Basics of Kniting by Vasant Kothari

www.vasantkothari.com

A
Series of Articles
On
Basics of Knitting
By
Vasant Kothari

INDEX
1. Basics of Knitting - Introduction
2. Basic Terminologies
3. Knitting Machine Needles
4. Basic Elements of Knitting
5. Knit, Tuck & Miss Stitch
6. Weft Knitting
7. Knitting Loop Structure & Notations
8. Single Jersey & Rib Fabric
9. Purl & Interlock Fabric
10. Straight Bar Knitting Machine
11. Flat Knitting Machine
12. Circular Knitting Machine
13. Warp Knitting
14. Warp Knitted Fabrics
15. Warp Knitting Machine
16. Tricot Machine
17. Raschel Machine
18. Compound Needle Machine
19. Yarn Requirements for Knitting
20. Knitting Fabric Quality Parameters
21. Defects in knitted fabrics
22. Testing of Knitted Fabrics
23. Production Calculations
24. Costing Of Knitted Fabrics
25. Processing of Knitted Fabric
26. Relaxation of Knitted Fabric
27. Development Process of Knitted Fabric
28. Sourcing of Knitted Fabric
29. Garment Manufacturing of Knitted Fabrics
30. Seamless Knitting

20/KNITTING VIEWS/JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2010
Knitting is the second most frequently used method of fabric
construction. The term “Knitting” describes the technique of
constructing textile structures by forming a continuous length of yarn into
columns of vertically intermeshed loops.
Knitted fabrics have been gaining popularity during the past two decades,
thanks to the increased versatility of techniques and adaptability of the
many new manmade fibres. Knitted fabrics are now widely used in the
applications where woven fabrics formerly predominated. Today, the usage
of knitted fabrics ranges from hosiery, underwear, sweaters, slacks, to rugs
and other home furnishings.
Why knits are popular?
Knitted fabrics are popular today because:
• It is usually soft and drapes well
• It molds and moves easily with body movement
• It has good stretch ability
• It resists wrinkles
• Most importantly, knits relate well to contemporary life-styles
History
From the beginning the art of knitting was an occupation for women.
Traditional hand knitting, using knitting needles or pins, has been
practiced for thousands of years. The earliest example of true knitting is
a pair of knitting socks found in Egypt, dating back to 1100 A.D -just over
9 centuries ago! Socks and stockings were knitted because they had to
be shaped to the foot or leg. By the 16th century knitting had advanced
into a craft, the first real evidence of a production knitting machine was
the stocking frame, invented by the Reverend William Lee in 1589. The
invention laid the foundation for the development of knitting technology.
Lee’s invention enabled the knitting of loops at 10 times the speed of
traditional hand pin knitting.
Basics ofBasics ofBasics ofBasics ofBasics of
KNITTINGKNITTINGKNITTINGKNITTINGKNITTING - An introduction- An introduction- An introduction- An introduction- An introduction
VASANT R KOTHARI - has done
Master’s in Textiles Technology
from DKTE’s Textile and
Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji
(Shivaji University, Kolhapur),
Maharashtra. He has also done
Diploma in Export management
(Apparel Export) from the Indian
Institute of Export Management,
and Garment Export and
Merchandising Management from
NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s
working as an Assistant Professor
in Department of Fashion
Technology, NIFT, Bangalore.
(This is his first input from the
series of articles that will be
published in upcoming issues of
knitting Views)

KNITTING VIEWS/JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2010/21
Weaving Knitting
Convertingyarnintofabricby Convertingyarnintofabricby
interlacementofwarpandweft interlopingusingknittingelements
Thecapitalinvestmentishigh Capitalinvestmentisusuallylower
Noteasyascomparedwithknitting Settingupamachineiseasyandfaster
Lessproductivity Highproductivity
Designmodificationisdifficult Stylesanddesignscanbechanged
easilyandfaster
Wovenfabric Knittedfabric
Lessextensibility Highextensibility
Highelasticrecovery Incompleteelasticrecovery
Lesscreaseresistance Highcreaseresistance
Generallyfabricisthin Fabricisthicker
(Forthesameyarncount) (Forthesameyarncount)
Easytotear Difficulttotear
Requiresironing Ironingnotrequired
Highpleatsharpness Lesspleatsharpness
Lesspermeabilitytoair Morepermeabilitytoair
Strongerfabrics Lessstrongerfabrics
Morerigidascompared Feelofthefabricissofter
Nosuchproblems Anysmalldefectoccurringinthefabric
can leadtofurtherdamageinthecloth
becauseitcannotbemendedeasily
Testedbyloadingorextending Testedbymulti-directionalfabric
fabricsinwarp/weft burstingstrengthtest
Difference between knitting and weaving
The major difference between knitted and woven structures lies
in the way the yarns are interconnected geometrically. In weaving,
two sets of parallel yarns are interconnected by interlacing them
at right angles. Different woven structures are produced by
varying this basic principle.
In knitting, the yarns are initially formed into loops, and then
these loops are interconnected in a variety of ways in order to
produce a textile structure. Based on this principle, a textile fabric
is produced by using only one set of yarns.
As a result of this interlooping of yarns, the structure of a weft or
a warp knitted fabric is more open when compared to the structure
of a woven fabric. Because of this interloping of yarns, a knitted
fabric could be stretched more than a woven fabric, even when
only a small force is applied. Once this force is eased the fabric
slowly returns to its original dimensions. In fact, weft and warp
knitted fabrics have higher elongation values than woven fabrics
due to their structure, and their elastic behaviour generally exceeds
the elastic properties of the yarns used to knit the fabric.

Comparedwithwarpknitting,weftknittingisamoreversatilemethod
of fabric production in terms of both the range of fabric structures
that can be produced and the yarn types that can be utilised. Weft
knitting is the simplest method of converting a yarn into a fabric.
Inwarpknitting,eachwarpthreadisfedmoreorlessinlinewiththe
direction in which the fabric is produced, and each needle in the
knitting width must be fed with at least one thread at each course.
Compared to weaving and weft knitting it is the fastest method of
converting yarn into fabric, though modern developments in weft
knitting machines mean that there is now very little difference in
terms of production between the two forms of knitting
Weft knitting Warp knitting
Course-wiseyarnfeeding Walewiseyarnfeeding
Yarnpathhorizontal Yarnpatheitherverticalordiagonal
Theloopsareformedacross Theloopsareformedvertically thewidth
offabric downthelengthoffabric
Needlesknitsequentially Needlesknitconcurrently
Possibletoknitwithoneyarn Needwarpyarnsheet
Coneorcheeseyarnsupply Onelongbeamoranumberofsmall
warpbeamsyarnsupply
Usuallystaplefibreyarns Onlyfilamentyarnscanbe
canbeworked successfullyworked
Normallylatchneedlesareused Latch,beardorcompoundneedlesareused
Lessversatility Moreversatility
Changingdesignaffectthespeed Changingdesigndoesnotaffectthespeed
Relativelynotconsistentand Consistentanduniformqualityproduct
uniformqualityproduct
Loopsarenotuniform Loopsareuniform
Stretchinbothdirection Stretchinwidthwisedirection
Dimensionallylessstable Dimensionallymorestable
Weftknittingmachinesare Warpknittingmachinesaremoreexpensive
lessexpensive
Runningcostsisless Runningcostsishigh
Softeryarnisrequired(lesstwist) Strongeryarnisrequired(moretwist)
Shortproductionruns Formassscaleproduction
Smallfloorspacerequirements Needmorespace
E.g.CircularKnittingmachine E.g.TricotandRaschelmachine
Due to the structure and good elastic behaviour of knitted fabrics,
knitted garments are comfortable to wear. The air trapped in the
loops of a knitted garment insulates the human body against cold.
At the same time the relatively loose and open structure aids in
the perspiration process of the human body, especially when the
knitted fabric is made of yarns spun from natural fibres. Due to the
interlooping of yarns, the knitted fabrics also have better crease
recoveringpropertiescomparedtofabricswovenfromsimilaryarns.
Classification of knitted fabrics
The knitting industry is divided into two distinct sectors, weft
knitting and warp knitting.
Weft knitting
In weft knitting, the loops are formed across the width of the
fabric, and each weft thread is fed more or less at a right angle to
the direction in which
the fabric is produced. It
is possible to knit with
only one thread or cone
of yarn, though
production demands
have resulted in circular
weft knitting machines
being manufactured with
up to 192 threads.
Warp knitting
Warp Knitting is a method of producing a fabric by using needles
similar to those used in weft knitting, but with the knitted loops
made from each warp
thread being formed
down the length of the
fabric; the loops are
formed vertically down
the length of the fabric
from one thread as
opposed to across the
width of the fabric, as in
case of weft knitting.

