Harvard method style(1)

REFERENCE TECHNIQUES:

HARVARD method and APA style

Ms. M. Cronjé
Ms. N. Murdoch
Ms. R. Smit (editor)

Enquiries:
Ms. R. Smit
Tel: (011) 559-2651
E-mail: ronels@uj.ac.za

Copyright: The Auckland Park Kingsway Campus Library of the University of Johannesburg

2nd Edition May 2008

Contents

Introduction 3
Tips on writing and referencing 3-4
Commonly used abbreviations 5
Sample paragraph and reference list: Harvard method 7
Sample Paragraph and reference list: APA style 8
Tips for the use of electronic sources 27
List of sources 28

Basic in-text referencing
In-text reference where the author of the source is known 9 10
In-text reference to more than one source 9 10
General forms for reference lists
Non-periodical 9 10
Part of a non-periodical 9 10
Periodical 9 10
Online periodical 9 10
Online document 9 10
Referencing other sources
A book with only one author 9 10
A book by two authors 9 10
A book by three or more authors 11 12
Reference to more than one publication of the same author in the same year 11 12
Different authors with the same surname 11 12
A book with an institution, organisation or association as author 11 12
A book with an editor(s) 11 12
A chapter in a book (not edited) 13 14
Part/chapter of an edited book 13 14
Anonymous work 13 14
A work with a foreign title 13 14
Translated works 13 14
Second, further or revised editions 13 14
Date of publication unknown 13 14
Dictionaries 13 14
Encyclopaedia 15 16
Personal communication 15 16
Unpublished manuscript submitted for publication 15 16
Unpublished manuscript not submitted for publication 15 16
Newspaper article 15 16
Periodical article 15 16
Journal article in press 15 16

1

Abstract 15 16
Non-English journal article 15 16
Published dissertation or thesis 17 18
Unpublished dissertation or thesis 17 18
Dissertation abstract 17 18
Government publications 17 18
Unpublished raw data, untitled 17 18
Booklet, brochure, pamphlet or leaflet 17 18
Study guide 17 18
Conference proceedings, no author or title 17 18
Conference proceedings, with title 19 20
Conference proceedings, with author 19 20
Unpublished paper presented at a meeting 19 20
Publication of limited circulation 19 20
Review 19 20
Electronic sources
In-text reference where the author of the electronic source is known 19 20
In-text reference to a web site 19 20
Internet site with author 21 22
Internet document without author 21 22
Personal electronic communication/ (e-mail) 21 22
Article in an Internet-only journal 21 22
Electronic copy of a journal article retrieved from database 21 22
Internet articles based on a print source 21 22
Newsgroups, online forums, electronic mailing lists 21 22
Paper presented at a virtual conference 23 24
Abstract 23 24
Article in an electronic magazine (e-zine) 23 24
Newspaper article 23 24
Review 23 24
Letter to the editor 23 24
Government publication 23 24
CD-ROM 23 24
Sound recording 23 24
Motion picture/film 23 24
Television broadcast 23 24
Video recording 25 26
Microfiche 25 26
Computer program 25 26
Blog 25 26

2

Introduction

What is referencing? It is a way to demonstrate that you have extended your learning.

Two reasons for referencing:
· To let the reader know whose ideas you are using
· To enable your reader to check your information

TERMINOLOGY:
A citation is a reference to a document. It should include all the bibliographic details needed to
trace the document.

Footnotes are listed at the bottom of the page on which a reference or citation occurs in the text. A
number is placed in the text to indicate the cited work and again at the bottom of the page in front of the
footnote. Footnotes are used when only a small number of references need to be made.

A reference list is the list of citations (material cited) in a written work. It shows the authority on
which you base statements in the text, shows how well acquainted (how widely read) you are with the
subject, and is a starting point for anyone else wanting to find out about the subject.

A bibliography is a list of documents (books, articles, papers) read, analysed or consultated for a specific
essay or assignment. All these references are not necessarily included in the list of references. If you
have quoted from a source, it must however be included in your bibliography.

Tips on writing and referencing

Collecting information:

· Broad and deep research is the essential basis of an essay.

Using the Internet:

· Use the internet – but with care and discrimination.

· Always state the date you visited the site.

· Where possible, identify the author.

Writing:

· A well thought-out structure is at the heart of every good essay.

· You do need a solid introduction.

· You need a tight, powerful conclusion that is the logical consequence of everything that has
gone before.

· You need to organise your material so that it flows from one area, sub-section or argument to
the next in a logical order.

· Keep checking that you are remaining on track throughout the essay. Do not wander off the
subject.

· A good student not only has good ideas to write about, but can also write about them well.

3

· Do not use superfluous words, phrases or sentences.

· Construct your sentences carefully.

General tips:

· Don’t cheat. Plagiarism – using other people’s words and ideas without acknowledging
where you got them from – is regarded as an enormous sin. Make sure your references are
perfect.

· Try a fresh, original approach. Argue your case with your own point of view. Try to avoid
formulas, clichés and the obvious approaches.

· Illustrate your points with up-to-date examples.

· Don’t fill an essay with irrelevant historical detail.

· Check spelling and punctuation.

· Ensure your essay is the required length.

· Bring your subject to life!

· Keep the bibliographic details of your source in the original language of source. If it is in
German all the details will be in German. This means that you do not need to translate place
names or terms like ‘Herausgeber’ to English. Use place names, etc. as given in the original
language.

Alphabetising names:

· Alphabetise letter by letter remembering that ‘nothing precedes something’.
Rohr, J.B. precedes Rohring, A.K.

· Prefixes like M, Mc and Mac must be alphabetised as they are and not as Mac.
MacArthur will precede McAllister and MacNeil will be followed by M’Carthy.

· Surnames which include articles or prepositions are alphabetised as they are used. De la
Rey, De Vries, Le Roux and Van der Walt are some South African examples.

Several works by the same author:

· Arrange according to the year of publication. The earliest is listed first.

· If you have different works by the same author which share a publication date, arrange it
alphabetically according to the title.

· Use lower case letters – a, b, c, and also on – after the year and list in parentheses:
Botha, J. (2001a). Die staat…
Botha, J. (2001b). Die Suid-Afrikaanse…

Commonly used abbreviations

4

Appendix - app.

Chapter - chap.

Column - col.

Columns - cols.

Edition - ed./edn

Editions - eds./edns

Editor - ed

Editors - eds.

No date - n.d.

