Instrumentation and Control slide-3.pdf

National Textile University- Faisalabad
Engr. M.Faizan Aslam
Lecturer
Department Of Materials
National Textile University, Faisalabad

Introduction
Engr. M. Faizan Aslam Instrumentation and Control 1
Instrumentation and Control (IC) is a branch of
engineering that studies the measurement and control of
process variables, and the design and implementation of
systems that incorporate them. Process variables include
pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, pH, force and
speed.
The goals of the work of an instrumentation and control
engineer are to maximize:
• Productivity
• Optimization
• Stability
• Reliability
• Safety
• Continuity

Introduction to Automation
Automation is a term for technology and innovation
applications where physical human input is minimized. This
may include IT automation, business process automation
(BPA), industrial robotics, and personal applications like
home automation.
Automation is the process of minimizing manual labor using machines

Introduction to Automation
What is Automation with Example?
Automation includes using various equipment and control
systems such as factory processes, machinery, boilers, heat-
treating ovens, etc. Examples of automation range from a
household thermostat to a large industrial control system, self-
driven vehicles, and warehousing robots.

Types of Automation
Automation has wide applications. There are many
automated processes you probably already know. But
identifying instances of automation is more important
than understanding the broad categories of automation.
So, the following are 6 types of automated manufacturing
systems:
1. Fixed Automation
2. Programmable Automation
3. Flexible Automation
4. Process Automation
5. Integrated Automation
6. Robotic Process Automation

Types of Automation
1. Fixed Automation:
Fixed animation, or hard automation, is an automation type in
which the configuration of the manufacturing process stays
fixed. This type of automation is therefore best suited for
completing a single set of tasks repeatedly. For instance, if the
automation procedure repeats the same tasks with identical
units, it is fixed automation.
Fixed automation is best where production routes and routines do not change

Types of Automation
In effect, fixed automation machines are controlled by
programmed commands and computers that direct them on
what to do, give notifications, and measure production metrics.
Fixed automation is generally suitable for large-volume products.
The operation in fixed automation's sequence isn't complex and
involves fundamental functionalities like rotational or plain linear
motion or both. animation, or hard automation, is an
automation type in which the configuration of the
manufacturing process stays fixed. This type of automation is
therefore best suited for completing a single set of tasks
repeatedly. For instance, if the automation procedure repeats
the same tasks with identical units, it is fixed automation.

Types of Automation
FIXED AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS:
Fixed automation is best suited for:
• High demand and generic production needs that require no
change
• Machining transfer lines in the automotive industry, some
automatic assembly machines, and some chemical
processes
• Flow production, where products are continuously being
made
An example of fixed automation in use is soft drink factories.
They have fixed machines that enable their production of large
quantities of soft same-unit drinks to meet high demands.

Types of Automation
2. Programmable Automation
Programmable automation systems involve automated or
robotic equipment controlled through programming for batch
production. The automation is controlled through a program,
which is coded in ways d.
that allow it to change its sequence anytime there's a nee
Programmable automation is code-based, allowing for excellent precision

Types of Automation
This industrial automation type allows easy product or process
changes by modifying the control program. This also allows the
implementation of new processes.
Programmable automation is most used in systems that produce
similar items using the same automated steps and tools. It's ideal
for medium-to-high production volumes and suitable for batch
production processes such as factories making food variants. If
the product/production needs changing, the machine is
reprogrammed.
In programmable automation, products are made in batch
quantities at a time ranging from a few several dozen to several
thousand units. And for each new product batch, the
production equipment must be reprogrammed or changed
over to accommodate the new or required product style.