22/KNITTING VIEWS/MARCH-APRIL 2010
Machine knitting
Knitted structures are progressively built-up from row
after row of intermeshed loops. The newly-fed yarn
is converted into a new loop in each needle hook.
VASANT R KOTHARI - has done Master’s in
Textiles Technology from DKTE’s Textile and
Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji
University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also
done Diploma in Export Management (Apparel
Export) from the Indian Institute of Export
Management, and Garment Export and
Merchandising Management from NIFT,
Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an Assistant
Professor in Department of Fashion Technology,
NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his second input from the
series of articles in knitting Views)
The needle then draws the new loop head first through
the old (fabric) loop, which it has retained from the
previous knitting cycle.
Theneedles,atthesametime,release,(cast-offorknock-
over) the old loops so that they hang suspended by
their heads from the feet of the new loops whose heads
are still held in the hooks of the needles.
Basic terminologies
for fabric knitting

KNITTING VIEWS/MARCH-APRIL 2010/23
A cohesive knitted loop structure is thus
produced by a combination of the
intermeshed needle loops and yarn that
passes from needle loop to needle loop.
The knitted loop structure may not always
be noticeable because of the effect of
structural fineness, fabric distortion,
additional pattern threads or the masking
effect of finishing processes.
Knitted loops are arranged in rows,
roughly equivalent to the weft and warp
of woven structures. These are termed
‘courses’ and ‘wales’ respectively.
Wales
Wales are columns of loops across the
length of the fabrics; they are measured in
units of (Wales/cm). Wales generally
produced by the same needle knitting at
successive (not necessarily all) knitting
cycles. A wale commences as soon as an
empty needle starts to knit.
The numbers of wales determine the width
of fabric.
Loop length
Looplength,measuredinmillimetres,isthe
length of yarn in one knitted loop. It is one
of the most important factors controlling
the properties of knitted fabrics. Generally,
the larger the loop length, the more open
and lighter the fabric.
Courses
Courses are rows of loops across the
width of fabrics; they are measured in units
of (Courses/cm). Courses are produced by
adjacent needles during the same knitting
cycle. The number of courses determines
the length of fabric.
Stitch density
Stitch density refers to the total number
of loops in a measured area of fabric. It is
measured in units per square per
centimetre/inch. The figure is obtained by
counting the number of courses or pattern
rows in one inch (or centimetres) and the
number of wales in one inch (or
centimetres), then multiplying the number
of courses by the number of wales.
Stitch density gives a more accurate
measurement than does a linear
measurementofonlycoursesoronlywales.
Tension acting in one direction might
produce a low reading for the courses and
a high reading for the wales; when they are
multiplied together this effect is cancelled
out. Stitch density is directly related to the
“loop length,” which is the length of yarn
contained in one complete knitted loop.
Loop length will affect the following
parametres:
• Stitch density/fabric density
• Tightness factor
• Fabric weight
• Fabric cost
• Dimensional stability
• Physical performance; pilling, burst
strength
As loop length decreases, stitch density,
tightness factor, fabric weight, fabric cost,
dimensional stability increases and vice
versa. There is a definite correlation
between the yarn count and loop length
of a fabric and this can be defined as the
“cover factor.” The cover factor hence
determines the handle, drape and
performance of the fabric. Just as the yarn
type dictates the optimum loop length, this
in turn dictates the gauge or knitting
machine required to knit the yarn.
Gauge
In knitting, the word gauge, technical
abbreviation GG, refers to "Knitting
machines" fineness and is the number of
needles in a measured space on the knitting
machine. Higher-gauge fabrics (those with
more stitches) are made with finer needles;
lower -gauge fabrics are made with coarser
or larger needles.
"Gauge,” is also termed as “cut” and
“tension.” This “unit of measure” is equal
to the number of needles contained in the

“gauge” (size) and it is simply countable
on the bed of needles of each knitting
machines, flat or circular.
To describe the stitch density of a single
or double knit fabric, the fabric may be
designated as an 18-, 20-, 22-, or 24-cut
fabric. Higher the cut, closer the stitches;
lower the cut, coarser the fabric.
Varying types of knitting machines
measure gauge over different distances
on the machine. For example, circular knit
hosiery measures the number of needles
in 1.0 inch, full-fashioned knitting in 1.5
inches, and Rachel knits in 2.0 inches.
Because of these differences, it is best to
keep in mind the generalised principle that
the higher the gauge, the closer the
stitches.
The size of the needle and the spacing of
the needles on knitting machines
determine the number and size of the knit
stitches and their closeness. Each wale is
formed on one needle. The number of
needles is equal to the number of wales.
The closeness of the stitches determines
whether a knit fabric will be lightweight
and open, or heavier and denser. The term
gauge is also used to describe the
closeness of knit stitches.
If we move clockwise from Ato D in the
pictures above, we find that the knitted
structures are progressively decreasing
in gauge and in fineness. Gauge is very
important as everyone knits a little
differently; some people knit loosely,
while some knit very tight. When the
same yarn and the same sized needles
are given to two different knitters, there
is a good chance that they will come up
with a different gauge. The gauge of a
knitted fabric depends on the pattern of
stitches in fabric, kind of yarn, size of
knitting needles, and tension of the
individual knitter.
• The coarser the yarn, coarser will be
the gauge and the fewer stitches per
inch
• The finer the yarn, finer will be the
gauge and the more stitches per inch
• The larger (thicker) the needle,
coarser will be the gauge and the
bigger the stitches
• The smaller (thinner) the needle,
finer will be the gauge and the
smaller the stitches
• The bigger the stitches, coarser will
be the gauge and the fewer stitches
per inch
• The smaller the stitches, finer will be
the gauge and the more stitches per
inch
In the next session, we would be
discussing about various kinds of
knitting needles
4GG
5GG
6GG

38/KNITTING VIEWS/MAY-JUNE 2010
VASANT R KOTHARI - has done Master’s
in Textiles Technology from DKTE’s Textile
and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji
(Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra.
He has also done Diploma in Export
Management (Apparel Export) from the
Indian Institute of Export Management, and
Garment Export and Merchandising
Management from NIFT, Bangalore.
Presently, he’s working as an Assistant
Professor in Department of Fashion
Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his
third input from the series of articles in
knitting Views)
The fundamental elements in construction of
knitted fabrics are the knitting needles as
they are the main elements for intermeshing of
loops. The quality of the knitted fabric is largely
dependent on the effectiveness and accuracy
of the loop, which in turn largely depends on
the needle.
Small variations in the needle manufacture can lead
to irregular fabric. The surface of needles should be
highly polished allowing the yarn and the loop to
slide free. The needle must have high strength and
toughness to give durability. A typical needle must
performseveralmillionknittingactionswithoutfault.
Types of knitting needles: There are three types of
needles. These are:-
1. Bearded needle 2. Latch needle
3. Compound needle
Heart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of KnittingHeart of Knitting
Knitting Needles MachinesKnitting Needles Machines

KNITTING VIEWS/MAY-JUNE 2010/39
The Latch needle is primarily used in weft
knitting, and the other two are used for
warp knitting. A coarse (large and thick)
needle usually knits with a coarse yarn
(large hook), whereas a fine (small and
thin) needle usually knits with fine yarn
(small hook).
Bearded needle
The bearded needle was used by William
Lee in his stocking frame to enable a
single needle to undertake the tasks
achieved by hand knitters with two
needles. This needle is the simplest and
cheapest to produce, but it does require
an additional element to close the beard
during knitting. In the case of warp
knitting it is a presser bar. The majority
of modern high speed warp knitting
machines now use compound needles
rather than bearded needle.
The needle consists of five main parts.
1.Shaft or stem – used with the jack
sinkers to form new loops
2.Head – the point at which the stem is
bent to form the beard, it helps to draw
the new loop through the old loop
3.Beard – the needle continues from the
head to be turned back on itself to form
the beard. The beard is used to trap
new loops while old loops are pushed
over the top
4.Grooveoreye–asmallgrooveisworked
into the stem of the needle to allow the
beard to fit flush with the stem and
ensure the old course is pushed over
the beard
5.Shank – bent for individual location in
the machine or cast with others in a
metal ‘lead’. The shank is used to attach
the needle to the frame
Bearded needle characteristics
1. The knitting section occupies a
considerable amount of space, thus
limiting productivity
2. The needles can set vertically or
horizontally
3. The needle has the disadvantage of
requiring a pressing edge to close the
bearded hook
4. The presser may be in the form of a bar,
blade, verge or wheel
5. Finer in Cross Section, therefore, more
needles in unit space. Hence Finer
Gauge (60 needles/per inch) can be
achieved
6. High wear and tear and can break easily
7. Strain on the yarn is less
8. No possibility of fluff or lint
accumulation on the needle
9. Most of the warp knitting machines use
beard needles
Fig 3.1
Bearded
needle in the
open and
closed
positions
Fig 3.2
Latch needle
Head
Beard
Eye
Stem
Shank
Hook
Latch-Blade
Latch Spoor
Stem
Butt
Tail