No place, no publisher, no page - n.p.

Number - no./No.

Numbers - nos./ Nos.

Page - p.

Pages - pp.

Paragraph - para./par.

Part - pt./pt

Revised - rev.

Revised edition - rev. ed.

Reprinted - rpt
nd
Second edition - 2 ed.

Supplement - suppl./supp.

Technical Report - Tech. Rep./techn. rep.

Translated, translator - transl.

Volume - vol.

Volumes - vols.

5

Afrikaans abbreviations

Sonder jaar - [s.j.] Du Toit, P. [s.j.]

Sonder Plek - [s.p.]

Sonder uitgewer - [s.u.]

Latin abbreviations, dates and copyright

And others - et al. (et alii)
Used where there are too many authors to list

In the same work - ibid. (ibidem)
Signifies the same work as the one cited immediately before, but a different page

The same - id. (idem)
The item cited is by the author of the item cited immediately before

In the work cited - op. cit. (opere citato)
Refers the reader back to the author’s previously cited work, but to a different page

Without place - s.l. (sine loco)

If no year is indicated use [n.d.] Johnson, L. [n.d.].

If you know that a web site is updated regularly, but cannot see a publication date, put the date in square
brackets.
National Research Foundation. [2008].

If there is only a copyright date use that date with a ‘c’ before it.
Jones, P. (c2008).

In the case of reprints use the first publication date and not that of the late reprints.

6

Sample paragraph and reference list: Harvard method¹

Many researchers have investigated the use of technology in Higher Education (Blake, 1998; Davis,
1987:45; Johnson, n.d.; Tyson, Burke & Jacobs, 1994). According to Blake (1998:234; 1999a:12;
1999b:4), new technologies such as CD-ROMs, the Internet, and mobile technologies hold great promise
for the future of education, but other researchers (Johnson, n.d.; Education Trust, 2000) caution that the
use of technology in educational settings should be studied in greater depth to evaluate its effectiveness.
A longitudinal study by Tyson et al. (1994) showed that technology can enrich education, if used by a
skilled teacher.

The Internet offers some useful resources on this topic, including Johannesburg University’s EdTech
(http://www.joburg.ac.za/EdTech/), which provides information relevant to the South African context. Other
resources include brochures by the Education Trust (e.g. 1999), and a toolkit on using technology in the
classroom by Mellers (1998).

Reference list
Blake, N. (1998). Using the web in undergraduate education. Journal of Educational Computing, 5(2):234-
251.

Blake, N. (1999a). Higher Education in the 21st century. New York: University Press.

Blake, N. (1999b). The promise of mobile technologies for education. Edulink, 3(2). Available from:
http://www.joburg.ac.za/edtech/pubs/edulink/992/blake.html (Accessed 8 February 2001).

Davis, K. (1987). Computer-based training for accountants. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Johannesburg:
Rand Afrikaans University.

Education Trust. (1999). Using videos in your classroom (Brochure). Sandton: Eduprint.

Education Trust. (2000). Issues in the use of educational technologies: Report to the Executive
Committee. (Available from Landry, S. Education Trust, 501 Grayston Drive, Sandton, South Africa).

Johnson, L. [n.d.]. Will technology save the education system? Available from:
http://www.netscape.com/users/johnl/save.html (Accessed 16 January 2000).

Mellers, A. (1998). Transform your classroom with technology (CD). Sacramento: Crunch Pod Media.

Tyson, T., Burke, R.L. & Jacobs, G.M. (1994). Preliminary findings regarding the use of computers in
secondary schools. Paper presented at the meeting of the South African Association for Teachers:
Bloemfontein, South Africa.

__________________________

_¹ Please note that all the sources used in this example are completely fictional, and were only created to
illustrate the different reference techniques discussed in this publication.

7

Sample paragraph and reference list: APA style²

Many researchers have investigated the use of technology in Higher Education (Blake, 1998; Davis, 1987;
Johnson, n.d.; Tyson, Burke & Jacobs, 1994). According to Blake (1998,p.234; 1999a,p.12; 1999b,p.4),
new technologies such as CD-ROMs, the Internet, and mobile technologies hold great promise for the
future of education, but other researchers (Johnson, n.d.; Education Trust, 2000) caution that the use of
technology in educational settings should be studied in greater depth to evaluate its effectiveness. A
longitudinal study by Tyson et al. (1994) showed that technology can enrich education, if used by a skilled
teacher.

The Internet offers some useful resources on this topic, including Johannesburg University’s EdTech
(http://www.joburg.ac.za/EdTech/), which provides information relevant to the South African context. Other
resources include brochures by the Education Trust (e.g. 1999), and a toolkit on using technology in the
classroom by Mellers (1998).

Reference list
Blake, N. (1998). Using the web in undergraduate education. Journal of Educational Computing, 5,(2),
234-251.

Blake, N. (1999a). Higher Education in the 21st Century. New York: University Press.

Blake, N. (1999b). The promise of mobile technologies for education. Edulink, 3(2). Retrieved February 8,
2001, from http://www.joburg.ac.za/edtech/pubs/edulink/992/blake.html

Davis, K. (1987). Computer-based training for accountants. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Rand Afrikaans
University, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Education Trust. (1999). Using videos in your classroom [Brochure]. Sandton: Eduprint.

Education Trust. (2000). Issues in the use of educational technologies: Report to the Executive
Committee. (Available from S. Landry, Education Trust, 501 Grayston Drive, Sandton, South Africa).

Johnson, L. [n.d.]. Will technology save the education system? Retrieved January 16, 2000, from
http://www.netscape.com/users/johnl/save.html

Mellers, A. (1998). Transform your classroom with technology [CD]. Sacramento: Crunch Pod Media.

Tyson, T., Burke, R.L., & Jacobs, G.M. (1994, May). Preliminary findings regarding the use of computers
in secondary schools. Paper presented at the meeting of the South African Association of Teachers,
Bloemfontein, South Africa.

__________________
² Please note that all the sources used in this example are completely fictional, and were only created to
illustrate the different reference techniques discussed in this publication.

8

HARVARD method
Simply use whatever you used as author in the reference, as well as the
year of publication.
Always insert the page number where possible.
In-text reference
where the author …the result of this is a “technical super identity” (Erikson, 1967:20).
of the source is
known Azar and Martin (1999) found that… (As part of the sentence)
…thus Cox (1966:52) refers to the modern urbanite as…
In-text reference to more than one author should be arranged
In-text reference alphabetically.
to more than one
source More recent studies (Bartlett, 1992; James, 1998) show that…

The researchers (Bartlett, 1992, Brown, 1876 and James, 1998) refer to this
as…
Author, A.A. (1994). Title of work. Location: Publisher.