Types of Automation
PROGRAMMABLE AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS:
Programmable automation is well suited for low/medium
demand production and occasional changes in products:
• Logistical programming
• Intelligent robotic machines
• Industrial robots
• Numerical-control (NC) machine tools
• Paper and steel rolling mills use the same steps to create
many different product types
• Traditional cruise control and thermostats

Types of Automation
3. Flexible Automation:
Flexible automation, also known as soft automation, is an
extension of programmable automation with next-to-zero
downtime and minimum manual changeover procedure. This
means greater flexibility and results in a greater production rate.
Flexible automation requires less human input than other types of automation

Types of Automation
Essentially, flexible automation allows the production of different
product types without the need for complex reprogramming.
This allows production to switch between tasks minimizing
downtime.
Building upon programmable automation, flexible automation
systems often involve precise electromechanical controls.
Examples are industrial robots and multipurpose CNC machines.
FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS:
Flexible automation is ideal for medium-demand and constant
changes/large variety in products.
• Industrial robots
• Multipurpose CNC machines
• Warehouse automation
• Modern adaptive cruise control and self-learning thermostats

Types of Automation
Industries that use flexible automation include food processing,
textile manufacturing, and paint manufacturing.
Note: The chart below shows what options might be best when
choosing an automation type, depending on the variety and
product demand.

Types of Automation
4. Process Automation: Process automation means using
technology to automate manual processes through data and
systems integration. It combines all other industrial automation
types into one, connecting flexible and integrated automation
systems.
Process automation is used more in businesses where software
programs/apps execute a set of tasks within the modern, digital
enterprise. It manages business processes for transparency and
uniformity to increase a company's workflow.
Process automation involves using
software to optimize company
workflows

Types of Automation
Using process automation can help increase productivity and
efficiency in businesses. It can also provide new insights into
business challenges and suggest solutions.
A process automation system typically has three functions:
1. Automating processes
2. Centralizing information
3. Reducing human input in tasks
PROCESS AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS
• Process mining and workflow automation
• Condition monitoring & I/O
• Automating repetitive tasks
• Managing and gathering data files
• Connecting and integrating data sources and services

Types of Automation
5. Integrated Automation: An integrated automation system is a
comprehensive automation framework that automates an
entire manufacturing process through computer control.
Integrated automation aims to reduce the complexity of many
independently automated work processes by streamlining
communication between various automated processes.
Integrated automation can encompass all types of automation in a single facility, under
single control

Types of Automation
For instance, rather than allowing three automated systems to
function separately, integrated automation integrates them
under one control system. So, data, independent machines,
and processes will all work together under a single command
system.
Overall, integrated automation is a holistic approach to
industrial or manufacturing automation.
INTEGRATED AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS
• Robotic manufacturing
• Flexible machining systems
• Automated material handling
• Warehouse setup and operations
• Computer-aided manufacturing
• Computer-aided design (CAD)

Types of Automation
6. Robotic Process Automation: Robotic process automation
(RPA) is a type of process automation where software
technology makes it easy to create/build, deploy, and manage
software robots that emulate and do human actions.
The robots are programmed with software technology to do
rule-based tasks, such as extracting data from screens or
insurance forms, arranging products on shelves, etc.
Robotic process automation involves using robots to perform human tasks

Types of Automation
A business can use RPA tools to work and communicate with
other digital systems, capture data, process transactions, and
retrieve information. But unlike human labor, robots do these
tasks faster, more efficiently, and consistently.
RPA is often quoted as a form of artificial Intelligence (AI), but it's
not. Unlike AI, RPA uses rule-based, structured inputs and logic to
undertake tasks. The robots do what they're told.
ROBOTIC PROCESS AUTOMATION APPLICATIONS:
Financial firms were the first RAP adopters, but many companies
in various industries now use it, including retail, healthcare,
manufacturing, and warehousing.

Reasons of Automation

Production Operation
Production/Manufacturing operations refer to the processes and
activities involved in the large-scale production of goods and
products using raw materials, machines, and human labor. It
encompasses the entire production process, from design and
development to production, assembly, testing, and delivery of
the final product. Its goal is to produce high-quality products
efficiently and cost-effectively.

Automation Strategy
What is an Automation Strategy?
An automation strategy is a framework that provides businesses
with a comprehensive and integrated approach to the
automation of processes. Robotic process automation (RPA)
and business process automation (BPA) are both defined by
automation strategies that measure scope, reliability, and
impact. .
Conclusion:
The benefits of an automation strategy are vast and include
increased productivity, reliability, availability, better
performance, and reduced operating costs. New technologies
and innovations are making it possible to remove the human
effort from repetitive tasks such as data entry and typing.