Latch needle
Matthew Townsend, a Leicester hosier,
patented the latch needle in 1849, and
compared to the bearded needle, which
evolved some 260 years earlier, it has the
advantage of being self acting, though it
is slightly more expensive to produce.
The needle consists of seven main parts:
1.Stem – Used to hold the course of old
loops
2.Hook – The hook is used to catch a
thread and form loops
3.Rivet – The rivet, which may be plain or
threaded, holds the latch in place and
allows it to pivot
4.Latch – The latch combines the task
performed by the presser bar and the
beard of the bearded needle
5.Latch spoon – The latch spoon is an
extension of the blade, and bridges the
gap between the hook and the stem
covering the hook when closed
6.Butt – The butt enables the movement
of the needle to be controlled by a cam
mechanism. A track raises and lowers
the needle
7.Tail – Used to provide support to the
needle
Latch needle characteristics:
1. Most widely used in weft knitting
2. More expensive than the bearded
needle, because of the assembly of the
needle and latch
3. It is self-acting or loop-controlled, and
is sometimes termed the ‘automatic’
needle
4. It can work at any angle
5. Needle Depth determines the loop
length
6. Variation of the height of reciprocating
action produces knit, tuck or miss
stitch
7. It is ideally suited for use with
computer-controlled electronic
selection devices
8. It makes a longer stroke in the cycle of
knitting
9. The Latch needle takes a longer time
to knit a loop and hence the knitting
machine is generally found slower
10. Latch needles are thick and rigid
11. Needle deflection is difficult
12. It imposes a certain strain on the yarn
13. There is also a possibility of fluff or lint
accumulation on the latch due to
rubbing action of the yarn on the needle
Compound needle
Compound needles were designed in the
mid of 19th Century. It consists of two
separately controlled parts; these are-the
open hook and the sliding closing element
(tongue, latch, piston, and plunger). The
two parts rise and fall as a single unit but
at the top of the rise, the hook moves faster
to open the hooks and at the start of the
fall the hook descends faster to close the
hook. It is easier to drive the hooks and
tongues collectively to form two separate
bars as in warp knitting; than to move each
hook and tongue individually as in weft
knitting.
Two types of compound needle have been
employed in warp knitting machines:
1. The open stem “Pusher type” or slide
needle has a closing wire or tongue that
slides externally along a groove on the
edge of the flat hook member
2. The tubular pipe needle has its tongue
sliding inside the tube of the open hook
Compound needle characteristics:
1. The compound needle is expensive
2. It offers a much shorter, smoother and
simpler knitting action in comparison to
other needles
3. Both members of Compound Needle
have a straight moment, thus the
knitting speed can be increased
4. There is no strain on the yarn
Fig 3.3 Hook
Fig 3.4
Latch spoon
Fig 3.5
Latch
movement
Fig. 3.6 Compound
needle (Pusher type)
Fig. 3.7
Compound
needle
(Tubular
pipe)

Fig 3.9
Fig 3.8
Commonpoints
The three needles considered above, while
differing in design, have the following
points in common.
1.Hook – to take & hold newly fed yarn
2.Closing mechanism – to allow the held
loop to leave the needle
3.Stem
4.Control Butt – for individual or
collective movement
Loop formation process
During yarn feeding, the hook is opened
to release the retained old loop and to
receive the new loop which is then
enclosed in the hook (As shown in Fig.
3.8). The new loop is then drawn by the
hook through the old loop which slides
on the outside of the bridge of the enclosed
hook (As shown in Fig. 3.9). All needles
must therefore have some method of
closing the knitting needle hook to retain
the new loop and exclude the old loop (As
shown in Fig. 3.10).
Fig 3.10
Fig 3.11 Needles at 90º on cylinder (Vertical)
and dial (Horizontal)
Fig 3.12 Needles at rectangular or flat bed
Needle orientation
Needlesintheknittingmachineareusually
orientedeithervertically,horizontally,orat
45º. Needles are held in the position by
needle beds - pieces of metal into which
slots or grooves have been cut. The beds
can be rectangular or circular.
Fig 3.13 Needles at 45º on V Bed Knitting Machine
In the next session, we would be discussing about the elements of knitting.
Comparisonofneedles
Bearded needle Latch needle
Required another element to close the hook Self acting needle
Less expensive More expensive
Beard needles are thin and flexible Latch needles are thick and rigid
Usually mounted on finer gauge Usually mounted on coarser gauge
It wears and breaks easily Strong in nature
No strain on yarn Imposes certain strain on yarn
It makes a shorter stroke in the knitting cycle It makes a longer stroke in the knitting cycle
Stitches are tight and minimum loop robbing Stitches are loose
No fly and fluff generation Due to rubbing, fly and fluff generation is high
Time required to knit the loop is less Takes longer time to knit the loop
The speed of the machine is high The speed of the machine is less
Latchneedle Compoundneedle
Self acting needle Consist of two separately-controlled parts
Less expensive Very expensive
Preferred for Weft Knitting Preferred for Warp Knitting
Vibration is more Short, smooth, simple harmonic movement,
so there is less vibration
Yarns are under stress No stress on yarn
The vertical clearing height is very good The vertical clearing height is not so good
Latch needles produces the long & The needle can knit tight, uniform stitches that
narrow loops tend to be rounder
Latch needles are relatively thick Because of its slim construction and short hook
fine warp knitted are possible
Speed is relatively less Can work at high speed

24/KNITTING VIEWS/JULY-AUGUST 2010
Master’s in Textiles Technology
from DKTE’s Textile and
Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji
(Shivaji University, Kolhapur),
Maharashtra. He has also done
Diploma in Export Management
(Apparel Export) from the Indian
Institute of Export Management,
and Garment Export and
Merchandising Management
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently,
he’s working as an Assistant
Professor in Department of
Fashion Technology, NIFT,
Bangalore. (This is his fourth input
from the series of articles in
knitting Views)
Basic elements
of knitting
The basic elements of knitting machines are knitting needles, sinkers, jack,
cams and yarn feeding. Knitting needles are the main elements of any
knitting machines which have already been discussed in the previous article.
The sinker
The sinker is the second primary knitting element. It is a thin metal plate
with an individual or a collective action operating approximately at right
angles from the hook side of the needle bed, between adjacent needles.

KNITTING VIEWS/JULY-AUGUST 2010/25
The main parts of sinkers are as follows:
1 – Butt 2 – Butt breadth 3 – Height of shank
4 – Buldge 5 – Neb 6 – Length of neb 7 – Throat angle
8 – Sinker platform height 9 – Breadth of lower shank
10 – Clearance 11 – Throat
Fig 4.1 Position of
sinker and needle
Fig 4.2 Main components of sinker
Sinkers may perform one or more of the following functions;
dependent upon the machine’s knitting action and consequent
sinker shape and movement:
• Loop formation • Holding-down • Knocking-over
The main function of the sinker is to assist the needles in the loop
formation by sinking or knitting newly laid yarns into loop as its
forward edge or catch (C) advances between the two adjacent
needles. This is only for bearded needle, whereas on latch needle
weftknittingmachinesandwarpknittingmachines,loopformation
is not a function of the sinkers.
The second and more common function of sinkers on modern
machines is to hold down the old loops at a lower level on the
needle stems than the new loops that are being formed, and to
prevent the old loops from being lifted as the needles rise to
clear them from their hooks. The protruding nib or nose of sinker
(N) is positioned over the sinker loop of the old loop (O),
preventing it from rising with the needle.
The third function of the sinker – as a knock-over surface – is
illustrated in Fig.4.4 where its upper surface or belly (B) supports
the old loop (O) as the new loop (NL) is drawn through it.
Fig 4.3 Action of the loop-
forming sinker
The jack
The jack is a secondary weft knitting element, which may be
used to provide versatility of latch needle selection and
movement. It is placed below and in the same trick as the needle
and has its own operating butt and cam system.
The cam
Knitting cams are solid steel plates and with the assembly of
different cam plates a track for a butt can be arranged. Each
needle movement can be obtained by means of cams acting on
the needle butt. The fig 4.5 shows the simplest cam design.
Fig 4.4 Action of the knock-
over sinker
Cams are devices, which convert the rotary machine drive into a
suitable reciprocating action for the needles and other elements.
The upward movement of the needle is obtained by the rising
cam or clearing cam. The rising cam places the needle at a certain
level as it approaches the yarn area. Cams controlling the
downward movement of the needles are called stitch cam. The
stitch cam draws the needle down below the knitting level,
thereby drawing a loop formed by the fed yarn through the loop
already on the needle. The lowest point to which the needle is
Fig 4.5 Knitting cam design