Non-periodical Non-periodicals include items published separately: books, reports,
brochures, certain monographs, manuals, and audiovisual media.
Part of a Author, A.A. & Author, B.B. (1994). Title of chapter. In Title of book.
non-periodical Edited by Editor, A., Editor, B. & Editor, C. Location: Publisher.
Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (1994). Title of article. Title of
Periodical periodical, xx(x):xxx-xxxx.

Periodicals include items published on a regular basis: journals,
magazines, scholarly newsletters, etc.
Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. (2000). Title of article. Title of
Online periodical periodical, xx:xxx-xxxx. Available from: web address (Accessed day
month year).
Online document Author, A.A. (2000). Title of work. Available from: web address (Accessed
day month year).
A book with only Rose, L. (1977). Crime and Punishment. London: Batsford.
one author
Gordon, E.W. & Rourke, A. (1966). Compensatory education for the
disadvantaged. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

When quoting a book with two authors in the text, use the word
A book by two ‘and’ between the names; if the reference is in parentheses, use ‘&’.
authors
In order to avoid possible communication problems all procedures should be
explained to the patient (Gardner & Sheldon, 1967)….
Gardner and Sheldon (1967) examine the problem…

9

APA style
year of publication.
Only insert the page number when using a direct quote.
In-text reference Do not include suffixes such as Jr.
where the author
of the source is …the result of this is a “technical super identity” (Erikson, 1967, p.20).
known
Azar and Martin (1999) found that… (As part of the sentence)
…thus Cox (1966, p.52) refers to the modern urbanite as…
In-text reference to more than one author should be arranged
alphabetically.
In-text reference
to more than
one More recent studies (Bartlett, 1992; James, 1998) show that…
source
The researchers (Bartlett, 1992; Brown, 1876, and; James, 1998,)
refer to this as…
Author, A. A. (1994). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
Non-periodical Nonperiodicals include items published separately: books, reports,
brochures, certain monographs, manuals, and audiovisual media.
Part of a Author, A. A., Author, B. B. (1994). Title of chapter. In A. Editor, B. Editor, &
non-periodical C. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx-xxxx). Location: Publisher.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (1994). Title of article. Title of
Periodical, xx(x), xxx-xxxx.
Periodical
Periodicals include items published on a regular basis: journals,
magazines, scholarly newsletters, etc.
Online periodical Author, A. A., Author, B. B., Author, C. C. (2000). Title of article. Title of
Periodical, xx, xxx-xxxx. Retrieved month day, year, from web address
Online
document Author, A. A. (2000). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from web
address
A book with only Rose, L. (1977). Crime and Punishment. London: Batsford.
one author
Gordon, E.W. & Rourke, A. (1966). Compensatory education for the
disadvantaged. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

When quoting a book with two authors in the text, use the word ‘and’
A book by two between the names; if the reference is in parentheses, use ‘&’.
authors
In order to avoid possible communication problems all procedures should be
explained to the patient (Gardner & Sheldon, 1967)…
Gardner and Sheldon (1967) examine the problem…

10

HARVARD method

Meyer, B.S., Anderson, D.P., Bohning, R.H. & Fratanna, D.G., Jr. (1973).
Introduction to plant physiology. New York: Van Nostrand.

A book by three In referring to a work by three or more authors all the relevant names
or more authors have to be furnished in the first reference to the work:

…the traditionalist personality (Riesman, Denney & Glazer, 1968:40)
restrains him from doing…

In later references to this work only the first author’s name is stated, and
the abbreviation ‘et al.’ is used:

…due to his “other-directness” modern Western man in a sense is at home
everywhere and yet nowhere (Riesman et al. , 1968:40)
Johnson (1994a:48) discussed the subject…
Reference to
more than one In his later works (Johnson, 1994b:56) argued…
publication of
same author in
the same year Johnson, P.D. (1994a). Pedagogy. London: Routledge.

Johnson, P.D. (1994b). Advanced Pedagogy. London: Routledge.
Different authors When you refer to publications by different authors with the same
with the same surname, use their initials in the reference:
surname
According to B. Smith (1989) and F. Smith (1997)…
A book with an Where reference is made to the work by a body (institution, organisation,
institution, association, etc.) where no specific author is responsible for the work, the
organisation or official name of the body is used as author. You can also use the name of
association as the body as part of the sentence.
author
…it had long been evident that the intellectual potential of the Afrikaners on
the Witwatersrand was underutilised (Rand Afrikaans University, 1976:48)…

…thus the Rand Afrikaans University (1968:30) concluded that…

RAU (Rand Afrikaans University). (1970). The new university: A practical
guideline. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
A book with Driver, E. & Broisen, A. (Editors). (1989). Child sexual abuse. Basingstoke,
(an) editor(s) UK: Macmillan Education.

Strunk, W. (Editor). (1976). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.

11

APA style

Meyer, B.S., Anderson, D.P., Bohning, R.H. & Fratanna, D.G., Jr. (1973).
Introduction to plant physiology. New York: Van Nostrand.

In referring to a work by three, four or five authors all the relevant names
have to be furnished in the first reference to the work,

…the traditionalist personality (Riesman, Denney & Glazer, 1968, p.40)
restrains him from doing…

A book by three In later references to this work only the first author’s name is stated, and
or more authors the abbreviation ‘et al’ is used:
…due to his “other-directness” modern Western man in a sense is at home
everywhere and yet nowhere (Riesman et al., 1968, p.40)…

In referring to a work by six or more authors, cite only the surname of the
first author followed by et al. (not italicized and with a full stop after ‘al’),
and the year for the first and subsequent citations. In the reference list,
provide the initials and surnames of the first six authors, and shorten any
remaining authors to et al.
Johnson (1994a) discussed the subject…
Reference to
more than one In his later works (Johnson, 1994b) argued…
publication of
the same author Johnson, P.D. (1994a). Pedagogy. London: Routledge.
in the same year
Johnson, P.D. (1994b). Advanced Pedagogy. London: Routledge.
Different authors When you refer to publications by different authors with the same
with the same surname, use their initials in the reference:
surname
According to B. Smith (1989) and F. Smith (1997), ….
Where reference is made to the work by a body (institution, organisation,
association, etc.) Where no specific author is responsible for the work, the
official name of the body is used as author. You can also use the name of the
body as part of the sentence.

