Leurs bourgades sont désertées, leurs champs sont en friche, les vents
orageux y font tourbillonner le sable. Enfermés dans l’Alhambra, ils
méditent à présent de nouveaux crimes; mais là aussi ils auront à subir des
défaites continuelles, de même que leurs pères y étaient toujours en butte à
nos lances et à nos épées.
En entendant lire ces vers à la lueur incertaine, blafarde et lugubre des
flambeaux, dont les clartés tremblottantes formaient, au milieu des ombres
opaques de la nuit, une illumination mobile de l’effet le plus singulier, les
Arabes, qui désespéraient déjà du triomphe de leur cause, se laissèrent
gagner par les plus sinistres pressentiments. «Ces vers, disait plus tard un
d’entre eux, nous parurent un avis du ciel; en les entendant lire, nous fûmes
saisis d’une frayeur si grande, que toutes les armées de la terre, si elles
eussent été là pour cerner notre forteresse, n’eussent pu l’augmenter.»
Quelques-uns, moins impressionnables que les autres, essayèrent de
rassurer leurs camarades épouvantés, en leur disant que le caillou et le billet
n’étaient pas tombés du ciel, comme ils semblaient disposés à le croire,
mais qu’ils avaient été lancés parmi eux par une main ennemie et que les
vers étaient probablement de la composition du poète espagnol Ablî. Cette
idée ayant prévalu peu à peu, tous sommèrent leur poète Asadî de répondre,
dans le même mètre et sur la même rime, au défi du poète ennemi. Pour
Asadî une telle tâche n’était point nouvelle; souvent il avait engagé avec
Ablî des duels poétiques de ce genre; mais il était d’un tempérament
nerveux, d’une imagination infiniment impressionnable, et cette fois, ému
et troublé plus qu’aucun autre, il chercha longtemps avant de trouver ces
deux vers qui montraient assez qu’il n’était point en veine:
Nos bourgades sont habitées, nos champs ne sont pas en friche. Notre
château nous protège contre toute insulte; nous y trouverons la gloire; il s’y
prépare pour nous des triomphes, et pour vous, des défaites.
Pour compléter la réponse, il fallait un troisième vers; Asadî, qui était
retombé sous l’empire de son émotion, ne put le trouver. Rougissant de
honte et les yeux fixés à terre, il demeura interdit et muet, comme si de sa
vie il n’eût composé un vers.
Cette circonstance n’était pas de nature à relever le courage abattu des
Arabes. Déjà à demi rassurés, ils étaient prêts à ne voir rien de surnaturel
dans ce qui était arrivé; mais quand ils s’aperçurent que, contre toute
attente, l’inspiration faisait faux bond à leur poète, leurs craintes
superstitieuses se réveillèrent de plus belle.
Tout honteux, Asadî était rentré dans son appartement, lorsque tout à
coup il entendit une voix prononcer ce vers:
Certes, bientôt, quand nous en sortirons[283], vous aurez à essuyer une
défaite si terrible, qu’elle fera blanchir en un seul instant les cheveux de vos
femmes et de vos enfants.
C’était le troisième vers, qu’il avait cherché en vain. Il regarda autour de
lui, il ne vit personne. Fermement convaincu dès lors que ce vers avait été
prononcé par un esprit invisible, il courut trouver le chef Adhbâ, son ami
intime, lui raconta ce qui venait d’arriver et lui répéta le vers qu’il avait
entendu. «Réjouissons-nous! s’écria Adhbâ. Certainement, je suis tout à fait
de ton opinion; c’est un esprit qui a prononcé ce vers, et nous pouvons être
certains que sa prédiction s’accomplira. Il doit en être ainsi, cette race
impure doit périr, car Dieu a dit[284]: Celui qui, ayant exercé des
représailles en rapport avec l’outrage reçu, en recevra un nouveau, sera
assisté par Dieu lui-même.»
Convaincus désormais que l’Eternel les avait pris sous sa protection, les
Arabes roulèrent le billet qui contenait les vers de leur poète autour d’un
caillou et le lancèrent à leurs ennemis.
Sept jours plus tard, ils virent l’armée espagnole, forte de vingt mille
hommes, se préparer à les attaquer du côté de l’est, et placer ses machines
de guerre sur une colline. Au lieu d’exposer ses braves soldats à être
égorgés dans une forteresse en ruine, Sauwâr aima mieux les conduire à la
rencontre de l’ennemi. Le combat engagé, il quitta tout à coup le champ de
bataille avec une troupe d’élite, sans que son départ fût aperçu par ses
adversaires, fit un détour, et se précipita sur la division postée sur la colline
avec une impétuosité telle qu’il la mit en déroute. La vue de ce qui se
passait sur la hauteur inspira aux Espagnols qui combattaient dans la plaine
une terreur panique, car ils s’imaginaient que les Arabes avaient reçu des
renforts. Alors commença un horrible carnage: poursuivant leurs ennemis
fugitifs jusqu’aux portes d’Elvira, les Arabes en tuèrent douze mille, selon
les uns, dix-sept mille, selon les autres.
Voici de quelle manière Saîd ibn-Djoudî chanta cette seconde bataille,
connue sous le nom de bataille de la ville:
Ils avaient dit, les fils des blanches: «Quand notre armée volera vers
vous, elle tombera sur vous comme un ouragan. Vous ne pourrez lui résister,
vous tremblerez de peur, et le plus fort château ne pourra pas vous offrir un
asile!»
Eh bien! Nous avons chassé cette armée, quand elle vola vers nous, avec
autant de facilité que l’on chasse des mouches qui voltigent autour de la
soupe, ou que l’on fait sortir une troupe de chameaux de leur étable. Certes,
l’ouragan a été terrible; la pluie tombait à grosses gouttes, le tonnerre
grondait et les éclairs sillonnaient les nuées; mais ce n’était pas sur nous,
c’était sur vous que fondait la tempête. Vos bataillons tombaient sous nos
bonnes épées, ainsi que les épis tombent sous la faucille du moissonneur.
Quand ils nous virent venir à eux au galop, nos épées leur causèrent une
si grande frayeur, qu’ils tournèrent le dos et se mirent à courir; mais nous
fondîmes sur eux en les perçant de coups de lance. Quelques-uns, devenus
nos prisonniers, furent chargés de fers; d’autres, en proie à des angoisses
mortelles, couraient à toutes jambes et trouvaient la terre trop étroite.
Vous avez trouvé en nous une troupe d’élite, qui sait à merveille
comment il faut faire pour embraser les têtes des ennemis quand la pluie,
dont vous parliez, tombe à grosses gouttes. Elle se compose de fils
d’Adnân, qui excellent à faire des incursions, et de fils de Cabtân, qui
fondent sur leur proie comme des vautours. Son chef, un grand guerrier, un
vrai lion qu’on renomme en tous lieux, appartient à la meilleure branche de
Cais; depuis de longues années, les hommes les plus généreux et les plus
braves reconnaissent sa supériorité en courage et en générosité. C’est un
homme loyal. Issu d’une race de preux dont le sang ne s’est jamais mêlé à
celui d’une race étrangère, il attaque impétueusement ses ennemis, comme
il sied à un Arabe, à un Caisite surtout, et il défend la vraie religion contre
tout mécréant.
Certes, Sauwâr brandissait ce jour-là une excellente épée, avec laquelle il
coupait des têtes comme on ne les coupe qu’avec des lames de bonne
trempe. C’était de son bras qu’Allâh se servait pour tuer les sectateurs d’une
fausse religion, qui s’étaient réunis contre nous. Quand le moment fatal fut
arrivé pour les fils des blanches, notre chef était à la tête de ses fiers
guerriers, dont la fermeté ne s’ébranle pas plus qu’une montagne, et dont le
nombre était si grand que la terre semblait trop étroite pour les porter. Tous
ces braves galopaient à bride abattue, tandis que leurs coursiers
hennissaient.
Vous avez voulu la guerre; elle a été funeste pour vous, et Dieu vous a
fait périr soudainement!
Dans la position critique où ils se trouvaient après cette bataille
désastreuse, les Espagnols n’avaient pas le choix des partis; il ne leur en
restait qu’un à prendre, c’était d’implorer l’appui et de reconnaître l’autorité
du chef de leur race, d’Omar ibn-Hafçoun. Ils le firent, et bientôt après Ibn-
Hafçoun, qui se trouvait alors dans le voisinage, entra dans Elvira avec son
armée, réorganisa les milices de cette ville, réunit sous sa bannière une
partie des garnisons des châteaux voisins et se mit en marche pour aller
attaquer Sauwâr.
Ce chef avait profité de cet intervalle pour tirer à soi les Arabes de Jaën
et de Regio, et son armée était maintenant assez nombreuse pour qu’il osât
espérer de pouvoir combattre Ibn-Hafçoun avec succès. Son espoir ne fut
pas trompé. Après avoir perdu plusieurs de ses meilleurs soldats et prodigué
son propre sang, Ibn-Hafçoun fut forcé à la retraite. Accoutumé à vaincre, il
fut fort irrité de cet échec. L’imputant aux habitants d’Elvira, il leur
reprocha de s’être mal conduits pendant la mêlée, et dans sa colère il leva
sur eux une énorme contribution, en disant qu’ils devaient fournir eux-
mêmes aux frais de cette guerre qu’il n’avait entreprise que dans leur
intérêt. Puis il retourna vers Bobastro avec le gros de son armée, après avoir
confié la défense d’Elvira à son lieutenant Hafç ibn-el-Moro.
Parmi les prisonniers qu’il emmenait avec lui, se trouvait le brave Saîd
ibn-Djoudî. Voici une pièce de vers que cet excellent poète composa
pendant sa captivité:
Du courage, de l’espoir, mes amis! Soyez sûrs que la joie succédera à la
tristesse, et qu’échangeant l’infortune contre le bonheur, vous sortirez d’ici.
D’autres que vous ont passé des années dans ce cachot, lesquels courent les
champs à cette heure au grand soleil du jour.
Hélas, si nous sommes prisonniers, ce n’est pas que nous nous soyons
rendus, mais c’est que nous nous sommes laissé surprendre. Si j’avais eu le
moindre pressentiment de ce qui allait nous arriver, la pointe de ma lance
m’aurait protégé; car les cavaliers connaissent ma bravoure et mon audace à
l’heure du péril.
Et toi, voyageur, va porter mon salut à mon noble père et à ma tendre
mère, qui t’écouteront avec transport dès que tu leur auras dit que tu m’as
vu. Salue aussi mon épouse chérie et rapporte-lui ces paroles: «Toujours je
penserai à toi, même au jour du dernier jugement; je me présenterai alors
devant mon créateur, le cœur rempli de ton image. Certes, la tristesse que tu
éprouves maintenant m’afflige bien plus que la prison ou la perspective de
la mort.»
Peut-être va-t-on me faire périr ici, et puis on m’enterrera.... Un brave tel
que moi aime bien mieux tomber avec gloire sur le champ de bataille et
servir de pâture aux vautours!
Après le départ d’Ibn-Hafçoun, Sauwâr, qui s’était laissé attirer dans une
embuscade, fut tué par les habitants d’Elvira. Quand on porta son cadavre
dans la ville, l’air retentit de cris d’allégresse. Altérées de la soif de la
vengeance, les femmes jetaient les regards de la bête de proie sur le corps
de celui qui les avait privées de leurs frères, de leurs maris, de leurs enfants,
et, rugissantes de fureur, elles le coupèrent en morceaux, qu’elles
avalèrent....[285]
Les Arabes donnèrent le commandement à Saîd ibn-Djoudî, auquel Ibn-
Hafçoun venait de rendre la liberté (890).
Bien que Saîd eût été l’ami de Sauwâr et le chantre de ses exploits, il ne
lui ressemblait nullement. D’illustre naissance—son aïeul avait été
successivement cadi d’Elvira et préfet de police de Cordoue, sous le règne
de Hacam Ier[286]—, il était en outre le modèle du chevalier arabe, et ses
contemporains lui attribuaient les dix qualités qu’un parfait gentilhomme
devait posséder toutes. C’étaient la générosité, la bravoure, la complète
connaissance des règles de l’équitation, la beauté du corps, le talent
poétique, l’éloquence, la force physique, l’art de manier la lance, celui de
faire des armes et le talent de bien se servir de l’arc. C’était le seul Arabe
qu’Ibn-Hafçoun craignît de rencontrer sur le champ de bataille. Un jour,
avant que le combat commençât, Saîd appela Ibn-Hafçoun en duel; mais ce
dernier, si brave qu’il fût, n’osa pas se mesurer avec lui. Une autre fois,
pendant la mêlée, Saîd se trouva soudain face à face avec Ibn-Hafçoun.
Celui-ci voulut l’éviter encore; mais Saîd le saisit à bras-le-corps et le jeta
contre terre. Il l’aurait écrasé, si les soldats d’Ibn-Hafçoun, en se jetant sur
lui, ne l’eussent forcé à lâcher prise.
Ce plus vaillant des chevaliers en était aussi le plus tendre et le plus
galant. Nul ne s’énamourait aussi promptement d’un son de voix ou d’une
chevelure, nul ne savait mieux quelle puissance de séduction il y a dans une
belle main. Etant venu un jour à Cordoue lorsque le sultan Mohammed y
régnait encore, il passait devant le palais du prince Abdallâh, quand le chant
harmonieux d’une femme frappa son oreille. Ce chant venait d’un
appartement au premier étage, dont la fenêtre donnait sur la rue, et la
chanteuse était la belle Djéhâne. En ce moment elle était auprès du prince,
son maître; tantôt elle lui versait à boire, tantôt elle chantait. Attiré par un
charme indéfinissable, Saîd alla se placer dans une encognure, où il pouvait
écouter à son aise sans attirer les regards des passants. Les yeux
immuablement fixés sur la fenêtre, il écoutait, perdu dans le ravissement et
l’extase, et mourant d’envie de voir la belle chanteuse. Après l’avoir guettée
longtemps, il aperçut à la fin sa petite et blanche main au moment où elle
présentait la coupe au prince. Il ne vit rien de plus, mais cette main d’une
incomparable élégance et puis cette voix si suave et si expressive, c’était
assez pour faire battre violemment son cœur de poète et mettre son cerveau
en feu. Mais, hélas! une barrière infranchissable le séparait de l’objet de son
amour! En désespoir de cause, il essaya alors de faire prendre le change à sa
passion. Il paya une somme énorme pour la plus belle esclave qu’il pût
trouver, et lui donna le nom de Djéhâne. Mais malgré les efforts que fit
cette jeune fille pour plaire au beau chevalier, elle ne réussit pas à lui faire
oublier son homonyme.
Le doux chant que j’ai entendu, disait-il, en m’enlevant mon âme, y a
substitué une tristesse qui me consume lentement. C’est à Djéhâne, à celle
dont je garderai un éternel souvenir, que j’ai donné mon cœur, et pourtant
nous ne nous sommes jamais vus.... O Djéhâne, objet de tous mes désirs,
sois bonne et compatissante pour cette âme qui m’a quitté pour s’envoler
vers toi! Ton nom chéri, je l’invoque, les yeux baignés de larmes, avec la
dévotion et la ferveur d’un moine qui invoque celui de son saint, devant
l’image duquel il se prosterne[287].
Mais Saîd ne retint pas longtemps le souvenir de la belle Djéhâne.
Volage et inconstant, errant sans relâche de désir en désir, les grandes
passions et les rêveries platoniques n’étaient point son fait, témoin ces vers
de sa composition, que les écrivains arabes ne citent qu’en y ajoutant les
paroles: «Que Dieu lui pardonne!»
Le plus doux moment dans la vie, c’est celui où l’on boit à la ronde; ou
plutôt, c’est celui où, après une brouillerie, l’on se réconcilie avec son
amante; ou plutôt encore, c’est quand l’amant et l’amante se lancent des
regards enivrants; c’est celui, enfin, où l’on enlace dans ses bras celle que
l’on adore.
Je parcours le cercle des plaisirs avec la fougue d’un coursier qui a pris
le mors aux dents; quoi qu’il arrive, je contente tous mes désirs.
Inébranlable le jour du combat, quand l’ange de la mort plane au-dessus de
ma tête, je me laisse toujours ébranler par deux beaux yeux.
Il avait donc déjà oublié Djéhâne, lorsqu’une nouvelle beauté lui fut
amenée de Cordoue. Quand elle entra dans son appartement, la pudeur lui
fit baisser les yeux, et alors Saîd improvisa ces vers:
Quoi, ma belle amie, tu détournes de moi tes regards pour les fixer sur le
plancher! Serait-ce parce que je t’inspire de la répulsion? Par Dieu, ce n’est
pas ce sentiment-là que j’inspire d’ordinaire aux femmes, et j’ose t’assurer
que ma figure mérite plus tes regards que le plancher.
Saîd était à coup sûr le représentant le plus brillant de l’aristocratie; mais
il n’avait pas les qualités solides de Sauwâr. La mort de ce grand chef était
donc une perte que Saîd ne pouvait réparer. Grâce aux soins de Sauwâr, qui
avait fait rebâtir plusieurs forteresses romaines à demi ruinées, telles que
Mentesa et Basti (Baza), les Arabes furent en état de se maintenir sous son
successeur; mais quoiqu’ils n’eussent plus à combattre le sultan, car celui-ci
avait reconnu Saîd, ils ne remportèrent plus d’avantages signalés sur les
Espagnols. Les chroniqueurs musulmans, qui au reste ne disent presque rien
sur les expéditions de Saîd, ce qui prouve déjà qu’en général elles n’étaient
pas heureuses, nous apprennent seulement qu’il y eut un instant où Elvira se
soumit à son autorité. Quand il eut fait son entrée dans la ville, Ablî, le
poète espagnol, se présenta à lui et lui récita des vers qu’il avait composés à
sa louange. Saîd le récompensa généreusement; mais quand le poète fut
parti, un Arabe s’écria: «Quoi, émir, donnez-vous de l’argent à cet homme?
Avez-vous donc oublié qu’il était naguère le grand agitateur de sa nation, et
qu’il a osé dire:—Depuis combien de temps leurs morts, que nous avons
jetés dans ce puits, attendent-ils en vain un vengeur!» Chez Saîd une plaie
mal fermée se rouvrit aussitôt, et, les yeux étincelants de colère: «Allez
saisir cet homme, dit-il à un parent de Yahyâ ibn-Çocâla, tuez-le et jetez son
cadavre dans un puits!» Cet ordre fut exécuté sur-le-champ[288].
XIII[289].
Pendant que les Espagnols d’Elvira combattaient contre la noblesse
arabe, des événements fort graves se passaient aussi à Séville.
Nulle part le parti national n’était aussi fort. Du temps des Visigoths,
Séville avait été le siége de la science et de la civilisation romaines, et la
résidence des familles les plus nobles et les plus opulentes[290]. La conquête
arabe n’y avait apporté presque aucun changement dans l’ordre social. Peu
d’Arabes s’étaient établis dans la ville; ils s’étaient fixés de préférence dans
les campagnes. Les descendants des Romains et des Goths formaient donc
encore la partie la plus nombreuse des habitants. Grâce à l’agriculture et au
commerce, ils étaient fort riches; de nombreux vaisseaux d’outre-mer
venaient chercher à Séville, qui passait pour un des meilleurs ports de
l’Espagne, des cargaisons de coton, d’olives et de figues, que la terre
produisait en abondance[291]. La plupart des Sévillans avaient abjuré le
christianisme; ils l’avaient fait de bonne heure, car déjà sous le règne
d’Abdérame II on avait dû bâtir pour eux une grande mosquée[292]; mais
leurs mœurs, leurs coutumes, leur caractère, tout enfin, jusqu’à leurs noms
de famille, tels que Beni-Angelino, Beni-Sabarico[293] etc., rappelait encore
leur origine espagnole.
En général ces renégats étaient pacifiques et nullement hostiles au sultan,
qu’ils considéraient au contraire comme le soutien naturel de l’ordre; mais
ils craignaient les Arabes, non pas ceux de la ville, car ceux-ci, accoutumés
aux bienfaits de la civilisation, ne s’intéressaient plus aux rivalités de tribu
ou de race, mais ceux de la campagne, qui avaient conservé intacts leurs
mœurs agrestes, leurs vieilles préventions nationales, leur aversion pour
toute race autre que la leur, leur esprit belliqueux et leur attachement pour
les anciennes familles auxquelles ils avaient obéi de père en fils depuis un
temps immémorial. Remplis d’une haine jalouse contre les riches
Espagnols, ils étaient prêts à marcher pour les aller piller et massacrer, dès
que les circonstances le leur permettraient ou que leurs nobles les y
convieraient. Ils étaient fort redoutables, ceux de l’Axarafe surtout; aussi les
Espagnols, qui avaient une vieille prédiction selon laquelle la ville serait
brûlée par le feu qui viendrait de l’Axarafe[294], avaient-ils concerté leurs
mesures pour ne pas être pris au dépourvu par les fils des brigands du
Désert. Ils s’étaient organisés en douze corps, dont chacun avait son chef, sa
bannière et son arsenal, et ils avaient contracté des alliances avec les Arabes
maäddites de la province de Séville et avec les Berbers-Botr de Moron.
Parmi les grandes familles arabes de la province il y en avait deux qui
primaient toutes les autres: c’étaient celle des Beni-Haddjâdj et celle des
Beni-Khaldoun. La première, quoique très-arabe dans ses idées, descendait
cependant, par les femmes, de Witiza, l’avant-dernier roi goth. Une petite-
fille de ce roi, Sara, avait épousé en secondes noces un certain Omair, de la
tribu yéménite de Lakhm. De ce mariage étaient issus quatre enfants, qui
furent la souche d’autant de grandes familles parmi lesquelles celle des
Beni-Haddjâdj était la plus riche. C’est à Sara qu’elle devait les grandes
propriétés territoriales qu’elle possédait dans le Sened, car un historien
arabe, qui, lui aussi, descendait de Witiza par Sara, remarque qu’Omair
avait eu des enfants d’autres femmes, mais que les descendants de celles-ci
ne pouvaient nullement rivaliser avec ceux de Sara[295]. L’autre famille,
celle des Beni-Khaldoun, était aussi d’origine yéménite; elle appartenait à la
tribu de Hadhramaut, et ses propriétés se trouvaient dans l’Axarafe.
Agriculteurs et soldats, les membres de ces deux grandes maisons étaient
aussi marchands et armateurs. Ils résidaient d’ordinaire à la campagne dans
leurs châteaux, leurs bordj[296]; mais de temps en temps ils séjournaient
dans la ville où ils avaient des palais.
Au commencement du règne d’Abdallâh, Coraib était le chef des
Khaldoun. C’était un homme dissimulé et perfide, mais qui possédait tous
les talents d’un chef de parti. Fidèle aux traditions de sa race, il détestait la
monarchie; il voulait que la caste à laquelle il appartenait ressaisît la
domination que les Omaiyades lui avaient arrachée. D’abord il essaya de
faire éclater une insurrection dans la ville même. Il s’adressa donc aux
Arabes qui y demeuraient, et tâcha de ranimer chez eux l’amour de
l’indépendance. Il n’y réussit pas. Ces Arabes, pour la plupart Coraichites
ou clients de la famille régnante, étaient royalistes, ou pour mieux dire, ils
n’étaient d’aucun parti, si ce n’est de celui qu’on appelle de nos jours le
parti de l’ordre. Vivre en paix avec tout le monde et ne pas être troublés
dans leurs affaires ou dans leurs plaisirs, c’était tout ce qu’ils demandaient.
Ils n’avaient donc aucune sympathie pour Coraib; son humeur aventureuse
et son ambition déréglée ne leur inspiraient qu’une profonde aversion mêlée
de terreur. Quand il parlait d’indépendance, on lui répondait qu’on haïssait
le désordre et l’anarchie, qu’on n’aimait pas à être l’instrument de
l’ambition d’autrui, et qu’on n’avait que faire de ses mauvais conseils et de
son mauvais esprit.
Voyant qu’il perdait son temps dans la ville, Coraib retourna dans
l’Axarafe, où il n’eut point de peine à enflammer les cœurs de ses
contribules; ils lui promirent presque tous de prendre les armes au premier
signal qu’il leur donnerait. Ensuite il forma une ligue dans laquelle
entrèrent les Haddjâdj, deux chefs yéménites (l’un de Niébla, l’autre de
Sidona), et le chef des Berbers-Bornos de Carmona. Le but que les alliés se
proposaient était d’enlever Séville au sultan et de piller les Espagnols.
Les patriciens sévillans, qui, à cause de la distance, ne pouvaient plus
épier Coraib comme au temps où il se trouvait encore parmi eux, ignoraient
le complot qu’il tramait; de temps à autre des bruits vagues en parvenaient
bien à leurs oreilles, mais ils ne savaient rien de précis et ne se méfiaient
pas encore assez du dangereux conspirateur.
Voulant d’abord se venger de ceux qui n’avaient pas voulu l’écouter et
leur montrer en même temps que le souverain était incapable de les
défendre, Coraib fit savoir secrètement aux Berbers de Mérida et de
Médellin que la province de Séville était presque dégarnie de troupes, et
que s’ils le voulaient, ils pourraient y faire facilement un riche butin.