drawn by the stitch cam is called the “cast-off” position. They
are screwed to the cylindrical cam ring and are adjustable in
vertical direction. If the stitch cam is raised, then shorter loop is
drawn below the sinker level and a tighter fabric will result. With
lowering the cam, a reverse result is obtained.
Guard cam keeps the needle butts in their raceway. Running cam
or up-through cam keep the needle butts at a low level until they
meet the next rising cam.
The needle cam race consists of
1 Clearing cam 2 Stitch cam 3 Up-throw cam, which are
vertically adjustable together for alteration of stitch length
4 and 6 Guard cam 5 Return cam
The three sections of the sinker cam race are
7 Race cam 8 Sinker withdrawing cam 9 Sinker-return cam,
which is adjustable in accordance with the stitch length
Cam systems generate both the needle and the sinker
displacements for sinker machines and cylinder and dial
displacements for double jersey machines. Fig 4.7 shows both
the sinker cam track above and the needle cam track below. The
needle track shows the typical three stage needle displacement
of (1/4) the raising or clearing cam, (2/3) the lowering or stitch
cam and (5/6) the guard cam that returns the needle to its entry
position for the next cam system. The sinker track shows the
engaged position (section 7) when the needle is clearing. The
sinker disengages in sections 8 and 9 so that knock-over can
take place and re-engages into section 7. The displacement
diagrams of the needles and sinkers are also shown.
Fig 4.6 Cams and Latch needle moment
Fig 4.7 Needle and Sinker cam system
Yarn feeding
Basically two types of yarn feeding are there
• Moving the needles past the stationary yarn feed
• Most circular weft knitting machines have revolving needle
cylinders and stationary cams, feeders and yarn packages.
In this case, the fabric tube must revolve with the needles,
as must the fabric rollers and take-up mechanism
• Moving the yarn past the stationary needle bed
• As when the yarn moves past the needles, the fabric will be
stationary because the loops hang from the needles. This
arrangement exists on all warp knitting machines, and on
weft knitting machines with straight beds and circular
machines with stationary cylinders and dial
Fig 4.8 Modern four
track cylinder cam block
(Inthenextissue,wewouldbediscussingabout
the Knitted loop structure and notations.)

22/KNITTING VIEWS/SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2010
There are three principle stitches utilised in knit fabrics: Knit,
tuck and miss stitch. These three stitches, or combinations
of them appearing in the same fabric, form the basis of all knitted
fabrics.
Formation of loop structures
The weft knitted structures described so far have been totally
composed of knitted loops, which are produced whenever the
needle clears the old loop, receives the new yarn and knock
over the old loop from the previous knitting cycle. Fig. 6.1 shows
the three possible positions of the needle at the time of feeding
the yarn. They are referred to as knit, tuck and miss positions.
These different stitches are produced by controlling the height
of the needles and the individual selection of needles enable
knit, tuck or miss stitches to be formed.
For different stitch requirements, swing cams or auxiliary cams
are placed between the rising cams and the stitch cams to change
the path of the needle butts to form a raceway and the needle
butts travel in this restricted path accordingly to form knit, tuck
and miss stitch.
Master’s in Textiles Technology from
DKTE’s Textile and Engineering Institute,
Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur),
Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma
in Export Management (Apparel Export)
from the Indian Institute of Export
Management, and Garment Export and
Merchandising Management from NIFT,
Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an
Assistant Professor in Department of
Fashion Technology, NIFT, Bangalore.
(This is his fifth input from the series of
articles in Knitting Views)

KNITTING VIEWS/SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2010/23
Knit stitch
The knit stitch is the basic stitch. It is also called the plain stitch.
Knit stitch is formed when the needle carries out a complete
stroke, reaching the maximum height on the looping plane.
The tuck loop will always lie at the back of the held loop. The
numbers of consecutive tucks on any one needle is limited by the
amount of yarn that the needle hook can hold, with the maximum
usually being between four to five loops. Fig 6.5 shows the
technical face of the tuck stitch along with the knitting notations.
Fig 6.1 Three needle positions for the production of three stitch types.
Fig 6.2 Cam setting for different stitches
Tuck stitch
A tuck stitch is formed when a knitting needle holds its old loop
and then receives a new yarn. Two loops then collect in the
needle hook. The previously formed knitted loop is called the
held loop and the loop which joins it is a tuck loop.
Fig 6.3 Face and back of knit stitch
Fig 6.4 Tuck stitch produced on a latch needle machine
Fig 6.5 Technical face of tuck stitch fabric with stitch notations

The resultant stitch is elongated. Tuck stitches appear on the
back of a fabric and may be recognised as an invertedV, sometime
elongated for two or more courses, depending on how many
times the stitched was tucked. Fig 6.6 shows a single tuck viewed
from technical face and back of the fabric.
Fig 6.7 shows a single tuck viewed from the technical back and,
in addition, how this structure is represented using conventional
stitch notations.
Tuck stitches tends to reduce the length of the fabric and increase
its width (Wales are pushed apart), resulting in the fabric being
thicker (yarn from the tuck stitch lies on top of the preceding
stitch) with less extension in the width.
The tuck stitch is used in knitted fabric to create design effects
in colour, raised surface texture, or a hole or eyelet effect.
Miss stitch
A miss stitch is created when one or more knitting needles are
deactivated and do not move into position to accept the yarn.
The yarn merely passes by and no stitch is formed.
The float will lie freely on the reverse side of the held loop, which
is the technical back, and in the case of rib and interlock
structures it will be inside the fabric. Fig 6.10 illustrates that the
float will extend from the base of one knitted or tucked loop to
the next.
Fig 6.6 Tuck stitch
Fig 6.7 Tucking over four adjacent plain needles
Fig 6.8 Tuck stitch (Face and Back)
Fig 6.9 Float stitch produced on a latch needle machine
Fig 6.10 Technical face of float stitch
Miss stitch is also known as float stitch or welt stitch. Fig 6.11
shows the face and the back of the miss stitch.
Fig 6.12 shows a four needle float viewed from the technical
back, together with the conventional stitch notation used to
represent this structure.
The introduction of miss stitches results in the fabric becoming
narrower in width, since the wales are pulled closer together and
theheldloop‘robs’yarnfromadjacentloops.Thistendstoimprove
fabric stability. The miss stitch also has a tendency to increase

fabric weight, and reduce both stretch, and width. Amiss stitch is
used to create colour and figure designs in knitted fabric since it
permits the selective positioning of yarns in a fabric.
Fig 6.11 Miss stitch
6.12 Floating across four adjacent plain needles
Fig 6.14 Successive tucks and floats
(In the next edition, we would be
discussing about Weft Knitting.)
Fig 6.13 Miss stitch (Front and back)
Knit, tuck and miss stitches can be used in any of the four fabric
types – single jersey, rib, purl or interlock – to produce a wide
range of structural effects. Fig 6.14 shows the combination of all
three stitches.

20/KNITTING VIEWS/NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2010
DKTE’s Textile and Engineering
Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji
University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra.
Management (Apparel Export) from
the Indian Institute of Export
Management, and Garment Export
and Merchandising Management
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s
working as an Assistant Professor in
Department of Fashion Technology,
NIFT, Bangalore. (This is one of the
inputs from the series of his articles)
Knitted fabrics provide comfortable
wear to almost any style of garment.
Most knits contour to the body's
silhouette without restricting movement
because of its open structure. This makes
knit fabrics ideal for innerwear, bodywear
and sportswear garments. While many
variations of knit fabrics exist such that
used for hosiery, there are two basic types
of knit fabrics—weft knits and warp
knits—and it’s the direction in which the
yarns making up the fabric are looped that
determines which type of knit the fabric
is. From these two types of knit fabrics
come various subtypes that consumers
encounter in fabric stores and read within
garment descriptions.
Weft knitting is the simplest method of
converting a yarn into fabrics. Weft
knitting is a method of forming a fabric in
which the loops are made in horizontal way
from a single yarn and intermeshing of
loops take place in a circular or flat form
on a crosswise basis. In this method each
weft thread is fed, more or less, at right
angles to direction in which fabric is
formed. Each course in a weft knit builds
upon the previous knitted course. Most
of the weft knitting is of tubular form. It is
possible to knit with only one thread or
cone of yarn, though production demands
have resulted in circular weft knitting
machines being manufactured with upto
192 threads (feeders).
Common weft knits
In woven fabric structures, three weaves,
are called basic weaves, viz., plain, twill
andsatin.Inasimilarway,inaweftknitting
structure, the following four structures are
considered as basic weft knit structure.
• Plain jersey fabric • Rib fabric
• Purl fabric • Interlock fabric
Plain jersey fabrics, also known as single
jersey, have an identifiable right/face and
wrong /back side. Other types are known
Basics of knitting - Weft knitting
as double jersey, just as the name implies,
uses two sets of yarns on opposed needles
resulting in a heavier fabric that looks the
sameoneitherside.Doubleknitfabricshave
little stretch; retain their shape and works
best for tailored garments. Each of these
fabric types is unique in appearance and
function.
Plain jersey fabric
Plain jersey fabric is the simplest weft
knitted structure that is possible to
produce with one set of needle. It is very
economical to produce. It is having definite
face and back and is most easily
recognised. Face is having all knit stitches
with smooth texture, while back is having
purl stitches with textured and mottled
appearance. These fabrics are produced
on flat as well as circular machines.
Characteristics of jersey knits
• Stretch crosswise and lengthwise
• Stretches more in the crosswise