…it had long been evident that the intellectual potential of the Afrikaners on
the Witwatersrand was underutilised (Rand Afrikaans University, 1976)…
A book with an
institution, …thus the Rand Afrikaans University (1968, p.30) concluded that…
organisation or
association as Rand Afrikaans University (1970). The new university: A practical guideline.
author Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans University.
Driver, E. & Broisen, A. (Eds.). (1989). Child sexual abuse. Basingstoke, UK:
A book with (an) Macmillan Education.
editor(s)
Strunk, W. (Ed.). (1976). Adult learning. New York: Macmillan.

12

HARVARD method

A chapter in a Capra, F. (1983). The systems view of life. Chapter 9 in The turning point:
book (not
edited) Science, society and the rising culture. London: Fontana Press.
Hartley, J.T., Harker, O.J. & Walsh, D.A. (1980). Contemporary issues and new
Part/chapter of directions in adult development of learning and memory. In Aging in the 1980’s:
an edited book Psychological issues. Edited by Poon, L.W. Washington: American
Psychological Association.
When a work’s author is designated as “Anonymous”, cite in text the word
‘Anonymous’:

A recent article (Anonymous, 1993) stated that…

Anonymous
work In the case of articles in newspapers or magazines where no author is
named, the title is used instead of the author.

A recent article (War over, 1991) stated that…

Anonymous. (17 February 1993). Best practices. The Star, page 10.

War Over. (7 January 1991). The Star, page 10.
A work with a Spyridakis, A. (1987). E historia tis Helladas [A history of Greece]. Athens:
foreign title Therios ita Iona.
Luria, A.R. (1968). The mind of a mnemonist: A little book about a vast memory.
Translated from the Russian by Solotaroff, L. New York: Basic Books. (Original
work published in 1967)
Translated
works
In text, cite the date of the translation:

A recent study (Luria, 1968)…
Dyson, G.G.H. (1977). The mechanics of athletics. 7th edition. New York:
Second, further Homes and Meier.
or revised
editions Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences.
Revised edition. New York: Academic Press.
Date of Wolverton, H. (n.d.). The geological structure of the Black Hills. Wilmington:
publication Prairie Press.
unknown
The concise Macquarie dictionary. (1982). New South Wales: Lane Cove.

Nguyen, D.H. (1966). Vietnamese-English dictionary. Rutland, Vermont: Charles
Dictionaries Tuttle Company.

Sadie, S. (Editor). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians.
6th edition. London: MacMillan.

13

APA style
Capra, F. (1983). The systems view of life. In The turning point: Science,
A chapter in a society and the rising culture (pp. 376-399). London: Fontana Press.
book (not edited)
Hartley, J.T., Harker, O.J., & Walsh, D.A. (1980). Contemporary issues and
new directions in adult development of learning and memory. In LW. Poon
Part/chapter of (Ed.), Aging in the 1980’s: Psychological issues. Washington: American
an edited book Psychological Association.
When a work’s author is designated as “Anonymous”, cite in text the word
‘Anonymous’:

A recent article (Anonymous, 1993) stated that…

Anonymous
work In the case of articles in newspapers or magazines where no author is
named, the title is used instead of the author.

A recent article (War over, 1991) stated that…

Anonymous. (1993, 17 February). Best practices. The Star, p. 10.

War over. (1991, 7 January). The Star, p. 10.
A work with a Spyridakis, A. (1987). E historia tis Helladas [A history of Greece]. Athens:
foreign title Therios ita Iona.
Luria, A.R. (1968). The mind of a mnemonist: A little book about a vast
memory. (L. Solataroff, Trans.). New York: Basic Books. (Original work
published 1967)
Translated
(works) In text, cite the original publication date and the date of the translation:

A recent study (Luria, 1967/1968) …
Dyson, G.G.H. (1977). The mechanics of athletics. (7th ed.). New York:
Homes and Meier.
Second, further
or revised
editions Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (Rev.
ed.). New York: Academic Press.
Date of Wolverton, H.(n.d.). The geological structure of the Black Hills. Wilmington:
publication Prairie Press.
unknown
The concise Macquarie dictionary. (1982). New South Wales: Lane Cove.
Nguyen, D.H. (1966). Vietnamese-English dictionary. Rutland, Vermont:
Dictionaries Charles Tuttle Company.

Sadie, S. (Ed.). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (6th
ed., Vols. 1-20). London: MacMillan.

14

HARVARD method

Bergman, P.G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopaedia Britannica.
Encyclopaedia (Vol.26:501-508). Chicago. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

If an entry has no byline (author), place the title in the author position.
Personal communication may be letters, memos, some electronic
communication (e.g., e-mail or messages from non-archived discussion
Personal groups or electronic bulletin boards), personal interviews, telephone
communication conversations, and the like.

Lowman, D. (17 January 2003). ProCite and Internet. Unpublished letter to
Cross, P.
Unpublished Jordan, B.(1989). Psychology of adolescent parents. Manuscript submitted for
manuscript publication.
submitted for
publication
Unpublished Ryder, M. (1987). Wonder Woman: An Amazon legacy. Unpublished
manuscript not manuscript.
submitted for
publication
Newspaper Lamb, J. (20 October 1970). The perfect plants for lazy gardeners. Weekend
article Australian, page 3.
If a journal or newsletter does not use volume numbers, include the
month, season, or other designation with the year, for example (April
1994).

Periodical
article Phillips, E. (May 1985). The Australian scene. Australian journal of ecology,
3(2):25-29.

Only indicate the issue number after the volume number if each issue
begins on page 1.
Phillips, E. (in press). The Australian scene. Australian journal of ecology.
Journal article
in
press In text: Phillips (in press) or (Phillips, in press)
Abstract Phillips, E. (1985). The Australian scene (Abstract). Australian journal of
ecology, 3(2):25-29.
Give the original title, as well as an English translation in brackets.
Non-English Ising, M. (2000). Intensitätsabhängigkeit evozierter Potenzial im EEG: Sind
impulsive Personen Augmenter oder Reducer? [Intensity dependence in
eventrelated EEG potentials: Are impulsive individuals augmenters or
reducers?]. Zeitschrift für differentielle und diagnostische Psychologie, 21:208-
journal article 217.