Flow Measurement
What Is Flow Measurement?
If you are working in any industry and the quantity of the
processing fluid is not accurate, your company may suffer great
loss.
To assure that the quantity of every fluid is accurate throughout
the entire work process from beginning to end, measurements of
those fluids are necessary and can't be ignored.
Flow measurement of liquid or gas products is done periodically
to assure that all the work processes like liquid transfer and fluid
control are functioning accurately, smoothly, and safely.

Flow Measurement
Flow measurement identifies the quantity of the fluid that passes
through any pipe, channel, or space using flow measurement
devices. Fluids that are measured include liquids, gas, or vapor.

Flow Measurement
What Is a Flow Measurement Device?
Flow means the given quantity of a substance either in terms of
mass or volume that passes through a pipe per unit time.
To measure the flow of any fluid, there is a need for some device
or instrument, and the device used to measure the flow is known
as a flow measurement device.
A flow measurement device commonly referred to as a
flowmeter is an instrument that is used to measure the flow rate
of a fluid per unit time (Volume or mass of the given fluid.)
Working Principle of Flow Measurement
The working principle of a flow measurement device, also
known as a flowmeter, is to measure the amount of fluid, i.e,
liquid, gas, or stream. The flow meter calculates either volume or
mass of the given liquid.

Flow Measurement
Ways of Flow Measurement
As mentioned above, flow is measured in two ways: in volume
or mass per unit of time.
1. Volume Flow
The volumetric flow of a substance is defined as the
measurement of the volume quantity that flows/passes through
a given area or section per unit of time.
2. Mass Flow
The mass flow of a substance is defined as the measurement of
the mass quantity that passes or flows through a given area or
section per unit of time.

Flow Measurement
UNITS OF FLOW MEASUREMENT
Flow meters can be used to measure the flow rate of liquids or
gases. The unit is decided depending on the function and
parameters of flow measurement. The unit used varies
according to the system of measurement being followed, as
well as the material being measured.
Units Used to Measure Flow
The following units are used to measure liquid and gas flow:
• Liquids are measured based on density: liters per second or
gallons per minute
• Steam is measured based on weight: Tonnes/ hour and
kilograms/ minute
• Gases are measured based on energy content: Joules/ hour
and British Thermal Unit/ day.

Flow Measurement
Methods Of Flow Measurement
Flow can be measured using various methods and technologies.
• Mechanical Flowmeter
• Pressure drop based Flow Meter
• Vortex Flowmeter
• Optical Flowmeters
• Thermal Flowmeter
• Ultrasonic Flowmeters
• Electromagnetic Flowmeters
• Mass Flowmeter

Flow Measurement
Basic Terms
Velocity:
is a measure of speed and direction of an object. When related
to fluids it is the rate of flow of fluid particles in a pipe. The speed
of particles in a fluid flow varies over the cross section of the
flow, i.e., where the fluid is in contact with the constraining walls
(the boundary layer) the velocity of the liquid particles is virtually
zero; in the center of the flow the liquid particles will have the
maximum velocity. Thus, the accurate measurement of flow
rates is difficult when average rates of flow are used in flow
calculations. The units of flow are normally feet per second (fps),
feet per minute (fpm), or meters per second (mps), and so on.
the pressures associated with fluid flow were defined as static,
impact, or dynamic.

Flow Measurement
Basic Terms
Viscosity:
Viscosity is a property of a gas or liquid that is a measure of its
resistance to motion or flow. A viscous liquid such as syrup has a
much higher viscosity than water, and water has a higher
viscosity than air. Syrup, because of its high viscosity, flows very
slowly and it is very hard to move an object through it.
Viscosity (dynamic) can be measured in poise or centipoise,
whereas kinematic viscosity (without force) is measured in stokes
or centistokes. Dynamic or absolute viscosity is used in the
Reynolds and flow equations. Table gives a list of conversions.
Typically, the viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature
increases.

Flow Measurement
Basic Terms
Reynolds Number:
A Reynolds number is the ratio between the inertial forces
moving a fluid and viscous forces resisting that movement. It
describes the nature of the fluid flow. The Reynolds number has
no units of measure and is calculated from velocity or flow rate,
density, viscosity, and the inside diameter of a pipe. Reynolds
numbers commonly range from 100 to 1,000,000. However, they
can be higher or lower than these values.

