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1.1-Research-Guidelines-and-Format.pdf
The main body of the report is made up of the following sections.
• INTRODUCTION
• METHODOLOGY
• RESULTS
• DISCUSSION
Other parts include:
• ABSTRACT
• DEDICATION
• ACKNOWLEDGMENT
• LIST OF TABLES
• LIST OF FIGURES
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• REFERENCES (List of Works Cited)
• APPENDICES
The following parts are needed for your Research Proposal Draft
• TITLE PAGE
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• METHODOLOGY
• REFERENCES
• APPENDICES
ABSTRACT
An ABSTRACT is a general overview of the research. It is an essay
summary of the thesis. It should include the:
a) statement of the experiment or problem;
b) method or procedure followed;
c) results; and
d) conclusion/s or recommendation/s.
It should be a succinct account that allows readers to make an
accurate decision as to whether the full contents will be beneficial to
the reader.
The maximum length for an abstract of a thesis is 200 words.
Add “Keywords” at the end of the abstract.
DEDICATION
The heading of a 1-page DEDICATION need not appear on the
dedication page, and the text may be centered.
This contains names of special people, e.g., family and friends, who
are close to the author/s and who have inspired them/him to
completing the work.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The word ACKNOWLEDGEMENT in uppercase and bold attribute
should be centered.
This page expresses the researcher’s recognition of, and appreciation
for the assistance and support made by individuals or institutions, that
have made an important contribution to the study.
Order of priority:
a. adviser/mentor
b. panel of evaluators
c. resource person/s consulted (statistician, programmer, etc.)
d. persons and institution/s who provided support to study
e. parents (mention names), family and friends
Note: Use proper names of persons not their nicknames or aliases
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
The INTRODUCTION section to a research proposal should
include:
1. Background of the Study
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Statement of Research Hypotheses
5. Significance of the Study
6. Scope and Limitations
7. Definition of Terms
1. Background of the Study
o This section should include a brief description of the nature of the
thesis, background and context of the problem, and the rationale
for pursuing the study, indicating the specific expected output
(ultimate objective) and identified beneficiaries. Cite sources that
formed the bases of your rationale.
2. Review of Related Literature
o It presents what is currently known about the problem under
consideration and thus sets the scholarly context for the question
or hypotheses of the proposed study.
The review shows how the proposed research fits in with the existing body of
knowledge.
o Include theories and research results contrary to your stated
hypothesis as well as those in agreement with it.
o Include the findings from some of the landmark studies in the
field as well as the most recent research.
This will show your readers that your question has been investigated by others
over a period of years and is a problem worthy of and in need of further
investigation.
2. Review of Related Literature
o Include not only literature dealing with research on the variables
of the proposed study but also discussions of the theoretical
background of the problem.
The literature review allows you to show your committee or other readers that you
really know the scholarship that has been done on the question.
o The literature cited need not be exhaustive but should contain
the most relevant and the most rigorous research on your
question.
o Try to integrate the studies so that a complete picture of the
background of the problem emerges.
You need to point out how the literature presented relates to the proposed study
and the similarities and discrepancies among the findings.
2. Review of Related Literature
o This section should conclude with a discussion of the findings
and their implications.
Here, you share the insights gained from your review of the literature and can
point out gaps in what is known about the topic, thus leading directly to the
question you propose to investigate.
3. Statement of the Problem
o It contains the general and specific statement of the problem
Is it clear what new knowledge is needed or what problems need to be
illuminated, and why?
Does the problem statement build a logical, coherent argument for the relevance
and importance of the study?
Does the problem statement set limits to the problem?
Does the problem statement lead to the hypotheses to be tested and/or the
questions to be answered?
o The problem statement should imply a question about the
relationship between specified variables.
The statement can take interrogative form or can simply state, “The purpose of
the study is to explore the relationship between . . . and . . . .”
3. Statement of the Problem
§ The hypothesis should state concisely the expected
relationship between the variables in the study.
§ Explain the link between theory and hypothesis so that the
reader will be able to understand the rationale for the
hypothesis.
Some research, like surveys, may simply state the problem in question form.
For example, How do the parents in the Monroe County School District feel
about a proposed new tech high school?
But most quantitative research states a hypothesis. It should probably be
stated in operational form; however, if this is not possible, it can be stated in
conceptual terms followed by any operational definitions of the variables.
o Statement of Hypotheses
4. Significance of the Study
o Explain why the problem is an important one to study.
o Try to answer the following question: What difference will this
study make to anyone?
o This section may be handled in two stages: (1) implications and
(2) applications.