15

APA style

Bergman, P.G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol.
Encyclopaedia 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

If an entry has no byline, place the title in the author position.
Personal communication may be letters, memos, some electronic
communication (e.g., e-mail or messages from non-archived discussion
groups or electronic bulletin boards), personal interviews, telephone
Personal conversations, and the like. Because they do not provide recoverable
communication data, personal communications are not included in the reference list. Cite
personal communications in text only. Give the initials as well as the
surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible:

According to T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)…
Unpublished Jordan, B. (1989). Psychology of adolescent parents. Manuscript submitted for
manuscript publication.
submitted for
publication
Ryder, M. (1987). Wonder Woman: An Amazon legacy. Unpublished
Unpublished manuscript.
manuscript not
submitted for
publication
Newspaper Lamb, J. (1970, 20 October). The perfect plants for lazy gardeners. Weekend
article Australian, p. 3.
If a journal or newsletter does not use volume numbers, include the
month, season, or other designation with the year, for example (1994,
April).

Periodical
article Phillips, E. (1985). The Australian scene. Australian journal of ecology, 3 (2),
25-29.

Only indicate the issue number after the volume number if each issue
begins on page 1.
Phillips, E. (in press). The Australian scene. Australian journal of ecology.
Journal article
in
press In text:
Phillips (in press) or (Phillips, in press)
Abstract Phillips, E. (1985). The Australian scene [Abstract]. Australian journal of
ecology, 3 (2), 25-29.
Give the original title, as well as an English translation in brackets.

Non-English Ising, M. (2000). Intensitätsabhängigkeit evozierter Potenzial im EEG: Sind
impulsive Personen Augmenter oder Reducer? [Intensity dependence in
eventrelated EEG potentials: Are impulsive individuals augmenters or
reducers?]. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 21, 208-
journal article 217.

16

HARVARD method
Published Bevins, G.D. (1987). Theory and practice at an Australian university. Doctoral
dissertation or dissertation. Montreal: McGill University.
In America a dissertation refers to a doctoral study but in Commonwealth
countries to a masters study. A thesis in these countries denotes a doctoral
thesis study.
Little, P. (1965). Helplessness, depression and mood in end stage renal
Unpublished disease. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Johannesburg: Wits University.
dissertation or
thesis Or: Unpublished doctoral dissertation …
Dissertation Ross, D.F. (1990). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: when a
abstract witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a lineup. Doctoral
dissertation. Cornell University, 1990. Dissertation Abstracts International,
51:417.
When referring to a government publication, the date is sufficient for in-text
referencing:

According to The Bill of Rights (1996)…

Education is in the process of transformation (Department of Education,
1995)…

Provide all available numbers, sections, chapters or volume numbers in
Government brackets.
publications
The Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. (1996).
Government Gazette. (No. 17678).

Department of Education. (1995). White Paper on Education. Government
Gazette. (Vol. 375, No. 45621).

Commission on Civil Rights. (1967). Racial isolation in the public schools.
Washington: United States Government Printing Office.
Unpublished Use brackets to indicate that the material is a description of the content,
raw data, not a title. Do not italicise title.
untitled
Bordi, F. & LeDoux, J.E. (1993). [Auditory response latencies in rat auditory
cortex]. Unpublished raw data.
South African College of Advanced Education (1976). Referencing: the footnote
Booklet, and Harvard system (Brochure). Johannesburg: Wits Technikon.
brochure,
pamphlet or Research and Training Center in Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for
leaflet reporting and writing about people with disabilities (Brochure). 4th edition.
Lawrence, K.S.: Author.
Study guide Speedy, C. (1999). Study Guide: Electrical Engineering 1. America: South
American College of Engineering.
Conference International Microcomputer Conference. (1984). Conference proceedings held
proceedings, no at the Western Australian Institute of Technology, Perth, 22 – 24 May 1984.
author or title Conducted by the Department of Computer Studies. Perth: Western Australian
Institute of technology.

17

APA style

Published Bevins, G.D. (1987). Theory and practice at a Australian university. Doctoral
dissertation or Dissertation, Montreal: McGill University.
In America a dissertation refers to a doctoral study; in Commonwealth countries
thesis to a masters study. In these countries a doctoral study is called a thesis.
Little, P. (1965). Helplessness, depression and mood in end stage renal
disease. Unpublished master’s thesis, Wits University, Johannesburg, South
Unpublished Africa.
dissertation or Or: Unpublished doctoral dissertation….
thesis
Ross. D.F. (1990). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a
Dissertation witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person from a lineup (Doctoral
abtract dissertation, Cornell University, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51,
417
When referring to a government publication, the date is sufficient for in-text
referencing:

According to The Bill of Rights (1996)…

Education is in the process of transformation (Department of Education,
1995)…

Provide all numbers, sections, chapters or volume numbers available in
Government brackets.
publications
The Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. (1996).
Government Gazette. (No. 17678).

Department of Education. (1995). White Paper on Education. Government
Gazette. (Vol. 375, No. 45621).
Commission on Civil Rights. (1967). Racial isolation in the public schools.
Washington: United States Government Printing Office.
Use brackets to indicate that the material is a description of the content, not a
Unpublished title. Do not italicise title.
raw data,
untitled Bordi, F., & LeDoux, J. E. (1993). [Auditory response latencies in rat auditory
cortex]. Unpublished raw data.
South African College of Advanced Education. (1976). Referencing: the footnote
Booklet, and Harvard system [Brochure]. Johannesburg: Wits Technikon.
Brochure,
pamphlet or Research and Training Center in Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for
leaflet reporting and writing about people with disabilities (4th ed.). [Brochure].
Lawrence, K.S.: Author.
Study guide Speedy, C. (1999). Study Guide: Electrical Engineering 1. America: South
American College of Engineering.
Conference International Microcomputer Conference. (1984). Conference proceedings held
proceedings,
no author or at the Western Australian Institute of Technology, Perth, 22 – 24 May 1984.
title Perth: Western Australian Institute of technology.