Flow Measurement
Laminar flow:
Laminar flow of a liquid occurs when its average velocity is
comparatively low and the fluid particles tend to move
smoothly in layers, as shown in Figure. The velocity of the
particles across the liquid takes a parabolic shape.

Flow Measurement
Laminar flow is smooth fluid flow that has a flow profile that is
parabolic in shape with no mixing between the streamlines.
Laminar flow in pipes occurs at Reynolds numbers below about
2100. A cross section of a laminar flow stream is a parabolic flow
profile, with the maximum velocity in the center and the
minimum velocity at the pipe walls..

Flow Measurement
Turbulent Flow:
Turbulent flow occurs when the flow velocity is high, and the
particles no longer flow smoothly in layers and turbulence, or a
rolling effect occurs. This is shown in Figure. Note also the
flattening of the velocity profile.

Flow Measurement
Turbulent flow is fluid flow in which the flow profile is a flattened
parabola, the streamlines are not present, and the fluid is freely
intermixing. Turbulent flow in pipes typically occurs at Reynolds
numbers above about 4000. The exact shape of the flattened
profile depends on the Reynolds number.
There is a sudden transition between laminar flow and turbulent
flow as the flow rate increases. The exact transition point cannot
be easily predicted, but it normally occurs at Reynolds numbers
between 2100 and 4000. The flow is often termed transitional at
flow rates between these Reynolds numbers, even though the
actual flow is laminar or turbulent. Many flowmeters require
turbulent flow and specify Reynolds numbers above 10,000 to
ensure that turbulent flow is the prevailing condition.

Flow Measurement

Flow Measurement
Calculating the Reynolds Number:
There are many forms of the Reynolds number equation,
depending on the measurement units used. One common form
of this equation is as follows:

Flow Measurement
Calculating the Reynolds Number:
There are many forms of the Reynolds number equation,
depending on the measurement units used. One common form
of this equation is as follows:
Numerical:
Water has a viscosity of 1.0 cP (μ) at 68°F and a density of 62.4
lb/ft3 (ρ). When the water is pumped at 1.0 ft/sec (ν) through a
3″ pipe (d, 0.25′), Find the Reynolds number?

Flow Measurement
The Bernoulli equation: is an equation for flow based on the
conservation of energy, which states that the total energy of a
fluid or gas at any one point in a flow is equal to the total energy
at all other points in the flow.
Energy factors. Most flow equations are based on energy
conservation and relate to the average fluid or gas velocity,
pressure, and the height of fluid above a given reference point.
This relationship is given by the Bernoulli equation. The equation
can be modified to take into account energy losses due to
friction and increases in energy as supplied by pumps.
Energy losses in flowing fluids are caused by friction between the
fluid and the containment walls and by fluid impacting an
object. In most cases these losses should be taken into account.
While these equations apply to both liquids and gases they are
more complicated in gases by the fact that gases are
compressible.

Flow Measurement
Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation gives the relation between pressure, fluid
velocity, and elevation in a flow system. The equation is
accredited to Bernoulli (1738). When applied to Figure the
following is obtained:

Flow Measurement
Above Figure: Container diagrams: (a) the pressures at points A
and B are related by the Bernoulli equation and (b) application
of the Bernoulli in example.

Flow Measurement
Problem: Bernoulli Equation
Through a refinery, fuel ethanol is flowing in a pipe at a velocity
of 1 m/s and a pressure of 101300 Pa. The refinery needs the
ethanol to be at a pressure of 2 atm (202600 Pa) on a lower
level. How far must the pipe drop in height in order to achieve
this pressure? Assume the velocity does not change. (Hint: Use
the Bernoulli equation. The density of ethanol is 789 kg/m3 and
gravity g is 9.8 m/s2. Pay attention to units!)