KNITTING VIEWS/NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2010/21
• Tend to run or ladder if stitch breaks
• Fabric less stable and curls when cut
• Special finishes counteract curling and
improve stability
• Highest machine productivity
End-uses of jersey knits
• Sheets • Sweaters • Terry robes
• T-shirts • Men’s underwear
• Dresses • Hosiery and pantyhose
• Fully fashion garments
Jersey knit variations
• Fleece • Intarsia • Jacquard knits
• Knitted terry • Knitted velour • Lisle
• Plaited knits • Silver-pile knits
End-uses of rib knits
• Collars and cuffs • Necklines • Bottom
edges of sweaters • Double knits
jackets •Knit hats • Men’s hosiery
End uses for purl knits
• Infant and children’s wear
• Sweaters • Scarves
• Fancy garment parts
Interlock fabric
Interlock structure consists of two 1 x 1
rib fabrics knitted one after the other by
means of two separate yarns, which knits
alternately on the face and back of the
fabric and are interlocked together.
Interlock is a reversible fabric, which has
similar smooth appearance on each side.
Interlock is produce on a cylinder and dial
circular weft knitting machine, with
alternate long and short needles opposite
to each other on cylinder and dial.
Characteristics of interlock knits
• Reversible • It does not curl
• Firmer fabric • Less extensible as
compared to other jersey fabrics
• Heavier and thicker as compare to rib
• It unroves from the course knitted the
last • Costlier fabric • Better insulator
Fig: Rib fabric
Fig: Plain jersey fabric
Rib fabric
Rib fabric is a double jersey knitted fabric
with vertical rows (wales) of loops meshed
in the opposite direction to each other.
Simplest rib fabric is 1 x 1 rib having
alternate wales knitted to the front and
back. The ribs tend to close up to create a
double faced fabric, which has the same
appearance on both sides. Rib knits
fabrics are produced with the knitting
machines having two sets of needle,
normally positioned at rights angle to each
other.
Characteristics of rib knits
• Also called as double jerseys fabric
• Its reversible fabric • More elastic than
jersey knits • More thicker than jersey
knits • More stretch crosswise than
lengthwise • Edges do not curl • Very
stable • Running and laddering still a
problem • More expensive to produce
• Next highest machine productivity
Purl fabric
Purl fabric has loop knitted to the front
and back on alternate courses, in contrast
to a rib fabric, which is knitted to the front
and back on alternate wales.Asimple purl
fabric looks like somewhat like the back of
jersey knit on the both side of the fabric.
The simples purl fabric is known as 1 x 1
fabrics. Purl fabrics are made on knitting
machinescalledpurlknitmachinesorlinks-
or-links machines.
Characteristics of purl knits
• Slowest of the knitting machines
• Both side similar appearance
• More expensive
• Good stretch in all direction
• Stretches out of shape easily
• Crosswise stretch less than a jersey knit
• Thicker than jersey knits
• Does not curl
• Can be unroved from either end
Fig: Purl fabric
Fig: Interlock fabric
End-uses for interlock knits
• Outwear fabric • Dress wear
• Skirt • Blouses • T-shirts
Variables in weft knitted fabric
A great deal of variety may be created by
manipulating the following:
• Fibre content • Yarn type and twist
• Fabric count • Colouration • Finishes
and • Variations of tuck, knit and miss
stitches
(In the next issue, we would be discussing
about Plain jersey and rib fabrics.)

VASANT R KOTHARI
has done Master’s in Textiles
Technology from DKTE’s
Textile and Engineering
University, Kolhapur),
Maharashtra. He has also
done Diploma in Export
Management (Apparel Export)
from the Indian Institute of
Export Management, and
Garment Export and
Merchandising Management
from NIFT, Bangalore.
Presently, he’s working as an
Assistant Professor in
Department of Fashion
Technology, NIFT, Bangalore.
(This is his seventh input from
the series of articles in
Knitting Views)
The needle loop
The upper part of the loop produced by
the needle drawing the yarn is called the
needle loop. It is the basic unit of a knitted
structure. Each stitch or knitted loop
consists of a top arc (head), two legs and
two bottom half-arcs (feet).
At the base of each leg is a foot, which
meshes through the head of the loop
formed at the previous knitting cycle,
usually by that needle. The yarn passes
from the foot of one loop into the foot and
leg of the next loop formed by it.
The sinker loop
The lower part of the knitted loop is
technically referred as sinker loop. It is the
piece of yarn that joins one weft-knitted
needle loop to the next. On bearded needle
weft knitting machines, loop-forming
sinkers form the sinker loops in
succession between the needles – hence
the origin of the term sinker loop. On latch
needle weft knitting machines, however,
the sinker loops are automatically formed
as the needles, in succession, draw their
new loops.
Fig 5.1: Components of needle loop

Fig 5.2: Intermeshing points of a needle loop
Fig 5.3: Needle loop and sinker loop
Face loop
During loop formation, when the new loop
emerges through the old loop from back
to the face (or front) side, it is called as
face loop or weft knit loop.
Back loop
If the new loop passes from the face side
to the back side of old loop, it is called as
back loop or weft purl loop.
The knitted stitch
The knitted stitch is the basic unit of
intermeshing which usually consists of
three or more intermeshed needle loops.
The centre loop has been drawn through
Fig 5.4: Face loop and back loop
the head of the lower previously-formed
loop and is, in turn, intermeshed through
its head by the loop above it.
The repeat unit of a stitch is the minimum
repeat of intermeshed loops that can be
placed adjoining other repeat units in
order to build up an unbroken sequence
in width and depth
For a stitch, depending on the position of
the legs at the binding points, a technical
back and a technical front side is defined.
Fig 5.5: The knitted stitch
Fig 5.6
Technical face
The side of knitted fabric that consists all
of face or knit loops, is called as technical
faceofthefabric.Itisthefrontsideoffabric.
Technical back
Thesideofknittedfabrichavingfullofback
or purl loops, is called as the technical back
of the fabric. It is the back side of the fabric.
Fig 5.7: Face side of plain knitted fabric
Fig 5.8: Back side of plain knitted fabric
Face
Back
Knitting notations
A knitting notation is a simple, easily-
understood, symbolic representation of
Fig 5.9: Technical face and back of single
jersey fabric
Needle Loop
Sinker Loop
Face Loop Back Loop
The technical back of a stitch The technical front of a stitch

a knitting repeat sequence and its resultant
fabric structure that eliminates the need
for time-consuming and possibly
confusing sketches and written
descriptions.
Graph paper
This method is developed by the Leicester
School of Textiles for weft knitting only.
In this method each square represents a
needle or stitch. An ‘X’ symbol is placed
in a square where a face stitch occurs and
an ‘O’ where there is a reverse stitch
Basically two methods are recognised for
knitting notations:
1. Point paper 2. Graph paper
Point paper
Eachpointrepresentsaneedleinplainview
from above and, after the thread path has
beendrawn,italsorepresentsitsstitch.Each
horizontal row of points thus represents
adjacent needles during the same knitting
cycleandthecourseproducedbythem.The
lowest row of points represents the starting
course in knitting.
Fig 5.10
Fig 5.11
Fig 5.12: Point paper notations of various
knitting designs
Fig 5.12: Graph paper notations of various
knitting designs
New Loop
Face loop
stitch and
notation
Old loop
Old loop
New Loop
Reverse
loop stitch
and
notation

VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles Technology from DKTE’s Textile and Engineering Institute,
Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma in Export Management
(Apparel Export) from the Indian Institute of Export Management, and Garment Export and Merchandising
Management from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion
Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his eighth input from the series of articles in Knitting Views).
Single jersey fabric
If a weft knitted fabric has one side
consisting only of face stitches, and the
opposite side consisting of back stitches,
then it is described as a plain knitted fabric.
It is also frequently referred to as a single
jersey fabric (single fabric).
Technical face of single jersey fabric is
smooth, with the side limbs of the needle
loops having the appearance of columns
of V’s in the wales. These are useful as
basic units of design when knitting with
different coloured yarns. On the technical
back, the heads of the needle loops and
the bases of the sinker loops form
columns of interlocking semi-circles,
whose appearance is sometimes
emphasised by knitting alternate courses
in different coloured yarns.
Plain is the simplest and most economical
weft knitted structure to produce and has
the maximum covering power. It normally
has a potential recovery of 40 per cent in
width after stretching.
Fig 8.1: The technical face of plain jersey
Fig 8.2: The technical back of plain jersey
Fig 8.3: Face & back side of plain jersey fabric
Back side of
the fabric..
Fig 8.4: Face side
of the fabric
Cross
section