18

HARVARD method

Conference National Scientific Conference. (1989). The athlete: Maximising participation
and minimising risk. Conference proceedings of the 25th bicentennial
proceedings, with conference held in Sydney. Conducted by the Australian Sports Medicine
title Federation Ltd. Sydney: Sports Federation
Neal, J.T. (1971). Education – technology or art? Conference proceedings
th
Conference of the 15 biennial conference held in Adelaide. Conducted by the Library
proceedings, with Association of Australia. Sydney: Library Association.
author
Lanktree, C. & Briere, J. (1991). Early data on the Trauma Symptom:
Checklist for children (TSC-C). Paper presented at the meeting of the
Unpublished American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children: San Diego, CA.
paper presented
at a meeting
For a publication of limited circulation, give in parentheses immediately
after the title a name and address from which the publication can be
Publication of obtained:
limited circulation
Klombers, N. (Editor). (1993). ADAA Reporter. (Available from the Anxiety
Disorders Association of America, 6000 Executive Boulevard, Suite 513,
Rockville, MD20852)
Schatz, B.R. (2000). Learning by text or context? (Review of the book
The social life of information). Science, 290:1304.
Review
Kraus, S.J. (1992). Visions of psychology: a videotext of classic studies
(Review of the motion picture Discovering Psychology). Contemporary
Psychology, 37:1146-1147.
Electronic
sources
In-text reference year of publication:
where the author
of the electronic The project website was created using Aldus Pagemaker version 3 (1987-
source is known 1988)…
Several films (e.g., Bertolucci, 1988) have used this technique…
Azar and Martin (1999) found that…
To cite an entire Web site (but not a specific document on the site),
simply give the site's URL in the text:
Rainbow MOO is a virtual space designed especially for teachers and their
elementary-school students (http://it.uwp.edu/rainbow).
In-text reference When a specific part of an electronic source has to be quoted and no
to a web site page number can be found, use the paragraph number if available,
preceded by the ¶ symbol or the abbreviation para.
If these are absent, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph
following it:
(Jones, 2000:¶5)
(Jones, 2000: Conclusion, para.7)

19

APA style
Conference National Scientific Conference. (1989). The athlete: Maximising participation
and minimising risk. Conference proceedings of the 25th bicentennial
proceedings, conference held in Sydney. Conducted by the Australian Sports Medicine
with title Federation Ltd. Sydney: Sports Federation.
Neal, J.T. (1971). Education – technology or art? Conference proceedings of
the 15th biennial conference held in Adelaide. Conducted by the Library
Conference Association of Australia. Sydney: Library Association.
proceedings,
with author
Lanktree, C., & Briere, J. (1991, January). Early data on the Trauma
Unpublished Symptom:
Checklist for children (TSC-C). Paper presented at the meeting of the
paper presented American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, San Diego, CA.
at a meeting
For a publication of limited circulation, give in parentheses immediately
after the title a name and address from which the publication can be
Publication of obtained:
limited circulation
Klombers, N. (Ed.). (1993, Spring). ADAA Reporter. (Available from the
Anxiety Disorders Association of America, 6000 Executive Boulevard, Suite
513, Rockville, MD20852)
Schatz, B.R. (2000). Learning by text or context? [Review of the book The
social life of information]. Science, 290, 1304.
Review
Kraus, S.J. (1992). Visions of psychology: A videotext of classic studies
[Review of the motion picture Discovering Psychology]. Contemporary
Psychology, 37, 1146-1147.
Electronic sources
year of publication:

In-text reference The project website was created using Aldus Pagemaker version 3 (1987-
where the author 1988)…
of the electronic
source is known Several films (e.g., Bertolucci, 1988) have used this technique…

Azar and Martin (1999) found that…
To cite an entire Web site (but not a specific document on the site),
simply give the site's URL in the text:
Rainbow MOO is a virtual space designed especially for teachers and their
elementary-school students (http://it.uwp.edu/rainbow).
In-text reference
to a web site When a specific part of an electronic source has to be quoted and no
page number can be found, use the paragraph number if available,
preceded by the ¶ symbol or the abbreviation para.
If these are absent, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph
following it:
(Jones, 2000: ¶5)
(Jones, 2000: Conclusion, para.7)

20

HARVARD method
Internet site with Holmes, A. (1998). Greenpeace wins media war. Available from:
author http://www.independent.co.uk/international/green25.htm
(Accessed 25 November 1998).
Internet GVU’s 8th www user survey. (n.d.). Available from:
document http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_surveys/survey-1997-10/
without author (Accessed 25 November 1998).
Personal FORMAT: Sender (sender’s e-mail address). (Day month year). Subject
electronic of message. E-mail to recipient (recipient’s e-mail address).
communication/
(e-mail) Lowman, D. (Deborah.lowman@pbsinc.com). (4 April 1996). RE: ProCite and
Internet Refere. E-mail to Cross, P. (pcross@bournemouth.ac.uk).
Article in an Frederickson, B.L. (7 March 2000). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize
Internet-only health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 001a. Available from:
journal http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
( Accessed 20 November 2000).
Electronic copy Borman, W.C. (1993). Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor
of a journal performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78:443-449. Available from
article retrieved PsycArticles database: http://… (Accessed 23 October 2000).
from database
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2000). Role of reference elements in
Internet articles the selection of resources by psychology undergraduates (Electronic version).
based on a print Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5:117-123.
source
If you have reason to believe that the article might be subject to change,
you should add the URL and the date you retrieved the document.
FORMAT: Author. (day month year). Subject of the message. Available
from mailing list, URL (Accessed day month year).

Brack, E. (2 May 1995). Re: Computing short courses. Available from LisLink:
http://archive.lislink.com (Accessed 10 December 2002).

Newsgroups, Jensen, L.R. (12 December 1995). Recommendation of student radio/tv in
online forums, English. Available from IASTAR: http://nrg/dtu.dk (Accessed 11 January
electronic mailing 2003).
lists
Brett, P. (6 June 1999). Experiments proving the collective unconscious.
Available from newsgroup: alt.psychology.jung (Accessed 8 June 1999).

If you cannot determine the author's name, then use the author's email
address as the main entry. When deciding where in your Reference List
to insert such a source, treat the first letter of the email address as
though it were capitalised.

lrm583@aol.com (26 May 1996). Thinking of adoption. Available from
newsgroup: alt.adoption (Accessed 29 May 1996).