Implications: Discuss how the results will contribute to theory and knowledge in
the specific area to which the research question is related and to what extent
these results will be useful in solving problems and answering questions in the
general field. Finally, you show how the results of the study will provide grounds
for further research in the area.
4. Significance of the Study
Applications: Try to convince readers of the potential application of the findings
to educational practice.
To find the extent to which the study has application to educational practice, you
may ask the following questions:
Will the results of my study change anything in my field?
Would my results help teachers, school counselors, principals, or other
educators to improve their work?
5. Scope and Limitations
o The work that is undertaken is described as the scope of the
research.
o All research has limitations and thus there are certain work that
are not performed.
Example: The analysis of potential products is limited to 6 digit H.S. code level, due
to the unavailability of getting details of products imports to Australia in 8 digit H.S.
code level.
6. Definition of Terms
o Define each technical term (operational definition) as it is
used in relation to your research project. This helps remove
significant ambiguity from the research itself by ensuring that
reviewers, while they may not agree with your definitions, at
least know what you’re talking about.
o It is important to include in your definition of terms those
constructs involved in your study.
Section 2
METHODOLOGY
The METHODOLOGY section:
o Details how the study will be carried out so that the research
question will be answered or the hypothesized relationships will
be observed, if in fact these relationships exist.
o Convince the reader that what you plan to do is the best
procedure for investigating the question.
o Note that this section is written using future tense because
nothing has yet been done.
o It is only necessary to change the future tense of the proposal to
the past tense used in the final report.
The methodology section includes a description of the population
of interest, proposed sampling procedures, methods of data
collection, research design, and procedures.
This chapter includes:
1. Research Design (including research paradigm/diagram)
2. Locale of the Study
3. Participants/Respondents of the Study
4. Research Instruments
5. Data Gathering Procedure
6. Data Analysis
1. Research Design
o Present and describe the type of research design/method to
be used in the study. Discuss why such research design is the
most appropriate design to be used by considering the nature
of your study.
2. Locale of the Study
o Describe in brief the place where the study is conducted.
o You may also present the map of your locale.
3. Participants/Respondents of the Study
o The first step in identifying the participants in a study is to
describe the population of interest:
Is the study concerned with college freshmen, dyslexic 6-year-olds, principals of
elementary schools, and so forth?
o Then the writer/researcher describes the procedure for
drawing the sample from the population.
If random selection is not possible, explain why you have chosen a particular
procedure for sample selection and how well the sample to be used will
resemble the population of interest. You need to include the number of
participants and a description of their relevant characteristics, such as age,
gender, academic level, ethnicity, and ability level.
3. Participants/Respondents of the Study
Example:
The children in this experiment all attend a public
elementary school in the southeastern United States. Three
intact classrooms will participate. There will be 17 children
(11 boys and 6 girls) in kindergarten, 24 in second grade (13
boys and 11 girls), and 21 in fourth grade (10 boys and 11
girls). The children represent a variety of social, economic,
and cultural backgrounds: Approximately one-third are
African Americans, a few are Asian Americans, and the
majority are European Americans.
4. Research Instruments
o If an instrument is already established, the proposal should
include its name and reported evidence of its reliability and
validity for the intended purpose.
o In cases in which the instruments are to be developed by the
researcher, it is necessary to outline the procedure to be
followed in developing them. This outline should include the
steps that will be taken to obtain validity and reliability data on
these instruments.
If describing the reliability and validity procedures results in so much detail that
it interrupts the continuity of the proposal, it is preferable to include this
material in an appendix rather than in the text.
4. Research Instruments
Example:
Students’ prerecess and postrecess classroom behavior and
their outdoor recess behavior will be observed daily for 2
months. A total of four observers, blind to the purpose of the
study, will be used: Three will be regular observers and one
will be a rotating observer whose primary job is to be a
reliability judge. Reliability will be measured with a 𝜅
coefficient.
5. Data Gathering Procedure
o In this section, the author describes the way in which the
study will be carried out.
o Include in this section all the information necessary for
replication of the study.
In an experimental research proposal, for example, the author should describe
the design by listing the groups and how subjects will be assigned to groups
and by giving a step-by-step description of the manipulations planned for each.