Toujours enclins à la rapine, ces hommes à demi sauvages se mirent aussitôt
en marche, s’emparèrent de Talyâta[297], pillèrent ce village, y massacrèrent
les hommes, et y mirent les femmes et les enfants en servitude. Le
gouverneur de Séville appela aux armes tous ceux qui étaient en état d’en
porter, et alla à la rencontre des Berbers. Ayant appris en route qu’ils étaient
déjà maîtres de Talyâta, il établit son camp sur une hauteur qui s’appelait la
montagne des oliviers. Une distance de trois milles seulement le séparait de
l’ennemi, et des deux côtés on se tenait prêt à combattre le lendemain,
lorsque Coraib, qui avait fourni son contingent, de même que les autres
seigneurs, profita de la nuit pour faire dire aux Berbers que, le combat
engagé, il leur faciliterait la victoire en prenant la fuite avec son régiment. Il
tint sa promesse, et, en fuyant, il entraîna toute l’armée après lui. Poursuivi
par les Berbers, le gouverneur ne fit halte que dans le village de Huebar (à
cinq lieues de Séville), où il se retrancha. Les Berbers, sans faire le moindre
effort pour le forcer dans cette position, retournèrent à Talyâta, où ils
restèrent trois jours, pendant lesquels ils mirent à feu et à sang tous les
endroits du voisinage. Puis, leurs grands sacs regorgeant de butin, ils
retournèrent chez eux.
Cette terrible razzia avait déjà ruiné un grand nombre de propriétaires,
lorsqu’un nouveau fléau vint frapper les Sévillans. Cette fois le perfide
Coraib n’avait rien à se reprocher: un chef de race ennemie, un renégat, vint
spontanément seconder ses projets. C’était Ibn-Merwân, le seigneur de
Badajoz. Voyant ses voisins de Mérida revenir chargés de riches dépouilles,
il en conclut qu’il n’avait qu’à se montrer pour obtenir sa part de la curée. Il
ne se trompait pas. S’étant avancé jusqu’à trois parasanges de Séville, il
pilla tout à la ronde pendant plusieurs jours consécutifs, et quand il retourna
à Badajoz, il n’avait rien à envier aux Berbers de Mérida.
La conduite de leur gouverneur, qui était resté inactif pendant que des
hordes sauvages ravageaient coup sur coup leurs terres, avait exaspéré les
Sévillans contre lui et contre le souverain. Cédant à leurs plaintes, le sultan
déposa, il est vrai, ce gouverneur malhabile; mais le successeur qu’il lui
donna, bien qu’il fût au reste d’une réputation intacte, manquait également
de l’énergie nécessaire pour maintenir l’ordre dans la province et réprimer
l’audace des brigands qui s’y multipliaient d’une manière effrayante.
Le plus redoutable parmi ces bandits était un Berber-Bornos de
Carmona, nommé Tamâchecca, qui dévalisait les voyageurs sur la grande
route entre Séville et Cordoue. Le gouverneur de Séville n’osait ou ne
pouvait rien entreprendre contre lui, lorsqu’un brave renégat d’Ecija,
nommé Mohammed ibn-Ghâlib, promit au sultan de faire cesser ces
brigandages, s’il lui permettait de bâtir une forteresse près du village de
Siete Torres, sur les frontières de la province de Séville et de celle d’Ecija.
Le sultan accepta son offre; la forteresse fut bâtie, Ibn-Ghâlib s’y installa
avec un grand nombre de renégats, de clients omaiyades et de Berbers-Botr,
et les brigands ne tardèrent pas à s’apercevoir qu’ils avaient affaire à un
ennemi bien autrement redoutable que ne l’était le gouverneur de Séville.
La sûreté commençait déjà à se rétablir, lorsqu’un matin, le soleil s’étant
à peine levé, la nouvelle se répandit dans Séville, que, pendant la nuit, une
rencontre avait eu lieu entre la garnison du château d’Ibn-Ghâlib d’un côté,
et les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj de l’autre; qu’un des Haddjâdj avait été tué;
que ses amis étaient arrivés avec son cadavre dans la ville; qu’ils s’étaient
rendus directement auprès du gouverneur pour lui demander justice, et que
ce dernier leur avait répondu qu’il n’osait prendre sur lui la responsabilité
de prononcer en pareille matière, et que par conséquent ils devaient
s’adresser au souverain.
Au moment où l’on s’entretenait à Séville de ces événements, les
plaignants étaient déjà sur la route de Cordoue, suivis de près par quelques
renégats sévillans, qui, informés par Ibn-Ghâlib de ce qui s’était passé,
allaient plaider sa cause. A leur tête se trouvait un des hommes les plus
considérés de la ville; c’était Mohammed[298], dont l’aïeul avait embrassé
l’islamisme le premier de sa famille; son bisaïeul s’appelait Angelino, et le
nom de Beni-Angelino avait été conservé à cette maison.
Quand les plaignants eurent été introduits auprès du sultan, un d’entre
eux prit la parole et porta plainte en ces termes: «Voici ce qui est arrivé,
émir. Nous passions paisiblement sur le grand chemin, lorsque tout à coup
Ibn-Ghâlib nous attaque. Nous cherchons à nous défendre, et pendant cette
action, un des nôtres tombe frappé à mort. Nous sommes prêts à jurer que
c’est ainsi que les choses se sont passées, et nous exigeons par conséquent
que vous punissiez ce traître, cet Ibn-Ghâlib. Et permettez-nous, émir,
d’ajouter à ce propos que ceux qui vous ont engagé à accorder votre
confiance à ce renégat, vous ont mal conseillé. Prenez des informations sur
les hommes qui servent sous lui; vous apprendrez alors que ce sont des gens
sans aveu, des repris de justice. Cet homme vous trahit, soyez-en
convaincu; pour le moment il fait encore semblant de vous être fidèle; mais
nous avons l’intime conviction qu’il entretient des intelligences secrètes
avec Ibn-Hafçoun, et qu’un beau jour il lui livrera toute la province.»
Quand ils eurent fini de parler, Mohammed ibn-Angelino et ses
compagnons furent introduits à leur tour. «Voici de quelle manière la chose
s’est passée, émir, dit le patricien. Les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj avaient
formé le projet de surprendre le château pendant la nuit; mais contre leur
attente, Ibn-Ghâlib se tenait sur ses gardes, et, voyant son château attaqué, il
opposa la force à la force. Ce n’est donc pas sa faute, si un des assaillants a
été tué; il ne faisait autre chose que se défendre, il était dans son droit. Nous
vous prions donc de ne pas croire aux mensonges de ces Arabes turbulents.
Ibn-Ghâlib mérite bien, d’ailleurs, que vous soyez juste envers lui; c’est un
de vos serviteurs les plus fidèles et les plus dévoués, et il vous rend un
grand service en purgeant la contrée de bandits.»
Soit que le sultan jugeât réellement l’affaire douteuse, soit qu’il craignît
de mécontenter l’un des partis en donnant raison à l’autre, il déclara que,
voulant prendre de plus amples informations, il enverrait son fils
Mohammed à Séville, afin qu’il y examinât la cause.
Bientôt après ce jeune prince, l’héritier présomptif du trône, arriva à
Séville. Il y fit venir Ihn-Ghâlib et l’interrogea, de même que les Haddjâdj;
mais comme les deux partis continuaient à s’inculper réciproquement et
qu’il n’y avait pas de témoins impartiaux, le prince ne savait à qui donner
raison. Tandis qu’il hésitait encore, les passions s’échauffaient de plus en
plus, et l’effervescence qui régnait parmi les patriciens se communiquait
aussi au peuple. A la fin il déclara que, ne considérant pas l’affaire comme
suffisamment éclaircie, il ne prononcerait que plus tard, mais que, pour le
moment, il permettait à Ibn-Ghâlib de retourner à son château.
Les renégats criaient victoire. Ils disaient que le prince donnait
évidemment raison à leur ami, et que s’il ne se déclarait pas ouvertement,
c’était qu’il ne voulait pas se brouiller avec les Arabes. De leur côté, les
Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj interprétaient la conduite du prince de la même
manière, et ils en étaient piqués jusqu’au vif. Bien résolus à se venger et à
lever l’étendard de la révolte, ils quittèrent la ville, et tandis que Coraib
faisait prendre les armes à ses Hadhramites de l’Axarafe, le chef des
Haddjâdj, Abdallâh, rassemblait sous sa bannière les Lakhmites du
Sened[299]. Ensuite ces deux chefs arrêtèrent un plan de conduite. Ils
convinrent entre eux de faire, chacun de son côté, un coup de main.
Abdallâh se rendrait maître de Carmona, et le même jour Coraib ferait
surprendre la forteresse de Coria (sur la frontière orientale de l’Axarafe),
après avoir fait enlever le troupeau qui appartenait à un oncle du sultan et
qui pâturait dans l’une des deux îles que forme le Guadalquivir à son
embouchure.
Coraib, qui était trop grand seigneur pour exécuter lui-même une
entreprise de ce genre, en confia l’exécution à son cousin Mahdî, un
débauché dont les déréglements scandalisaient tout Séville[300]. Mahdî se
rendit d’abord à la forteresse de Lebrija, vis-à-vis de l’île. Solaimân, le
seigneur de cette forteresse et l’allié de Coraib, l’y attendait. Ensuite on
aborda dans l’île. Deux cents vaches et une centaine de chevaux y
paissaient, gardés par un seul homme. Les Arabes tuèrent ce malheureux, et,
s’étant emparés des animaux, ils s’acheminèrent vers Coria, surprirent cette
forteresse et y mirent leur butin en sûreté.
De son côté, Abdallâh ibn-Haddjâdj, secondé par le Berber-Bornos
Djonaid, attaqua Carmona à l’improviste et s’en rendit maître, après en
avoir chassé le gouverneur qui alla chercher un refuge à Séville.
La hardiesse des Arabes et la promptitude avec laquelle ils avaient
accompli leurs desseins, répandirent l’alarme dans la ville. Aussi le prince
Mohammed se pressa-t-il d’écrire à son père pour lui demander des ordres
et surtout des renforts.
Le sultan, quand il eut reçu la lettre de son fils, assembla son conseil.
Les opinions sur le parti à prendre y étaient partagées. Alors un vizir pria le
sultan de lui accorder un entretien secret. Ayant obtenu sa demande, il lui
conseilla de se raccommoder avec les Arabes en faisant mettre à mort Ibn-
Ghâlib. «Quand ce renégat, dit-il, aura cessé de vivre, les Arabes se
tiendront pour satisfaits; ils vous rendront Carmona et Coria, restitueront à
votre oncle ce qu’ils lui ont pris, et rentreront dans l’obéissance.»
Sacrifier aux Arabes un serviteur loyal et se brouiller avec les renégats,
sans qu’on eût la certitude de gagner leurs adversaires, c’était à coup sûr
une politique, non-seulement perfide, mais maladroite. Toutefois le sultan
crut devoir se ranger à l’avis qu’on lui donnait, et, ayant ordonné à son
client Djad (à qui Sauwâr venait de rendre la liberté) de marcher vers
Carmona avec des troupes: «Tu donneras raison, lui dit-il, aux accusateurs
d’Ibn-Ghâlib, et tu le feras mettre à mort; puis tu feras tout ce que tu
pourras pour ramener par la douceur les Arabes à l’obéissance, et tu ne les
combattras que quand tu auras épuisé tous les moyens de persuasion.»
Djad se mit en marche; mais quoique le but de son expédition fût tenu
secret, le bruit courait cependant que ce n’était pas aux Khaldoun, mais à
Ibn-Ghâlib qu’on en voulait. Aussi le renégat se tenait-il sur ses gardes, et il
s’était déjà mis sous la protection d’Ibn-Hafçoun, lorsqu’il reçut une lettre
de Djad. «Rassurez-vous, lui écrivait ce général, le but de ma marche n’est
nullement tel que vous semblez le croire. J’ai l’intention de punir les Arabes
qui se sont portés à de si grands excès, et comme vous les haïssez, je crois
pouvoir compter sur votre coopération.» Ibn-Ghâlib se laissa tromper par
cette lettre perfide, et quand Djad fut arrivé près du château, il se joignit à
lui avec une partie de ses soldats. Alors Djad fit semblant d’aller assiéger
Carmona; mais arrivé devant cette ville, il fit parvenir en secret au chef des
Haddjâdj une autre lettre qui portait qu’il était prêt à faire périr Ibn-Ghâlib,
pourvu que, de son côté, Ibn-Haddjâdj rentrât dans l’obéissance. Le marché
fut bientôt conclu; Djad fit couper la tête à Ibn-Ghâlib, et Ibn-Haddjâdj
évacua Carmona.
Quand les renégats de Séville eurent appris la noire trahison dont leur
allié avait été la victime, toute leur fureur se tourna contre le sultan. Ils
tinrent conseil sur ce qu’il convenait de faire. Quelques-uns proposèrent de
venger le meurtre d’Ibn-Ghâlib sur Omaiya, le frère de Djad et l’un des plus
vaillants guerriers de l’époque, qui était alors gouverneur de Séville. Cette
proposition fut adoptée; mais comme on ne pouvait rien faire à moins qu’on
ne fut maître de la ville, Ibn-Angelino prit sur lui d’aller parler au prince et
de faire en sorte que celui-ci en confiât la défense aux renégats. Puis les
patriciens résolurent de dépêcher des exprès à leurs alliés, les Arabes
maäddites de la province de Séville et les Berbers-Botr de Moron, pour les
prier de venir leur prêter main-forte.
Pendant que ces exprès étaient déjà en route, Ibn-Angelino, accompagné
de quelques-uns de ses amis, alla trouver le prince Mohammed. «Seigneur,
lui dit-il, il se peut que nous ayons été calomniés à la cour et accusés d’un
crime dont nous sommes innocents; il se peut qu’un projet funeste ait été
formé contre nous dans le conseil du sultan; il se peut enfin, que Djad, ce
traître infâme, nous attaque à l’improviste avec des forces si nombreuses
qu’il nous soit impossible de lui résister. Si vous voulez donc nous sauver
du péril qui nous menace et nous attacher à vous par les liens de la
gratitude, il faut nous confier les clefs de la ville et le soin de veiller à sa
défense, jusqu’au moment où les choses se seront éclaircies. Ce n’est pas
que nous nous méfions de vous; mais vous savez vous-même que, quand les
troupes seront entrées dans la ville, vous ne serez pas en état de nous
protéger.»
Bon gré mal gré, Mohammed, déjà brouillé avec les Arabes et ne
pouvant disposer que d’une chétive garnison, fut forcé d’accorder aux
renégats ce qu’ils lui demandaient.
Maîtres de la ville, les renégats attendirent la venue des Maäddites et des
Berbers-Botr. Ceux-ci arrivèrent dans la matinée du mardi 9 septembre de
l’année 889[301]. Alors une foule compacte se rua sur le palais d’Omaiya.
L’insurrection fut si soudaine que le gouverneur n’eut pas même le temps
de mettre ses bottes. Il se jeta sur un cheval et galopa, ventre à terre, vers le
palais du prince. Désappointés, les insurgés pillèrent son palais; puis ils se
rendirent vers celui du prince, qu’ils entourèrent en poussant des cris
féroces. De minute en minute, la foule se grossissait de boutiquiers,
d’artisans, d’ouvriers. Ne sachant que faire, le prince envoya en toute hâte
des messagers à Ibn-Angelino, à Ibn-Saharico et à d’autres patriciens, pour
les conjurer de venir concerter avec lui les moyens propres à faire cesser le
tumulte.
Ces patriciens, qui jusque-là s’étaient tenus à l’écart, délibérèrent entre
eux sur ce qu’ils feraient. Leur embarras était grand. Ils craignaient de
tomber dans un piége, s’ils se rendaient à l’invitation du prince; mais ils
savaient aussi que s’ils refusaient de le faire, ils seraient accusés de
connivence avec les émeutiers, et c’est ce qu’ils ne voulaient pas non plus.
Tout bien considéré, ils résolurent de se rendre auprès du prince; mais ils
prirent leurs précautions; ils revêtirent des cuirasses sous leurs habits, et
avant d’entrer dans le palais, ils placèrent des Sévillans bien armés et des
soldats de Moron près de la porte. «Si nous ne sommes pas de retour au
moment où le muëzzin annoncera la prière de midi, leur dirent-ils, vous
assaillirez le palais et vous viendrez nous délivrer.» Cela dit, ils allèrent
trouver le prince, qui les accueillit de la manière la plus gracieuse. Mais
tandis qu’ils s’entretenaient encore avec lui, les hommes postés à la porte
perdirent patience, prirent du soupçon, et se mirent à enfoncer la porte. Se
précipitant d’abord dans les écuries, ils se rendirent maîtres des chevaux et
des mulets; puis ils coururent vers la porte du facîl (avant-mur), qui se
trouvait à l’autre bout de la cour, vis-à-vis de la porte d’entrée; mais là ils
trouvèrent une résistance à laquelle ils ne s’attendaient nullement. Omaiya
était là.
Dès que ce vaillant guerrier eut entendu les cris des insurgés dans les
écuries, il avait fait arrêter Ibn-Angelino et ses compagnons; puis il avait
posté ses propres serviteurs et ceux du prince sur la plate-forme de la porte
du facîl; il y avait fait apporter un amas de projectiles, et quand les renégats
et leurs alliés s’approchèrent de cette porte, ils furent assaillis d’une grêle
de traits, de pierres, de meubles. Quoiqu’ils eussent l’avantage du nombre,
leurs adversaires avaient celui de la position. Excités par Omaiya, qui, la
tête et la poitrine ensanglantées par de nombreuses blessures, les animait
par son geste, son regard, son exemple, les défenseurs du palais étaient
résolus à vendre chèrement leur vie, et le désespoir semblait leur prêter des
forces surhumaines.
Le combat dura depuis midi jusqu’au coucher du soleil. La nuit venue,
les assaillants bivouaquèrent dans la cour, et le lendemain matin ils
recommencèrent l’attaque.
Que faisaient, pendant ce temps, les royalistes et tous ces amis de
l’ordre, qui auraient dû voler, ce semble, au secours du gouverneur? Fidèles
à leur devise: chacun pour soi, et subissant l’inévitable ascendant qu’exerce
sur la faiblesse une résolution vigoureuse, ils attendaient, et, s’étant
barricadés dans leurs hôtels, ils laissaient le gouverneur se tirer d’affaire
comme il le pourrait. Ils lui voulaient du bien sans doute, tous leurs vœux
étaient pour lui, mais risquer leur vie pour le sauver, leur dévoûment n’allait
pas jusque-là.
Ils avaient fait quelque chose pourtant. Aussitôt que le tumulte avait
commencé, ils avaient envoyé un courrier à Djad pour le prévenir du péril
où se trouvaient son frère et le prince. Il est vrai que cela ne leur coûtait pas
beaucoup, et il s’agissait de savoir, d’abord si Djad arriverait à temps,
ensuite, s’il réussirait à dompter l’insurrection.
A peine informé de ce qui se passait à Séville, Djad s’était mis en route
avec autant de cavaliers qu’il avait pu en rassembler à la hâte. Dans la
matinée du 10 septembre, le combat ayant recommencé dans la cour du
palais, il arrive du côté du midi. Un poste de renégats veut lui barrer le
passage: il lui passe sur le corps. Il pénètre dans le faubourg où demeurait le
Coraichite Abdallâh ibn-Achath. Ce royaliste lui apprend en peu de mots où
les choses en sont. «Au galop et ventre à terre!» crie le général. L’épée au
poing, il fond sur la multitude. Les Sévillans soutiennent fermement le
choc. Le cheval de Djad s’abat frappé à mort; ses cavaliers reculent. Il tâche
de les ramener à la charge, appelle chacun par son nom, les conjure de tenir
ferme. Les plus vaillants se rallient, reviennent à la charge, et s’attaquent de
préférence aux chefs. Le général lui-même se précipite sur un des plus
braves Sévillans et le tue. Le désordre se met dans la multitude. On recule,
on se heurte, on se presse. Les cavaliers redoublent de vigueur, et bientôt les
Sévillans fuient de tous côtés.
Au comble de la joie, Djad s’élance dans le palais, serre son frère sur son
cœur, et baise respectueusement la main du prince. «Dieu soit loué, s’écrie-
t-il, j’ai pu vous sauver encore.—Il en était temps, lui répond son frère, une
demi-heure plus tard et nous étions perdus.—Oui, ajoute le prince, tous
nous n’attendions que la mort. Mais ne songeons à présent qu’à la
vengeance! Que l’on punisse ces rebelles en mettant leurs maisons à sac;
que l’on tire Ibn-Angelino et ses complices de la prison, que le bourreau
leur coupe la tête, et que leurs biens soient confisqués!»
Pendant que ces infortunés marchaient à l’échafaud, Séville présentait un
horrible spectacle. Altérés de la soif du carnage et avides de butin, les
cavaliers de Djad massacraient les fuyards et pillaient leurs demeures.
Heureusement pour les renégats, il existait entre eux et les clients
omaiyades de Séville ce qu’on appelait une alliance de voisinage. En
considération de cette alliance, ces clients demandèrent et obtinrent la grâce
de leurs concitoyens, et peu de temps après, le sultan lui-même accorda une
amnistie générale. Ce n’était qu’un répit; les renégats touchaient au moment
de leur ruine entière.
Quand le prince Mohammed fut retourné à Cordoue avec Djad et ses
troupes, des messagers d’Ibn-Hafçoun (qui était alors en paix avec le
sultan) y arrivèrent pour demander la tête de Djad, puisque ce général avait
fait périr Ibn-Ghâlib, l’allié de leur maître.
La puissance d’Ibn-Hafçoun et la crainte qu’il inspirait au sultan étaient
alors si grandes, que Djad, bien qu’il n’eût fait que ce que son souverain lui
avait ordonné, craignit non sans raison d’être sacrifié au chef des renégats.
Ne voyant, pour se soustraire au péril qui le menaçait, d’autre moyen
qu’une prompte fuite, il quitta la capitale nuitamment et secrètement, afin
d’aller chercher un refuge auprès de son frère, le gouverneur de Séville. Il
était accompagné de ses deux frères, Hâchim et Abd-al-ghâfir, de quelques-
uns de ses amis, parmi lesquels se trouvaient deux Coraichites, de ses pages
et de ses esclaves. Longeant le Guadalquivir qu’ils avaient à gauche, ces
cavaliers arrivèrent, à la pointe du jour, près du château de Siete Filla. Ils
demandèrent et obtinrent la permission de s’y arrêter quelques instants pour
se reposer et se rafraîchir. Malheureusement pour eux, la bande du Berber
Tamâchecca rôdait alors dans les alentours, et les frères d’Ibn-Ghâlib, qui
servaient dans cette bande, avaient remarqué l’arrivée des cavaliers au
château. Ils avaient reconnu Djad, et, brûlant du désir de venger sur lui le
meurtre de leur frère, ils avertirent leur chef et lui dirent qu’il pourrait
facilement s’emparer des montures que ces cavaliers avaient laissées en
dehors du château. Tamâchecca et ses brigands se mirent aussitôt en route,
et ils avaient déjà mis la main sur les chevaux, lorsque Djad et ses amis,
attirés par les cris de leurs esclaves, fondirent sur eux l’épée au poing. Loin
de lâcher pied, les brigands se défendirent vigoureusement, et comme ils
avaient la supériorité du nombre, ils tuèrent Djad, ses deux frères et un
Coraichite.
Cet événement eut des suites funestes pour les Espagnols de Séville.
C’était sur eux qu’Omaiya, dans l’impuissance où il était de punir les vrais
coupables, voulait venger la mort de ses trois frères. Il les livra donc aux
Khaldoun et aux Haddjâdj, qu’il avait déjà rappelés dans la ville, et
auxquels il donna un plein pouvoir pour piller et exterminer les Espagnols,
musulmans ou chrétiens, partout où ils les trouveraient, à Séville, à
Carmona, dans les campagnes. Un horrible massacre commença alors. Dans
leur aveugle fureur, les Yéménites égorgèrent les Espagnols par milliers.
Les rues ruisselaient de sang. Ceux qui se jetèrent à la nage dans le
Guadalquivir pour échapper au sabre, périrent presque tous dans les flots.
Bien peu d’Espagnols survécurent à cette terrible catastrophe. Naguère
opulents, ils étaient maintenant plongés dans la misère.
Les Yéménites gardèrent longtemps le souvenir de cette sanglante
journée; chez eux, la rancune survécut à la ruine de leurs adversaires. Dans
les manoirs seigneuriaux ou dans les villages de l’Axarafe et du Sened, les
improvisateurs, aux veillées du soir, prenaient maintefois pour thème de
leurs chants le sombre drame que nous venons de raconter, et alors les
Yéménites, le regard enflammé d’une haine sombre et farouche, ne se
lassaient pas de prêter l’oreille à des vers tels que ceux-ci:
Le sabre au poing, nous avons exterminé ces fils d’esclaves. Vingt mille
de leurs cadavres jonchaient le sol; les grosses ondes du fleuve en
emportaient d’autres.
Leur nombre était prodigieux autrefois;—nous l’avons rendu minime.
Nous, fils de Cahtân, nous comptons parmi nos ancêtres les princes qui
régnaient jadis dans le Yémen: eux, ces esclaves, ils n’ont que des esclaves
pour aïeux.
Ces infâmes, ces chiens! Dans leur folle audace ils osaient venir braver
les lions dans leur antre!...
Nous nous sommes enrichis de leurs dépouilles, et nous les avons
précipités dans les flammes éternelles, où ils sont allés rejoindre les
Thémoudites[302].
XIV.
