Unit 1 rm 2
- 1. Objectives of Research • To discuss new facts • To verify and test important facts • To analyze an event or processor phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship • To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and nonscientific problem • To find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems • To solve problems occurring in our everyday life
- 2. Purposes of Research • To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Exploratory or Formative Research Studies) • To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual or a group or situation (Descriptive Research Studies) • To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated (Diagnostic Research Studies) • To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis – Testing Research Studies)
- 3. Definitions of research •Research is a tool that is building a block and a sustaining pillar of every discipline – scientific or otherwise that one knows. •Research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the fact and reaching certain conclusions either in the form solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
- 4. Research = Re + Search ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘search’ means to find out something. The following is the process,
- 5. Objectives of research: broad grouping (studies with the object in view): •Exploratory or Formulative Research – to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it •Descriptive Research – to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (simulation in all disciplines) •Diagnostic Research – to determine the frequency with which comething occurs or with which it is associated with something else (Health Science). •Hypothesis-Testing Research – to test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables by forming suitable hypotheses (model assisted studies).
- 6. Types of research and its goals: 1. Fundamental Research –basic or pure research • Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples 2. Descriptive Research – Ex post facto research • Mostly involves primary data – the researcher has no control over the variable – he can only report what has happened or what is happening. E.g. Number of days lost because of industrial action. 3. Correlation Research – constructing models • To establish the existence of relationships between two or more aspects of a situation
- 7. 4. Exploratory research – development of hypotheses rather than their testing • To develop, refine and test in new disciplines. 5. Explanatory research – in social science • Relationship between different aspects in different situations. 6.Overt and Covert research – open and closed research • Over research means that it is out in the open. Everyone knows who the researcher is and what researcher is doing. • Covert research means that it is under – cover work. Nobody knows who the researcher is and what researcher is doing.
- 8. Stages of Research • Selection of a Research Topic • Definition of a Research Problem • Literature Survey and Reference Collection • Assessment of Current status of the topic chosen • Formulation of hypothesis • Materials and Methods (Research Design) • Conduct of Experiments (Actual Investigations) • Data Analysis • Interpretation of the Results • Findings and conclusions
- 9. Basic Research Basic research is pure or fundamental research. Thesis no immediate need but theories can be added to knowledge cluster. Example: Theories in Basic Sciences and Mathematics
- 10. Applied Research Applied Research tries to solve an immediate specific problem faced by industry or society. The data obtained can be deployed to solve the problem. The duration of applied research is shutter as a quick solution is expected. The outcome of the applied research either address the unsolved problem or improve the existing solution. Example: (i) An optimized search problem on the Internet (Computer Engineering Domain) (ii) Analysis of cell / body organ behavior in caner Hybrid Research (Data Analysis, Image processing, Algorithm and Knowledge of Medical Industry)
- 11. Distinction between Basic Research and Applied Research
- 12. Scientific enquiry ✔ The scientific enquiry is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ✔ To be termed scientific, a method of enquiry must be systematic, controlled and based on empirical and measurable evidence. ✔ The goal of a scientific enquiry is to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations that can predict the results of future experiments.
- 13. Objectives of scientific enquiry: ✔ Identify a problem that defines the goal of research ✔ Make a prediction that, if confirmed, resolves the problem ✔ Gather data relevant to this prediction ✔ Analyze and interpret the data to see if it supports the prediction and resolves the question that initiated the research.
- 14. Elements of Scientific enquiry: ✔ Characterizations (Observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry) ✔ Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject) ✔ Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction from the hypothesis or theory) ✔ Experiments (tests of all of the above)
- 15. Steps in scientific enquiry: The needs: Explication, Understanding, Prediction Observation of the Phenomenon Modeling New Theories Using Existing Models Constructing Hypothesis Obtaining Experimental Data Testing for Confirmation Or Attempt of Refutation Extension s Unificatio n
- 16. 1. Select information 2. Respond/ideas 3. Prediction 4. Observing 5. Fair testing 6. Measures 7. Repeating observations 8. Recording observations and measurements 9. Reviewing / evaluating 0. Explaining results
- 17. Critical thinking o Critical thinking is thinking about thinking in order to make it better o Critical thinking is a self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored and self-corrective thinking process by which we take deliberate steps to think at the highest level of quality. o The purposeful and reflective judgment about what to believe and what to do in response to the observations, experience, verbal or written expressions or arguments.
- 19. Involve effective communication and problem solving and requires constant analyzing, reasoning and evaluating.
- 20. Figure : Critical thinking lens These are the thinking tools (questions) that together make critical thinking lens The moon is made of green cheese When was it discovered? •No one has discovered it •. How was it discovered? •It has not been discovered. Who discovered it? •No one has discovered it •. What evidence supports it? •No evidence supports it •. What evidence does not support it? •Rock samples taken from the moon are not made of green cheese. Is the explanation consistent with the data? •No Is the conclusion substantiated by observations? •No Is his a scientifically valid claim? •No
- 21. Techniques involved in designing a questionnaire (i) Designing questionnaire: • Questionnaire – indirect enquiry o A questionnaire is form containing series of questions and providing space for reply to be filled in by the respondent itself. o A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions to generate the data necessary for a accomplishing a research project’s objectives.