These steps should be completely designated in operational form.
You should also mention the possibility of confounding variables and specify
how you propose to control for these variables. For instance, you might control
for student and teacher differences by randomly assigning students and
teachers to the control and experimental groups and making the time spent,
physical setting, and facilities equivalent.
6. Data Analysis
o State the process on how the data will be analyzed and
interpreted.
o Include in this part all the statistical tests needed to arrive at
the desired results.
o Explain what data will be considered, what statistical
procedures will be used and why, and what results will be
important in confirming the hypothesis.
Section 3
RESULTS
The RESULTS section presents the outcomes of the statistical
analyses of the data.
o Report descriptive statistics first followed by any inferential
statistics.
o A recommended technique for presenting the results is to
organize findings around the hypotheses; that is, the
researcher restates the first hypothesis and presents findings
concerning it, then repeats this procedure for each hypothesis in
turn. You will report whether your results are statistically
significant or not statistically significant.
o You do not interpret or discuss the results at this point but,
rather, merely present the findings.
o Tables and figures are usually used to present the findings.
(They present the numbers and statistics more clearly and more
concisely than is possible if the same information is presented only in text
form.)
q A table shows the quantitative data such as means and standard deviations
organized in rows and columns.
q A figure shows the data in diagram or graphical form.
The type of figure you use (bar graph, histogram, polygon, scatterplot, etc.)
depends on the kind of data you have and what you want to show. Well-
constructed tables and figures should “stand alone” so readers can
understand them without having to refer to the text.
The first table in the report usually summarizes the descriptive statistics, such
as means, standard deviations, correlations, percentages, and so on. Later
tables present the results of applying inferential statistics and tests of
significance to the data. Name the calculated statistic, give the degrees of
freedom, and give the probability level at which the statistic was significant (or
not significant).
o Refer to each table and each figure by number and comments
only on the most important and interesting finding in each.
o Use present tense when pointing out the significant aspects of a
table or figure.
Example:
Table 2 shows means, standard deviations, and analysis of variance
summary table for AIMS scaled scores. Significant differences (t = −2.66,
df = 26, p < .05) were evident for students participating in the AIMS
program (M = 498.50) and their peers in the control group (M = 477.71);
the effect sizes for this comparison were large (.88–1.00). Significant
occasion and group by occasion interaction (see Fig. 1) indicated
outcomes favoring the treatment group. Pretest to posttest
improvements were significant for treatment group students (t = −6.48,
df = 13, p < .05), but not for other students (t = −1.39, df = 13, p > .05). Of
the 14 students who attended the AIMS class, eight (57 percent) passed
the test whereas only two of the 14 (14 percent) control students passed
the test.
Example: Reporting descriptive statistics
To assess whether a moderate dose of caffeine (200mg) improves
performance in a computer task, we operationalized performance in
two ways: speed and accuracy. For each participant, average speed
(ms) and average accuracy (%) was calculated across 100 trials. The
individual participant averages were then separately aggregated into a
group average speed and group average accuracy, depending on
whether they were in the no-caffeine condition or moderate-caffeine
condition.
The moderate-caffeine group was faster (ms) on average (M =
490, SD = 52) than the no-caffeine group (M = 523, SD = 45). Group
mean accuracy was also higher for the moderate caffeine group (M =
86.2%, SD = 7.3%) than the no-caffeine group (M = 81.6%, SD = 5.4%).
Example: Reporting inferential statistics
Consistent with the primary hypothesis, moderate caffeine improved
computer task performance by increasing speed, t(191) = 4.71, p < .001,
and accuracy, t(191) = –4.91, p < .001.
Hours spent studying and GPA were strongly positively correlated,
r(123) = .61, p = .011. Hours spent playing video games and GPA were
moderately negatively correlated, r(123) = .32, p = .041.
Section 4
DISCUSSION
In the DISCUSSION section you are ready for the discussion of the
findings as they relate to the original question and hypothesis.
o This is the place to discuss the practical and/or theoretical
implications of the findings.
You might point out how your findings relate to previous research and suggest
additional research that should be done.
o There is no standard format for the content; you must use
insight and original thinking to provide an explanation and
interpretation of the results that you presented previously.
o Provide the answer to the original research question.
First, discuss how the results support or fail to support the hypotheses of the
study. In this interpretation, you must deal not only with expected results but also
occasionally with unexpected or negative results.