Ce ne fut pas le sultan qui profita de la ruine des renégats de Séville,
mais l’aristocratie arabe. Désormais les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj étaient les
maîtres de la province; le parti royaliste était trop faible et surtout trop lâche
pour leur disputer le pouvoir, il ne le tenta même pas. Omaiya seul essaya
encore de leur tenir tête. Il fit tout son possible pour semer la discorde entre
le Berber Djonaid et Abdallâh ibn-Haddjâdj, qui avaient partagé Carmona
entre eux; il tâcha de brouiller Coraib avec son propre parti et de le gagner
par les promesses les plus brillantes; il prit même des mesures pour se
débarrasser par un seul coup de tous ces turbulents Yéménites. Rien ne lui
réussit. Il est vrai qu’il fit assassiner Abdallâh par Djonaid; mais au lieu d’y
gagner, il y perdit, car après la mort d’Abdallâh, les Haddjâdj élurent pour
leur chef son frère Ibrâhîm, un homme de grands talents, qui devint bien
plus redoutable qu’Abdallâh ne l’avait été. Coraib, bien qu’il feignît de
prêter l’oreille aux propositions qu’on lui faisait, était trop rusé pour se
laisser tromper, et le grand projet qu’Omaiya avait formé pour exterminer
les Yéménites échoua complétement. Il avait ordonné à cet effet d’entourer
d’une muraille cette partie de la ville qui comprenait le palais et la grande
mosquée, et il avait annoncé que cette enceinte serait réservée
exclusivement à la garnison. Les Arabes comprirent qu’un beau jour, quand
ils entreraient dans la mosquée ou qu’ils en sortiraient, ils seraient égorgés
par les satellites du gouverneur. Ils firent des remontrances. Omaiya n’en
tint compte. Alors ils eurent recours à la force et empêchèrent les maçons de
continuer leurs travaux. Omaiya comprima les séditieux et les contraignit à
lui livrer des otages qui répondraient sur leur tête de la soumission de leurs
parents. Il n’en fut pas plus avancé pour cela. Les Yéménites savaient que la
peur d’attirer une terrible vendetta sur lui-même et sur sa famille
l’empêcherait de faire périr ses otages, et un jour, la plupart des soldats
étant sortis pour chercher des vivres, ils assaillirent le palais. Omaiya monta
en toute hâte sur la plate-forme avec le peu de soldats qui lui restaient, fit
jeter des projectiles sur les assaillants, et fit placer les otages en évidence en
menaçant de leur faire couper la tête. Les révoltés se moquèrent de lui. Ils
lui dirent que, toutes les provinces ayant secoué le joug du sultan, il était
tout naturel qu’ils ne voulussent pas que la leur restât en arrière. Nous
sommes fort traitables au reste, ajoutèrent-ils avec une amère ironie; nous
nous engageons à être des sujets modèles aussitôt qu’une seule des
provinces insurgées sera rentrée dans la sujétion.» Quant à Omaiya lui-
même, il ne lui restait, disaient-ils, qu’un parti à prendre, celui de s’en aller;
s’il pouvait se résoudre à le faire, ils ne lui feraient point de mal.
Malgré qu’il en eût, Omaiya plia aux circonstances son caractère
orgueilleux et opiniâtre. Il promit de quitter la ville, à condition que les
révoltés jureraient de ne pas attenter à sa vie. Alors Coraib, Ibrahim et trois
autres chefs montèrent sur la terrasse de la porte orientale de la mosquée, et
là chacun d’eux jura cinquante fois de ne faire aucun mal à Omaiya et de le
conduire en un endroit où il serait en sûreté. Cela fait, Omaiya, qui, de la
plate-forme où il se trouvait, avait pu les voir et les entendre, leur rendit
leurs otages. Mais il ne se hâta pas de partir; honteux de sa faiblesse et
croyant le péril passé, il tâcha au contraire de ressaisir le pouvoir. Les
Arabes ne s’en aperçurent pas plutôt qu’ils recommencèrent les hostilités.
Ne voulant pas céder pour la seconde fois, Omaiya prit une résolution
désespérée. Il fit mourir ses femmes, couper les jarrets à ses chevaux et
brûler tout ce qu’il possédait de précieux; puis il sortit du palais, se
précipita sur ses ennemis, et combattit sans reculer jusqu’à ce qu’il
succombât.
Désormais tout-puissants, mais jugeant que le moment de secouer tout à
fait l’autorité du souverain n’était pas encore venu, les Yéménites lui
écrivirent qu’ils avaient tué Omaiya parce qu’il avait manifesté l’intention
de se révolter. Ne pouvant les punir, le sultan agréa leurs singulières
explications et leur envoya un autre gouverneur. Ce pauvre homme ne fut
qu’un mannequin dont Coraib et Ibrâhîm tenaient les fils. Il se laissait
manier comme de la cire, et néanmoins ses tyrans le tourmentaient et le
vexaient de toutes les manières. Leur lésine s’exerçait sur les moindres
objets de sa dépense; à peine lui donnaient-ils sa ration de pain et de viande.
Croyant bien à tort qu’il y gagnerait quelque chose, le sultan remplaça ce
gouverneur par un autre, et envoya en même temps son oncle Hichâm à
Séville. Mais il n’y envoya pas d’armée, et le pouvoir des Yéménites resta
aussi illimité qu’il l’avait été jusque-là. Le gouverneur et Hichâm ne
l’éprouvèrent que trop. Ce dernier avait un fils nommé Motarrif. Ce jeune
débauché avait une intrigue avec une maîtresse de Mahdî. L’ayant appris,
Mahdî guetta son rival pendant la nuit et le poignarda. Quand Hichâm eut
reçu cette triste nouvelle, il attendit jusqu’au lever du soleil pour se rendre à
l’endroit où gisait le cadavre de son fils, tant il craignait d’être poignardé
lui-même s’il sortait de son palais pendant l’obscurité. Quant à punir le
meurtrier, il n’en fut pas même question. Quelque temps après, les
Khaldoun interceptèrent une lettre que le gouverneur avait envoyée au
sultan pour l’exciter à venger le meurtre de Motarrif et à mettre un terme à
l’anarchie. Ils lui montrèrent cette lettre, l’accablèrent de reproches et de
menaces, et, pour comble d’ignominie, ils le mirent aux arrêts pour
quelques jours[303].
Telle était la situation de Séville dans l’année 891, la quatrième du règne
d’Abdallâh. A cette époque presque tout le reste de l’Espagne musulmane
s’était affranchi de la sujétion; chaque seigneur arabe, berber ou espagnol,
s’était approprié sa part de l’héritage des Omaiyades. Celle des Arabes avait
été la plus petite. Ils n’étaient puissants qu’à Séville; partout ailleurs ils
avaient beaucoup de peine à se maintenir contre les deux autres races.
Plusieurs d’entre eux, tels qu’Ibn-Attâf, seigneur de Mentesa, Ibn-Salîm,
seigneur de Medina-Beni-Salîm dans le district de Sidona, Ibn-Waddhâh,
seigneur de Lorca, et al-Ancar, gouverneur de Saragosse, n’exécutaient les
ordres du sultan que quand cela leur convenait; mais ils n’avaient pas
rompu ouvertement avec lui; ayant la conscience de leur faiblesse, ils
s’étaient ménagé la possibilité d’une réconciliation.
Les Berbers, qui étaient retournés à leur gouvernement primitif, celui des
chefs de tribu, étaient plus puissants et plus intraitables. Mallâhî, un simple
soldat, s’était emparé de la citadelle de Jaën. Dans le district d’Elvira les
deux frères Khalîl et Saîd, qui appartenaient à une famille fort ancienne,
possédaient deux châteaux. Les provinces qui portent à présent le nom
d’Estramadure et d’Alentejo, étaient presque entièrement au pouvoir des
Berbers. Les Beni-Ferânic régnaient sur la tribu de Nafza, établie aux
environs de Truxillo[304]. Un autre Berber, Ibn-Tâkît, de la tribu de
Maçmouda, qui s’était déjà soulevé dans l’Estramadure sous le règne de
Mohammed, et qui s’était emparé de Mérida, d’où il avait chassé les Arabes
et les Berbers de la tribu de Ketâma, était presque constamment en guerre
contre Ibn-Merwân, le seigneur de Badajoz, auquel il ne pardonnait pas
d’avoir aidé les troupes du sultan lorsqu’elles assiégeaient Mérida[305].
Mais la plus puissante famille parmi les Berbers était celle des Beni-
Dhou-’n-noun. Mousâ en était le chef, un abominable pillard, un grand
scélérat. Toujours debout et toujours à l’œuvre, il promenait partout l’épée
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System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson

  • 1. System Analysis Design And Development Concepts Principles And Practices Vol 1 1st Edition Charles S Wasson download https://ebookbell.com/product/system-analysis-design-and- development-concepts-principles-and-practices-vol-1-1st-edition- charles-s-wasson-983992 Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com
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  • 6. System Analysis, Design, and Development Concepts, Principles, and Practices Charles S. Wasson A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
  • 9. System Analysis, Design, and Development Concepts, Principles, and Practices Charles S. Wasson A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication
  • 10. Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the web Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, e-mail: permreq@wiley.com. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print, however, may not be available in electronic format. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Wasson, Charles S., 1948– System analysis, design, and development : concepts, principles, and practices / by Charles S. Wasson. p. cm. “A Wiley-Interscience publication.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13 978-0-471-39333-7 ISBN-10 0-471-39333-9 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. System design. 2. System analysis. I. Title. QA76.9.S88W373 2005 004.2¢1—dc22 2004061247 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 “If an error or omission is discovered, please notify the publisher with corrections in writing.” at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions
  • 11. Table of Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements xii 1 Introduction 1 2 Book Organization and Conventions 3 Part I System Analysis Concepts System Entity Concepts Series 3 What Is a System? 17 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics 27 5 System Roles and Stakeholders 39 6 System Acceptability 46 7 The System/Product Life Cycle 59 System Architecture Concepts Series 8 The Architecture of Systems 67 9 System Levels of Abstraction and Semantics 76 10 The System of Interest Architecture 86 11 The Operating Environment Architecture 97 12 System Interfaces 110 System Mission Concepts Series 13 Organizational Roles, Missions, and System Applications 122 14 Understanding the Problem, Opportunity, and Solution Spaces 135 15 System Interactions with its Operating Environment 146 16 System Mission Analysis 159 17 System Use Cases and Scenarios 167 System Operations Concepts Series 18 System Operations Model 178 19 System Phases, Modes, and States of Operation 189 20 Modeling System and Support Operations 206 System Capability Concepts Series 21 System Operational Capability Derivation and Allocation 217 22 The Anatomy of a System Capability 229 System Concept Synthesis 23 System Analysis Synthesis 241 v
  • 12. Part II System Design and Development Practices System Development Strategies Series 24 The System Development Workflow Strategy 251 25 System Design, Integration, and Verification Strategy 265 26 The SE Process Model 275 27 System Development Models 290 System Specification Series 28 System Specification Practices 302 29 Understanding Specification Requirements 315 30 Specification Analysis 327 31 Specification Development 340 32 Requirements Derivation, Allocation, Flow Down, and Traceability 358 33 Requirements Statement Development 370 System Development Series 34 Operational Utility, Suitability, and Effectiveness 390 35 System Design To/For Objectives 400 36 System Architecture Development 410 37 Developing an Entity’s Requirements Domain Solution 430 38 Developing an Entity’s Operations Domain Solution 439 vi Table of Contents 39 Developing an Entity’s Behavioral Domain Solution 451 40 Developing an Entity’s Physical Domain Solution 465 41 Component Selection and Development 480 42 System Configuration Identification 489 43 System Interface Analysis, Design, and Control 507 44 Human–System Integration 524 45 Engineering Standards, Frames of Reference, and Conventions 544 46 System Design and Development Documentation 562 Decision Support Series 47 Analytical Decision Support 574 48 Statistical Influences on System Design 586 49 System Performance Analysis, Budgets, and Safety Margins 597 50 System Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability (RAM) 615 51 System Modeling and Simulation 651 52 Trade Study Analysis of Alternatives 672 Verification and Validation Series 53 System Verification and Validation 691 54 Technical Reviews 710
  • 13. 55 System Integration, Test, and Evaluation 733 System Deployment, Operations, and Support Series 56 System Deployment 758 Table of Contents vii 57 System Operations and Support (O&S) 773 Epilogue 788 Index 789
  • 15. Preface As a user, acquirer, or developer of a system, product, or service, have you ever been confronted with one of the situations listed below? • Wondered if the people who designed a product bothered to ask potential users to simply try it before selling it to the public. • Found that during a major program review prior to component development that someone thought a requirement was so obvious it didn’t have to be written down. • Participated in a new system development effort and discovered at Contract Award that team members were already designing circuits, coding software, and developing mechanical draw- ings BEFORE anyone understood WHAT system users expected the system to provide or perform? • Procured one of those publicized “designed for assembly” products and discovered that it was not designed for maintainability? • Interacted with a business that employed basic business tools such as desktop computers, phones, and fax machines that satisfied needs. Then, someone decided to install one of those new, interactive Web sites only to have customers and users challenged by a “new and improved” system that was too cumbersome to use, and whose performance proved to be inferior to that of the previous system? Welcome to the domain of system analysis, design, and development or, in the case of the scenar- ios above, the potential effects of the lack of System Engineering (SE). Everyday people acquire and use an array of systems, products, and services on the pretense of improving the quality of their lives; of allowing them to become more productive, effective, effi- cient, and profitable; or of depending on them as tools for survival. The consumer marketplace depends on organizations, and organizations depend on employees to ensure that the products they produce will: 1. Perform planned missions efficiently and effectively when called upon. 2. Leverage user skills and capabilities to accomplish tasks ranging from simple to highly complex. 3. Operate using commonly available resources. 4. Operate safely and economically in their intended environment with minimal risk and intru- sion to the general public, property, and the environment. 5. Enable the user to complete missions and return safely. 6. Be maintained and stored until the next use for low cost. 7. Avoid any environmental, safety, and health risks to the user, the public, or the environment. In a book entitled Moments of Truth, Jan Carlzon, president of an international airline, observed that every interaction between a customer and a business through product usage or service support is a moment of truth. Each customer–product/service interaction, though sometimes brief, produces and influences perceptions in the User’s mind about the system, products, and services of each ix
  • 16. organization. Moment of truth interactions yield positive or negative experiences. Thus, the expe- riences posed by the questions above are moments of truth for the organizations, analysts, and engineers who develop systems. Engineers graduate from college every year, enter the workforce, and learn system analysis, design, and development methods from the bottom up over a period of 10 to 30 years. Many spend entire careers with only limited exposure to the Users of their designs or products. As engineers are assigned increasing organizational and contract responsibilities, interactions with organizational customers also increase. Additionally, they find themselves confronted with learning how to inte- grate the efforts of other engineering disciplines beyond their field. In effect, they informally learn the rudiments of System Engineering, beginning with buzzwords, from the bottom up through observation and experience. A story is told about an engineering manager with over 30 years of experience. The manager openly bragged about being able to bring in new college graduates, throw them into the work envi- ronment, and watch them sink or swim on their own without any assistance. Here was an individ- ual with a wealth of knowledge and experience who was determined to let others “also spend 30 years” getting to comparable skill levels. Granted, some of this approach is fundamental to the learning experience and has to evolve naturally through personal trials and errors. However, does society and the engineering profession benefit from this type of philosophy. Engineers enter the workplace from college at the lowest echelons of organizations mainly to apply their knowledge and skills in solving unique boundary condition problems. For many, the college dream of designing electronic circuits, software, or impressive mechanical structures is given a reality check by their new employers. Much to their chagrin, they discover that physical design is not the first step in engineering. They may be even startled to learn that their task is not to design but to find low-cost, acceptable risk solutions. These solutions come from research of the marketplace for existing products that can be easily and cost-effectively adapted to fulfill system requirements. As these same engineers adapt to their work environment, they implicitly gain experience in the processes and methods required to transform a user’s operational needs into a physical system, product, or service to fulfill contract or marketplace needs. Note the emphasis on implicitly. For many, the skills required to understand these new tasks and roles with increasing complexity and responsibility require tempering over years of experience. If they are fortunate, they may be employed by an organization that takes system engineering seriously and provides formal training. After 10 years or so of experience, the demands of organizational and contract performance require engineers to assimilate and synthesize a wealth of knowledge and experience to formulate ideas about how systems operate. A key element of these demands is to communicate with their customers. Communications require open elicitation and investigative questioning, observation, and listening skills to understand the customer’s operational needs and frustrations of unreliable, poorly designed systems or products that: 1. Limit their organization’s ability to successfully conduct its missions. 2. Fail to start when initiated. 3. Fail during the mission, or cause harm to its operators, the general public, personal prop- erty, or the environment. Users express their visions through operational needs for new types of systems that require appli- cation of newer, higher performance, and more reliable technologies, and present the engineer with the opportunity to innovate and create—as was the engineer’s initial vision upon graduation. Task leads and managers have a leadership obligation to equip personnel with the required processes, methods, and tools to achieve contract performance—for example, on time and within x Preface
  • 17. budget deliverables—and enterprise survival over the long term. They must be visionary and pro- active. This means providing just-in-time (JIT) training and opportunities to these engineers when they need these skills. Instead, they defer training to technical programs on the premise that this is on-the-job (OJT) training. Every program is unique and only provides a subset of the skills that SEs need. That approach can take years! While browsing in a bookstore, I noticed a book entitled If I Knew Then What I Know Now by Richard Elder. Mr. Elder’s book title immediately caught my attention and appropriately cap- tures the theme of this text. You cannot train experience. However, you can educate and train system analysts and engi- neers in system analysis, design, and development. In turn, this knowledge enables them to bridge the gap between a user’s abstract operational needs and the hardware and software developers who design systems, products, and services to meet those needs. You can do this in a manner that avoids the quantum leaps by local heroes that often result in systems, products, or services that culminate in poor contract program performance and products that fail to satisfy user needs. Anecdotal evidence suggests that organizations waste vast amounts of resources by failing to educate and train engineers in the concepts, principles, processes, and practices that consume on average 80% of their workday. Based on the author’s own experiences and those of many others, if new engineers entering and SEs already in the workplace were equipped with the knowledge contained herein, there would be a remarkable difference in: 1. System development performance 2. Organizational performance 3. Level of personal frustrations in coping with complex tasks Imagine the collective and synergistic power of these innovative and creative minds if they could be introduced to these methods and techniques without having to make quantum leaps. Instead of learning SE methods through informal, observational osmosis, and trial and error over 30+ years, What if we could teach system, product, or service problem-solving/solution development as an educational experience through engineering courses or personal study? Based on the author’s experience of over 30 years working across multiple business domains, this text provides a foundation in system analysis, design, and development. It evolved from a need to fill a void in the core curriculum of engineering education and the discipline we refer to as system engineering. Academically, some people refer to System Engineering as an emerging discipline. From the perspective of specific engineering disciplines, System Engineering may be emerging only in the sense that organizations are recognizing its importance, even to their own disciplines. The reality is, however, the practice of engineering systems has existed since humans first employed tools to leverage their physical capabilities. Since World War II the formal term “system engineering” has been applied to problem solving-solution development methods and techniques that many specific engineering disciplines employ. Thus, system engineering concepts, principles, and practices manifest themselves in every engineering discipline; typically without the formal label. In the chapters ahead, I share some of the If I Knew Then What I Knew Now knowledge and experiences. Throughout my career I have had the good fortune and opportunities to work and learn from some of the world’s best engineering application and scientific professionals. They are the professionals who advanced the twentieth century in roles such as enabling space travel to the Moon and Mars, creating new building products and approaches, developing highly complex systems, and instituting high-performance organizations and teams. This is a practitioner’s textbook. It is written for advancing the state of the practice in the dis- cipline we refer to as System Engineering. My intent is to go beyond the philosophical buzzwords Preface xi
  • 18. that many use but few understand and address the HOWS and WHYS of system analysis, design, and development. It is my hope that each reader will benefit from my discussions and will endeavor to expand and advance System Engineering through the application of the concepts, principles, and practices stated herein. Treat them as reference guides by which you can formulate your own approaches derived from and tempered by your own unique experiences. Remember, every engineering situation is unique. As an engineer, you and your organization bear sole responsibility and accountability for the actions and decisions manifested in the systems, products, and services you design, develop, and deliver. Each user experience with those products and services will be a moment of truth for your organization as well as your own professional rep- utation. With every task, product, or service delivery, internally or externally, make sure the user’s moment of truth is positive and gratifying. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was made possible by the various contributions of the many people identified below. My special debt of gratitude goes to Dr. Charles Cockrell, mentor, teacher, and leader; Neill B. Radke; Gerald “Jerry” Mettler; and Robert “Bob” M. Love who persevered through countless hours and iterations reviewing various sections of this work. Likewise, a special appreciation to Dr. Gregory M. Radecky for his technical counsel and commentary. Special thanks go to Sandra Hendrickson for support in revising the manuscript, to Lauren and Emily, and to Sharon Savage- Stull, and to Jean for coordinating the distribution of draft copies to reviewers. I thank members of the JPL—Brian Muirhead, Howard Eisen, David Miller, Dr. Robert Shisko, and Mary Beth Murrill—for sharing their time and experiences. Additionally, I thank Larry Riddle of the Univer- sity of California, San Diego, and David Weeks for graphics submittals. Thanks also to INCOSE President-Elect Paul Robitaille and to William E. Greenwood and JoAnne Zeigler for their obser- vations. To those true leaders who provided insightful wisdom, knowledge mentoring, training, con- cepts, and opportunities along my career path, I give a special word of recognition and appreciation. These include Bobby L. Hartway, Chase B. Reed, William F. Baxter, Dan T. Reed, Spencer and Ila Wasson, Ed Vandiver, and Kenneth King. Finally, no words can describe how much I appreciate the dedication and caring of my loving wife and children who endured through the countless hours, weekends, and holidays and provided support over many years as this work evolved from concept to maturity. I couldn’t have done this without you. Charles S. Wasson July, 2005 xii Preface
  • 19. Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 FRAMING THE NEED FOR SYSTEM ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND DEVELOPMENT SKILLS One of the most perplexing problems with small, medium, or large system development programs is simply being able to deliver a system, product, or service without latent defects on schedule, within budget, and make a profit. In most competitive markets, changes in technology and other pressures force many organi- zations to aggressively cut realistic schedules to win contracts to sustain business operations. Many times these shortcuts violate best practices through their elimination under the premise of “selec- tive tailoring” and economizing. Most programs, even under near ideal conditions, are often challenged to translate User needs into efficient and cost-effective hardware and software solutions for deliverable systems, products, and services. Technical program leads, especially System Engineers (SEs), create a strategy to bridge the gap. They translate the User’s abstract vision into a language of specifications, archi- tectures, and designs to guide the hardware and software development activities as illustrated in Figure 1.1. When aggressive “tailoring” occurs, programs attempt to bridge the gap via a quantum leap strategy. The strategy ultimately defaults into a continuous build–test–redesign loop until resources such as cost and schedules are overrun and exhausted due to the extensive rework. Systems delivered by these approaches are often patched and are plagued with undiscovered latent defects. Bridging the gap between User needs and development of systems, products, and services to satisfy those needs requires three types of technical activities: 1) system analysis, 2) system design, and 3) system development (i.e., implementation). Knowledge in these areas requires education, training, and experience. Most college graduates entering the workforce do not possess these skills; employers provide very limited, if any, training. Most knowledge in these areas varies significantly and primarily comes from personal study and experience over many years. Given this condition, programs have the potential to be staffed by personnel lacking system analysis, design, and devel- opment skills attempting to make a quantum leap from user needs to hardware and software implementation. Technically there are solutions of dealing with this challenge. This text provides a flexible, structural framework for “bridging the gap” between Users and system developers. Throughout this text we will build on workflow to arrive at the steps and practices necessary to plan and implement system analysis, design, and development strategy without sacrificing best practices objectives. Part II System Design and Development Practices presents a framework of practice-based strategies and activities for developing systems, products, and services. However, system develop- ment requires more than simply implementing a standard framework. You must understand the 1 System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  • 20. foundation for the framework—HOW TO analyze systems. This requires understanding WHAT systems are; HOW the User envisions deploying, operating, supporting, and disposing of the system; under WHAT conditions and WHAT outcome(s) they are expected to achieve. Therefore, Part I addresses System Analysis Concepts as a precursor to Part 2. This text identifies fundamental system analysis, design, and development practices that in the author’s experiences are applicable to most organizations. The concepts, principles, and practices presented in Parts I and II represent a collection on topics that condense the fundamentals of key practices. Some of these topics have entire textbooks dedicated to the subject matter. Your experiences may be different; that’s okay. You and your organization are responsible and accountable for identifying the key concepts, principles, and practices unique to your line of busi- ness and programs and incorporate them into its command media—namely policies and procedures. Using this knowledge and framework, personnel at all levels of the organization are better postured to make informed decisions to bridging the gap from User needs to system, product, and service solutions to meet those needs without having to take a quantum leap. 2 Chapter 1 Introduction Hardware Engineering Software Engineering Operational Need(s) Solutions Specialty Engineering User System Developers Systems Engineering Concepts, Principles, & Practices Operational Need Requirements Figure 1.1 Systems Engineering—Bridging the Gap from User Needs to System Developers