21

APA style
Holmes, A. (1998). Greenpeace wins media war. Retrieved November 25,
Internet site with 1998, from http://www.independent.co.uk/international/green25.htm
author
Internet GVU’s 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from
document http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/user_surveys/survey-1997-10/
without author
Because personal e-mail do not provide recoverable data, they (like other
Personal personal communications) are not included in the reference list. Cite
electronic personal communications in text only. Give the initials as well as the
communication surname of the communicator, and provide as exact a date as possible:
(e-mail)
According to T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001)…
Article in an Fredrickson, B.L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize
Internet-only health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved
journal November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/
pre0030001a.html
Electronic copy Borman, W.C. (1993). Role of early supervisory experience in supervisor
of a journal performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 443-449. Retrieved October
article retrieved 23, 2000, from PsycARTICLES database.
from database
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2000). Role of reference elements in the
Internet articles selection of resources by psychology undergraduates [Electronic version].
based on a print Journal of Bibliographic Research, 5, 117-123.
source
If you have reason to believe that the article might be subject to change,
you should add the date on which you retrieved the document, as well as the
URL.
FORMAT: Author. (year, day month). Subject of message. Message
posted to Name mailing list, archived at URL
No italics for title.
Brack, Ernie (1995, 2 May). Re: Computing short courses. Message posted to
LisLink mailing list, archived at http://archive.lislink.com

Jensen, L.R. (1995, 12 December). Recommendation of student radio/tv in
English. Message posted to IASTAR mailing list, archived at http://nrg.dtu.dk
Newsgroups,
online forums, Brett, P. (1999, 6 June). Experiments proving the collective unconscious [Msg
electronic
mailing 1]. Message posted to news://alt.psychology.jung
lists
If you cannot determine the author's name or screenname, then use the
author's email address as the main entry. When deciding where in your
Reference List to insert such a source, treat the first letter of the email
address as though it were capitalised.

lrm583@aol.com (1996, 26 May). Thinking of adoption. Message posted to
news://alt.adoption
If the message is not retrievable from an archive, it should not be
included in the reference list. It can be cited as a personal communication.

22

HARVARD method
Tan, G. & Lewandowsky, S. (1996). A comparison of operator trust in humans
versus machines. Paper presented at the CybErg 96 virtual conference.
Paper Available from:
presented http://www.curtin.edu.au/conference/cyberg/centre/outline.cgi/frame?dir=tan
at a virtual (Accessed 30 January 2003).
conference
Isaac. J.D., Sansone, C., & Smith, J. L. (May 1999). Other people as a source of
Abstract interest in an activity (Abstract). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
35:239-265. Available from: IDEAL database www.europe.idealibrary.com
(Accessed 7 June 1999).
Article in an Adler, J. (17 May 1999). Ghost of Everest. Newsweek. Available from:
electronic http://newsweek.com/ nw-srv/issue/20_99a/printed/int/socu/so01201.htm
magazine (e-
zine) (Accessed 19 May 1999).
Azar, B. & Martin, S. (October 1999). APA's Council of Representatives
Newspaper endorses new standards for testing high school psychology. APA Monitor.
article Available from: http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct99/in1.html (Accessed 7
October 1999).
Parfit, M. (7 December 1997). Breathless (Review of the book The climb: Tragic
Review ambitions on Everest). New York Times on the Web. Available from:
http://search.nytimes.com/books/97/12/07/reviews/971207.07parfitt.html
(Accessed 7 October 1999).
Gray, J. (7 May 1999). Pesticides linger in land and air - and in our bodies
Letter to the (Letter to the editor). Lexington Herald-Leader. Available from:
editor http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/050799/lettersdocs/507lette
rs.htm (Accessed 7 October 1999).
Government Bush, G. (12 April 1989). Principles of ethical conduct for government officers
publication and employees Exec. Order No. 12674. Pt. 1. Available from:
http://www.usoge.gov/exorders/eo12674.html (Accessed 18 November 1997).
CD-ROM Hawking, S. (1994). A Brief history of time: and interactive adventure (CD).
Sacramento: Crunch Pod Media.
Williamson, C. (1985). Prairie fire. On Arkansas traveler (Cassette recording).
Oakland, California: Olivia Records.
Sound
recording
Rock 'n roll classics. (1986). (Phonographic recording). San Diego, California:
Uptown Sound.
Transactional analysis. (1974). (Motion picture). Los Angeles: Research Films.
Motion
picture/film Bertolucci, B. (Producer). (1988). The last emperor (Motion picture). Los
Angeles: Columbia Pictures.
Television Crystal, L. (Executive producer). (11 October 1993). The MacNeil/Lehrer news
broadcast hour (Television broadcast). New York and Washington, DC: Public
Broadcasting Service.

23

APA style

Paper presented Tan, G., & Lewandowsky, S. (1996). A comparison of operator trust in humans
versus machines. Paper presented at the CybErg 96 virtual conference.
at a virtual Retrieved
conference May 16, 2000, from http://www.curtin.edu.au/conference/cyberg/centre/outline.
cgi/frame?dir=tan
Isaac. J. D., Sansone, C., & Smith, J.L. (1999, May). Other people as a source
of interest in an activity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 239-
265.
Abstract Abstract retrieved June 7, 1999, from IDEAL database: http://www.europe
.idealibrary.com
Adler, J. (1999, May 17). Ghost of Everest. Newsweek. Retrieved May 19,
Article in an 1999,
electronic from http://newsweek.com/nw-srv/issue/20_99a /printed/int/socu/so01201.htm
magazine
(ezine)
Newspaper Azar, B., & Martin, S. (1999, October). APA's Council of Representatives
article endorses new standards for testing high school psychology. APA Monitor.
Retrieved October 7, 1999, from http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct99/in1.html
Parfit, M. (1997, December 7). Breathless [Review of the book The climb:
Tragic ambitions on Everest]. New York Times on the Web. Retrieved October
7, 1999, from http://search.nytimes.com/books/97/12/07/reviews/97/1207.07
Review parfitt.html
Gray, J. (1999, May 7). Pesticides linger in land and air—and in our bodies
[Letter to the editor]. Lexington Herald-Leader. Retrieved October 7, 1999,
Letter to the from
editor http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/050799/lettersdocs/
507letters.htm
Government Bush, G. (1989, April 12). Principles of ethical conduct for government officers
publication and employees Exec. Order No. 12674. Pt. 1. Retrieved November 18, 1997,
from http://www.usoge.gov/exorders/eo12674.html
CD-ROM Hawking, S. (1994). A Brief history of time: and interactive adventure [CD].
Sacramento: Crunch Pod Media.
Williamson, C. (1985). Prairie fire. On Arkansas traveler [CD]. Oakland,
Sound recording California: Olivia Records.