Example:
In this study, we examined the effects of using a specialized remedial
program grounded in evidence-based effective instructional practices
(increased practice of critical skills, with continuous monitoring of
progress and constant adjustment based on performance). Overall,
students who participated in the experimental treatment
demonstrated greater gains in overall performance in mathematics
achievement as measured by their state’s critical competency test
required for high school graduation. The program provides an
instructional management system that allows students to spend more
time reviewing concepts and skills to enhance their performance
resulting in positive growth in measured mathematics competence.
The requirement to pass the AIMS math test is likely to create a crisis
unless something is done to increase the percentage of students
passing the test. The AIMS math skills improvement course
significantly increases the number of students who pass the test after
initially failing it.
Example:
[Key finding] Our 20-year analysis of snakebites in California showed a well-
correlated inverse relationship between snakebite incidence and severe
drought phases, with a predictable increase of snakebites following
precipitation. [Placing findings in context] This is in contrast to popular press
reports of increased snakebites with drought conditions [29,30], and Central
American research that reported increased incidence of snakebite during high
temperatures of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ELSO) [9]. This study also
analyzed the effect of altitude and precipitation on the periodicity of regional
snakebites, and [Key finding] found that while climate changes had a
predictable effect on incidence, snakebites clustered in regions with the highest
precipitation [9] [...] After accounting for seasonal trends, [Restating a key
finding] we observed that prior precipitation was a strong predictor of
snakebites, with incidence peaks following the heavy precipitation years of
2006 and 2011 […] [Limitation] We cannot exclude the possibility that changes
in the medical culture or technology of snakebite reporting may be a
confounding variable. [Recommendation for follow-up research] While we
believe these limitations have not impacted the primary outcome of the study,
future work could seek to include additional controls.
REFERENCES
o In this section, the researcher must list the references that
were cited in the literature review as well as any other sources
cited in the development of the proposal.
o The reference list includes the full publication information for
each entry, arranged in alphabetical order according to the
senior author’s last name.
o Follow APA 6th Edition for in-text citations.
APPENDICES
o Relevant information on the study such as research
instrument, letter of permission, detailed procedures or
programs, detailed data and computation, diagrams,
illustrations, and photos (photos should be duly labeled)
o Include curriculum vitae with recent formal photo of
researcher/s
o Include the photo documentation during the data gathering
process
o Labelling: APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B, …
1.1-Research-Guidelines-and-Format.pdf

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1.1-Research-Guidelines-and-Format.pdf

  • 2. The main body of the report is made up of the following sections. • INTRODUCTION • METHODOLOGY • RESULTS • DISCUSSION
  • 3. Other parts include: • ABSTRACT • DEDICATION • ACKNOWLEDGMENT • LIST OF TABLES • LIST OF FIGURES • TABLE OF CONTENTS • REFERENCES (List of Works Cited) • APPENDICES
  • 4. The following parts are needed for your Research Proposal Draft • TITLE PAGE • TABLE OF CONTENTS • INTRODUCTION • METHODOLOGY • REFERENCES • APPENDICES
  • 6. An ABSTRACT is a general overview of the research. It is an essay summary of the thesis. It should include the: a) statement of the experiment or problem; b) method or procedure followed; c) results; and d) conclusion/s or recommendation/s. It should be a succinct account that allows readers to make an accurate decision as to whether the full contents will be beneficial to the reader. The maximum length for an abstract of a thesis is 200 words. Add “Keywords” at the end of the abstract.
  • 8. The heading of a 1-page DEDICATION need not appear on the dedication page, and the text may be centered. This contains names of special people, e.g., family and friends, who are close to the author/s and who have inspired them/him to completing the work.
  • 10. The word ACKNOWLEDGEMENT in uppercase and bold attribute should be centered. This page expresses the researcher’s recognition of, and appreciation for the assistance and support made by individuals or institutions, that have made an important contribution to the study. Order of priority: a. adviser/mentor b. panel of evaluators c. resource person/s consulted (statistician, programmer, etc.) d. persons and institution/s who provided support to study e. parents (mention names), family and friends Note: Use proper names of persons not their nicknames or aliases
  • 12. The INTRODUCTION section to a research proposal should include: 1. Background of the Study 2. Review of Related Literature 3. Statement of the Problem 4. Statement of Research Hypotheses 5. Significance of the Study 6. Scope and Limitations 7. Definition of Terms
  • 13. 1. Background of the Study o This section should include a brief description of the nature of the thesis, background and context of the problem, and the rationale for pursuing the study, indicating the specific expected output (ultimate objective) and identified beneficiaries. Cite sources that formed the bases of your rationale.