  • 21. Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions 2.1 HOW THIS BOOK IS ORGANIZED There is a wealth of engineering knowledge that is well documented in textbooks targeted specif- ically for disciplinary and specialty engineers. In effect, these textbooks are compartmentalized bodies of knowledge unique to the discipline. The challenge is that SE requires knowledge, appli- cation, and integration of the concepts in these bodies of knowledge. The author’s purpose in writing this book is not to duplicate what already exists but rather to complement and link SE and devel- opment to these bodies of knowledge as illustrated in Figure 2.1. To accomplish these interdisciplinary linkages, the topical framework of the book is organized the way SEs think. SEs analyze, design, and develop systems. As such, the text consists of two parts: Part I System Analysis Concepts and Part II System Design and Development Practices. Each part is organized into series of chapters that address concepts or practices and include Definitions of Key Terms and Guiding Principles. Part I: System Analysis Concepts Part I provides the fundamentals in systems analysis and consists of a several series of topics: • System entity concepts • System architecture concepts • System mission concepts • System operations concepts • System capability concepts Each series within a part consists of chapters representing a specific topical discussion. Each chapter is sequentially numbered to facilitate quick location of referrals and topical discussions. The intent is to isolate topical discussions in a single location rather than a fragmented approach used in most textbooks. Due to the interdependency among topics, some overlap is unavoidable. In general, Part I provides the underlying foundation and framework of concepts that support Part II. Unlike many textbooks, you will not find any equations, software code, or other technical exhibits in Part I. SE is a problem solving–solution development discipline that requires a funda- mental understanding in HOW to think about and analyze systems—HOW systems are organized, structured, defined, bounded, and employed by the User. 3 System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  • 22. Part II: System Design and Development Practices Part II builds on the system analysis concepts of Part I and describes the system design and devel- opment practices embodied by the discipline we refer to as system engineering. Part II contents consists of several series of practices that include: • System development strategies • System specification • System design • Decision support • System verification and validation • System deployment, operations, and support Each series covers a range of topical practices required to support the series. 2.2 DEFINITIONS SE, as is the case with most disciplines, is based on concepts, principles, processes, and practices. The author’s context for each of these terms can be better understood as follows: • Concept A visionary expression of a proposed or planned action that leads to achievement of a disciplinary objective. • Principle A guiding thought based on empirical deduction of observed behavior or prac- tices that proves to be true under most conditions over time. • Process A sequence of serial and/or concurrent operations or tasks that transform and/or add value to a set of inputs to produce a product. Processes are subject to external controls and constraints imposed by regulation and/or decision authority. 4 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions User Operational Need(s) • Aerospace Engineering • Civil Engineering • Electrical Engineering • Industrial Engineering • Mechanical Engineering • Nuclear Engineering • Software Engineering • Test Engineering • Product Engineering • Human Factors Engineering • System Safety Engineering • System Security Engineering • Reliability Engineering • Maintainability Engineering Disciplinary & Specialty Engineering Abstract Physical System Analysis, Design, & Development Bridging the G ap Systems, Products, & Services Users • Systems Engineering Figure 2.1 Book Scope
  • 23. • Operation A collection of outcome-based tasks required to satisfy an operational objective. • Task The application of methods, techniques, and tools to add value to a set of inputs— such as materials and information—to produce a work product that meets “fitness for use” standards established by formal or informal agreement. • Practice Asystematic approach that employs methods and techniques that have been demon- strated to provide results that are generally predictable and repeatable under various operating conditions. A practice employs processes, operations, or tools. • Best or Preferred Practice A practice that has been adopted or accepted as the most suit- able method for use by an organization or discipline. Some individuals rebuff the operative term “best” on the basis it is relative and has yet to be universally accepted as THE one and only practice that is above all others. Instead, they use preferred practice. 2.3 TEXT CONVENTIONS This textbook consists of several types of annotations to facilitate readability. These include referrals, author’s notes, guideposts, reference identifiers, and examples. To better understand the author’s context of usage, let’s briefly summarize each. Referrals. SE concepts, processes, and practices are highly interdependent. Throughout the book you will find Referrals that suggest related chapters of the book that provide additional information on the topic. Author’s Notes. Author’s Notes provide insights and observations based on the author’s own unique experiences. Each Author’s Note is indexed to the chapter and in sequence within the chapter. Guideposts. Guideposts are provided in the text to provide the reader an understanding of WHERE you are and WHAT lies ahead in the discussion. Each guidepost is indexed to the chapter and sequence within the section. Reference Identifiers. Some graphics-based discussions progress through a series of steps that require navigational aids to assist the reader, linking the text discussion to a graphic. Reference Identifiers such as (#) or circles with numbers are used. The navigational reference IDs are intended to facilitate classroom or training discussions and reading of detailed figures. It is easier to refer to “Item or ID 10” than to say “system development process.” Examples. Examples are included to illustrate how a particular concept, method, or practice is applied to the development of real world systems. One way SEs deal with complexity is through concepts such as abstraction, decomposition, and simplification. You do not need a Space Shuttle level of complexity example to learn a key point or concept. Therefore, the examples are intended to accomplish one objective—to communicate. They are not intended to insult your intelligence or impress academic egos. References. Technical books often contain pages of references. You will find a limited number of references here. Where external references are applicable and reinforce a point, explicit call-outs are made. However, this is a practitioner’s text intended to equip the reader with the practical knowledge required to perform system analysis, design, and development. As such, the book is 2.3 Text Conventions 5
  • 24. intended to stimulate the reader’s thought processes by introducing fresh approaches and ideas for advancing the state of the practice in System Engineering as a professional discipline, not summarizing what other authors have already published. Naming Conventions. Some discussions throughout the book employ terms that have generic and reserved word contexts. For example, terms such as equipment, personnel, hardware, software, and facilities have a generic context. Conversely, these same terms are considered SE system elements and are treated as RESERVED words. To delineate the context of usage, we will use lowercase spellings for the generic context and all capitals for the SE unique context—such as EQUIPMENT, PERSONNEL, HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, and FACILITIES. Additionally, certain words in sentences require communication emphasis. Therefore, some words are italicized or CAPITALIZED for emphasis by the author as a means to enhance the readability and communicate key points. 2.4 GRAPHICAL CONVENTIONS System analysis and design are graphics-intensive activities. As a result a standard set of graphical conventions is used to provide a level of continuity across a multitude of highly interdependent topics. In general, system analysis and design employ the following types of relationships: 1. Bounding WHAT IS/IS NOT part of a system. 2. Abstractions of collections of entities/objects. 3. Logical associations or relationships between entities. 4. Iterations within an entity/object. 5. Hierarchical decomposition of abstract entities/objects and integration or entities/ objects that characterized by one-to-many and many-to-one entity or object relationships—for example, parent or sibling. 6. Peer-to-peer entity/object relationships. 7. Time-based, serial and concurrent sequences of workflow, and interactions between enti- ties. 8. Identification tags assigned to an entity/object that give it a unique identity. There are numerous graphical methods for illustrating these relationships. The Object Management Group’s (OMG) Unified Modeling Language (UML® ) provides a diverse set of graphical symbols that enable us to express many such relationships. Therefore, diagrams employing UML symbol- ogy are used in this book WHERE they enable us to better communicate key concepts. UML anno- tates one-to-many (i.e., multiplicity) entity relationships with “0 . . . 1,” “1,” “1 . . .*,” and so forth. Many of the graphics contain a significant amount of information and allow us to forgo the multi- plicity annotations. Remember, this text is intended to communicate concepts about system analy- sis, design, and development; not to make you an expert in UML. Therefore, you are encouraged to visit the UML Web site at www.omg.org for implementation specifics of the language. Currently, SE versions of UML® , SYSML, is in the process of development. System Block Diagram (SBD) Symbology One of the first tasks of system analysts and SE is to bound WHAT IS/IS NOT part of the system. System Block Diagrams (SBDs), by virtue of their box structure, offer a convenient way to express these relationships, as illustrated at the left side of Figure 2.2. 6 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions
  • 25. If we attempt to annotate each system input/output relationship with lines, the chart would become unwieldy and difficult to read. Using the left side of Figure 2.2 as an example, External System 1 interfaces with Entity A; External System B interfaces with Entities A through D. Exter- nal System 2 could be the natural environment—consisting of temperature, humidity, and the life— that affects Entities A through D within your system. Where a system such as External System B interfaces with ALL internal entities, we simplify the graphic with a single arrow touching the outer boundary of the system—meaning your system. Therefore, any arrow that touches the boundary of an entity represents an interface with each item with the entity. Aggregation and Composition Relationships Symbology Object-oriented and entity relationship methods recognize that hierarchical objects or entities are comprised of lower level sibling objects or entities. Two types of relationships exist in these cases: aggregation versus generalization. Let’s elaborate on these further. Aggregation (Composition). Aggregation represents the collection of entities/objects that have direct relationships with each other. Composition, as a form of aggregation, characterizes relationships that represent strong associations between objects or entities as illustrated in Figure 2.3. Entity A consists of Entities A1, A2, A3, and A4 that have direct relationships via interfaces that enable them to work together to provide entityA’s capabilities. Consider the following example: EXAMPLE 2.1 An automobile ENGINE consists of PISTONS that have direct relationships via the engine’s SHAFT. Therefore, the ENGINE is an aggregation of all entities/objects—such as ENGINE SHAFT and PISTONS—required to provide the ENGINE capability. 2.4 Graphical Conventions 7 Physical Representation Simplified Symbolic Representation A B C D Your System A B C D External System #1 External System #2 Your System External System #1 External System #2 External System B interfaces with Entities A, B, C, and D of Your System. To simplify the diagram for analysis, we employ a symbolic convention whereby the intersection of External System #2 interface with the dashed line of Your System represents Exte rnal System B interfaces with each entity - i.e. A - D. Figure 2.2 Symbolic Interface Representation Convention
  • 26. UML symbology for aggregation or composition is represented by a filled (black) diamond shape, referred to as an aggregation indicator, attached to the aggregated object/entity as illustrated at the left side of Figure 2.3. The diamond indicator is attached to the parent entity, System A, with link- ages that connect the indicator to each object or entity that has a direct relationship. Author’s Note 2.1 As a rule, UML only allows the aggregation indicator to be attached to the aggregated entity/object on one end of the relationship (line). You will find instances in the text whereby some abstractions of classes of entities/objects have many-to-many relationships with each other and employ the indicator on both ends of the line. Generalization. Generalization represents a collection of objects or entities that have loose associations with each other as illustrated in Figure 2.3. Entity B consists of sibling Entities B1, B2, B3, and B4, which have not direct relationship with each other. Consider the following example: EXAMPLE 2.1 A VEHICLE is a generalization for classes of trucks, cars, snowmobiles, tractors, and the like, that have the capability to maneuver under their own power. UML® symbology for generalization is represented by an unfilled (white) triangular shape as illus- trated as the right side of Figure 2.3. The triangle indicator is attached to the parent entity with linkages that connect the indicator to each lower level object or entity that have loose associations or relationships. 8 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions Entity A1 Entity A1 Entity A2 Entity A2 System A System A Entity B1 Entity B1 Entity B2 Entity B2 Entity B Entity B Aggregation (Composition) Consists of sets of entities with CLOSE associations or interdependencies that comprise a higher level entity Entity A3 Entity A3 Entity A4 Entity A4 Entity B3 Entity B3 Entity B4 Entity B4 Entity A1 Entity A2 Entity A3 Entity A4 Entity A Entity B1 Entity B2 Entity B3 Entity B4 Entity B Aggregation (Composition) Indicator Generalization Indicator UML Symbology UML Symbology Generalization Consists of sets of entities with LOOSE associations that comprise a higher level entity = Strong Association = Weak Association Figure 2.3 Hierarchical Aggregation and Generalization Symbology
  • 27. Relationship Dependencies In general, this text employs three types of line conventions to express entity/object relationship dependencies as illustrated in Figure 2.4. • Instances of a Relationship That May or May Not Exist (Panel A) Since there are instances that may or may not contain a specific relationship, a dashed line is used for all or a part of the line. Where an aggregated entity/object may or may not have all instances of siblings, the parent half of the line is solid and the sibling half may be dashed. • Electronic/Mechanical Relationships (Panel B) Some graphics express electronic relation- ships by solid lines and mechanical relationships by dashed lines. For example, a computer’s electronic data communications interface with another computer is illustrated by a solid line. The mechanical relationship between a disc and a computer is illustrated by a dashed line to infer either a mechanical or a temporary connection. • Logical/Physical Entity Relationships (Panels C and D) Since entities/objects have logical associations or indirect relationships, we employ a dashed line to indicate the relationship. Interaction Diagrams UML accommodates interactions between entities such as people, objects, roles, and so forth, which are referred to as actors via interaction or sequence diagrams, as illustrated in Figure 2.5. Each actor (object class) consists of a vertical time-based line referred to as a lifeline. Each actor’s lifeline consists of activation boxes that represent time-based processing. When interactions occur between actors, an event stimulates the activation box of the interfacing actor. As a result, a simple sequence of actions will represent interchanges between actors. 2.4 Graphical Conventions 9 Relationship Instances that May or May Not Exist Entity A A Entity A1 Entity A2 Entity A Entity B Entity A Entity B Entity C Where: Entity A Entity B Electrical/Mechanical Relationships All Instances of A1 Exist (Solid Line) Specific Instances of A2 May or May Not Exist (Dashed Line) = Data Flow (Solid Line) = Mechanical Interfaces (Dashed) Physical Relationship or Association (Solid Line) Direct Physical Associations or Relationships Logical Associations or Relationships Logical Relationship or Association (Dashed Line) C D B Figure 2.4 Dashed Line Conventions
  • 28. Process Activity Graphics Systems processing consists of sequential and concurrent process flows and combinations of the two. Key UML elements for representing process flow consist of initial/final states, activities, deci- sion blocks, and synchronization bars (forks and joins), as illustrated in Figure 2.6. Initial and Final States. To isolate on specific aspects of process flow, a process requires a beginning referred to as an INITIAL STATE and an ending we refer to as a FINAL STATE. UML symbolizes the INITIAL STATE with a filled (black) circle and the FINAL STATE with a large unfilled (white) circle encompassing a filled (black) circle. Activities. Activities consist of operations or tasks that transform and add value to one or mode inputs to produce an objective-based outcome within a given set of performance constraints such as resources, controls, and time. UML graphically symbolizes activities as having a flat top and bottom with convex arcs on the left and right sides. Decision Blocks. Process flows inevitably have staging or control points that require a decision to be made. Therefore, UML uses a diamond shape to symbolize decisions that conditionally branch the process flow to other processing activities. Synchronization Bars. Some entity processing requires concurrent activities that require synchronization. For these cases, synchronization bars are used and consist of two types: forks and joins. Forks provide a means to branch condition-based processing flow to specific activities. Joins synchronize and integrate multiple branches into a single process flow. Hierarchical Decomposition Notation Conventions Systems are composed of parent–sibling hierarchies of entities or objects. Each object or entity within the diagram’s structural framework requires establishing a numbering convention to uniquely 10 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions Actor B1 (Class) Actor B2 (Class) 2 1 4 3 Entity B Actor A (Class) Lifelines Activation Sequence (Author’s Convention) Box Events Figure 2.5 UML® Sequence Diagram Symbology
  • 29. 2.5 Exercises 11 Actor #1 Actor #2 Actor #3 Initial State Final State Decision Activity 11 Activity 21 Activity 22 Activity 31 Activity 32 Activity 12 Activity 13 Activity 14 Swimlane Swimlane Swimlane Synchronization Bar (Fork) Synchronization Bar (Join) Condition 21 Condition 22 Condition 32 Condition 31 Figure 2.6 UML Activity Diagram Symbology identify each entity. In general, there are two types of conventions used in the text: decimal based and tag based. Decimal-Based Notation. SEs employ decimal notation to delineate levels of information with the most significant level being in the left most digit position as illustrated in Figure 2.7. Lower levels are identified as extensions to the previous level such as 1.0, 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.1.1 and so forth. Tag-Based Notation. In lieu of the decimal system in which the decimal point can be misplaced or deleted, numerical tags are used without the decimal points as illustrated in the right side of Figure 2.7. Rather than designating these lower level entities with names such as B, C, and D, we need to explicitly identify each one based on its root traceability to its higher level parent. We do this by designating each one of the entities as A_1, A_2, and A_3. Thus, if entity A_2 consists of two lower level entities, we label them as A_21 and A_22. A_21 consists of A_211, A_212, and A_213. Following this convention, entity A_212 is an element of entity A_21, which is an element of entity A_2, which is an element of entity A. 2.5 EXERCISES Most sections of the text consist of two types of exercises: general exercises and organizational centric exercises. General Exercises General exercises are intended to test your understanding of each chapter’s topic to two types of problems:
  • 30. 1. What You Should Learn from This Chapter questions presented in the Introduction of each chapter. 2. Progressive application of knowledge to a selected system as listed is Table 2.1. Organizational Centric Exercises Organizational Centric Exercises are intended for organizations that may conduct internal SE train- ing programs. SEs work within the framework of organizational command media such as policies and procedures and apply that knowledge to contract programs. Therefore, these exercises consists of two types of problems: research of organizational command media concerning SE topics of inter- est and interviewing technical leadership of contract programs to understand how they: 1. Approached various facets of SE on their programs. 2. What best or preferred practices were used? 3. What lessons were learned? 2.6 TEAM DECISION MAKING Team decision making is all about consensus. Development teams such as Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) consist of personnel from different disciplines that bring knowledge and levels of experi- ence; some senior level, some young, others in between. The context of the term consensus through- out this book refers to root wisdom decision making that stands the test of time. It’s NOT about one person, one vote; seniority; dominating personalities; or compromise. It’s not about show- casing IPTs to customers while continuing to do business the OLD way. 12 Chapter 2 Book Organization and Conventions Hierarchical Decomposition Relationships Decimal-Based Notation Hierarchical Decomposition Relationships Tag-Based Notation Entity A Process 2.0 Process 1.0 3.0 Process 3.0 Entity A_1 Entity A_2 Entity A_3 Process 2.1 Process 2.2 Process 2.3 Entity A_22 Entity A_21 Process 2.2.1 Process 2.2.2 Process 2.2.3 Entity A_211 Entity A_212 Entity A_213 Figure 2.7 Hierarchical Decomposition Relationship Notations
  • 31. Team decision making involves eliciting and integrating team member knowledge and expe- rience to make choices that clearly represent a path to success and avoid a path to failure. It may require smart, informed assessments of risk and reward decision making. The bottom line is that it’s about making technical decisions everyone can and will proactively support. 2.7 WARNINGS AND CAUTIONARY DISCLAIMERS As a professional, you and your organization are solely responsible and accountable for the appli- cation and implementation of the concepts, principles, processes, and practices discussed in this book, the quality of work products produced, and the impact of those actions on society, colleagues, and the environment. As a practitioner’s book, the discussions reflect experiences that may or may not be relevant to you, your organization, or program. You are advised to supplement this information with personal study, education, research, and experience to enhance your competency skills to the level of performance required and expected by your organization, contract, profession, and applicable laws and regulations. Where specialized expertise is required, employ the services of highly qualified and competent subject matter expert (SME) professionals. 2.7 Warnings and Cautionary Disclaimers 13 Table 2.1 Sample systems for application to General Exercises Individual Project Suggestions Team-Based Project Suggestions 1. Mechanical pencil 1. Exercise room treadmill 2. Desktop stapler 2. Snowmobile 3. Disposable camera 3. Automobile 4. Personal digital assistant (PDA) 4. Word processor 5. Cellular phone 5. Voice mail system 6. Desktop or laptop computer 6. Sports utility vehicle (SUV) 7. Computer mouse 7. Doctor’s office 8. Computer scanner 8. Automatic car wash 9. Computer printer 9. Fast food restaurant with drive—through window 10. Computer display monitor 10. Store (video, grocery, bookstore, etc.) 11. CD/DVD player 11. Shopping mall 12. TV/CD/DVD remote control device 12. Hospital 13. Television 13. School 14. MP3 player 14. Fire department 15. Home 15. Overnight package delivery 16. Residential mailbox 16. Restaurant 17. Lawn mower 17. Garbage collection system 18. Lawn edger 18. Recyclable materials station 19. Hand-held calculator 19. Community landfill 20. Ceiling fan 20. Emergency response system (ERS) 21. Web site 21. City rapid transit system or an element 22. Fast food restaurant drive through 22. Professional sports stadium 23. Airport check-in kiosk 23. Organization within an enterprise 24. Voice mail system 24. Fighter aircraft 25. Commercial jet aircraft 26. NASA Space Shuttle 27. International Space Station (ISS)
  • 33. Part I System Analysis Concepts EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The foundation of any discipline resides in its concepts and guiding principles. Part 1 is structured around five thematic concepts that are fundamental to understanding systems—WHAT a system is; WHO its users and stakeholders are; WHY it exists and HOW it benefits its users and stakehold- ers; HOW it is structured; and HOW it operates, is supported, and disposed. Chapters 3–22 are grouped and presented in a sequence that supports the five concepts listed below: • System Entity Concepts • System Architecture Concepts • System Mission Concepts • System Operations Concepts • System Capability Concepts These basic concepts serve as the foundation for understanding Part II System Design and Development Practices. This foundation fills the void for people and organizations that restrict their education and training to the philosophy of SE and attempt to make a quantum leap from specifi- cations to point design solutions due to a lack of understanding of these fundamental concepts. To better understand what each of these concepts entails, let’s explore a brief introductory synopsis of each one. System Entity Concepts Our first series of discussions focus on a simple concept, the system as an entity. The System Entity Concepts consist of Chapters 3–7. These discussions: define what a system is; identify attributes, properties, and characteristics common to most systems; address organizational systems roles and stakeholders; identify key factors that impact user acceptability of a system, and define a model for the system/product lifecycle. Given an understanding of the System Entity Concepts, our next discussions shift to under- standing HOW systems and their operating environments are organized and structured. System Architecture Concepts Most people think of a system and its operating environment in physical terms; however, some systems may be virtual such as those centered around political or cultural systems. Regardless of System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  • 34. 16 Part I System Analysis Concepts whether a system is physical or virtual, we can characterize them in terms of form, fit, and func- tion using their structural framework as the point of reference. Our second series, System Architecture Concepts, decomposes the system into its constituent parts via its architectural framework. Chapters 8–12 establish a high level analytical framework for analyzing how a system interacts with itself and its operating environment. Analyses and obser- vations of these interactions reveal that we can characterize a SYSTEM OF INTEREST (SOI) and its operating environment via system elements—EQUIPMENT, PERSONNEL, MISSION RESOURCES, PROCEDURAL DATA, and FACILITIES. Our discussions include establishment of a semantics convention to minimize confusion relating to how developers communicate about multi-level components within a system and relate to higher-level systems. Based on an understanding of the System Architecture Concepts, we are ready to explore WHY a system exists and how an organization employs it as an asset via the System Mission Concepts. System Mission Concepts Every system has a mission or a reason for its existence as envisioned by its acquirer, users, and stakeholders who expect the system to provide purposeful value and a return on investment (ROI). The System Mission Concepts series consisting of Chapters 13–17 describe HOW systems are employed by organizations and assigned performance-based outcome missions to fulfill specific aspects of organizational objectives. Our discussions trace the origins of a system from an organization’s operational need to HOW users envision operating and supporting the system to perform missions that satisfy that need. We investigate how systems interact with their operating environment during missions, how missions are planned, and explore how the user(s) expect the system to perform specific actions related to achieving mission objectives. The System Mission Concepts, which define WHAT a system is to accomplish and HOW WELL from an organizational perspective, provide the foundation for our next topic, the System Opera- tions Concepts. System Operations Concepts System missions require timely execution of a series of performance-based operations and tasks. The System Operations Concepts series consisting of Chapters 18–20 explore how users prepare and configure a system for a mission, conduct the mission, and perform most-mission follow-up. Analysis and observations of systems reveals that we can create a tailorable System Operations Model that serves as a basic construct to facilitate identification of phase-based operations common to all human-made systems. We employ the model’s framework to illustrate how system interac- tions with its operating environment are modeled for various types of single use and multi-use applications. The System Operations Concepts, which structure a system mission into specific operations and tasks, serve as a framework for identifying system capabilities to be provided by the system to accomplish mission objectives. This brings us to the final topic of Part I, System Capability Concepts. System Capability Concepts The System Capability Concepts series consist of Chapters 21 and 22. We explore HOW to derive and allocate mission operational capabilities to integrated sets of system elements. Whereas most people believe a capability is an end in itself, our discussions reveal that a capability has a common construct that can be universally applied to specifying and implementing all types of capabilities.