- 22. Schedule: • A schedule is the name usually given to a set of questions which are asked and filled by a interviewer in a face to face to situations
- 23. Ten points to be considered in designing questionnaire: •Must be initially related to final objectives of the investigations oSpecify the information needed •Questions must follow logical sequences oArrange the questions in proper order •Specify the type of interviewing method oBiased questions should be avoided •Proper structuring of the question is must oDecide on the question structure •Should be brief, clear and simple oDetermine the content of individual questions oDetermine the question wording
- 24. • Reproduce the questionnaire o Question should have appropriate and to it • Eliminate bugs by pretesting o Conflict between interviewer and respondent should be avoided • Questions outside the respondents experience should not ask o To overcome the respondent’s unwillingness to answer • Questions should not touch memory of the respondent o To overcome the respondent’s inability to answer • Identify the form and layout o To gather factual data
- 25. Techniques for generating research topics • Research problem refers to some difficulty / need which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same • The first step in the research process – Identification / selection and formulation of the research problem
- 26. Every research study has two aspects: o Study population – they provide information or researcher collect information about them ❑ People – Individuals, organizations, groups, communities o Subject area – information that researcher need to collect to find answers to research question ❑Problems – issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles ❑Program – content, structure, outcome, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, service providers, etc. ❑Phenomenon – cause and effect relationships, they study of phenomenon itself
- 27. Topic selection criteria • Internal / Personal criteria –Researcher’s interest and inclination must be matched by competence before researcher can decide the area of research. o Competence can be cultivated and learning new techniques is a part of any research program • External criteria or factors – Researchability of the problem, Importance and urgency, Novelty of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel • Rational thinking and Creative thinking are
- 28. Points to be considered in Topic Selection 1. Once the main area of research is decided upon the next step is to narrow down the topic 2. Research supervisor has a greater role to play 3. Acquaintance with the field – books / dissertations, journal, papers, etc. 4. Reading dissertations to avoid duplication of work 5. Sincere efforts to be made for a general survey of literature before narrowing down the topic 6. Well informed research supervisor can afford real guidance to the researcher
- 29. Research problem formulation – Steps 1. Statement of the problem in a general way 2. Understanding the nature of the problem 3. Surveying the available literature 4. Developing ideas through discussions 5. Rephrasing the research problem
- 30. Justification of Research Topic • Explain what is not known about the problem • Why does the problem matter? • Provide documentation that this is actually a problem Process of Justifying a Research Problem Research Problem How do I justify the need to study this problem? Personal Experiences Experiences in the Workplace Suggestions Made by Other Researchers Used in qualitative research, such as narrative research Used in both quantitative and qualitative research, such as action research Used in both quantitative and qualitative research, such as experiments, surveys, correlational studies, grounded theory studies
- 31. HYPOTHESIS MEANING A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid reliable data ….Griennell & Stothers A tentative statement about something, the validity of which is usually unknown. ….Black & Champion CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS – It is a tentative preposition – Its validity is unknown – In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.
- 32. IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF A HYPOTHESIS • A hypothesis should be simple, specific and conceptually clean • A hypothesis should be capable of verification • A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge • A hypothesis should be operation able
- 33. NULL Hypothesis • It is denoted by H0. • It is a hypothesis of no difference. “There is no significant difference between the population parameter and sample statistic” Alternative Hypothesis • It is denoted by H1 “There is significant difference between the population parameter and sample statistic”
- 34. CRITERIA IN FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS 1. A hypothesis must be formulated in simple, clear and declarative form 2. A hypothesis must be empirically testable 3. A hypothesis must be measurable and quantifiable so that statistical anther city can be established
- 35. ..Cont. • The validation of hypothesis would necessarily involve testing the statistical significance (α=0.05/α=0.01) of the hypothesized relation • Level of significance (α): In testing a given hypothesis the maximum probability with which we would be willing to take risk is called the level of significance of the test • The researcher should be very careful in interpreting the results after applying tests of significance • The success of the statistical test depends on the availability of correct and reliable data
- 36. Hypothesis Testing Procedure 1) Set up the hypothesis (H0/H1) 2) Select the significance level (α=0.05/α=0.01) 3) Identifying the test statistic that can be used to test the null Hypothesis (Large sample n>30, small sample n<30) 4) Obtain the observed value / calculated value based on the data using the test statistic 5) Obtain the expected value (tabulated value ) from the designated table 6) Inference i. If the calculated value / observed value is greater than the tabulated value, null hypothesis is rejected ii. If the calculated value / observed value is less than the tabulated value, null hypothesis is accepted.