  • 14. 2. Review of Related Literature o It presents what is currently known about the problem under consideration and thus sets the scholarly context for the question or hypotheses of the proposed study. The review shows how the proposed research fits in with the existing body of knowledge. o Include theories and research results contrary to your stated hypothesis as well as those in agreement with it. o Include the findings from some of the landmark studies in the field as well as the most recent research. This will show your readers that your question has been investigated by others over a period of years and is a problem worthy of and in need of further investigation.
  • 15. 2. Review of Related Literature o Include not only literature dealing with research on the variables of the proposed study but also discussions of the theoretical background of the problem. The literature review allows you to show your committee or other readers that you really know the scholarship that has been done on the question. o The literature cited need not be exhaustive but should contain the most relevant and the most rigorous research on your question. o Try to integrate the studies so that a complete picture of the background of the problem emerges. You need to point out how the literature presented relates to the proposed study and the similarities and discrepancies among the findings.
  • 16. 2. Review of Related Literature o This section should conclude with a discussion of the findings and their implications. Here, you share the insights gained from your review of the literature and can point out gaps in what is known about the topic, thus leading directly to the question you propose to investigate.
  • 17. 3. Statement of the Problem o It contains the general and specific statement of the problem Is it clear what new knowledge is needed or what problems need to be illuminated, and why? Does the problem statement build a logical, coherent argument for the relevance and importance of the study? Does the problem statement set limits to the problem? Does the problem statement lead to the hypotheses to be tested and/or the questions to be answered? o The problem statement should imply a question about the relationship between specified variables. The statement can take interrogative form or can simply state, “The purpose of the study is to explore the relationship between . . . and . . . .”
  • 18. 3. Statement of the Problem § The hypothesis should state concisely the expected relationship between the variables in the study. § Explain the link between theory and hypothesis so that the reader will be able to understand the rationale for the hypothesis. Some research, like surveys, may simply state the problem in question form. For example, How do the parents in the Monroe County School District feel about a proposed new tech high school? But most quantitative research states a hypothesis. It should probably be stated in operational form; however, if this is not possible, it can be stated in conceptual terms followed by any operational definitions of the variables. o Statement of Hypotheses
  • 19. 4. Significance of the Study o Explain why the problem is an important one to study. o Try to answer the following question: What difference will this study make to anyone? o This section may be handled in two stages: (1) implications and (2) applications. Implications: Discuss how the results will contribute to theory and knowledge in the specific area to which the research question is related and to what extent these results will be useful in solving problems and answering questions in the general field. Finally, you show how the results of the study will provide grounds for further research in the area.
  • 20. 4. Significance of the Study Applications: Try to convince readers of the potential application of the findings to educational practice. To find the extent to which the study has application to educational practice, you may ask the following questions: Will the results of my study change anything in my field? Would my results help teachers, school counselors, principals, or other educators to improve their work?
  • 21. 5. Scope and Limitations o The work that is undertaken is described as the scope of the research. o All research has limitations and thus there are certain work that are not performed. Example: The analysis of potential products is limited to 6 digit H.S. code level, due to the unavailability of getting details of products imports to Australia in 8 digit H.S. code level.
  • 22. 6. Definition of Terms o Define each technical term (operational definition) as it is used in relation to your research project. This helps remove significant ambiguity from the research itself by ensuring that reviewers, while they may not agree with your definitions, at least know what you’re talking about. o It is important to include in your definition of terms those constructs involved in your study.
  • 24. The METHODOLOGY section: o Details how the study will be carried out so that the research question will be answered or the hypothesized relationships will be observed, if in fact these relationships exist. o Convince the reader that what you plan to do is the best procedure for investigating the question. o Note that this section is written using future tense because nothing has yet been done. o It is only necessary to change the future tense of the proposal to the past tense used in the final report.
  • 25. The methodology section includes a description of the population of interest, proposed sampling procedures, methods of data collection, research design, and procedures. This chapter includes: 1. Research Design (including research paradigm/diagram) 2. Locale of the Study 3. Participants/Respondents of the Study 4. Research Instruments 5. Data Gathering Procedure 6. Data Analysis
  • 26. 1. Research Design o Present and describe the type of research design/method to be used in the study. Discuss why such research design is the most appropriate design to be used by considering the nature of your study. 2. Locale of the Study o Describe in brief the place where the study is conducted. o You may also present the map of your locale.