Flow Measurement
Coefficient of Discharge principle:
The coefficient of discharge principle will help you determine
the ratio between the theoretical and actual discharge or flow
rate values for a fluid flow. Whether it is water supply to your
house, gas pipelines, or water in an artificial canal, the
estimated or theoretical fluid flow used to design these systems is
always higher than the actual flow rate for fluids.
What is discharge coefficient?
In simple terms, the discharge coefficient is the ratio of
theoretical and actual flow rates. The coefficient of discharge is
a dimensionless parameter. It is one of the three hydraulic
coefficients, which are:
• Coefficient of discharge, Cd
• Coefficient of contraction, Cc and
• Coefficient of velocity, Cv

Flow Measurement
Coefficient of Discharge principle:
While the coefficient of discharge deals with the flow rate, the
coefficient of contraction is associated with the change in the
cross-section and area of the jet. Lastly, the coefficient of
velocity relates to a fluid jet's actual and theoretical velocities.
The three hydraulic coefficients are related to each other using
the equation below.
Cd = Cv × Cc

Flow Measurement
Discharge coefficient — Orifice, venturi, weir, open channel
flows and others.
Consider a fluid flow with a constant cross-sectional area. The
coefficient of discharge, Cd is;
Cd = Qact / Qth
Where:
• Qact – Actual Discharge and
• Qth – Theoretical Discharge
The actual discharge can be measured at one end of the
orifice and denoted as m∙ or Q act.
whereas the theoretical discharge is given by the equation:

Flow Measurement
where:
• ρ – Density of fluid;
• A – Area of cross section;
• c – Flow velocity;
• ΔP – Change in pressure;
• g – Acceleration due to gravity; and
• H – Head of fluid i.e., the height or elevation of top surface of
liquid.
Therefore, the coefficient of discharge becomes:
In most cases, the discharge coefficient value is between 0.6-
0.65. The discharge coefficient is also related to the flow
resistance, which is the resistance offered by the surroundings in
which the fluid flow occurs. The flow resistance, k, is related to
the coefficient of discharge as:

Flow Measurement
Example: Using the coefficient of discharge calculator;
Find the actual discharge for a fluid flow through an orifice (refer
orifice flow calculator) having a diameter of 40 mm and head
10 m. Take the coefficient of discharge for the orifice meter as
0.6.
1. Select the mode using hydraulic head.
2. Fill in the diameter, d=40 mm.
3. The calculator will return the area of cross-section,
A=0.00125664 m2
4. Insert the fluid head, H=10 m.
5. Fill in the discharge coefficient, Cd =0.6.
6. The actual discharge, Q act is:

Flow Measurement
Differential Pressure Flowmeters:
PRIMARY FLOW ELEMENTS;
A pressure difference is created when a fluid passes through a
restriction in a pipe. The point of maximum developed
differential pressure is between the pressure upstream of the
restriction and the pressure downstream of the restriction, at the
point of highest velocity. The shape and configuration of the
restriction affects the magnitude of the differential pressure and
how much of the differential is recoverable. A low differential
pressure recovery means that the flowing fluid permanently loses
much of its pressure. A high differential pressure recovery is more
energy efficient. A restriction in piping used for flow
measurement is a primary flow element.

Flow Measurement
Differential Pressure Flowmeters:
PRIMARY FLOW ELEMENTS;
A primary flow element is a pipeline restriction that causes a
pressure drop used to measure flow. Primary flow elements are
designed to provide accuracy, low cost, ease of use, and
pressure recovery, but not necessarily all in the same element.
For example, the venturi tube has a high-pressure recovery, but
it is relatively expensive and not easy to use. The most common
primary element is the orifice plate. Other primary elements
include flow nozzles, venturi tubes, low loss flow tubes, and pitot
tubes.

Flow Measurement
Orifice Plates;
An orifice plate is a primary flow element consisting of a thin
circular metal plate with a sharp-edged round hole in it and a
tab that protrudes from the flanges. The tab has orifice plate
information stamped onto it. The information usually includes
pipe size, bore size, material, and type of orifice. Orifice plates
are not always reversible, so the stamping is on the upstream
face. The orifice is held in place between two special pipe
flanges called orifice flanges. See figure. Orifice plates are
simple, inexpensive, and replaceable. The hole in the plate is
generally, in the center (concentric) but may be off-center
(eccentric).