Production of single-jersey
fabric
Single jersey fabrics are produced on flat
as well as circular machines, having one
set of needles in one needle bed and are
called jersey machines, plain-knit
machines, or single knit machines. Most
of the single-jersey fabrics are produced
on circular machines whose latch needle
cylinder and sinker ring revolve through
the stationary knitting cam systems that,
together with their yarn feeders, are
situated at regular intervals around the
circumference of the cylinder. The yarn is
supplied from cones, placed either on an
integral overhead bobbin stand or on a
free-standing creel, through tensioners,
stops motions and guide eyes down to
the yarn feeder guides. The fabric, in
tubular form, is drawn downwards from
inside the needle cylinder by tension rollers
and is wound onto the fabric-batching
roller of the winding-down frame.
The knitting action
Figure 8.6 – 8.10 shows the knitting
action of a latch needle and holding-
down sinker during the production of a
course of plain fabric.
Tucking in the hook orrest position: The
sinker is in forward position, holding down
the old loop (fabric) whilst the needle rises
from the rest position.
Fig 8.5: Knitting notation of single jersey fabric
Clearing: The sinker is still forward as the
needle has been raised to its highest
positionclearingtheoldloopfromitslatch.
Fig 8.6: Tucking in the hook or rest position
Yarn feeding: The sinker is partially move
back allowing the feeder to present its yarn
to the descending needle hook and also
freeing the old loop so that it can slide up
the needle stem and under the open latch
spoon.
Fig 8.7 Clearing
Knock-over: Thesinkerisfullywithdrawn
whilst the old loop has closed the latch to
trap the new yarn; needle descends to
knock over its old loop on the sinker belly.
Fig 8.8: Yarn feeding
Holding-down: Thesinkermovesforward
to hold down the new loop in its throat
whilst the needle rises under the influence
of the up throw came to the rest position
where the head of the open hook just
protrudes above the sinker belly.
All needles in one bed can pull loops in
only one direction as shown in fig 8.11.
As a consequence, jersey-knit materials
Fig 8.9: Knock over
are unbalanced and have a tendency to
curl at the edges. This condition can
frequently be corrected in fabric finishing.
If not corrected, this problem can be quite
troublesome in cutting and sewing
operations. Jersey-knit fabrics stretch
more in the width directions.
Fig 8.10: Holding down
A wide variety of knitted fabrics are made
with the jersey-knit construction, ranging
from sheer, lightweight hosiery to thick,
bulky sweaters. Most full-fashioned
sweaters are fundamentally jersey-knit
fabric types. Additional fabrics that use
jersey-knit construction are men's
underwear, T-shirts, pantyhose, knit terry,
knit velour, and many more. One
shortcoming of jersey-knit fabrics is that if
one yarn breaks, it causes an unravelling
of adjoining stitches in the wale, called a
run. Lightweight filament-yarn jerseys are
especially susceptible to runs due partially
totheverysmoothsurfaceoffilament yarn.
Rib fabric
Rib has a vertical cord appearance
because the face loop wales tend to move
over and in front of the reverse loop wales.
One vertical row of wale is meshed in the
Fig 8.11: Single jersey circular knit fabric
on machine

opposite direction to the other vertical row
of wales. Face row or loops tends to close
up in one plane and so also the back row
of loops in the other plain. Thus stitches
of rib fabrics lie in two planes and hence
the rib structure is also known as double
jersey structure.
1 x 1 rib has the appearance of the technical
face of plain fabric on both sides until
stretched to reveal the reverse loop wales
in between.
Relaxed 1 x 1 rib is theoretically twice the
thickness and half the width of an
equivalent plain fabric, but it has twice as
much width-wise recoverable stretch. In
practice, 1 x 1 rib normally relaxes by
approximately 30 per cent compared with
its knitting width.
Fig 8.12: Technical face and back of rib fabric
Production of rib fabric
Rib-knit fabrics are produced with knitting
machines that are somewhat different from
those used for jersey knits. Because rib
knits have stitches drawn to both sides of
the fabric, the machines used to make
them, called rib-knit machines, require two
sets of needles usually positioned at right
angles to each other; each set of needles
Fig 8.13: Rib fabric structure
Fig 8.15: Knitting notation of rib fabric
Fig 8.14: Top view of rib fabric
Fig 8.14: Front view of
rib fabric
Fig 8.14:
Cross section
view of rib
fabric
Fig 8.14: Back view of
rib fabric
is capable of producing stitches. The fabric
is formed between the two needle-holding
beds. The machinery required to produce
rib-knitfabricissubstantiallymorecomplex
and operates at slower speeds than
knitting machines used for jersey fabrics.
Rib knits are produced on flat (V-Bed) as
well as circular machines.
The knitting action of the circular rib
machine
Theknittingactionofacircularribmachine
is shown in Fig. 8.18 – 8.21:
Clearing: In clearing position, the
cylinder and dial needles move out to clear
the plain and rib loops formed in the
previous cycle
Fig 8.16: Two sets of needle on rib
knitting machine
Fig 8.17: Graphic representation of two sets
of needle on rib knitting machine
Yarnfeeding:Theneedlesstarttheirreturn
moment and are withdrawn into their tricks
so that the old loops are covered by the
open latches and the new yarn is fed into
the open hooks.
Fig 8.18: Clearing
Fig 8.19: Yarn feeding

Knocking-over: The needles are
withdrawn into their tricks so that the old
loops are knocked over and the new loops
are drawn through them.
If cylinder needle is knocking over before
dial needle, then it is known as delayed
timing, which is very popular in
production of rib fabric as it produces
tighter fabric due to robbing back (this is
where some yarn is taken from the
previously knitted stitch to make the
current stitch). If both, cylinder and dial
needle knock over together, to produce
loops of equal size, it is known as
synchronised timing.
Fig 8.20: Knocking over
Fig 8.21: Knock over
1 x 1 rib is balanced by alternate wales of
face loops on each side; it therefore lies
flat without curl when cut. It is a more
expensive fabric to produce than plain and
is a heavier structure; the rib machine also
requires finer yarn than a similar gauge
plainmachine.Likeallweft-knittedfabrics,
it can be unroved from the end-knitted last
by drawing the free loop heads through
to the back of each stitch. It can be
distinguished from plain by the fact that
Fig 8.22: Delayed timing
Fig 8.23: Synchronised timing
the loops of certain wales are withdrawn
in one direction and the others in the
opposite direction, whereas the loops of
plain are always withdrawn in the same
direction, from the technical face to the
technical back.
Rib cannot be unroved from the end
knitted first because the sinker loops are
securely anchored by the cross-meshing
between face and reverse loop wales.
This characteristic, together with its
elasticity, makes rib particularly suitable
for the extremities of articles such as
undergarments, tops of socks, cuffs of
sleeves, knit hats, rib borders of
garments, and stolling and strapping for
cardigans. Rib structures are elastic, form-
fitting, and etain warmth better than plain
structures
(In the next article, we would be discussing
about purl and interlock fabrics.)
(The Author can be contacted at
www.vasantkothari.com)

Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma in Export Management (Apparel
Export) from the Indian Institute of Export Management, and Garment Export and Merchandising Management
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology,
NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his ninth input from the series of articles in Knitting Views).
Purl fabric
The Purl fabrics are also known as link-
linkfabrics.Purlwasoriginallyspelt‘pearl’
and was so named because of its similar
appearance to pearl droplets. In purl, the
loops of one course are intermeshed in
one direction and the loops of the next
course intermeshed in opposite direction,
i.e. the alternate courses having face and
back loops. It means each wale contains
both knit stitches and purl stitches. This
differs from the rib fabric, in which the
wales contain either knit or purl stitches.
A simple purl fabric looks somewhat like
the back of a jersey knit on both sides of
the fabric. The simplest purl fabric is
Fig 9.1: The technical face of purl fabric
Fig 9.2: 1 x 1 purl fabric
Fig 9.3: Face and back side of
plain jersey fabric
known as 1 x 1 purl, in which one course
has all knit stitches and the next course
has all purl stitches. The cycle repeats on
the third course.A2 x 2 purl knit fabric is
made with two courses of knit stitches
followed by two courses of purl stitches.
Fig 9.5: Knitting notation of purl fabric
Fig 9.4: Face side of the fabric
Cross
section
Back side of the
fabric