  • 27. 3. Participants/Respondents of the Study o The first step in identifying the participants in a study is to describe the population of interest: Is the study concerned with college freshmen, dyslexic 6-year-olds, principals of elementary schools, and so forth? o Then the writer/researcher describes the procedure for drawing the sample from the population. If random selection is not possible, explain why you have chosen a particular procedure for sample selection and how well the sample to be used will resemble the population of interest. You need to include the number of participants and a description of their relevant characteristics, such as age, gender, academic level, ethnicity, and ability level.
  • 28. 3. Participants/Respondents of the Study Example: The children in this experiment all attend a public elementary school in the southeastern United States. Three intact classrooms will participate. There will be 17 children (11 boys and 6 girls) in kindergarten, 24 in second grade (13 boys and 11 girls), and 21 in fourth grade (10 boys and 11 girls). The children represent a variety of social, economic, and cultural backgrounds: Approximately one-third are African Americans, a few are Asian Americans, and the majority are European Americans.
  • 29. 4. Research Instruments o If an instrument is already established, the proposal should include its name and reported evidence of its reliability and validity for the intended purpose. o In cases in which the instruments are to be developed by the researcher, it is necessary to outline the procedure to be followed in developing them. This outline should include the steps that will be taken to obtain validity and reliability data on these instruments. If describing the reliability and validity procedures results in so much detail that it interrupts the continuity of the proposal, it is preferable to include this material in an appendix rather than in the text.
  • 30. 4. Research Instruments Example: Students’ prerecess and postrecess classroom behavior and their outdoor recess behavior will be observed daily for 2 months. A total of four observers, blind to the purpose of the study, will be used: Three will be regular observers and one will be a rotating observer whose primary job is to be a reliability judge. Reliability will be measured with a 𝜅 coefficient.
  • 31. 5. Data Gathering Procedure o In this section, the author describes the way in which the study will be carried out. o Include in this section all the information necessary for replication of the study. In an experimental research proposal, for example, the author should describe the design by listing the groups and how subjects will be assigned to groups and by giving a step-by-step description of the manipulations planned for each. These steps should be completely designated in operational form. You should also mention the possibility of confounding variables and specify how you propose to control for these variables. For instance, you might control for student and teacher differences by randomly assigning students and teachers to the control and experimental groups and making the time spent, physical setting, and facilities equivalent.
  • 32. 6. Data Analysis o State the process on how the data will be analyzed and interpreted. o Include in this part all the statistical tests needed to arrive at the desired results. o Explain what data will be considered, what statistical procedures will be used and why, and what results will be important in confirming the hypothesis.
  • 34. The RESULTS section presents the outcomes of the statistical analyses of the data. o Report descriptive statistics first followed by any inferential statistics. o A recommended technique for presenting the results is to organize findings around the hypotheses; that is, the researcher restates the first hypothesis and presents findings concerning it, then repeats this procedure for each hypothesis in turn. You will report whether your results are statistically significant or not statistically significant. o You do not interpret or discuss the results at this point but, rather, merely present the findings.
  • 35. o Tables and figures are usually used to present the findings. (They present the numbers and statistics more clearly and more concisely than is possible if the same information is presented only in text form.) q A table shows the quantitative data such as means and standard deviations organized in rows and columns. q A figure shows the data in diagram or graphical form. The type of figure you use (bar graph, histogram, polygon, scatterplot, etc.) depends on the kind of data you have and what you want to show. Well- constructed tables and figures should “stand alone” so readers can understand them without having to refer to the text.
  • 36. The first table in the report usually summarizes the descriptive statistics, such as means, standard deviations, correlations, percentages, and so on. Later tables present the results of applying inferential statistics and tests of significance to the data. Name the calculated statistic, give the degrees of freedom, and give the probability level at which the statistic was significant (or not significant). o Refer to each table and each figure by number and comments only on the most important and interesting finding in each. o Use present tense when pointing out the significant aspects of a table or figure.