Rock 'n roll classics. (1986). [Cassette] San Diego, California: Uptown Sound.
Transactional analysis [Motion picture]. (1974). Los Angeles: Research Films.
Motion
picture/film Bertolucci, B. (Producer). (1988). The last emperor [Motion picture]. Los
Angeles: Columbia Pictures.
Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The MacNeil/Lehrer
Television news hour [Television broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: Public
broadcast Broadcasting Service.

24

HARVARD method

Video recording Babakuieria. (1986). (Video recording). Sydney: ABC Drama Department.

Sutton, P. (Producer). (1986). Kay Cottee: First Lady (Video recording). New
South Wales: Direct Video Pty Ltd.

Cochrane, C. (Executive producer) & Graham, S. (Director). (1988). The
Superkids' fitness video (Video recording). Perth: Dynami Australia.

Illinois State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. (1971). Toys for
Microfiche early development of the young blind child: a guide for parents (Microfiche).
ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 065 201.

Aldus Pagemaker version 3.0 (1987-1988). (Computer software). Seattle,
Computer Washington: Aldus Corporation.
program
Schwarzer, R. (1989). Statistics software for meta-analysis (Computer software
and manual). Available from:
http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/schwarze/meta_e.htm
Van der Walt, S. (2008). UJ Management Librarian APK. Available from:
Blog http: //ujmanagementlibrarianapk.blogspot.com (Accessed 9 January
2008).

25

APA style

Video recording Babakuieria. (1986). [Video recording]. Sydney: ABC Drama Department.

Sutton, P. (Producer). (1986). Kay Cottee: First Lady [Video Recording]. New
South Wales: Direct Video Pty Ltd.

Cochrane, C., (Executive Producer) & Graham S., (Director). (1988). The
Superkids' fitness video [Video Recording]. Perth: Dynami Australia.

Illinois State Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (1971). Toys for
early development of the young blind child: a guide for parents (Microfiche).
Microfiche ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED065 201).

Aldus Pagemaker version 3.0 [Computer software] (1987-1988). Seattle,
Washington: Aldus Corporation.
Computer
program Schwarzer, R. (1989). Statistics software for meta-analysis [Computer software
and manual]. Retrieved from http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/schwarze/
meta_e.htm
Van der Walt, S. (2008). UJ Management librarian APK. Retrieved January 9,
Blog 2008, from http://ujmanagementlibrarianapk.blogspot.com

26

Tips for the use of electronic sources

Evaluating Internet resources
(Source: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_evalsource4.html)

Internet sources can be very timely and very useful, but they should not be your sole
source of information because there are also books, journals, government publications,
brochures, newspapers, etc. to read, and knowledgeable people to interview. Evaluating
Internet sources is particularly difficult because anyone can put up anything he or she
wants to on the Internet. There is no way to monitor what is there and no fact checking is
possible, though there are some site ratings you can check. See Hope Tillman’s
"Evaluating Quality on the Net" (http://www.tiac.net/users/hope/findqual.html). Scroll
down to the last part of her essay for a discussion of some sites that review and rate Web
sites.

Be sure to document what you find on the Internet in such a way that others can locate
what you found. This is most easily done when you access the data. Include the date you
accessed the material since it can be changed or updated later on. Be sure to browse
around on the Web site to be sure you know who the author is, what the sponsoring
organization is, and so on. This will enable you to cite the source fully and will help you to
evaluate it properly before including it in your paper.

Authorship
* Is there an author or organization clearly indicated? If there’s an author, go back to
the questions listed above about authors and ask yourself how reputable this person
is. Can the author be contacted? (If an e-mail address is given, you can contact that
person or look up the address by using the "finger" command.)

* What can you find out about the author?

If there is no information on the site, use a search engine or search Usenet. You may
Find the author’s homepage or other documents which mention this person. You can also look
up the person on the Internet Directory of Published Writers
(http://www.writers.net). If the person is associated with a university, look at the
university Web site.

* If there is an organization sponsoring the page, what can you learn about the
organization and who they are?

(You can search the site by following links to its home page or going back to a
previous level on the site by eliminating the last part of the address, after a "/" mark
or a period. Another way to find the organization is to go to the View menu at the
top of your Web browser and open the Document Information window where the
owner of the document is listed.)

* Does the organization take responsibility for what’s on the site? Does it monitor or
review what’s on the site? Look at the address for the site. Does it end in .edu,
indicating that it’s an educational institution? If it has .gov, it should be fairly
objective government-sponsored material. Addresses with .org are usually non-
profit organizations that are advocacy groups. (The Sierra Club is an example of an
advocacy group. Their postings will conform to their goals of environmental
preservation. Information posted by advocacy groups may be accurate but not

27

entirely objective.) If the site has a .com address, it’s most likely promoting or
selling something.

Accuracy of information
* Is there documentation to indicate the source of the information? There may be a
link to the original source of the information.

* Can you tell how well researched the information is?

* Are criteria for including information offered?

* Is there a bibliography or links to other useful sites? Has the author considered
information on those sites or considered viewpoints represented there?

* Is the information current? When was it updated? (You can check at the bottom for
a "last revised" date and/or notice if there are numerous dead links on the site.)

* Is there any indication of bias on the site?

* Does the site have any credentials such as being rated by a reputable rating group?
If you see a high rating, is that because of the soundness of the content or the quality
of the design? ( An attractive page is not a reason for accepting its information as
reliable.)

Goals of the site
* What is the purpose of the site? To provide information? Advertise? Persuade?

* Are the goals of the site clearly indicated?

* Who is the intended audience?

* Is there a lot of flash and color and gimmicks to attract attention? Is that masking a
lack of sound information or a blatant attempt to get you to do or buy something?

Access
* How did you find the site? Were there links from reputable sites? From ads? If you
found the site through a search engine, that means only that the site has the words in
the topic you are researching prominently placed or used with great frequency. If
you found the site by browsing through a subject directory, that may mean only that
someone at that site registered it with that directory.

List of sources

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual of the American
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American Psychological Association (1999, August 9). Electronic reference formats
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Harnack, A. & Kleppinger, E. (2000). Online! A reference guide to using internet
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Vista University Academic Language Editing Service. (1999). A Summary of the Adapted
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University of Sunderland. (1999). Harvard Reference System. Available from:
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University of Bournemouth. (1998). Harvard System. Available from:
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University of Bournemouth. (1998). Guide to Citing Internet Sources. Available from:
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Loft, B. and Jones, R.M. (2000). Reference styles: Harvard and Vancouver systems.
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Smit, R. (2000). Bibliographic References. In: Rossouw, D, editor. Intellectual Tools:
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