  • 35. Chapter 3 What Is a System? 3.1 INTRODUCTION Analysis, design, and development systems, products, or services requires answering several fun- damental questions: 1. WHAT is a system? 2. What is included within a system’s boundaries? 3. WHAT role does a system perform within the User’s organization? 4. What mission applications does the system perform? 5. WHAT results-oriented outcomes does the system produce? These fundamental questions are often difficult to answer. If you are unable to clearly and con- cisely delineate WHAT the system is, you have a major challenge. Now add the element of complexity in bringing groups of people working on same problem to convergence and consensus on the answers. This is a common problem shared by Users, Acquirers, and System Developers, even within their own organizations. This chapter serves as a cornerstone for this text. It answers the first question, What is a system? We begin by defining what a system is and explain the meaning of structural phrases within the definition. Based on the definition, we introduce various categories of systems and describe the dif- ferences between systems, products, and tools. We introduce the concept of precedented and unprecedented systems. Finally, we conclude by presenting an analytical and graphical represen- tation of a system. What You Should Learn from This Chapter • What is a system? • What are some examples of types of systems? • What are the differences between systems, products, and tools? • What is the difference between a precedented system and an unprecedented system? • How do we analytically represent a system? System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 17
  • 36. 3.2 DEFINITION OF A SYSTEM The term “system” originates from the Greek term systēma, which means to “place together.” Mul- tiple business and engineering domains have definitions of a system. This text defines a system as: • System An integrated set of interoperable elements, each with explicitly specified and bounded capabilities, working synergistically to perform value-added processing to enable a User to satisfy mission-oriented operational needs in a prescribed operating environment with a specified outcome and probability of success. To help you understand the rationale for this definition, let’s examine each part in detail. System Definition Rationale The definition above captures a number of key discussion points about systems. Let’s examine the basis for each phrase in the definition. • By “an integrated set,” we mean that a system, by definition, is composed of hierarchical levels of physical elements, entities, or components. • By “interoperable elements,” we mean that elements within the system’s structure must be compatible with each other in form, fit, and function, for example. System elements include equipment (e.g., hardware and software, personnel, facilities, operating constraints, support), maintenance, supplies, spares, training, resources, procedural data, external systems, and anything else that supports mission accomplishment. Author’s Note 3.2 One is tempted to expand this phrase to state “interoperable and comple- mentary.” In general, system elements should have complementary missions and objectives with nonoverlapping capabilities. However, redundant systems may require duplication of capabilities across several system elements. Additionally, some systems, such as networks, have multiple instances of the same components. • By each element having “explicitly specified and bounded capabilities,” we mean that every element should work to accomplish some higher level goal or purposeful mission. System element contributions to the overall system performance must be explicitly specified. This requires that operational and functional performance capabilities for each system element be identified and explicitly bounded to a level of specificity that allows the element to be analyzed, designed, developed, tested, verified, and validated—either on a stand-alone basis or as part of the integrated system. • By “working in synergistically,” we mean that the purpose of integrating the set of elements is to leverage the capabilities of individual element capabilities to accomplish a higher level capability that cannot be achieved as stand-alone elements. • By “value-added processing,” we mean that factors such operational cost, utility, suitability, availability, and efficiency demand that each system operation and task add value to its inputs availability, and produce outputs that contribute to achievement of the overall system mission outcome and performance objectives. • By “enable a user to predictably satisfy mission-oriented operational needs,” we mean that every system has a purpose (i.e., a reason for existence) and a value to the user(s). Its value may be a return on investment (ROI) relative to satisfying operational needs or to satisfy system missions and objectives. 18 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
  • 37. • By “in a prescribed operating environment,” we mean that for economic, outcome, and survival reasons, every system must have a prescribed—that is, bounded—operating environment. • By “with a specified outcome,” we mean that system stakeholders (Users, shareholders, owners, etc.) expect systems to produce results. The observed behavior, products, by- products, or services, for example, must be outcome-oriented, quantifiable, measurable, and verifiable. • By “and probability of success,” we mean that accomplishment of a specific outcome involves a degree of uncertainty or risk. Thus, the degree of success is determined by various performance factors such as reliability, dependability, availability, maintainability, sustain- ability, lethality, and survivability. Author’s Note 3.1 Based on the author’s experiences, you need at least four types of agree- ment on working level definitions of a system: 1) a personal understanding, 2) a program team consensus, 3) an organizational (e.g., System Developer) consensus, and 4) most important, a con- tractual consensus with your customer. Why? Of particular importance is that you, your program team, and your customer (i.e., a User or an Acquirer as the User’s technical representative) have a mutually clear and concise under- standing of the term. Organizationally you need a consensus of agreement among the System Devel- oper team members. The intent is to establish continuity across contract and organizations as personnel transition between programs. Other Definitions of a System National and international standards organizations as well as different authors have their own def- initions of a system. If you analyze these, you will find a diversity of viewpoints, all tempered by their personal knowledge and experiences. Moreover, achievement of a “one size fits all” conver- gence and consensus by standards organizations often results in wording that is so diluted that many believe it to be insufficient and inadequate. Examples of organizations having standard definitions include: • International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) • Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) • American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) • International Standards Organization (ISO) • US Department of Defense (DoD) • US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) • US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) You are encouraged to broaden your knowledge and explore definitions by these organizations. You should then select one that best fits your business application. Depending on your personal viewpoints and needs, the definition stated in this text should prove to be the most descriptive characterization. Closing Point When people develop definitions, they attempt to create content and grammar simultaneously. People typically spend a disproportionate amount of time on grammar and spend very little time on substantive content. We see this in specifications and plans, for example. Grammar is impor- 3.2 Definition of a System 19
  • 38. tant, since it is the root of our language and communications. However, wordsmithed grammar has no value if it lacks substantive content. You will be surprised how animated and energized people become over wording exercises. Subsequently, they throw up their hands and walk away. For highly diverse terms such as a system, a good definition may sometimes be simply a bulleted list of descriptors concerning what a term is or, perhaps, is not. So, if you or your team attempts to create your own definition, perform one step at a time. Obtain consensus on the key elements of substantive content. Then, structure the statement in a logical sequence and translate the structure into grammar. 3.3 LEARNING TO RECOGNIZE TYPES OF SYSTEMS Systems occur in a number of forms and vary in composition, hierarchical structure, and behavior. Consider the next high-level examples. EXAMPLE 3.1 20 Chapter 3 What Is a System? • Economic systems • Educational systems • Financial systems • Environmental systems • Medical systems • Corporate systems • Insurance systems • Religious systems • Social systems • Psychological systems • Cultural systems • Food distribution systems • Transportation systems • Communications systems • Entertainment systems • Government systems Legislative systems Judicial systems Revenue systems Taxation systems Licensing systems Military systems Welfare systems Public safety systems Parks and recreation systems Environmental systems If we analyze these systems, we find that they produce combinations of products, by-products, or services. Further analysis reveals most of these fall into one or more classes such as individual versus organizational; formal versus informal; ground-based, sea-based, air-based, space-based, or hybrid; human-in-the-loop (HITL) systems, open loop versus closed loop; and fixed, mobile, and transportable systems. 3.4 DELINEATING SYSTEMS, PRODUCTS, AND TOOLS People often confuse the concepts of systems, products, and tools. To facilitate our discussion, let’s examine each of these terms in detail. System Context We defined the term system earlier in this section. A system may consist of two or more integrated elements whose combined—synergistic—purpose is to achieve mission objectives that may not be effectively or efficiently accomplished by each element on an individual basis. These systems typ- ically include humans, products, and tools to varying degrees. In general, human-made systems require some level of human resources for planning, operation, intervention, or support.
  • 39. Product Context Some systems are created as a work product by other systems. Let’s define the context of product: a product, as an ENABLING element of a larger system, is typically a physical device or entity that has a specific capability—form, fit, and function—with a specified level of performance. Products generally lack the ability—meaning intelligence—to self-apply themselves without human assistance. Nor can products achieve the higher level system mission objectives without human intervention in some form. In simple terms, we often relate to equipment-based products as items you can procure from a vendor via a catalog order number. Contextually, however, a product may actually be a vendor’s “system” that is integrated into a User’s higher-level system. Effectively, you create a system of systems (SoS). EXAMPLE 3.1 A hammer, as a procurable product has form, fit, and function but lacks the ability to apply its self to ham- mering or removing nails. EXAMPLE 3.2 A jet aircraft, as a system and procurable vendor product, is integrated into an airline’s system and may possess the capability, when programmed and activated by the pilot under certain conditions, to fly. Tool Context Some systems or products are employed as tools by higher level systems. Let’s define what we mean by a tool. A tool is a supporting product that enables a user or system to leverage its own capabilities and performance to more effectively or efficiently achieve mission objectives that exceed the individual capabilities of the User or system. EXAMPLE 3.3 A simple fulcrum and pivot, as tools, enable a human to leverage their own physical strength to displace a rock that otherwise could not be moved easily by one human. EXAMPLE 3.4 A statistical software application, as a support tool, enables a statistician to efficiently analyze large amounts of data and variances in a short period of time. 3.5 PRECEDENTED VERSUS UNPRECEDENTED SYSTEMS Most human-made systems evolve over time. Each new evolution of a system extends and expands the capabilities of the previous system by leveraging new or advanced technologies, methods, tools, techniques, and so forth. There are, however, instances where system operating environments or needs pose new challenges that are unprecedented. We refer to these as precedented and unprece- dented systems. Although we tend to think in terms of the legal system and its precedents, there are also precedents in physical systems, products, and services. 3.5 Precedented Versus Unprecedented Systems 21
  • 40. 3.6 ANALYTICAL REPRESENTATION OF A SYSTEM As an abstraction we symbolically represent a system as a simple entity by using a rectangular box as shown in Figure 3.1. In general, inputs such as stimuli and cues are fed into a system that processes the inputs and produces an output. As a construct, this symbolism is acceptable; however, the words need to more explicitly identify WHAT the system performs. That is, the system must add value to the input in producing an output. We refer to the transformational processing that adds value to inputs and produces an output as a capability. You will often hear people refer to this as the system’s functionality; this is par- tially correct. Functionality only represents the ACTION to be accomplished; not HOW WELL as characterized by performance. This text employs capability as the operative term that encompasses both the functionality and performance attributes of a system. The simple diagram presented in Figure 3.1 represents a system. However, from an analytical perspective, the diagram is missing critical information that relates to how the system operates and performs within its operating environment. Therefore, we expand the diagram to identify these missing elements. The result is shown in Figure 3.2. The attributes of the construct—which include desirable/undesirable inputs, stakeholders, and desirable/undesirable outputs—serve as a key checklist to ensure that all contributory factors are duly considered when specifying, designing, and developing a system. 22 Chapter 3 What Is a System? System Entity Processing Output Response(s) Input(s) · Stimuli · Cues ·Products ·By-Products ·Services Figure 3.1 Basic System Entity Construct System Entity (Any Level of Abstraction) • Attributes • Capabilities • Performance Acceptable Inputs Unacceptable Inputs Acceptable Outputs Unacceptable Outputs Stakeholders Threats Roles, Missions, & Objectives • Products • By-Products • Services Opportunities Resources Controls Physical Constraints Figure 3.2 Analytical System Entity Construct
  • 41. 3.7 SYSTEMS THAT REQUIRE ENGINEERING Earlier we listed examples of various types of systems. Some of these systems are workflow-based systems that produce systems, products, or services such as schools, hospitals, banking systems, and manufacturers. As such, they require insightful, efficient, and effective organizational structures, supporting assets, and collaborative interactions. Some systems require the analysis, design, and development of specialized structures, complex interactions, and performance monitoring that may have an impact on the safety, health, and well- being of the public as well as the environment, engineering of systems may be required. As you investigate WHAT is required to analyze, design, and develop both types of systems, you will find that they both share a common set concepts, principles, and practices. Business systems, for example, may require application of various analytical and mathematical principles to develop busi- ness models and performance models to determine profitability and return on investment (ROI) and statistical theory for optimal waiting line or weather conditions, for example. In the case of highly complex systems, analytical, mathematical, and scientific principles may have to be applied. We refer to this as the engineering of systems, which may require a mixture of engineering disciplines such as system engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and software engi- neering. These disciplines may only be required at various stages during the analysis, design, and development of a system, product, or service. This text provides the concepts, principles, and practices that apply to the analysis, design, and development of both types of systems. On the surface these two categories imply a clear distinc- tion between those that require engineering and those that do not. So, how do you know when the engineering of systems is required? Actually these two categories represent a continuum of systems, products, or services that range from making a piece of paper, which can be complex, to developing a system as complex as an aircraft carrier or NASA’s International Space Station (ISS). Perhaps the best way to address the question: What is system engineering? What Is System Engineering? Explicitly SE is the multidisciplinary engineering of systems. However, as with any definition, the response should eliminate the need for additional clarifying questions. Instead, the engineering of a system response evokes two additional questions: What is engineering? What is a system? Pur- suing this line of thought, let’s explore these questions further. Defining Key Terms Engineering students often graduate without being introduced to the root term that provides the basis for their formal education. The term, engineering originates from the Latin word ingenerare, which means “to create.” Today, the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), which accredits engineering schools in the United States, defines the term as follows: • Engineering “[T]he profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural sci- ences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize economically the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.” (Source: Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology [ABET]) There are a number of ways to define SE, each dependent on an individual’s or organization’s per- spectives, experiences, and the like. System engineering means different things to different people. You will discover that even your own views of SE will evolve over time. So, if you have a diver- 3.7 Systems That Require Engineering 23
  • 42. sity of perspectives and definitions, what should you do? What is important is that you, program teams, or your organization: 1. Establish a consensus definition. 2. Document the definition in organizational or program command media to serve as a guide for all. For those who prefer a brief, high-level definition that encompasses the key aspects of SE, con- sider the following definition: • System Engineering (SE) The multidisciplinary application of analytical, mathematical, and scientific principles to formulating, selecting, and developing a solution that has accept- able risk, satisfies user operational need(s), and minimizes development and life cycle costs while balancing stakeholder interests. This definition can be summarized in a key SE principle: Principle 3.1 System engineering BEGINS and ENDS with the User. SE, as we will see, is one of those terms that requires more than simply defining WHAT SE does; the definition must also identify WHO/WHAT benefits from SE. The ABET definition of engi- neering, for example, includes the central objective “to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.” Applying this same context to the definition of SE, the User of systems, products, and serv- ices symbolizes humankind. However, mankind’s survival is very dependent on a living environ- ment that supports sustainment of the species. Therefore, SE must have a broader perspective than simply “for the benefit of mankind.” SE must also ensure a balance between humankind and the living environment without sacrificing either. 3.8 SUMMARY This concludes our discussion of what a system is. We defined the term “system” and highlighted the chal- lenges of defining the term within diverse contexts. We also explored examples of types of systems; distin- guished between precedented and unprecedented systems and considered the context of systems, products, and tools. We concluded with the identification of two categories of systems that produce other systems, products, or services. Some of these require the engineering of systems or system engineering. Therefore, we defined engineering, which in combination with the definition of a system, leads to defining system engineering. With this basic understanding, we are now ready to investigate the key attributes, properties, and char- acteristics that make each system unique. GENERAL EXERCISES 1. Answer each of the What You Should Learn from This Chapter questions identified in the Introduction. 2. Create your own definition of a system. Based on the “system” definitions provided in this chapter: (a) Identify your viewpoint of shortcomings in the definitions. (b) Provide rationale as to why you believe that your definition overcomes those shortcomings. (c) From an historical perspective, identify three precedented systems that were replaced by unprecedented systems. 24 Chapter 3 What Is a System?
  • 43. ORGANIZATION CENTRIC EXERCISES 1. How do you and your organization define a “system”? 2. Do you and your work team have a definition for a “system”? If not, ask members to independently develop their definition of what a system is. Summarize the results and present individual viewpoints to the team. Discuss the results and formulate a consensus definition. Report the results to your class. What diversity of opinions did you observe? What concept or semantic obstacles did the team have to overcome to get to consensus? 3. Research the definitions for system engineering provided in the list below. Compare and contrast these def- initions and determine which one best fits your beliefs and experiences? (a) AFSCM 375-1 (b) Former FM 770-1 (c) Former MIL-STD-499A (d) EIA/IS-731.1 (e) Defense Systems Management College (DSMC) (f) International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) (g) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 4. For the system, product, or service your organization produces, identify constituent products and tools (e.g., external systems) required to create or support it. 5. Identify the paradigms you observe in your: (a) organization, (b) customers, and (c) business domain that influence system or product design. For each paradigm, what are the characteristic phrases stakeholders use that make the paradigm self-evident. 6. How does your organization view and define SE? 7. How does the author’s definition of SE compare with your experiences? 8. What challenges and paradigms does your organization or program face in defining SE? REFERENCE Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Baltimore, MD. URL: www.abet.org ADDITIONAL READING Additional Reading 25 ANSI/EIA 632-1999 Standard. 1999. Processes for Engi- neering Systems. Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). Arlington, VA. Blanchard, B.S. 1998. System Engineering Management. New York: Wiley. Blanchard, B.S., and W.J. Fabrycky. 1990. Systems Engi- neering and Analysis, 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Buede, Dennis M. 2000. The Engineering Design of Systems: Models and Methods. New York: Wiley. FM 770-78. 1979. System Engineering Field Manual. Washington, DC: Headquarters of Department of the Army. Defense Systems Management College (DSMC). 2001. Glossary: Defense Acquisition Acronyms and Terms, 10th ed. Defense Acquisition University Press. Ft. Belvoir, VA. International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE). 1993. Identification of Pragmatic Principles—Final Report. SE Practice Working Group, Subgroup on Prag- matic Principles. Seattle, WA. IEEE 1220-1998. 1998. IEEE Standard for Application and Management of the Systems Engineering Process. Insti- tute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). New York, NY. MIL-STD-498 (canceled). 1994. Software Development and Documentation. Washington, DC: Department of Defense. MIL-STD-499B (canceled draft). Systems Engineering. Washington, DC: Department of Defense. 1994.
  • 44. 26 Chapter 3 What Is a System? Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), ASD-100 Architec- ture and System Engineering. 2003. National Air Space System—Systems Engineering Manual. Washington, DC. International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE). 2000. System Engineering Handbook. Version 2.0. Wash- ington, DC. Sage, Andrew P. 1995. Systems Management for Infor- mation Technology and Software Engineering. New York: Wiley. Defense Systems Management College (DSMC). 2001. Systems Engineering Fundamentals. Defense Acquisition University Press. Ft. Belvoir, VA. NASA SP-6105. 1995. System Engineering Handbook. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
  • 45. Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics 4.1 INTRODUCTION System engineering requires development of a strong foundation in understanding how to charac- terize a system, product, or service in terms of its attributes, properties, and performance. This Chapter introduces system attributes that are common across most natural and human- made systems. Our discussions address these attributes in terms of a framework that Acquirers can use as a checklist for system specifications and System Developers/Service Providers can use to assess the adequacy of those specifications. The intent is to enable you to learn how to: 1) THINK about, 2) ORGANIZE, and 3) CHARACTERIZE systems. This knowledge equips SEs and system analysts in two ways. First, when you analyze and evaluate specifications, checklists of commonly used attributes, properties, and characteristics enable us to perform a reality check and identify any “holes” in specification requirements. Second, when we develop specifications, it provides a reference checklist for organizing and specifying key capabilities and their levels of performance. Based on this Introduction, let’s identify what you should learn from the chapter’s discussions. What You Should Learn from This Chapter 1. What is a system attribute? 2. What is a system property? 3. What is a system characteristic? 4. What makes a system, product, or service unique? 5. Understanding categories of system, product, or service performance 6. What are some types of system characteristics? 7. What constitutes a system’s state of equilibrium? Definition of Key Terms • Capability An explicit, inherent feature activated or excited by an external stimulus to perform a function (action) at a specified level of performance until terminated by external commands, timed completion, or resource depletion. System Analysis, Design, and Development, by Charles S. Wasson Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27
  • 46. • Fit An item’s compatibility to interface with another item within a prescribed set of limits with ease and without interference. • Form An item’s prescribed shape intended to support one or more interface boundary objectives. • Form, Fit, and Function “In configuration management, that configuration comprising the physical and functional characteristics of an item as an entity, but not including any charac- teristics of the elements making up the item.” (Source: IEEE 610.12-1990) • Function An operation, activity, process, or action performed by a system element to achieve a specific objective within a prescribed set of performance limits. Functions involve work—such as to move a force through a distance, analyze and process information, trans- form energy or physical properties, make decisions, conduct communications, and inter- operate with other OPERATING ENVIRONMENT systems. • Functional Attributes “Measurable performance parameters including reliability, main- tainability, and safety.” (Source: ANSI/EIA-649-1998, para. 3.0, p. 5) • Level of Performance An objective, measurable parameter that serves to bound the ability of a system to perform a function based on a set of scenario assumptions, initial conditions, and operating conditions. Examples include system effectiveness, PERSONNEL Element proficiency, and system efficiency. • Performance “A quantitative measure characterizing a physical or functional attribute relat- ing to the execution of an operation or function.” (ANSI/IEEE 649-1998, para. 3.0, p.5) “Performance attributes include: quantity (how many or how much), quality (how well), coverage (how much area, how far), timeliness (how responsive, how frequent), and readi- ness (availability, mission/operational readiness).” (ANSI/IEEE 649-1998, para. 3.0, p. 5) • Physical Attributes “Quantitative and qualitative expressions of material features, such as composition, dimensions, finishes, form, fit, and their respective tolerances.” (Source: ANSI/ EIA-649-1998, Section 3.0, p. 6) 4.2 OVERVIEW OF ATTRIBUTES, PROPERTIES, AND CHARACTERISTICS You will often hear people refer to a system’s attributes, properties, and characteristics. To the casual observer who researches the definitions of these terms, most dictionaries define these terms by referencing the other. For purposes of our discussions, we will employ the following as a means of delineating the differences between the terms. Attributes The term attributes classifies functional or physical features of a system. Examples include gender; unit cost; nationality, state, and city of residence; type of sport; organizational position manager; and fixed wing aircraft versus rotor. Properties The term, properties, refers to the mass properties of a system. Examples include composition; weight; density; and size such as length, width, or height. 28 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
  • 47. Characteristics The term characteristics refers to the behavioral and physical qualities that uniquely identify each system. Behavioral characteristics examples include predictability and responsivity. Physical char- acteristics examples include equipment warm-up and stabilization profiles; equipment thermal sig- natures; aircraft radar crosssections; vehicle acceleration to cruise speed, handling, or stopping; and whale fluke markings. The sum of a system’s attributes, properties, and characteristics uniquely identifies and dis- tinguishes a system, product, or service from others of the same classification. To illustrate this uniqueness, let’s explore a few aspects that are common to most systems. 4.3 EVERY SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN UNIQUE IDENTITY All natural and human-made systems have their own attributes (traits) that uniquely characterize, for example, their roles, behavioral patterns, temperament, and appearance, even within the same species. In general, key attributes of uniqueness include the following items, which are described in Table 4.1. 4.4 UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE In general, system performance is the main factor that determines the ultimate level of success of a system. System functionality is often viewed as the “qualifying criterion” for systems perform- ance. From the user’s perspective, will the system be operationally effective in accomplishing its mission and objectives? Let’s begin our discussion by defining “performance.” Categories of Performance When you investigate systems, you soon discover two basic categories of performance: 1) objec- tive performance and 2) subjective performance. Let’s define these terms: • Objective Performance Performance that produces measurable physical evidence of system effectiveness based on pre-defined criteria. For example, the temperature of the water is 108°F. • Subjective Performance Performance indicated by a subjective quality that varies by indi- vidual sensory values, interpretations, or perspectives. For example, is the water “warm or hot”? Given these definitions, let’s examine each performance category in greater detail. Objective Performance From an SE perspective, especially in writing specifications, a system’s capabilities and expected levels of performance must be specified with clear, unambiguous, quantifiable, measurable, testable, and verifiable parameters without the influence of subjective interpretations. Examples of objective performance include: 4.4 Understanding System Performance 29