  • 37. Example: Table 2 shows means, standard deviations, and analysis of variance summary table for AIMS scaled scores. Significant differences (t = −2.66, df = 26, p < .05) were evident for students participating in the AIMS program (M = 498.50) and their peers in the control group (M = 477.71); the effect sizes for this comparison were large (.88–1.00). Significant occasion and group by occasion interaction (see Fig. 1) indicated outcomes favoring the treatment group. Pretest to posttest improvements were significant for treatment group students (t = −6.48, df = 13, p < .05), but not for other students (t = −1.39, df = 13, p > .05). Of the 14 students who attended the AIMS class, eight (57 percent) passed the test whereas only two of the 14 (14 percent) control students passed the test.
  • 38. Example: Reporting descriptive statistics To assess whether a moderate dose of caffeine (200mg) improves performance in a computer task, we operationalized performance in two ways: speed and accuracy. For each participant, average speed (ms) and average accuracy (%) was calculated across 100 trials. The individual participant averages were then separately aggregated into a group average speed and group average accuracy, depending on whether they were in the no-caffeine condition or moderate-caffeine condition. The moderate-caffeine group was faster (ms) on average (M = 490, SD = 52) than the no-caffeine group (M = 523, SD = 45). Group mean accuracy was also higher for the moderate caffeine group (M = 86.2%, SD = 7.3%) than the no-caffeine group (M = 81.6%, SD = 5.4%).
  • 39. Example: Reporting inferential statistics Consistent with the primary hypothesis, moderate caffeine improved computer task performance by increasing speed, t(191) = 4.71, p < .001, and accuracy, t(191) = –4.91, p < .001. Hours spent studying and GPA were strongly positively correlated, r(123) = .61, p = .011. Hours spent playing video games and GPA were moderately negatively correlated, r(123) = .32, p = .041.
  • 41. In the DISCUSSION section you are ready for the discussion of the findings as they relate to the original question and hypothesis. o This is the place to discuss the practical and/or theoretical implications of the findings. You might point out how your findings relate to previous research and suggest additional research that should be done. o There is no standard format for the content; you must use insight and original thinking to provide an explanation and interpretation of the results that you presented previously. o Provide the answer to the original research question. First, discuss how the results support or fail to support the hypotheses of the study. In this interpretation, you must deal not only with expected results but also occasionally with unexpected or negative results.
  • 42. Example: In this study, we examined the effects of using a specialized remedial program grounded in evidence-based effective instructional practices (increased practice of critical skills, with continuous monitoring of progress and constant adjustment based on performance). Overall, students who participated in the experimental treatment demonstrated greater gains in overall performance in mathematics achievement as measured by their state’s critical competency test required for high school graduation. The program provides an instructional management system that allows students to spend more time reviewing concepts and skills to enhance their performance resulting in positive growth in measured mathematics competence. The requirement to pass the AIMS math test is likely to create a crisis unless something is done to increase the percentage of students passing the test. The AIMS math skills improvement course significantly increases the number of students who pass the test after initially failing it.
  • 43. Example: [Key finding] Our 20-year analysis of snakebites in California showed a well- correlated inverse relationship between snakebite incidence and severe drought phases, with a predictable increase of snakebites following precipitation. [Placing findings in context] This is in contrast to popular press reports of increased snakebites with drought conditions [29,30], and Central American research that reported increased incidence of snakebite during high temperatures of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ELSO) [9]. This study also analyzed the effect of altitude and precipitation on the periodicity of regional snakebites, and [Key finding] found that while climate changes had a predictable effect on incidence, snakebites clustered in regions with the highest precipitation [9] [...] After accounting for seasonal trends, [Restating a key finding] we observed that prior precipitation was a strong predictor of snakebites, with incidence peaks following the heavy precipitation years of 2006 and 2011 […] [Limitation] We cannot exclude the possibility that changes in the medical culture or technology of snakebite reporting may be a confounding variable. [Recommendation for follow-up research] While we believe these limitations have not impacted the primary outcome of the study, future work could seek to include additional controls.
  • 45. o In this section, the researcher must list the references that were cited in the literature review as well as any other sources cited in the development of the proposal. o The reference list includes the full publication information for each entry, arranged in alphabetical order according to the senior author’s last name. o Follow APA 6th Edition for in-text citations.
  • 47. o Relevant information on the study such as research instrument, letter of permission, detailed procedures or programs, detailed data and computation, diagrams, illustrations, and photos (photos should be duly labeled) o Include curriculum vitae with recent formal photo of researcher/s o Include the photo documentation during the data gathering process o Labelling: APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B, …