Flow Measurement
Orifice Plates;
Straightening vanes remove flow disturbances upstream of an orifice.

Flow Measurement
Orifice Plates;
Eccentric plates are usually used to prevent excessive buildup of
foreign material or gases on the inlet side of the orifice.
To ensure measurement accuracy, a consistent flow pattern
before and after an orifice must be created. Pipe fittings and
valves introduce undesirable disturbances such as swirls and
eddies that affect accuracy. Straight runs of about 20 times the
pipe diameter before and 6 times the pipe diameter after the
orifice plate are recommended to allow the flow disturbances
to die out. For example, for a 4″ pipe, a straight run of 80″ before
and 24″ after the orifice is required. When an insufficient straight
run of upstream pipe is available, the use of a straightening
vane upstream of the orifice plate reduces or eliminates the
disturbances. Orifice plates have the poorest recovery of
differential pressure of any of the primary flow elements. The
recovery is rarely higher than 50%. This means that 50% of the
measurement differential is permanent pressure loss.

Flow Measurement
Flow Nozzles;
A flow nozzle is a primary flow element consisting of a restriction
shaped like a curved funnel that allows a little more flow than
an orifice plate and reduces the straight run pipe requirements.
The nozzle is mounted between a pair of standard flanges. The
pressure-sensing taps are located in the piping a fixed distance
upstream and downstream of the flow nozzle. The differential
pressure recovery is slightly better than an orifice plate. When
higher accuracy and energy efficiency are desired, a venturi
tube can be used.

Flow Measurement
Venturi Tubes;
A venturi tube is a primary flow element consisting of a
fabricated pipe section with a converging inlet section, a
straight throat, and a diverging outlet section. The static pressure
connection is located at the entrance to the inlet section. The
reduced pressure connection is in the throat. Venturi tubes are
much more expensive than orifice plates but are more accurate
and recover 90% or more of the differential pressure. This
reduces the burden on pumps and the cost of power to run
them. Venturi tubes are frequently used to measure large flows
of water.

Flow Measurement
Low-Loss Flow Tubes;
A low-loss flow tube is a primary flow element consisting of an
aerodynamic internal cross section with the low-pressure
connection at the throat. A low-loss tube is very expensive but
has the highest recovered differential pressure of any primary
flow element at 97%. Low-loss tubes are often used in
applications where the line pressure is low and therefore the
pressure recovery must be high. Low-loss flow tubes can often
pay for themselves in energy savings in a short time. See Figure

Flow Measurement
Pitot Tubes
A pitot tube is a flow element consisting of a small bent tube
with a nozzle opening facing into the flow. The nozzle is called
the impact opening and senses the velocity pressure plus the
static pressure. The static pressure is sensed at the pipe wall
perpendicular to the fluid stream. Pitot tubes are commonly
used to measure air velocity. For example, pitot tubes are used
for measuring air velocity in ducts and for measuring the
airspeed of planes. See Figure. A simple pitot tube senses the
impact pressure at only one point even though the velocity
varies across the whole stream. To overcome this disadvantage,
the averaging pitot tube was developed.

Flow Measurement
Pitot Tubes
An averaging pitot tube is a pitot tube consisting of a tube with
several impact openings inserted through the wall of the pipe or
duct and extending across the entire flow profile. The tube has
several high-pressure ports facing upstream. The ports are
spaced at specific locations across the flow stream and
therefore provide an average impact pressure. The low-pressure
ports are located on the same tube downstream from the high-
pressure ports. The low-pressure ports are internally separate
from the high-pressure ports. A great amount of testing and
documentation accompanied the acceptance of the
averaging pitot tube as a dependable industrial flow
measurement sensor. The averaging pitot tube is used to
measure fluid flow in small or large pipes and air flow in ducts.
The differential pressure developed by an averaging pitot tube
is generally less than that produced by an orifice plate and the
pressure recovery is usually very good. This combination of
characteristics provides energy saving advantages.

Flow Measurement
Pitot Tubes

Engr. M. Faizan Aslam Outcome Based Education (OBE)

Instrumentation and Control slide-3.pdf

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