  • 48. 30 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics Table 4.1 Descriptions of system attributes, properties, and characteristics ID Attribute Description 1 System Every system has at least one or more benefactors such as owners, benefactors administrators, operators, and maintainers, who benefit from its behavior, products, by-products, or services. 2 System life Every system, product, and service has a life cycle that depicts its level of cycle maturity. 3 System Every system has an operating domain or “sphere of influence” that bounds its operating area of coverage, operations, and effectiveness. Humans have learned to extend domain the area of coverage by employing other assets that enable a specific system to “amplify” its range. EXAMPLE 4.1 An aircraft has a specific range under specific operating conditions such as fuel, payload, and weather. Deploying refueling sources— airborne tankers—and maintenance facilities along its mission flight path can extend the range. 4 System frame of Every system at any point in time has a frame of reference that serves as the reference permanent or temporary: 1. Base of operations for its operating domain. 2. Basis for navigation. EXAMPLE 4.2 An aircraft may be assigned to a permanent home base that serves as the center of its operations. The aircraft may be ordered to perform special (temporary) assignments from a base in Europe. The Apollo Space Program used the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and the Earth as its frame of reference. 5 Higher order Every system: systems 1. Operates as part of a higher order system that may govern, direct, constrain, or control its operation and performance. 2. Provides resources for missions. 6 Purpose-based Viewing the universe as a “system of systems (SOS),” every natural and man- role made system has a beneficial role based on a reason for its existence as envisioned by its original Acquirer or System Owner. 7 System missions Every system performs missions in fulfillment of its purpose to achieve outcome- based performance objectives established by its owner and Users. 8 Mission goals Each system and mission must be characterized by a set of goals and and objectives, preferably documented. Goals and objectives provide the performance fundamental basis for resource expenditures by the system owner and objectives shareholders based on a planned set of multifaceted accomplishments and an expected return on investment(ROI). Each goal must be supported by one or more specific objectives that are quantifiable, measurable, testable, and verifiable. 9 System Every system, in execution of its mission, is subjected to a set of operating operating constraints and conditions controlled by higher order constraints and systems. conditions 10 System utility Every system must provide a physical, psychological, sociological, financial, and economic value-added utility to its User. System utility includes ease of use, usefulness, etc. (continued)
  • 49. 4.4 Understanding System Performance 31 Table 4.1 continued ID Attribute Description 11 System Every system has a level of operational suitability to the User in terms of suiting suitability its planned application and integration into the users organizational system. EXAMPLE 4.3 A gas-powered lawn edger is suitable for cutting grass around trees and flower gardens; they are not, however, suitable for mowing lawns unless you do not own a lawn mower. 12 System success Each system and mission requires a set of success criteria that the system owner criteria and shareholders agree represent WHAT objective criteria constitute successful accomplishment of a mission via goals and results-oriented objectives. Ultimate success resides in User acceptance and level of satisfaction. 13 Mission Every system is characterized by a probability of success in accomplishing reliability mission objectives for a specified mission duration and set of operating environment conditions and scenarios. 14 System Every system has some level of cost and technical effectiveness related to effectiveness accomplishing the system’s mission with an anticipated probability of success per unit of cost. EXAMPLE 4.4 Consider the system effectiveness of an educational system or a health care system. The challenge is: Effectiveness from WHAT stakeholder’s perspective? 15 System Every system has a degree of efficiency in processing raw materials, information, efficiency stimuli, cues, etc. As engineers, we assign an efficiency metric that provides a ratio of the quantity of output produced for a known quantity on input. 16 System Every system has a level of integrity in its ability to deliver systems, products, integrity and services as required despite operating constraints and conditions. 17 System To ensure success in accomplishing its mission, every system, product, or service sustainment requires resources such as personnel, funding, consumables, expendables; corrective and preventive maintenance; and support such as spares, supplies, and training. 18 System Some systems, namely businesses, promote their systems in anticipation of sales promotion via demonstrations, advertising, etc. The promotion activities may require protection and security. EXAMPLE 4.5 A publisher plans to release a new book in a series on a specific day and time, promote the book via advertising, and impose sale constraints and conditions on bookstore owners. The bookstore owners must keep the book under lock and key (protection) with 24 hour surveillance (security) until the official release. 19 System threats Every system and its missions may be threatened by competitors or adversaries in its operating environment that may exhibit friendly, benign, or hostile intentions or actions. 20 System Because of vulnerabilities or the need for the element of surprise, some systems concealment require camouflage or concealment to shield or alter their identity. 21 System Every system must have some level of protection to minimize its vulnerability to protection external threats. (continued)
  • 50. Table 4.1 continued ID Attribute Description 22 System Man-made systems may maintain a level of security such as physical security security (PHYSEC), communications security (COMSEC), operational security (OPSEC), and information security (INFOSEC). 23 System Every system consists of a multi-level, logical (functional) and physical structure architecture or architecture that provides the framework for its form, fit, and function. 24 System Every system, by definition, has inherent capabilities such as processing, capabilities strengths, transfer functions that enable it to process inputs such as raw materials, information, and stimuli and to provide a response in the form of behavior patterns, products, and by-products. System capabilities, like operating domains, can be extended using tools or other systems. 25 System concept Every system has a Concept of Operations (ConOps) as envisioned by its system of operations owner, system developer, and/or system maintainer. The ConOps provides the (Con Ops) basis for bounding the operating space, system capabilities, interfaces, and operating environment. 26 System phases, For each system/product life cycle phase, every system, product, or service modes, and states evolves through a series of phases, modes, and state of operation that may be of operation cyclical or nonrecurring (single use). 27 Operating Every system employs a set of operating norms, standards, and conventions that norms, governs its operations, morals, ethics, and tolerances. standards, and conventions 28 System Every system should have a system description that characterizes the system description architecture, its elements, interfaces, etc. Each of these characteristics is represented by system capabilities and engineering performance parameters that must be captured and articulated as requirements in the System Performance Specification (SPS). 29 System Every system has operating constraints and conditions that may be physical operating (capabilities), imposed by higher order authority—international, governmental, constraints and environmental, social, economic, financial, psychological, etc. conditions 30 System sensors Every natural and human-made system possesses some form of sensor that enables it to detect external stimuli and cues. 31 System behavior Every system is characterized by patterns of behavior. patterns 32 System Every system possesses performance-based behavioral characteristics, such as responsiveness throughput, that characterize its ability to process raw materials or stimuli and and sensitivity provide a response. We refer to the quickness as its responsivity. EXAMPLE 4.8 Accelerator boards enable computer processors to improve responsiveness. 33 System Every system has internal and external interfaces that enable it to interact within interfaces itself and its operating environment. 34 System pedigree Every system has a pedigree derived from predecessor system designs, technologies, and improvements to those designs to correct for flaws, defects, deficiencies, errors, etc. 32 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics (continued)
  • 51. Table 4.1 continued ID Attribute Description 35 Mission Every system requires inputs such as tasking, expendables, consumables, and resources operator actions that can be transformed into specific actions required to (system inputs) stimulate motivate, maneuver, process, and output behavioral and physical responses. 36 System Every system produces: products, 1. Value-added products and/or performs services that benefit its stakeholders services, and 2. By-products that may impact system performance and/or its operating by-products environment. EXAMPLE 4.9 By-products include heat, waste products—trash, exhaust, thermal signatures, and colorations. 37 Procedural data Every human-made system requires procedural data that describe safe operating procedures related to equipment, services, and operator interfaces and interfaces with external systems. 38 System lethality Some defensive and offensive systems are characterized by their lethality—their potential to destroy or inflict damage, disable, neutralize, or otherwise cause harm to a threat or target. 39 System Every system has some form vulnerability that exposes uncertainties or vulnerability shortcomings in its behavioral and physical characteristics. Vulnerability includes physical, psychological, social, economic, security, privacy, and other factors. EXAMPLE 4.10 Military tanks have additional layers of protection to minimize the impacts of direct hits. Internet sites have vulnerabilities to computer “hackers.” 40 System Every system has degrees of fault tolerance that enable it to perform missions survivability and achieve mission objectives while operating at a degraded level of performance for a given set of internal or external induced or malfunctions. 41 System The state of a system’s operational readiness to perform a mission on-demand. availability Availability is a function of the system’s reliability and maintainability. 42 System Every system possesses psychological or appearance characteristics that appeal aesthetics to the senses or are aesthetically pleasing to its stakeholders. 43 System Every system is unique in its development. This includes design flaws and blemishes errors, work quality and material defects, imperfections, etc., that may impact system performance or cosmetically diminish its value based on appearance. 44 Risk Every system, product, or service has an element of risk related to mission operations and its operating environment that include: 1. Probability of occurrence. 2. Consequence(s) of failure. 45 System Every human-made system, at various stages of the system/product life cycle, environmental, may pose environmental, safety, or health risks to system personnel—operators safety, and and maintainers, private and public property, the environment, etc. health (ES&H) 46 System health Every system has an operational health status that represents its current state of status readiness to perform or support User missions. 47 System total cost Every human-made system has a total ownership cost (TOC) over its life cycle of ownership that includes nonrecurring and recurring development operational costs. 4.4 Understanding System Performance 33
  • 52. These are just a few examples of objective performance parameters. Now let’s investigate the other type, subjective performance. Subjective Performance Subjective performance is more difficult to characterize and quantify. Interestingly, we can assign arbitrary quantities to subjective performance parameters that are measurable, testable, and verifi- able via surveys and interviews, tests. However, when the survey or interview participants are asked to indicate their degree of preference, agreement, and like/dislike with the measurable statement, the response still requires interpretation, value judgment, opinion, and so on. Thus, the response may be aliased based on past experience and lessons learned. Subjective performance examples include: • Quality—clarity, appearance, and color • Affinity • Likeability • Opinion • Smoothness • Satisfaction—enjoyment and taste 4.5 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS When we characterize systems, especially for marketing or analysis, there are four basic types of characteristics we consider: 1) general characteristics, 2) operating or behavioral characteristics, 3) physical characteristics, and 4) system aesthetics. General Characteristics The high-level features of a system are its general characteristics. We often see general charac- teristics stated in marketing brochures where key features are emphasized to capture a client or cus- 34 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics • Time • Distance • Size • Length • Depth • Thickness • Weight • Volume • Density • Physical state • Cost • Voltage • Amperage • Angle • Displacement • Velocity • Acceleration • Thrust • Hardness • Softness • Horsepower • Viscosity • Frequency • Intensity • Wavelength • Maintainability • Reliability • Productivity • Effectiveness • Efficiency • Temperature • Pressure • Humidity • Number of errors • Field of view • Resolution • Defects
  • 53. 4.5 System Characteristics 35 tomer’s interest. General characteristics often have some commonality across multiple instances or models of a system. Consider the following examples: EXAMPLE 4.12 • Automobile General Characteristics Available in two-door or four-door models; convertible or sedan; air- conditioned comfort; independent suspension; tinted windows, 22mpg city, 30mpg highway. • Aircraft General Characteristics Fanjet, 50-passenger, 2000 nautical mile range, IFR capabilities. • Enterprise or Organization General Characteristics 200 employees; staff with 20 PhD, 50 Master, and 30 BS degrees; annual sales of $500M per annum. • Network General Characteristics Client-server architecture, PC and Unix platforms, firewall security, remote dial-up access, Ethernet backbone, network file structure (NFS). Operating or Behavioral Characteristics At a level of detail below the general characteristics, systems have operating characteristics that describe system features related to usability, survivability, and performance for a prescribed oper- ating environment. Consider the following examples: EXAMPLE 4.17 • Automobile Operating Characteristics Maneuverability, turn radius of 18ft, 0 to 60mph in 6 seconds, etc. • Aircraft Operating Characteristics All-weather application, speed, etc. • Network Operating Characteristics Authorization, access time, latency, etc. Physical Characteristics Every system is described by physical characteristics that relate to nonfunctional attributes such as size, weight, color, capacity, and interface attributes. Consider the following examples: EXAMPLE 4.13 • Automobile Physical Characteristics 2000lbs, curb weight 14.0cu ft of cargo volume, 43.1 of inches (max). of front leg room, 17.1gals fuel capacity, 240 horsepower engine at 6250rpm, turbo, available in 10 colors. • Enterprise or Organization Physical Characteristics 5000sq ft of office space, 15 networked computers, 100,000sq ft warehouse. • Network Physical Characteristics 1.0Mb Ethernet backbone, topography, routers, gateways. System Aesthetic Characteristics General, operating, and physical characteristics are objective performance parameters. However, what about subjective characteristics? We refer to these as system aesthetic characteristics because they relate to the “look and feel” of a system. Obviously, this includes psychological, sociological, and cultural perspectives that relate to appealing to the User’s, Acquirer’s, or System Owner’s pref- erences. Thus, some buyers make independent decisions, while others are influenced by external systems (i.e., other buyers) in matters relating to community or corporate status, image, and the like.
  • 54. 4.6 THE SYSTEM’S STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM Every natural and human-made system exists in a state of equilibrium relative to its operating envi- ronment. In general, we refer to this as the “balance of power.” The state of equilibrium depends on how a system exists through its own: 1) level of dominance or 2) subordination by other systems. At any instance of time, a system is typically described by an INITIAL STATE—with conditions, statics, dynamics, strengths, weaknesses, or stabilization—and a FINAL STATE—with behavior, product, by-product, or service-oriented result controlled by the balance of power. Prerequisite Conditions System stability, integrity, and consistency of performance require that transitions between system phases, operations, and tasks have clean unambiguous transitions with no ramifications. Thus, systems are assumed by designers to have pre-requisite or initial conditions or criteria that must be accomplished prior to entering the next phase, operation, or task. By definition, since a system is composed of a set of integrated elements, this is important to ensure that all elements of the system are synchronized and harmonized. Initial Operating Conditions and State A system’s initial operating conditions consist of the physical and operational states of the system and its surrounding operating environment at the beginning of a system mission phase, operation, or task. Since analyses often require the establishment of basic assumptions for investigating some facet of system phases, operations, or task, initial conditions serve as a “snapshot” or starting point that captures the assumptions. To illustrate this concept, consider the following example: EXAMPLE 4.14 The aircraft took off in a crosswind of 35 knots; the early morning rush hour began as a blizzard with 30mph windgusts moved through the area. Statics When we analyze systems, a key basis for the analysis is often the physical state of the system at a given “snapshot of time.” Statics are used to characterize a system’s current orientation, such as state vector or orientation within a larger system. From an overall system perspective, an aircraft sitting in a hanger, an automobile in a driveway, a network computer system with no message traffic, and a lighting system in the ON or OFF state, all represent a system in its static state. In contrast, lower level system components may have a static condition while the system as a whole is in a dynamic condition. Mission Dynamics Every natural and man-made system conducts missions in its operating environment in some form of dynamic, physical state. Dynamics are a time-based characterization of system statics over a defined timeframe within its operating environment. The dynamics may range from slow changes— rock anchored on a hillside—to moderate changes—temperature variations—to violent, sudden changes—earthquakes or volcanoes. Dynamics occur as inconsistencies, perturbations, and instabilities in the balance of power in the local or global environment. Mankind has always been intrigued by the study of dynamics and 36 Chapter 4 System Attributes, Properties, and Characteristics
  • 55. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
  • 56. puits, et se mirent à traquer les Arabes comme s’ils eussent été des bêtes fauves. La joie des Espagnols fut immense. «Les lances de nos ennemis sont brisées! disait leur poète Ablî[280]. Nous avons rabaissé leur orgueil! Ceux qu’ils appelaient la vile canaille ont sapé les fondements de leur puissance. Depuis combien de temps leurs morts, que nous avons jetés dans ce puits, attendent-ils en vain un vengeur!» La situation des Arabes était d’autant plus dangereuse qu’ils étaient désunis. L’anarchie dans laquelle on était tombé avait donné une vigueur nouvelle à la funeste rivalité des Maäddites et des Yéménites; dans plusieurs districts, comme dans celui de Sidona, ces deux races se combattaient à outrance. Dans la province d’Elvira, alors qu’il s’agissait de donner un successeur à Yahyâ, les Yéménites, qui semblent avoir eu la supériorité du nombre, contestaient aux Maäddites leurs droits à l’hégémonie. Se quereller dans un moment aussi critique, c’était s’exposer à une ruine complète. Heureusement pour eux, les Yéménites le comprirent encore à temps; ils cédèrent, et, de concert avec leurs rivaux, ils donnèrent le commandement à Sauwâr[281]. Ce chef intrépide devint le sauveur de son peuple, et plus tard on disait souvent: «Si Allâh n’avait pas donné Sauwâr aux Arabes, ils auraient été exterminés jusqu’au dernier.» Caisite, de même que Yahyâ, Sauwâr devait naturellement avoir à cœur de venger la mort de son contribule; mais il avait de plus à prendre une revanche: lors de la prise de Monte-sacro, il avait vu les Espagnols tuer son fils aîné. A partir de ce moment, il avait été dévoré de la soif de la vengeance. D’après son propre témoignage, il était déjà vieux; «les femmes ne veulent plus de mon amour, depuis que mes cheveux ont blanchi,» disait- il dans un de ses poèmes, et de fait, il apportait à la tâche sanglante qu’il allait accomplir, une obstination et une férocité, que l’on s’expliquerait difficilement dans un jeune homme, mais qui se conçoivent dans un vieillard qui, dominé par une seule et dernière passion, a fermé l’âme à toute pitié, à tout sentiment humain. On serait porté à penser qu’il se crut l’ange exterminateur, et qu’il étouffa ses instincts plus doux, s’il en avait, par la conscience de sa mission providentielle. Après avoir réuni autant d’Arabes que possible sous sa bannière, son premier soin fut de se remettre en possession de Monte-sacro. En ceci il avait un double but: il voulait posséder une forteresse qui pût servir de base
  • 57. à ses opérations ultérieures, et assouvir sa rage dans le sang de ceux qui avaient tué son fils. Quoique Monte-sacro eût une garnison nombreuse, les Arabes prirent cette forteresse d’assaut. La vengeance de Sauwâr fut terrible: il passa au fil de l’épée tous les soldats de la garnison, au nombre de six mille. Ensuite il attaqua et prit d’autres châteaux. Chacun de ses succès entraîna une horrible boucherie; jamais et dans aucune circonstance, cet homme terrible ne fit grâce aux Espagnols; des familles entières furent exterminées jusqu’au dernier membre, et pour une foule d’héritages il n’y eut point d’héritiers. Dans leur détresse, les Espagnols d’Elvira supplièrent Djad, le gouverneur de la province, de les aider, en promettant de lui obéir dorénavant. Djad consentit à leur demande. A la tête de ses propres troupes et des Espagnols, il alla attaquer Sauwâr. Le chef arabe l’attendit de pied ferme. Le combat fut vif des deux côtés; mais les Arabes remportèrent la victoire, poursuivirent leurs ennemis jusqu’aux portes d’Elvira et leur tuèrent plus de sept mille hommes. Djad lui-même tomba entre les mains des vainqueurs. L’heureuse issue de cette bataille, connue sous le nom de bataille de Djad, remplit les Arabes d’une joie indicible: s’étant bornés jusqu’alors à l’attaque des châteaux, ils avaient, pour la première fois, vaincu leurs ennemis en rase campagne, et ils avaient immolé bien des victimes aux mânes de Yahyâ. Voici en quels termes un de leurs plus braves chefs, qui était en même temps un de leurs meilleurs poètes, Saîd ibn-Djoudî, exprima leurs sentiments: Apostats et incrédules, qui, jusqu’à votre dernière heure, déclariez fausse la vraie religion[282], nous vous avons massacrés, parce que nous avions à venger notre Yahyâ. Nous vous avons massacrés: Dieu le voulait! Fils d’esclaves, vous avez imprudemment irrité des braves qui n’ont jamais négligé de venger leurs morts; accoutumez-vous donc à endurer leur fureur, à recevoir dans vos reins leurs épées flamboyantes. A la tête de ses guerriers qui ne souffrent aucune insulte et qui sont courageux comme des lions, un illustre chef a marché contre vous. Un illustre chef! Sa renommée surpasse celle de tout autre; il a hérité la générosité de ses incomparables ancêtres. C’est un lion; il est né du sang le plus pur de Nizâr; il est le soutien de sa tribu comme nul autre ne l’est. Il allait venger ses contribules, ces hommes magnanimes qui avaient cru
  • 58. pouvoir se fier à des serments réitérés. Il les a vengés! Il a passé les fils des blanches au fil de l’épée, et ceux d’entre eux qui vivent encore gémissent dans les fers dont il les a chargés. Nous avons tué des milliers d’entre vous; mais la mort d’une foule d’esclaves n’est point un équivalent pour celle d’un seul noble. Ah, oui! ils ont assassiné notre Yahyâ quand il était leur hôte! L’assassiner n’était pas une action sensée.... Ils l’ont égorgé, ces méchants et méprisables esclaves; tout ce que font les esclaves est vilain. En commettant leur crime, ils n’ont pas fait une action sensée; non, leur sort, qui n’a point été heureux, a dû les convaincre qu’ils avaient été mal inspirés. Vous l’avez assassiné en traîtres, infâmes, après bien des traités, après bien des serments! Après l’éclatante victoire qu’il avait remportée, Sauwâr, qui venait de conclure des alliances avec les Arabes de Regio, de Jaën, et même de Calatrava, recommença ses déprédations et ses massacres. Les Espagnols, entièrement découragés, n’imaginaient plus d’autre voie de salut que de se jeter dans les bras du sultan. Ils implorèrent donc sa protection. Le sultan la leur eût volontiers accordée, s’il eût été en état de le faire. Tout ce qu’il pouvait dans les circonstances données, c’était de promettre son intervention amicale. Il fit donc dire à Sauwâr qu’il était prêt à lui donner une large part dans la direction des affaires de la province, mais qu’il attendait de lui en retour l’obéissance à ses ordres et la promesse de laisser les Espagnols en paix. Sauwâr accepta ces conditions; lui et les Espagnols jurèrent solennellement la paix, et l’ordre matériel fut rétabli dans la province; malheureusement c’était un calme trompeur, le trouble et la passion étaient au fond de toutes les âmes. Ne trouvant plus dans son voisinage des ennemis à exterminer, Sauwâr attaqua les alliés et les vassaux d’Ibn-Hafçoun. Au bruit de ses exploits et de ses cruautés, aux cris de détresse de leurs compatriotes, le sentiment national se réveilla soudain chez les habitants d’Elvira. D’un commun élan, ils reprirent les armes, toute la province s’insurgea à leur exemple, le cri de guerre retentit dans toutes les familles, et les Arabes, partout attaqués, partout battus, allèrent chercher en toute hâte un asile dans l’Alhambra. Pris par les Espagnols, repris par les Arabes, l’Alhambra n’était plus qu’une ruine majestueuse et presque hors de défense. Et pourtant c’était le seul refuge qui restât aux Arabes; s’ils se le laissaient prendre, ils pouvaient
  • 59. être certains d’être égorgés jusqu’au dernier. Aussi étaient-ils fermement résolus à le défendre à toute outrance. Tant que le soleil était à l’horizon, ils repoussaient vigoureusement les attaques sans cesse renouvelées des Espagnols, qui, la rage dans le cœur, comptaient bien en finir cette fois avec ceux qui avaient été si longtemps leurs oppresseurs impitoyables. La nuit venue, ils rebâtissaient, à la lumière des flambeaux, les murailles et les bastions de la forteresse; mais les fatigues, les veilles, la perspective d’une mort certaine au cas où ils faibliraient un seul instant, tout cela les jetait dans un état de surexcitation fébrile qui ne les disposait que trop à se laisser gagner par des terreurs superstitieuses dont ils auraient rougi dans d’autres circonstances. Or, une nuit qu’ils travaillaient aux fortifications, il arriva qu’une pierre passa par-dessus les murs et vint tomber à leurs pieds. Un Arabe l’ayant ramassée, il y trouva attaché un morceau de papier qu’il déroula et sur lequel il vit écrits ces trois vers, qu’il lut à haute voix tandis que ses compagnons l’écoutaient dans le plus profond silence: Leurs bourgades sont désertées, leurs champs sont en friche, les vents orageux y font tourbillonner le sable. Enfermés dans l’Alhambra, ils méditent à présent de nouveaux crimes; mais là aussi ils auront à subir des défaites continuelles, de même que leurs pères y étaient toujours en butte à nos lances et à nos épées. En entendant lire ces vers à la lueur incertaine, blafarde et lugubre des flambeaux, dont les clartés tremblottantes formaient, au milieu des ombres opaques de la nuit, une illumination mobile de l’effet le plus singulier, les Arabes, qui désespéraient déjà du triomphe de leur cause, se laissèrent gagner par les plus sinistres pressentiments. «Ces vers, disait plus tard un d’entre eux, nous parurent un avis du ciel; en les entendant lire, nous fûmes saisis d’une frayeur si grande, que toutes les armées de la terre, si elles eussent été là pour cerner notre forteresse, n’eussent pu l’augmenter.» Quelques-uns, moins impressionnables que les autres, essayèrent de rassurer leurs camarades épouvantés, en leur disant que le caillou et le billet n’étaient pas tombés du ciel, comme ils semblaient disposés à le croire, mais qu’ils avaient été lancés parmi eux par une main ennemie et que les vers étaient probablement de la composition du poète espagnol Ablî. Cette idée ayant prévalu peu à peu, tous sommèrent leur poète Asadî de répondre, dans le même mètre et sur la même rime, au défi du poète ennemi. Pour Asadî une telle tâche n’était point nouvelle; souvent il avait engagé avec
  • 60. Ablî des duels poétiques de ce genre; mais il était d’un tempérament nerveux, d’une imagination infiniment impressionnable, et cette fois, ému et troublé plus qu’aucun autre, il chercha longtemps avant de trouver ces deux vers qui montraient assez qu’il n’était point en veine: Nos bourgades sont habitées, nos champs ne sont pas en friche. Notre château nous protège contre toute insulte; nous y trouverons la gloire; il s’y prépare pour nous des triomphes, et pour vous, des défaites. Pour compléter la réponse, il fallait un troisième vers; Asadî, qui était retombé sous l’empire de son émotion, ne put le trouver. Rougissant de honte et les yeux fixés à terre, il demeura interdit et muet, comme si de sa vie il n’eût composé un vers. Cette circonstance n’était pas de nature à relever le courage abattu des Arabes. Déjà à demi rassurés, ils étaient prêts à ne voir rien de surnaturel dans ce qui était arrivé; mais quand ils s’aperçurent que, contre toute attente, l’inspiration faisait faux bond à leur poète, leurs craintes superstitieuses se réveillèrent de plus belle. Tout honteux, Asadî était rentré dans son appartement, lorsque tout à coup il entendit une voix prononcer ce vers: Certes, bientôt, quand nous en sortirons[283], vous aurez à essuyer une défaite si terrible, qu’elle fera blanchir en un seul instant les cheveux de vos femmes et de vos enfants. C’était le troisième vers, qu’il avait cherché en vain. Il regarda autour de lui, il ne vit personne. Fermement convaincu dès lors que ce vers avait été prononcé par un esprit invisible, il courut trouver le chef Adhbâ, son ami intime, lui raconta ce qui venait d’arriver et lui répéta le vers qu’il avait entendu. «Réjouissons-nous! s’écria Adhbâ. Certainement, je suis tout à fait de ton opinion; c’est un esprit qui a prononcé ce vers, et nous pouvons être certains que sa prédiction s’accomplira. Il doit en être ainsi, cette race impure doit périr, car Dieu a dit[284]: Celui qui, ayant exercé des représailles en rapport avec l’outrage reçu, en recevra un nouveau, sera assisté par Dieu lui-même.» Convaincus désormais que l’Eternel les avait pris sous sa protection, les Arabes roulèrent le billet qui contenait les vers de leur poète autour d’un caillou et le lancèrent à leurs ennemis.