Fig 9.9: Interlock fabric structure
Fig 9.6: Circular and flatbed purl
knitting machine Fig 9.8: Purl needle transfer action
Production of purl fabric
Purl-knit fabrics are made on knitting
machinescalledpurl-knitmachinesorlinks-
and-links machines. The purl knitting
machines are basically of flat and circular
types as shown in fig 9.6. The flat is having
two horizontal beds for needle movement
and central gap for fabric formation. The
circular type has two cylinders, one above
the other and thus referred as super
imposed cylinder machine. As stitches are
sometimes drawn to the front and
sometimes to the back, two sets of needles
arerequiredtoproducethesefabrics.Inpurl
machines,however,ratherthantwodistinct,
separate sets of needles, one set of double-
headed latch needles is used as shown in
fig9.7.Thetwoneedlebedsareinalignment
with each other. The double headed needles
movefromoneneedlebedtotheother,from
side to side of the knitted fabric as it is
produced,alternatelymakingstitchesonone
fabric side and then the other.
The purl-knit machines used to produce
purl knit fabrics are the most versatile
industrial knitting machines. These
machines can produce plain and rib as well
as purl fabrics. By selective programming
of needle motion, fabrics of all three types,
sometimes with unique design effects are
possible. Purl-knit machines are widely
used in the sweater industry.
Although extremely versatile, the purl knit
machines have the lowest rate of
production of all knitting machines.
The knitting action
Fig 9.8 shows the knitting action of a
flatbed purl machine which has tricks in
each of the needle beds. They are in line
with one another to enable the transfer of
purl needle from the control of a slider in
one bed into the control of a slider in the
opposite bed.
Position 1 shows engagement of the head
of the receiving slider with the needle hook
that was originally knitting from the
opposing bed. In position 2, the needle
has been moved to the centre, with both
sliders engaging the needle hook. The
sliders then start to move back, but the
slider in the back bed is pressed down by
a cam, so that front bed slider is freed from
the needle hook and the needle is
transferred to the back bed.
In position 3, the slider in the back bed has
control of the needle and it can be seen that
the yarn is fed to the opposite end of the
needle, when compared to that of position
1.Thenthesliderinthebackbedhasmoved
the needle to knock over position to
complete the formation of the purl stitch.
It should be noted that a purl stitch is made
when a loop is formed by one hook and
then at the next course by the other hook
of the same needle, so that one course is
formed on the front bed and the next
course is formed on the back bed to create
a 1 x 1 purl structure.
Fabric characteristics
To identify a purl-knit fabric, fabric need
to stretch in its length direction. The
appearance of alternating rows of knit
stitches and purl stitches in the course
direction is evidence of a purl knit.
Generally purl-knit fabrics tend to lie flat
and do not curl as do jersey knits. Purl
fabric has same appearance in face and
back. It can unroved from either end.
Lengthwise extension is more as compare
to width wise and hence purl fabric
contract towards the centre in a course
wise direction. Thickness of fabric is two
to three times more as compare to single
jersey fabric.
The fabric is commonly used for children’s
wear and sweaters.
Interlock fabric
Interlock-knit fabrics are a variation of rib
knits made on the interlock machine.
Interlock is an interlocking of two 1 x 1 rib
structures in such a way that the face wale
of fabric “1” is directly in front of the
‘reverse wale’ of the rib fabric “2”.
Interlock has the technical face of plain
fabric on both sides, but its smooth
surface cannot be stretched out to reveal
the reverse meshed loop wales because
the wales on each side are exactly opposite
to each other and are locked together as
shown in Fig. 9.9. Each interlock pattern
row (often termed an ‘interlock course’)
requires two feeder courses, each with a
separate yarn that knits on separate
alternate needles, producing two half-
Fig 9.7: Double headed latch needle
Therefore, the cost per pound of fabric
produced is highest for purl knit fabrics.
Knitting machines for jersey knits have
the highest productivity but the lowest
versatility. Productivity for rib-knit
machines falls between those for jersey
and purl machines.

Production of interlock fabric
Interlock is produced mainly on special
cylinder and dial circular machines and on
some double-system V-bed flat machines.
In interlock machine
• Interlock gating, the needles in two beds
being exactly opposite each other so
that only one of the two can knit at any
feeder
• Both, the cylinder and dial beds should
have two types of needles viz., long and
short needles
• Alternate placement of long and short
needles in both the beds is required
• The long needle of one bed should face
the short needle of the other bed and
vice versa
• Two separate cam systems in each bed,
each controlling half the needles in an
alternate sequence, one cam system
controlling knitting at one feeder, and
the other at the next feeder
• Needles set out alternately, one
controlledfromonecamsystem,thenext
from the other; diagonal and not
opposite needles in each bed knit
together
• Minimum of two yarns are required to
knit one interlock course and hence a
minimum of two feeders supply
• The knitting style is in such a manner
that only long needles of dial and
cylinder will knit with the first feeder
and only short needles of dial and
cylinder will knit with second feeder
Fabric characteristics
To determine whether a fabric is an
interlock or a rib, spread the fabric width
wise, and view the fabric wales carefully
at the top edge of the cloth. If the knit
stitches are one behind the other, the
fabric is interlock. If the wales of knit
stitch alternate, the fabric is rib.
Interlock fabric is a reversible balanced,
smooth, stable structure that lies flat
withoutcurl.Like1x1rib,itwillnotunrove
from the end knitted first, but it is thicker,
heavier and narrower than rib of
equivalent gauge, and requires a finer,
better, more expensive yarn.
It unroves from the course knitted the last.
The fabric becomes costlier due to
thickness and less production. Interlock
is used for outwear fabrics, often using
wool, acrylic and polyester yarns, while
cotton and polyester/cotton blends are
used for the production of underwear
fabrics. Interlock fabrics are also popular
for blouses, dresses, and dressy T-shirts.
Their dimensional stability and the fact
that they do not tend to easily stretch out
of shape contribute to these popular uses.
Interlock fabrics offer a smooth surface
for printing by both screen and heat-
transfer methods
In the next article, we would be discussing
about straight bar knitting machine.
(The Author can be contacted at
www.vasantkothari.com)
Fig 9.17: Interlock cam system
gauge 1 x 1 rib courses whose sinker loops
cross over each other. Thus, odd feeders
will produce alternate wales of loops on
each side and even feeders will produce
the other wales.
Fig 9.16: Graphic representation of two sets
of needle on interlock knitting machine
Fig 9.15: Knitting notation of interlock fabric
Fig 9.12: Front view of interlock fabric
Fig 9.13: Back view of interlock fabric
Fig 9.14: Cross section
view of interlock fabric

Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma in Export Management (Apparel
Export) from the Indian Institute of Export Management, and Garment Export and Merchandising Management
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology,
NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his tenth input from the series of articles in Knitting Views)
Aknitting machine is a device used to
createknittedfabricsinasemiorfully
automated fashion. There are numerous
types of knitting machines, ranging from
the simple, non-mechanical, to the highly
complex and electronic. All, however,
producesinglejerseyfabricstocomplicated
jacquard knitted fabrics, usually either flat
or tubular, and of varying degrees of
complexity. Pattern stitches can be selected
by hand manipulation of the needles, or
with push-buttons and dials, mechanical
punch cards, or electronic pattern reading
devices and computers. These knitting
machines also ranges from high production
to limited production capacity.
The three main groups of weft knitting
machinery may broadly be classified as
either straight bar frames, flats, or circulars,
according to their frame design and needle
bed arrangement.
From table it can be seen that the simplest
weft knitting machinery has one set of
needles, arranged either in a straight line
(flat bar/straight bar) or around cylinder
(circular). These machines are capable of
producing single jersey fabrics, but not
double jersey fabrics, and can use a
combination of three types of stitch: knit,
miss or tuck.With two needle beds, double
jersey fabrics such as rib and interlock can
be produced on both flat bar machines and
circular machines.
Straight bar frame machines
Straight bar frames is a specific type of
machine having a vertical bar of bearded
needles whose movement is controlled by
circular engineering cams attached to a
revolving cam-shaft in the base of the
machine? The length of the machine is
divided into a number of knitting heads
(‘sections’ or ‘divisions’) and each head
is capable of knitting a separate but
identically-dimensioned fashion-shaped
garment panel.