  • 61. Sept jours plus tard, ils virent l’armée espagnole, forte de vingt mille hommes, se préparer à les attaquer du côté de l’est, et placer ses machines de guerre sur une colline. Au lieu d’exposer ses braves soldats à être égorgés dans une forteresse en ruine, Sauwâr aima mieux les conduire à la rencontre de l’ennemi. Le combat engagé, il quitta tout à coup le champ de bataille avec une troupe d’élite, sans que son départ fût aperçu par ses adversaires, fit un détour, et se précipita sur la division postée sur la colline avec une impétuosité telle qu’il la mit en déroute. La vue de ce qui se passait sur la hauteur inspira aux Espagnols qui combattaient dans la plaine une terreur panique, car ils s’imaginaient que les Arabes avaient reçu des renforts. Alors commença un horrible carnage: poursuivant leurs ennemis fugitifs jusqu’aux portes d’Elvira, les Arabes en tuèrent douze mille, selon les uns, dix-sept mille, selon les autres. Voici de quelle manière Saîd ibn-Djoudî chanta cette seconde bataille, connue sous le nom de bataille de la ville: Ils avaient dit, les fils des blanches: «Quand notre armée volera vers vous, elle tombera sur vous comme un ouragan. Vous ne pourrez lui résister, vous tremblerez de peur, et le plus fort château ne pourra pas vous offrir un asile!» Eh bien! Nous avons chassé cette armée, quand elle vola vers nous, avec autant de facilité que l’on chasse des mouches qui voltigent autour de la soupe, ou que l’on fait sortir une troupe de chameaux de leur étable. Certes, l’ouragan a été terrible; la pluie tombait à grosses gouttes, le tonnerre grondait et les éclairs sillonnaient les nuées; mais ce n’était pas sur nous, c’était sur vous que fondait la tempête. Vos bataillons tombaient sous nos bonnes épées, ainsi que les épis tombent sous la faucille du moissonneur. Quand ils nous virent venir à eux au galop, nos épées leur causèrent une si grande frayeur, qu’ils tournèrent le dos et se mirent à courir; mais nous fondîmes sur eux en les perçant de coups de lance. Quelques-uns, devenus nos prisonniers, furent chargés de fers; d’autres, en proie à des angoisses mortelles, couraient à toutes jambes et trouvaient la terre trop étroite. Vous avez trouvé en nous une troupe d’élite, qui sait à merveille comment il faut faire pour embraser les têtes des ennemis quand la pluie, dont vous parliez, tombe à grosses gouttes. Elle se compose de fils d’Adnân, qui excellent à faire des incursions, et de fils de Cabtân, qui fondent sur leur proie comme des vautours. Son chef, un grand guerrier, un
  • 62. vrai lion qu’on renomme en tous lieux, appartient à la meilleure branche de Cais; depuis de longues années, les hommes les plus généreux et les plus braves reconnaissent sa supériorité en courage et en générosité. C’est un homme loyal. Issu d’une race de preux dont le sang ne s’est jamais mêlé à celui d’une race étrangère, il attaque impétueusement ses ennemis, comme il sied à un Arabe, à un Caisite surtout, et il défend la vraie religion contre tout mécréant. Certes, Sauwâr brandissait ce jour-là une excellente épée, avec laquelle il coupait des têtes comme on ne les coupe qu’avec des lames de bonne trempe. C’était de son bras qu’Allâh se servait pour tuer les sectateurs d’une fausse religion, qui s’étaient réunis contre nous. Quand le moment fatal fut arrivé pour les fils des blanches, notre chef était à la tête de ses fiers guerriers, dont la fermeté ne s’ébranle pas plus qu’une montagne, et dont le nombre était si grand que la terre semblait trop étroite pour les porter. Tous ces braves galopaient à bride abattue, tandis que leurs coursiers hennissaient. Vous avez voulu la guerre; elle a été funeste pour vous, et Dieu vous a fait périr soudainement! Dans la position critique où ils se trouvaient après cette bataille désastreuse, les Espagnols n’avaient pas le choix des partis; il ne leur en restait qu’un à prendre, c’était d’implorer l’appui et de reconnaître l’autorité du chef de leur race, d’Omar ibn-Hafçoun. Ils le firent, et bientôt après Ibn- Hafçoun, qui se trouvait alors dans le voisinage, entra dans Elvira avec son armée, réorganisa les milices de cette ville, réunit sous sa bannière une partie des garnisons des châteaux voisins et se mit en marche pour aller attaquer Sauwâr. Ce chef avait profité de cet intervalle pour tirer à soi les Arabes de Jaën et de Regio, et son armée était maintenant assez nombreuse pour qu’il osât espérer de pouvoir combattre Ibn-Hafçoun avec succès. Son espoir ne fut pas trompé. Après avoir perdu plusieurs de ses meilleurs soldats et prodigué son propre sang, Ibn-Hafçoun fut forcé à la retraite. Accoutumé à vaincre, il fut fort irrité de cet échec. L’imputant aux habitants d’Elvira, il leur reprocha de s’être mal conduits pendant la mêlée, et dans sa colère il leva sur eux une énorme contribution, en disant qu’ils devaient fournir eux- mêmes aux frais de cette guerre qu’il n’avait entreprise que dans leur
  • 63. intérêt. Puis il retourna vers Bobastro avec le gros de son armée, après avoir confié la défense d’Elvira à son lieutenant Hafç ibn-el-Moro. Parmi les prisonniers qu’il emmenait avec lui, se trouvait le brave Saîd ibn-Djoudî. Voici une pièce de vers que cet excellent poète composa pendant sa captivité: Du courage, de l’espoir, mes amis! Soyez sûrs que la joie succédera à la tristesse, et qu’échangeant l’infortune contre le bonheur, vous sortirez d’ici. D’autres que vous ont passé des années dans ce cachot, lesquels courent les champs à cette heure au grand soleil du jour. Hélas, si nous sommes prisonniers, ce n’est pas que nous nous soyons rendus, mais c’est que nous nous sommes laissé surprendre. Si j’avais eu le moindre pressentiment de ce qui allait nous arriver, la pointe de ma lance m’aurait protégé; car les cavaliers connaissent ma bravoure et mon audace à l’heure du péril. Et toi, voyageur, va porter mon salut à mon noble père et à ma tendre mère, qui t’écouteront avec transport dès que tu leur auras dit que tu m’as vu. Salue aussi mon épouse chérie et rapporte-lui ces paroles: «Toujours je penserai à toi, même au jour du dernier jugement; je me présenterai alors devant mon créateur, le cœur rempli de ton image. Certes, la tristesse que tu éprouves maintenant m’afflige bien plus que la prison ou la perspective de la mort.» Peut-être va-t-on me faire périr ici, et puis on m’enterrera.... Un brave tel que moi aime bien mieux tomber avec gloire sur le champ de bataille et servir de pâture aux vautours! Après le départ d’Ibn-Hafçoun, Sauwâr, qui s’était laissé attirer dans une embuscade, fut tué par les habitants d’Elvira. Quand on porta son cadavre dans la ville, l’air retentit de cris d’allégresse. Altérées de la soif de la vengeance, les femmes jetaient les regards de la bête de proie sur le corps de celui qui les avait privées de leurs frères, de leurs maris, de leurs enfants, et, rugissantes de fureur, elles le coupèrent en morceaux, qu’elles avalèrent....[285] Les Arabes donnèrent le commandement à Saîd ibn-Djoudî, auquel Ibn- Hafçoun venait de rendre la liberté (890). Bien que Saîd eût été l’ami de Sauwâr et le chantre de ses exploits, il ne lui ressemblait nullement. D’illustre naissance—son aïeul avait été
  • 64. successivement cadi d’Elvira et préfet de police de Cordoue, sous le règne de Hacam Ier[286]—, il était en outre le modèle du chevalier arabe, et ses contemporains lui attribuaient les dix qualités qu’un parfait gentilhomme devait posséder toutes. C’étaient la générosité, la bravoure, la complète connaissance des règles de l’équitation, la beauté du corps, le talent poétique, l’éloquence, la force physique, l’art de manier la lance, celui de faire des armes et le talent de bien se servir de l’arc. C’était le seul Arabe qu’Ibn-Hafçoun craignît de rencontrer sur le champ de bataille. Un jour, avant que le combat commençât, Saîd appela Ibn-Hafçoun en duel; mais ce dernier, si brave qu’il fût, n’osa pas se mesurer avec lui. Une autre fois, pendant la mêlée, Saîd se trouva soudain face à face avec Ibn-Hafçoun. Celui-ci voulut l’éviter encore; mais Saîd le saisit à bras-le-corps et le jeta contre terre. Il l’aurait écrasé, si les soldats d’Ibn-Hafçoun, en se jetant sur lui, ne l’eussent forcé à lâcher prise. Ce plus vaillant des chevaliers en était aussi le plus tendre et le plus galant. Nul ne s’énamourait aussi promptement d’un son de voix ou d’une chevelure, nul ne savait mieux quelle puissance de séduction il y a dans une belle main. Etant venu un jour à Cordoue lorsque le sultan Mohammed y régnait encore, il passait devant le palais du prince Abdallâh, quand le chant harmonieux d’une femme frappa son oreille. Ce chant venait d’un appartement au premier étage, dont la fenêtre donnait sur la rue, et la chanteuse était la belle Djéhâne. En ce moment elle était auprès du prince, son maître; tantôt elle lui versait à boire, tantôt elle chantait. Attiré par un charme indéfinissable, Saîd alla se placer dans une encognure, où il pouvait écouter à son aise sans attirer les regards des passants. Les yeux immuablement fixés sur la fenêtre, il écoutait, perdu dans le ravissement et l’extase, et mourant d’envie de voir la belle chanteuse. Après l’avoir guettée longtemps, il aperçut à la fin sa petite et blanche main au moment où elle présentait la coupe au prince. Il ne vit rien de plus, mais cette main d’une incomparable élégance et puis cette voix si suave et si expressive, c’était assez pour faire battre violemment son cœur de poète et mettre son cerveau en feu. Mais, hélas! une barrière infranchissable le séparait de l’objet de son amour! En désespoir de cause, il essaya alors de faire prendre le change à sa passion. Il paya une somme énorme pour la plus belle esclave qu’il pût trouver, et lui donna le nom de Djéhâne. Mais malgré les efforts que fit cette jeune fille pour plaire au beau chevalier, elle ne réussit pas à lui faire oublier son homonyme.
  • 65. Le doux chant que j’ai entendu, disait-il, en m’enlevant mon âme, y a substitué une tristesse qui me consume lentement. C’est à Djéhâne, à celle dont je garderai un éternel souvenir, que j’ai donné mon cœur, et pourtant nous ne nous sommes jamais vus.... O Djéhâne, objet de tous mes désirs, sois bonne et compatissante pour cette âme qui m’a quitté pour s’envoler vers toi! Ton nom chéri, je l’invoque, les yeux baignés de larmes, avec la dévotion et la ferveur d’un moine qui invoque celui de son saint, devant l’image duquel il se prosterne[287]. Mais Saîd ne retint pas longtemps le souvenir de la belle Djéhâne. Volage et inconstant, errant sans relâche de désir en désir, les grandes passions et les rêveries platoniques n’étaient point son fait, témoin ces vers de sa composition, que les écrivains arabes ne citent qu’en y ajoutant les paroles: «Que Dieu lui pardonne!» Le plus doux moment dans la vie, c’est celui où l’on boit à la ronde; ou plutôt, c’est celui où, après une brouillerie, l’on se réconcilie avec son amante; ou plutôt encore, c’est quand l’amant et l’amante se lancent des regards enivrants; c’est celui, enfin, où l’on enlace dans ses bras celle que l’on adore. Je parcours le cercle des plaisirs avec la fougue d’un coursier qui a pris le mors aux dents; quoi qu’il arrive, je contente tous mes désirs. Inébranlable le jour du combat, quand l’ange de la mort plane au-dessus de ma tête, je me laisse toujours ébranler par deux beaux yeux. Il avait donc déjà oublié Djéhâne, lorsqu’une nouvelle beauté lui fut amenée de Cordoue. Quand elle entra dans son appartement, la pudeur lui fit baisser les yeux, et alors Saîd improvisa ces vers: Quoi, ma belle amie, tu détournes de moi tes regards pour les fixer sur le plancher! Serait-ce parce que je t’inspire de la répulsion? Par Dieu, ce n’est pas ce sentiment-là que j’inspire d’ordinaire aux femmes, et j’ose t’assurer que ma figure mérite plus tes regards que le plancher. Saîd était à coup sûr le représentant le plus brillant de l’aristocratie; mais il n’avait pas les qualités solides de Sauwâr. La mort de ce grand chef était donc une perte que Saîd ne pouvait réparer. Grâce aux soins de Sauwâr, qui avait fait rebâtir plusieurs forteresses romaines à demi ruinées, telles que Mentesa et Basti (Baza), les Arabes furent en état de se maintenir sous son
  • 66. successeur; mais quoiqu’ils n’eussent plus à combattre le sultan, car celui-ci avait reconnu Saîd, ils ne remportèrent plus d’avantages signalés sur les Espagnols. Les chroniqueurs musulmans, qui au reste ne disent presque rien sur les expéditions de Saîd, ce qui prouve déjà qu’en général elles n’étaient pas heureuses, nous apprennent seulement qu’il y eut un instant où Elvira se soumit à son autorité. Quand il eut fait son entrée dans la ville, Ablî, le poète espagnol, se présenta à lui et lui récita des vers qu’il avait composés à sa louange. Saîd le récompensa généreusement; mais quand le poète fut parti, un Arabe s’écria: «Quoi, émir, donnez-vous de l’argent à cet homme? Avez-vous donc oublié qu’il était naguère le grand agitateur de sa nation, et qu’il a osé dire:—Depuis combien de temps leurs morts, que nous avons jetés dans ce puits, attendent-ils en vain un vengeur!» Chez Saîd une plaie mal fermée se rouvrit aussitôt, et, les yeux étincelants de colère: «Allez saisir cet homme, dit-il à un parent de Yahyâ ibn-Çocâla, tuez-le et jetez son cadavre dans un puits!» Cet ordre fut exécuté sur-le-champ[288].
  • 67. XIII[289]. Pendant que les Espagnols d’Elvira combattaient contre la noblesse arabe, des événements fort graves se passaient aussi à Séville. Nulle part le parti national n’était aussi fort. Du temps des Visigoths, Séville avait été le siége de la science et de la civilisation romaines, et la résidence des familles les plus nobles et les plus opulentes[290]. La conquête arabe n’y avait apporté presque aucun changement dans l’ordre social. Peu d’Arabes s’étaient établis dans la ville; ils s’étaient fixés de préférence dans les campagnes. Les descendants des Romains et des Goths formaient donc encore la partie la plus nombreuse des habitants. Grâce à l’agriculture et au commerce, ils étaient fort riches; de nombreux vaisseaux d’outre-mer venaient chercher à Séville, qui passait pour un des meilleurs ports de l’Espagne, des cargaisons de coton, d’olives et de figues, que la terre produisait en abondance[291]. La plupart des Sévillans avaient abjuré le christianisme; ils l’avaient fait de bonne heure, car déjà sous le règne d’Abdérame II on avait dû bâtir pour eux une grande mosquée[292]; mais leurs mœurs, leurs coutumes, leur caractère, tout enfin, jusqu’à leurs noms de famille, tels que Beni-Angelino, Beni-Sabarico[293] etc., rappelait encore leur origine espagnole. En général ces renégats étaient pacifiques et nullement hostiles au sultan, qu’ils considéraient au contraire comme le soutien naturel de l’ordre; mais ils craignaient les Arabes, non pas ceux de la ville, car ceux-ci, accoutumés aux bienfaits de la civilisation, ne s’intéressaient plus aux rivalités de tribu ou de race, mais ceux de la campagne, qui avaient conservé intacts leurs mœurs agrestes, leurs vieilles préventions nationales, leur aversion pour toute race autre que la leur, leur esprit belliqueux et leur attachement pour les anciennes familles auxquelles ils avaient obéi de père en fils depuis un temps immémorial. Remplis d’une haine jalouse contre les riches Espagnols, ils étaient prêts à marcher pour les aller piller et massacrer, dès que les circonstances le leur permettraient ou que leurs nobles les y convieraient. Ils étaient fort redoutables, ceux de l’Axarafe surtout; aussi les Espagnols, qui avaient une vieille prédiction selon laquelle la ville serait brûlée par le feu qui viendrait de l’Axarafe[294], avaient-ils concerté leurs
  • 68. mesures pour ne pas être pris au dépourvu par les fils des brigands du Désert. Ils s’étaient organisés en douze corps, dont chacun avait son chef, sa bannière et son arsenal, et ils avaient contracté des alliances avec les Arabes maäddites de la province de Séville et avec les Berbers-Botr de Moron. Parmi les grandes familles arabes de la province il y en avait deux qui primaient toutes les autres: c’étaient celle des Beni-Haddjâdj et celle des Beni-Khaldoun. La première, quoique très-arabe dans ses idées, descendait cependant, par les femmes, de Witiza, l’avant-dernier roi goth. Une petite- fille de ce roi, Sara, avait épousé en secondes noces un certain Omair, de la tribu yéménite de Lakhm. De ce mariage étaient issus quatre enfants, qui furent la souche d’autant de grandes familles parmi lesquelles celle des Beni-Haddjâdj était la plus riche. C’est à Sara qu’elle devait les grandes propriétés territoriales qu’elle possédait dans le Sened, car un historien arabe, qui, lui aussi, descendait de Witiza par Sara, remarque qu’Omair avait eu des enfants d’autres femmes, mais que les descendants de celles-ci ne pouvaient nullement rivaliser avec ceux de Sara[295]. L’autre famille, celle des Beni-Khaldoun, était aussi d’origine yéménite; elle appartenait à la tribu de Hadhramaut, et ses propriétés se trouvaient dans l’Axarafe. Agriculteurs et soldats, les membres de ces deux grandes maisons étaient aussi marchands et armateurs. Ils résidaient d’ordinaire à la campagne dans leurs châteaux, leurs bordj[296]; mais de temps en temps ils séjournaient dans la ville où ils avaient des palais. Au commencement du règne d’Abdallâh, Coraib était le chef des Khaldoun. C’était un homme dissimulé et perfide, mais qui possédait tous les talents d’un chef de parti. Fidèle aux traditions de sa race, il détestait la monarchie; il voulait que la caste à laquelle il appartenait ressaisît la domination que les Omaiyades lui avaient arrachée. D’abord il essaya de faire éclater une insurrection dans la ville même. Il s’adressa donc aux Arabes qui y demeuraient, et tâcha de ranimer chez eux l’amour de l’indépendance. Il n’y réussit pas. Ces Arabes, pour la plupart Coraichites ou clients de la famille régnante, étaient royalistes, ou pour mieux dire, ils n’étaient d’aucun parti, si ce n’est de celui qu’on appelle de nos jours le parti de l’ordre. Vivre en paix avec tout le monde et ne pas être troublés dans leurs affaires ou dans leurs plaisirs, c’était tout ce qu’ils demandaient. Ils n’avaient donc aucune sympathie pour Coraib; son humeur aventureuse et son ambition déréglée ne leur inspiraient qu’une profonde aversion mêlée
  • 69. de terreur. Quand il parlait d’indépendance, on lui répondait qu’on haïssait le désordre et l’anarchie, qu’on n’aimait pas à être l’instrument de l’ambition d’autrui, et qu’on n’avait que faire de ses mauvais conseils et de son mauvais esprit. Voyant qu’il perdait son temps dans la ville, Coraib retourna dans l’Axarafe, où il n’eut point de peine à enflammer les cœurs de ses contribules; ils lui promirent presque tous de prendre les armes au premier signal qu’il leur donnerait. Ensuite il forma une ligue dans laquelle entrèrent les Haddjâdj, deux chefs yéménites (l’un de Niébla, l’autre de Sidona), et le chef des Berbers-Bornos de Carmona. Le but que les alliés se proposaient était d’enlever Séville au sultan et de piller les Espagnols. Les patriciens sévillans, qui, à cause de la distance, ne pouvaient plus épier Coraib comme au temps où il se trouvait encore parmi eux, ignoraient le complot qu’il tramait; de temps à autre des bruits vagues en parvenaient bien à leurs oreilles, mais ils ne savaient rien de précis et ne se méfiaient pas encore assez du dangereux conspirateur. Voulant d’abord se venger de ceux qui n’avaient pas voulu l’écouter et leur montrer en même temps que le souverain était incapable de les défendre, Coraib fit savoir secrètement aux Berbers de Mérida et de Médellin que la province de Séville était presque dégarnie de troupes, et que s’ils le voulaient, ils pourraient y faire facilement un riche butin. Toujours enclins à la rapine, ces hommes à demi sauvages se mirent aussitôt en marche, s’emparèrent de Talyâta[297], pillèrent ce village, y massacrèrent les hommes, et y mirent les femmes et les enfants en servitude. Le gouverneur de Séville appela aux armes tous ceux qui étaient en état d’en porter, et alla à la rencontre des Berbers. Ayant appris en route qu’ils étaient déjà maîtres de Talyâta, il établit son camp sur une hauteur qui s’appelait la montagne des oliviers. Une distance de trois milles seulement le séparait de l’ennemi, et des deux côtés on se tenait prêt à combattre le lendemain, lorsque Coraib, qui avait fourni son contingent, de même que les autres seigneurs, profita de la nuit pour faire dire aux Berbers que, le combat engagé, il leur faciliterait la victoire en prenant la fuite avec son régiment. Il tint sa promesse, et, en fuyant, il entraîna toute l’armée après lui. Poursuivi par les Berbers, le gouverneur ne fit halte que dans le village de Huebar (à cinq lieues de Séville), où il se retrancha. Les Berbers, sans faire le moindre effort pour le forcer dans cette position, retournèrent à Talyâta, où ils
  • 70. restèrent trois jours, pendant lesquels ils mirent à feu et à sang tous les endroits du voisinage. Puis, leurs grands sacs regorgeant de butin, ils retournèrent chez eux. Cette terrible razzia avait déjà ruiné un grand nombre de propriétaires, lorsqu’un nouveau fléau vint frapper les Sévillans. Cette fois le perfide Coraib n’avait rien à se reprocher: un chef de race ennemie, un renégat, vint spontanément seconder ses projets. C’était Ibn-Merwân, le seigneur de Badajoz. Voyant ses voisins de Mérida revenir chargés de riches dépouilles, il en conclut qu’il n’avait qu’à se montrer pour obtenir sa part de la curée. Il ne se trompait pas. S’étant avancé jusqu’à trois parasanges de Séville, il pilla tout à la ronde pendant plusieurs jours consécutifs, et quand il retourna à Badajoz, il n’avait rien à envier aux Berbers de Mérida. La conduite de leur gouverneur, qui était resté inactif pendant que des hordes sauvages ravageaient coup sur coup leurs terres, avait exaspéré les Sévillans contre lui et contre le souverain. Cédant à leurs plaintes, le sultan déposa, il est vrai, ce gouverneur malhabile; mais le successeur qu’il lui donna, bien qu’il fût au reste d’une réputation intacte, manquait également de l’énergie nécessaire pour maintenir l’ordre dans la province et réprimer l’audace des brigands qui s’y multipliaient d’une manière effrayante. Le plus redoutable parmi ces bandits était un Berber-Bornos de Carmona, nommé Tamâchecca, qui dévalisait les voyageurs sur la grande route entre Séville et Cordoue. Le gouverneur de Séville n’osait ou ne pouvait rien entreprendre contre lui, lorsqu’un brave renégat d’Ecija, nommé Mohammed ibn-Ghâlib, promit au sultan de faire cesser ces brigandages, s’il lui permettait de bâtir une forteresse près du village de Siete Torres, sur les frontières de la province de Séville et de celle d’Ecija. Le sultan accepta son offre; la forteresse fut bâtie, Ibn-Ghâlib s’y installa avec un grand nombre de renégats, de clients omaiyades et de Berbers-Botr, et les brigands ne tardèrent pas à s’apercevoir qu’ils avaient affaire à un ennemi bien autrement redoutable que ne l’était le gouverneur de Séville. La sûreté commençait déjà à se rétablir, lorsqu’un matin, le soleil s’étant à peine levé, la nouvelle se répandit dans Séville, que, pendant la nuit, une rencontre avait eu lieu entre la garnison du château d’Ibn-Ghâlib d’un côté, et les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj de l’autre; qu’un des Haddjâdj avait été tué; que ses amis étaient arrivés avec son cadavre dans la ville; qu’ils s’étaient rendus directement auprès du gouverneur pour lui demander justice, et que
  • 71. ce dernier leur avait répondu qu’il n’osait prendre sur lui la responsabilité de prononcer en pareille matière, et que par conséquent ils devaient s’adresser au souverain. Au moment où l’on s’entretenait à Séville de ces événements, les plaignants étaient déjà sur la route de Cordoue, suivis de près par quelques renégats sévillans, qui, informés par Ibn-Ghâlib de ce qui s’était passé, allaient plaider sa cause. A leur tête se trouvait un des hommes les plus considérés de la ville; c’était Mohammed[298], dont l’aïeul avait embrassé l’islamisme le premier de sa famille; son bisaïeul s’appelait Angelino, et le nom de Beni-Angelino avait été conservé à cette maison. Quand les plaignants eurent été introduits auprès du sultan, un d’entre eux prit la parole et porta plainte en ces termes: «Voici ce qui est arrivé, émir. Nous passions paisiblement sur le grand chemin, lorsque tout à coup Ibn-Ghâlib nous attaque. Nous cherchons à nous défendre, et pendant cette action, un des nôtres tombe frappé à mort. Nous sommes prêts à jurer que c’est ainsi que les choses se sont passées, et nous exigeons par conséquent que vous punissiez ce traître, cet Ibn-Ghâlib. Et permettez-nous, émir, d’ajouter à ce propos que ceux qui vous ont engagé à accorder votre confiance à ce renégat, vous ont mal conseillé. Prenez des informations sur les hommes qui servent sous lui; vous apprendrez alors que ce sont des gens sans aveu, des repris de justice. Cet homme vous trahit, soyez-en convaincu; pour le moment il fait encore semblant de vous être fidèle; mais nous avons l’intime conviction qu’il entretient des intelligences secrètes avec Ibn-Hafçoun, et qu’un beau jour il lui livrera toute la province.» Quand ils eurent fini de parler, Mohammed ibn-Angelino et ses compagnons furent introduits à leur tour. «Voici de quelle manière la chose s’est passée, émir, dit le patricien. Les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj avaient formé le projet de surprendre le château pendant la nuit; mais contre leur attente, Ibn-Ghâlib se tenait sur ses gardes, et, voyant son château attaqué, il opposa la force à la force. Ce n’est donc pas sa faute, si un des assaillants a été tué; il ne faisait autre chose que se défendre, il était dans son droit. Nous vous prions donc de ne pas croire aux mensonges de ces Arabes turbulents. Ibn-Ghâlib mérite bien, d’ailleurs, que vous soyez juste envers lui; c’est un de vos serviteurs les plus fidèles et les plus dévoués, et il vous rend un grand service en purgeant la contrée de bandits.»
  • 72. Soit que le sultan jugeât réellement l’affaire douteuse, soit qu’il craignît de mécontenter l’un des partis en donnant raison à l’autre, il déclara que, voulant prendre de plus amples informations, il enverrait son fils Mohammed à Séville, afin qu’il y examinât la cause. Bientôt après ce jeune prince, l’héritier présomptif du trône, arriva à Séville. Il y fit venir Ihn-Ghâlib et l’interrogea, de même que les Haddjâdj; mais comme les deux partis continuaient à s’inculper réciproquement et qu’il n’y avait pas de témoins impartiaux, le prince ne savait à qui donner raison. Tandis qu’il hésitait encore, les passions s’échauffaient de plus en plus, et l’effervescence qui régnait parmi les patriciens se communiquait aussi au peuple. A la fin il déclara que, ne considérant pas l’affaire comme suffisamment éclaircie, il ne prononcerait que plus tard, mais que, pour le moment, il permettait à Ibn-Ghâlib de retourner à son château. Les renégats criaient victoire. Ils disaient que le prince donnait évidemment raison à leur ami, et que s’il ne se déclarait pas ouvertement, c’était qu’il ne voulait pas se brouiller avec les Arabes. De leur côté, les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj interprétaient la conduite du prince de la même manière, et ils en étaient piqués jusqu’au vif. Bien résolus à se venger et à lever l’étendard de la révolte, ils quittèrent la ville, et tandis que Coraib faisait prendre les armes à ses Hadhramites de l’Axarafe, le chef des Haddjâdj, Abdallâh, rassemblait sous sa bannière les Lakhmites du Sened[299]. Ensuite ces deux chefs arrêtèrent un plan de conduite. Ils convinrent entre eux de faire, chacun de son côté, un coup de main. Abdallâh se rendrait maître de Carmona, et le même jour Coraib ferait surprendre la forteresse de Coria (sur la frontière orientale de l’Axarafe), après avoir fait enlever le troupeau qui appartenait à un oncle du sultan et qui pâturait dans l’une des deux îles que forme le Guadalquivir à son embouchure. Coraib, qui était trop grand seigneur pour exécuter lui-même une entreprise de ce genre, en confia l’exécution à son cousin Mahdî, un débauché dont les déréglements scandalisaient tout Séville[300]. Mahdî se rendit d’abord à la forteresse de Lebrija, vis-à-vis de l’île. Solaimân, le seigneur de cette forteresse et l’allié de Coraib, l’y attendait. Ensuite on aborda dans l’île. Deux cents vaches et une centaine de chevaux y paissaient, gardés par un seul homme. Les Arabes tuèrent ce malheureux, et,
  • 73. s’étant emparés des animaux, ils s’acheminèrent vers Coria, surprirent cette forteresse et y mirent leur butin en sûreté. De son côté, Abdallâh ibn-Haddjâdj, secondé par le Berber-Bornos Djonaid, attaqua Carmona à l’improviste et s’en rendit maître, après en avoir chassé le gouverneur qui alla chercher un refuge à Séville. La hardiesse des Arabes et la promptitude avec laquelle ils avaient accompli leurs desseins, répandirent l’alarme dans la ville. Aussi le prince Mohammed se pressa-t-il d’écrire à son père pour lui demander des ordres et surtout des renforts. Le sultan, quand il eut reçu la lettre de son fils, assembla son conseil. Les opinions sur le parti à prendre y étaient partagées. Alors un vizir pria le sultan de lui accorder un entretien secret. Ayant obtenu sa demande, il lui conseilla de se raccommoder avec les Arabes en faisant mettre à mort Ibn- Ghâlib. «Quand ce renégat, dit-il, aura cessé de vivre, les Arabes se tiendront pour satisfaits; ils vous rendront Carmona et Coria, restitueront à votre oncle ce qu’ils lui ont pris, et rentreront dans l’obéissance.» Sacrifier aux Arabes un serviteur loyal et se brouiller avec les renégats, sans qu’on eût la certitude de gagner leurs adversaires, c’était à coup sûr une politique, non-seulement perfide, mais maladroite. Toutefois le sultan crut devoir se ranger à l’avis qu’on lui donnait, et, ayant ordonné à son client Djad (à qui Sauwâr venait de rendre la liberté) de marcher vers Carmona avec des troupes: «Tu donneras raison, lui dit-il, aux accusateurs d’Ibn-Ghâlib, et tu le feras mettre à mort; puis tu feras tout ce que tu pourras pour ramener par la douceur les Arabes à l’obéissance, et tu ne les combattras que quand tu auras épuisé tous les moyens de persuasion.» Djad se mit en marche; mais quoique le but de son expédition fût tenu secret, le bruit courait cependant que ce n’était pas aux Khaldoun, mais à Ibn-Ghâlib qu’on en voulait. Aussi le renégat se tenait-il sur ses gardes, et il s’était déjà mis sous la protection d’Ibn-Hafçoun, lorsqu’il reçut une lettre de Djad. «Rassurez-vous, lui écrivait ce général, le but de ma marche n’est nullement tel que vous semblez le croire. J’ai l’intention de punir les Arabes qui se sont portés à de si grands excès, et comme vous les haïssez, je crois pouvoir compter sur votre coopération.» Ibn-Ghâlib se laissa tromper par cette lettre perfide, et quand Djad fut arrivé près du château, il se joignit à lui avec une partie de ses soldats. Alors Djad fit semblant d’aller assiéger Carmona; mais arrivé devant cette ville, il fit parvenir en secret au chef des
  • 74. Haddjâdj une autre lettre qui portait qu’il était prêt à faire périr Ibn-Ghâlib, pourvu que, de son côté, Ibn-Haddjâdj rentrât dans l’obéissance. Le marché fut bientôt conclu; Djad fit couper la tête à Ibn-Ghâlib, et Ibn-Haddjâdj évacua Carmona. Quand les renégats de Séville eurent appris la noire trahison dont leur allié avait été la victime, toute leur fureur se tourna contre le sultan. Ils tinrent conseil sur ce qu’il convenait de faire. Quelques-uns proposèrent de venger le meurtre d’Ibn-Ghâlib sur Omaiya, le frère de Djad et l’un des plus vaillants guerriers de l’époque, qui était alors gouverneur de Séville. Cette proposition fut adoptée; mais comme on ne pouvait rien faire à moins qu’on ne fut maître de la ville, Ibn-Angelino prit sur lui d’aller parler au prince et de faire en sorte que celui-ci en confiât la défense aux renégats. Puis les patriciens résolurent de dépêcher des exprès à leurs alliés, les Arabes maäddites de la province de Séville et les Berbers-Botr de Moron, pour les prier de venir leur prêter main-forte. Pendant que ces exprès étaient déjà en route, Ibn-Angelino, accompagné de quelques-uns de ses amis, alla trouver le prince Mohammed. «Seigneur, lui dit-il, il se peut que nous ayons été calomniés à la cour et accusés d’un crime dont nous sommes innocents; il se peut qu’un projet funeste ait été formé contre nous dans le conseil du sultan; il se peut enfin, que Djad, ce traître infâme, nous attaque à l’improviste avec des forces si nombreuses qu’il nous soit impossible de lui résister. Si vous voulez donc nous sauver du péril qui nous menace et nous attacher à vous par les liens de la gratitude, il faut nous confier les clefs de la ville et le soin de veiller à sa défense, jusqu’au moment où les choses se seront éclaircies. Ce n’est pas que nous nous méfions de vous; mais vous savez vous-même que, quand les troupes seront entrées dans la ville, vous ne serez pas en état de nous protéger.» Bon gré mal gré, Mohammed, déjà brouillé avec les Arabes et ne pouvant disposer que d’une chétive garnison, fut forcé d’accorder aux renégats ce qu’ils lui demandaient. Maîtres de la ville, les renégats attendirent la venue des Maäddites et des Berbers-Botr. Ceux-ci arrivèrent dans la matinée du mardi 9 septembre de l’année 889[301]. Alors une foule compacte se rua sur le palais d’Omaiya. L’insurrection fut si soudaine que le gouverneur n’eut pas même le temps de mettre ses bottes. Il se jeta sur un cheval et galopa, ventre à terre, vers le
  • 75. palais du prince. Désappointés, les insurgés pillèrent son palais; puis ils se rendirent vers celui du prince, qu’ils entourèrent en poussant des cris féroces. De minute en minute, la foule se grossissait de boutiquiers, d’artisans, d’ouvriers. Ne sachant que faire, le prince envoya en toute hâte des messagers à Ibn-Angelino, à Ibn-Saharico et à d’autres patriciens, pour les conjurer de venir concerter avec lui les moyens propres à faire cesser le tumulte. Ces patriciens, qui jusque-là s’étaient tenus à l’écart, délibérèrent entre eux sur ce qu’ils feraient. Leur embarras était grand. Ils craignaient de tomber dans un piége, s’ils se rendaient à l’invitation du prince; mais ils savaient aussi que s’ils refusaient de le faire, ils seraient accusés de connivence avec les émeutiers, et c’est ce qu’ils ne voulaient pas non plus. Tout bien considéré, ils résolurent de se rendre auprès du prince; mais ils prirent leurs précautions; ils revêtirent des cuirasses sous leurs habits, et avant d’entrer dans le palais, ils placèrent des Sévillans bien armés et des soldats de Moron près de la porte. «Si nous ne sommes pas de retour au moment où le muëzzin annoncera la prière de midi, leur dirent-ils, vous assaillirez le palais et vous viendrez nous délivrer.» Cela dit, ils allèrent trouver le prince, qui les accueillit de la manière la plus gracieuse. Mais tandis qu’ils s’entretenaient encore avec lui, les hommes postés à la porte perdirent patience, prirent du soupçon, et se mirent à enfoncer la porte. Se précipitant d’abord dans les écuries, ils se rendirent maîtres des chevaux et des mulets; puis ils coururent vers la porte du facîl (avant-mur), qui se trouvait à l’autre bout de la cour, vis-à-vis de la porte d’entrée; mais là ils trouvèrent une résistance à laquelle ils ne s’attendaient nullement. Omaiya était là. Dès que ce vaillant guerrier eut entendu les cris des insurgés dans les écuries, il avait fait arrêter Ibn-Angelino et ses compagnons; puis il avait posté ses propres serviteurs et ceux du prince sur la plate-forme de la porte du facîl; il y avait fait apporter un amas de projectiles, et quand les renégats et leurs alliés s’approchèrent de cette porte, ils furent assaillis d’une grêle de traits, de pierres, de meubles. Quoiqu’ils eussent l’avantage du nombre, leurs adversaires avaient celui de la position. Excités par Omaiya, qui, la tête et la poitrine ensanglantées par de nombreuses blessures, les animait par son geste, son regard, son exemple, les défenseurs du palais étaient résolus à vendre chèrement leur vie, et le désespoir semblait leur prêter des forces surhumaines.
  • 76. Le combat dura depuis midi jusqu’au coucher du soleil. La nuit venue, les assaillants bivouaquèrent dans la cour, et le lendemain matin ils recommencèrent l’attaque. Que faisaient, pendant ce temps, les royalistes et tous ces amis de l’ordre, qui auraient dû voler, ce semble, au secours du gouverneur? Fidèles à leur devise: chacun pour soi, et subissant l’inévitable ascendant qu’exerce sur la faiblesse une résolution vigoureuse, ils attendaient, et, s’étant barricadés dans leurs hôtels, ils laissaient le gouverneur se tirer d’affaire comme il le pourrait. Ils lui voulaient du bien sans doute, tous leurs vœux étaient pour lui, mais risquer leur vie pour le sauver, leur dévoûment n’allait pas jusque-là. Ils avaient fait quelque chose pourtant. Aussitôt que le tumulte avait commencé, ils avaient envoyé un courrier à Djad pour le prévenir du péril où se trouvaient son frère et le prince. Il est vrai que cela ne leur coûtait pas beaucoup, et il s’agissait de savoir, d’abord si Djad arriverait à temps, ensuite, s’il réussirait à dompter l’insurrection. A peine informé de ce qui se passait à Séville, Djad s’était mis en route avec autant de cavaliers qu’il avait pu en rassembler à la hâte. Dans la matinée du 10 septembre, le combat ayant recommencé dans la cour du palais, il arrive du côté du midi. Un poste de renégats veut lui barrer le passage: il lui passe sur le corps. Il pénètre dans le faubourg où demeurait le Coraichite Abdallâh ibn-Achath. Ce royaliste lui apprend en peu de mots où les choses en sont. «Au galop et ventre à terre!» crie le général. L’épée au poing, il fond sur la multitude. Les Sévillans soutiennent fermement le choc. Le cheval de Djad s’abat frappé à mort; ses cavaliers reculent. Il tâche de les ramener à la charge, appelle chacun par son nom, les conjure de tenir ferme. Les plus vaillants se rallient, reviennent à la charge, et s’attaquent de préférence aux chefs. Le général lui-même se précipite sur un des plus braves Sévillans et le tue. Le désordre se met dans la multitude. On recule, on se heurte, on se presse. Les cavaliers redoublent de vigueur, et bientôt les Sévillans fuient de tous côtés. Au comble de la joie, Djad s’élance dans le palais, serre son frère sur son cœur, et baise respectueusement la main du prince. «Dieu soit loué, s’écrie- t-il, j’ai pu vous sauver encore.—Il en était temps, lui répond son frère, une demi-heure plus tard et nous étions perdus.—Oui, ajoute le prince, tous nous n’attendions que la mort. Mais ne songeons à présent qu’à la
  • 77. vengeance! Que l’on punisse ces rebelles en mettant leurs maisons à sac; que l’on tire Ibn-Angelino et ses complices de la prison, que le bourreau leur coupe la tête, et que leurs biens soient confisqués!» Pendant que ces infortunés marchaient à l’échafaud, Séville présentait un horrible spectacle. Altérés de la soif du carnage et avides de butin, les cavaliers de Djad massacraient les fuyards et pillaient leurs demeures. Heureusement pour les renégats, il existait entre eux et les clients omaiyades de Séville ce qu’on appelait une alliance de voisinage. En considération de cette alliance, ces clients demandèrent et obtinrent la grâce de leurs concitoyens, et peu de temps après, le sultan lui-même accorda une amnistie générale. Ce n’était qu’un répit; les renégats touchaient au moment de leur ruine entière. Quand le prince Mohammed fut retourné à Cordoue avec Djad et ses troupes, des messagers d’Ibn-Hafçoun (qui était alors en paix avec le sultan) y arrivèrent pour demander la tête de Djad, puisque ce général avait fait périr Ibn-Ghâlib, l’allié de leur maître. La puissance d’Ibn-Hafçoun et la crainte qu’il inspirait au sultan étaient alors si grandes, que Djad, bien qu’il n’eût fait que ce que son souverain lui avait ordonné, craignit non sans raison d’être sacrifié au chef des renégats. Ne voyant, pour se soustraire au péril qui le menaçait, d’autre moyen qu’une prompte fuite, il quitta la capitale nuitamment et secrètement, afin d’aller chercher un refuge auprès de son frère, le gouverneur de Séville. Il était accompagné de ses deux frères, Hâchim et Abd-al-ghâfir, de quelques- uns de ses amis, parmi lesquels se trouvaient deux Coraichites, de ses pages et de ses esclaves. Longeant le Guadalquivir qu’ils avaient à gauche, ces cavaliers arrivèrent, à la pointe du jour, près du château de Siete Filla. Ils demandèrent et obtinrent la permission de s’y arrêter quelques instants pour se reposer et se rafraîchir. Malheureusement pour eux, la bande du Berber Tamâchecca rôdait alors dans les alentours, et les frères d’Ibn-Ghâlib, qui servaient dans cette bande, avaient remarqué l’arrivée des cavaliers au château. Ils avaient reconnu Djad, et, brûlant du désir de venger sur lui le meurtre de leur frère, ils avertirent leur chef et lui dirent qu’il pourrait facilement s’emparer des montures que ces cavaliers avaient laissées en dehors du château. Tamâchecca et ses brigands se mirent aussitôt en route, et ils avaient déjà mis la main sur les chevaux, lorsque Djad et ses amis, attirés par les cris de leurs esclaves, fondirent sur eux l’épée au poing. Loin de lâcher pied, les brigands se défendirent vigoureusement, et comme ils
  • 78. avaient la supériorité du nombre, ils tuèrent Djad, ses deux frères et un Coraichite. Cet événement eut des suites funestes pour les Espagnols de Séville. C’était sur eux qu’Omaiya, dans l’impuissance où il était de punir les vrais coupables, voulait venger la mort de ses trois frères. Il les livra donc aux Khaldoun et aux Haddjâdj, qu’il avait déjà rappelés dans la ville, et auxquels il donna un plein pouvoir pour piller et exterminer les Espagnols, musulmans ou chrétiens, partout où ils les trouveraient, à Séville, à Carmona, dans les campagnes. Un horrible massacre commença alors. Dans leur aveugle fureur, les Yéménites égorgèrent les Espagnols par milliers. Les rues ruisselaient de sang. Ceux qui se jetèrent à la nage dans le Guadalquivir pour échapper au sabre, périrent presque tous dans les flots. Bien peu d’Espagnols survécurent à cette terrible catastrophe. Naguère opulents, ils étaient maintenant plongés dans la misère. Les Yéménites gardèrent longtemps le souvenir de cette sanglante journée; chez eux, la rancune survécut à la ruine de leurs adversaires. Dans les manoirs seigneuriaux ou dans les villages de l’Axarafe et du Sened, les improvisateurs, aux veillées du soir, prenaient maintefois pour thème de leurs chants le sombre drame que nous venons de raconter, et alors les Yéménites, le regard enflammé d’une haine sombre et farouche, ne se lassaient pas de prêter l’oreille à des vers tels que ceux-ci:
  • 79. Le sabre au poing, nous avons exterminé ces fils d’esclaves. Vingt mille de leurs cadavres jonchaient le sol; les grosses ondes du fleuve en emportaient d’autres. Leur nombre était prodigieux autrefois;—nous l’avons rendu minime. Nous, fils de Cahtân, nous comptons parmi nos ancêtres les princes qui régnaient jadis dans le Yémen: eux, ces esclaves, ils n’ont que des esclaves pour aïeux. Ces infâmes, ces chiens! Dans leur folle audace ils osaient venir braver les lions dans leur antre!... Nous nous sommes enrichis de leurs dépouilles, et nous les avons précipités dans les flammes éternelles, où ils sont allés rejoindre les Thémoudites[302].
  • 80. XIV. Ce ne fut pas le sultan qui profita de la ruine des renégats de Séville, mais l’aristocratie arabe. Désormais les Khaldoun et les Haddjâdj étaient les maîtres de la province; le parti royaliste était trop faible et surtout trop lâche pour leur disputer le pouvoir, il ne le tenta même pas. Omaiya seul essaya encore de leur tenir tête. Il fit tout son possible pour semer la discorde entre le Berber Djonaid et Abdallâh ibn-Haddjâdj, qui avaient partagé Carmona entre eux; il tâcha de brouiller Coraib avec son propre parti et de le gagner par les promesses les plus brillantes; il prit même des mesures pour se débarrasser par un seul coup de tous ces turbulents Yéménites. Rien ne lui réussit. Il est vrai qu’il fit assassiner Abdallâh par Djonaid; mais au lieu d’y gagner, il y perdit, car après la mort d’Abdallâh, les Haddjâdj élurent pour leur chef son frère Ibrâhîm, un homme de grands talents, qui devint bien plus redoutable qu’Abdallâh ne l’avait été. Coraib, bien qu’il feignît de prêter l’oreille aux propositions qu’on lui faisait, était trop rusé pour se laisser tromper, et le grand projet qu’Omaiya avait formé pour exterminer les Yéménites échoua complétement. Il avait ordonné à cet effet d’entourer d’une muraille cette partie de la ville qui comprenait le palais et la grande mosquée, et il avait annoncé que cette enceinte serait réservée exclusivement à la garnison. Les Arabes comprirent qu’un beau jour, quand ils entreraient dans la mosquée ou qu’ils en sortiraient, ils seraient égorgés par les satellites du gouverneur. Ils firent des remontrances. Omaiya n’en tint compte. Alors ils eurent recours à la force et empêchèrent les maçons de continuer leurs travaux. Omaiya comprima les séditieux et les contraignit à lui livrer des otages qui répondraient sur leur tête de la soumission de leurs parents. Il n’en fut pas plus avancé pour cela. Les Yéménites savaient que la peur d’attirer une terrible vendetta sur lui-même et sur sa famille l’empêcherait de faire périr ses otages, et un jour, la plupart des soldats étant sortis pour chercher des vivres, ils assaillirent le palais. Omaiya monta en toute hâte sur la plate-forme avec le peu de soldats qui lui restaient, fit jeter des projectiles sur les assaillants, et fit placer les otages en évidence en menaçant de leur faire couper la tête. Les révoltés se moquèrent de lui. Ils lui dirent que, toutes les provinces ayant secoué le joug du sultan, il était tout naturel qu’ils ne voulussent pas que la leur restât en arrière. Nous
  • 81. sommes fort traitables au reste, ajoutèrent-ils avec une amère ironie; nous nous engageons à être des sujets modèles aussitôt qu’une seule des provinces insurgées sera rentrée dans la sujétion.» Quant à Omaiya lui- même, il ne lui restait, disaient-ils, qu’un parti à prendre, celui de s’en aller; s’il pouvait se résoudre à le faire, ils ne lui feraient point de mal. Malgré qu’il en eût, Omaiya plia aux circonstances son caractère orgueilleux et opiniâtre. Il promit de quitter la ville, à condition que les révoltés jureraient de ne pas attenter à sa vie. Alors Coraib, Ibrahim et trois autres chefs montèrent sur la terrasse de la porte orientale de la mosquée, et là chacun d’eux jura cinquante fois de ne faire aucun mal à Omaiya et de le conduire en un endroit où il serait en sûreté. Cela fait, Omaiya, qui, de la plate-forme où il se trouvait, avait pu les voir et les entendre, leur rendit leurs otages. Mais il ne se hâta pas de partir; honteux de sa faiblesse et croyant le péril passé, il tâcha au contraire de ressaisir le pouvoir. Les Arabes ne s’en aperçurent pas plutôt qu’ils recommencèrent les hostilités. Ne voulant pas céder pour la seconde fois, Omaiya prit une résolution désespérée. Il fit mourir ses femmes, couper les jarrets à ses chevaux et brûler tout ce qu’il possédait de précieux; puis il sortit du palais, se précipita sur ses ennemis, et combattit sans reculer jusqu’à ce qu’il succombât. Désormais tout-puissants, mais jugeant que le moment de secouer tout à fait l’autorité du souverain n’était pas encore venu, les Yéménites lui écrivirent qu’ils avaient tué Omaiya parce qu’il avait manifesté l’intention de se révolter. Ne pouvant les punir, le sultan agréa leurs singulières explications et leur envoya un autre gouverneur. Ce pauvre homme ne fut qu’un mannequin dont Coraib et Ibrâhîm tenaient les fils. Il se laissait manier comme de la cire, et néanmoins ses tyrans le tourmentaient et le vexaient de toutes les manières. Leur lésine s’exerçait sur les moindres objets de sa dépense; à peine lui donnaient-ils sa ration de pain et de viande. Croyant bien à tort qu’il y gagnerait quelque chose, le sultan remplaça ce gouverneur par un autre, et envoya en même temps son oncle Hichâm à Séville. Mais il n’y envoya pas d’armée, et le pouvoir des Yéménites resta aussi illimité qu’il l’avait été jusque-là. Le gouverneur et Hichâm ne l’éprouvèrent que trop. Ce dernier avait un fils nommé Motarrif. Ce jeune débauché avait une intrigue avec une maîtresse de Mahdî. L’ayant appris, Mahdî guetta son rival pendant la nuit et le poignarda. Quand Hichâm eut reçu cette triste nouvelle, il attendit jusqu’au lever du soleil pour se rendre à
  • 82. l’endroit où gisait le cadavre de son fils, tant il craignait d’être poignardé lui-même s’il sortait de son palais pendant l’obscurité. Quant à punir le meurtrier, il n’en fut pas même question. Quelque temps après, les Khaldoun interceptèrent une lettre que le gouverneur avait envoyée au sultan pour l’exciter à venger le meurtre de Motarrif et à mettre un terme à l’anarchie. Ils lui montrèrent cette lettre, l’accablèrent de reproches et de menaces, et, pour comble d’ignominie, ils le mirent aux arrêts pour quelques jours[303]. Telle était la situation de Séville dans l’année 891, la quatrième du règne d’Abdallâh. A cette époque presque tout le reste de l’Espagne musulmane s’était affranchi de la sujétion; chaque seigneur arabe, berber ou espagnol, s’était approprié sa part de l’héritage des Omaiyades. Celle des Arabes avait été la plus petite. Ils n’étaient puissants qu’à Séville; partout ailleurs ils avaient beaucoup de peine à se maintenir contre les deux autres races. Plusieurs d’entre eux, tels qu’Ibn-Attâf, seigneur de Mentesa, Ibn-Salîm, seigneur de Medina-Beni-Salîm dans le district de Sidona, Ibn-Waddhâh, seigneur de Lorca, et al-Ancar, gouverneur de Saragosse, n’exécutaient les ordres du sultan que quand cela leur convenait; mais ils n’avaient pas rompu ouvertement avec lui; ayant la conscience de leur faiblesse, ils s’étaient ménagé la possibilité d’une réconciliation. Les Berbers, qui étaient retournés à leur gouvernement primitif, celui des chefs de tribu, étaient plus puissants et plus intraitables. Mallâhî, un simple soldat, s’était emparé de la citadelle de Jaën. Dans le district d’Elvira les deux frères Khalîl et Saîd, qui appartenaient à une famille fort ancienne, possédaient deux châteaux. Les provinces qui portent à présent le nom d’Estramadure et d’Alentejo, étaient presque entièrement au pouvoir des Berbers. Les Beni-Ferânic régnaient sur la tribu de Nafza, établie aux environs de Truxillo[304]. Un autre Berber, Ibn-Tâkît, de la tribu de Maçmouda, qui s’était déjà soulevé dans l’Estramadure sous le règne de Mohammed, et qui s’était emparé de Mérida, d’où il avait chassé les Arabes et les Berbers de la tribu de Ketâma, était presque constamment en guerre contre Ibn-Merwân, le seigneur de Badajoz, auquel il ne pardonnait pas d’avoir aidé les troupes du sultan lorsqu’elles assiégeaient Mérida[305]. Mais la plus puissante famille parmi les Berbers était celle des Beni- Dhou-’n-noun. Mousâ en était le chef, un abominable pillard, un grand scélérat. Toujours debout et toujours à l’œuvre, il promenait partout l’épée
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