Classification of various groups of weft knitting machine
Knitting action of straight bar
machine
Below figure shows the movement of the
knitting elements to produce one course
of loops in straight bar machine. In thread
laying process, the carrier moves across
the knitting head for laying the yarn on
the noses of the sinkers and dividers and
on the beard side of the needles to form
the new course in the fabric.
The next step is Sinking, in which the
slurcockcontacts the jacks; it is shaped
so that each jack in turn pushes thesinker
forwards to kink a loop around every two
adjacent needles.
The needle bar starts moving away from
the pressing-edge and the sinkers and
dividers withdraw so that the newly-
formed course of loops drops off their
noses onto the knocking-over bits. At the
time of completion of knock-over, the
needle bar descends to its lowest position.
As the heads descend below the belly of
the knocking-over bits, the old course of
loops is collectively knocked-over. The
sinkers and dividers move collectively
forward to hold down the fabric, the needle
bar rises to the thread-laying position. The
catch bar is slightly raised to release the
sinkers for individual movement at the start
of the next course.
In dividing step, the catch bar moves the
dividers forwards, collectively, whilst the
needle bar tips slightly outwards to allow
the double loops to be divided into equal-
sized needle loops around every needle.
The needle bar start descending, placing
the new loops inside the hooks of the
beards. The catch bar is now lowered so
that the sinkers, as well as the dividers,
are collectively controlled by it for the rest
of the knitting cycle. They now start to
withdraw. The needle bar moves towards
the sinker verge, causing the beards to be
pressed. A further downward movement
of the needle bar ‘lands’ the previous
course of loops, resting on the knock-over
bits, onto the closed beards.
Straight bar frames are long and expensive
machines that are highly productive in a
very narrow sphere of garment
manufacture. The knitting width is small
and fashion tends not to encourage full
exploitation of the fashion shaping and
stitch-transfer patterning potential of the
machines.
Straight bar machines are known for their
production of high-quality garments as a
result of the gentle knitting action, low
fabric tension and fashion shaping, which
reduces the waste of expensive yarn during
cutting and is emphasised on the garments
by carefully-positioned fashion marks.
The straight bar frame is the only bearded
needle weft knitting machine that is still
commercially viable, although it now faces
serious competition from electronically-
controlled flat machines
Source: Knitting Technology by David J
Spencer (Third Ed)
(In the next session, we would be
discussing about flat knitting machine.)
Fig 10.7: Knocking over the loops
Fig 10.1: Knitting head of straight bar machine
Fig 10.4: Dividing the loop
Fig 10.5: Pressing
Fig 10.2: Laying the thread
Fig 10.3: Sinking the loops Fig 10.6: Landing the loops

Flat knitting machines, also referred to
as “Flatbeds” or “V-beds,” have two
rib gated, diagonally-approaching
needle beds, set at between 90 and 104
degrees to each other and are positioned
so that the upper ends form an inverted
“V”. The interactions between the yarn
and the knitting elements that create the
fabric occur at the apex of the V and the
fabric moves away downward between
the two beds, drawn down by the take-
down system.
This knitting machine stitch potential
includes needle selection on one or both
beds, racked stitches, needle-out designs,
striping, tubular knitting, changes of
knitting width, and loop transfer. Further,
a wide range of yarn counts may be knitted
for each machine gauge, including a
number of ends of yarn at each knitting
system; the stitch length range is also
wide; and there is the possibility of
changing the machine gauge.
The modern V-bed knitting machine is a
highly engineered, fully automated,
electronically controlled, precision
knitting system. The operation and
supervision of the machines of the simpler
type are also less arduous than for other
weft knitting machines. The number of
garments or panels knitted across the
machine depends upon the knitting width,
yarn carrier arrangement, yarn path and
yarn package accommodation.
(The machine shown in fig. 11.2 is a
member of the Stoll CMS family of
machines. The knitting needles, beds and
other active elements are enclosed within
sliding covers to reduce noise and fibre
contamination and to enhance safety.)
V-bed knitting machine
A solidly built machine frame supports the
two rigid needle beds. Needles slide up
and down the beds in slots known as
“tricks,” cut into rigid needle beds, which
maintain the orientation and spacing of
the needles and support them when they
impact with the CAM system. The tricks
in the opposing beds are arranged so that
the needles can pass between each other
VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles
TechnologyfromDKTE’sTextileandEngineeringInstitute,
Ichalkaranji(ShivajiUniversity,Kolhapur),Maharashtra.He
has also done Diploma in Export Management (Apparel
Export) from the Indian Institute of Export Management,
and Garment Export and Merchandising Management
fromNIFT,Bangalore.Presently,he’sworkingasanAssistant
Professor in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT,
Bangalore. (This is his eleventh input from the series of
articles in Knitting Views)
Fig 11.1: Needles in V-bed
Fig 11.2: V-bed machine
The flat knit machines are the most
versatile of the weft knitting machines.

Fig 11.7: CAM plate and knitting carriage
The yarn supply is situated above the
machine and the yarn is fed to the needles
via yarn feeders that culminates in a tube
or bore to precisely position the yarn. The
feeder is fixed to a feeder block that slides
along a feeder rail located above the needle
bed. Modern machines typically have four
feeder rails with 4/6 knitting feeders/rail.
The feeder precedes the needle
movement across the bed in such a way
that the yarn is placed across the open
latch of the needle during the clearing
displacement so that when the needle
retracts and the latch closes the yarn is
trapped in the hook.
On the most basic V-bed machines a roller
traction system pulls the fabric down
between the needle beds to provide the
take-down tension necessary to maintain
the position of the old loop against the
verge of the needle bed during the clearing
displacement.
The modern flat knit machine also has its
own on-board control and programming
computer and the LCD monitor display
built into the sliding machine covers.
Normally, in a production environment
these machines can be networked and
knitting programmes can be downloaded
from the CAD/programming stations
directly to the machine's computer.
Equally, production statistics can be
collected centrally.
Knitting action of flat knitting
machine
Fig 11.3: Line diagram of V-bed knitting machine
Fig 11.6: Carriage movement and its
influence on knitting needle
Fig 11.4: Rib gaiting
Fig 11.5: Needles in tricks
The front edge of the needle bed also acts
as a knock-over support by helping to
maintain the position of the fabric during
knock-over.
The needle then tracks through the CAM
system as shown by the blue line in the
following diagram
1 The rest position: The tops of the heads
of the needles are level with the edge of
the knock-over bits.
2 Clearing: The needle butts are lifted as
to raise the needles to ‘tucking in the
hook’ height.
3 Yarn feeding: The yarn is fed as the
needles descend under the control of
guard cam. The required loop length is
drawn by each needle as it descends
the stitch CAM.
4 Knocking-over:Toproducesynchronised
knocking-over of both needle beds
simultaneously, the stitch CAM in the
front system is set lower than the
auxiliary stitch CAM, so that the latter
is rendered ineffective.
5 Delayed timing: If, however, delayed
timing of the knock-over is employed,
knock-over in the front bed will occur
after knock-over in the back bed.
Delayed timing is only normally used
ongauges finer than 8 NPI and cannot
be used for broad ribs
during loop formation. This arrangement
of the beds is called rib gaiting.
The two CAM systems are contained
within the carriage. The carriage or “CAM
box” traverses across the needle beds and
selects needles to be knitted as it
reciprocates side to side. The carriage
effectively raises and lowers the needles
on both beds simultaneously as it passes
over them, depending on the desired
pattern. Needle bed lengths can vary from
1.0 m to 2.2 m width and each is designed
for a specific task or purpose.
Fig 11.8: Knitting action of flat knitting machines
(In the next session, we would be discussing
about circular knitting machines.)
Bow
Yarnfeeder
Yarntake-back
spring Yarn guides
Yarn
Carriage
Needlebed
Fabric
take-down roller
Control
unit
Lowering cam
(Stitch cam)
Guiding
cam
High butt
needle
Lowbutt
needle The raising CAM
is in half position
Brushes
Yarn
carrier

The term ‘circular’ covers all those weft
knitting machines whose needle beds
are arranged in circular cylinders and/or
dials, including latch, bearded, or (very
occasionally) compound needle
machinery, knitting a wide range of fabric
structures, garments, hosiery and other
articles in a variety of diametres. Circular
knitting machines are either of body size
or larger, having a single cylinder or double
cylinder, cylinder and dial arrangement, as
is also the case with small diametre
machines for hosiery. The modern circular
knitting machine is a highly engineered,
electronically controlled, precision
knitting system capable of producing high
quality fabric at very high speeds.
The main features of a circular knitting
machine are:
1. The frame or body is circular according
to needle bed shape supports the
majority of the mechanisms of
the machine
VASANTRKOTHARI hasdoneMaster’s inTextilesTechnology
from DKTE’s Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji
(ShivajiUniversity,Kolhapur),Maharashtra.Hehasalsodone
Diploma in Export Management (Apparel Export) from the
Indian Institute of Export Management, and Garment Export
and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore.
Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor in
Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is
his twelfth input from the series of articles inKnitting Views)
2. The yarn supply system or the creel
for holding the yarn packages
3. Yarn tensioning devices
4. Yarn feed control
5. Yarn stop motion
6. Yarn feed carriers or guides
7. The knitting system, which includes
the housing and driving of knitting
elements and needle selection device
8. The fabric take down mechanism
9. Start, stop and inching buttons
10. The automatic lubrication system
In circular knitting machine, the yarn from
the package is unwounded and comes
downward through guides, tensioners,
stop motion, for being supplied to the
needles. The knitted fabric is taken down
inside the cylinder and ultimately rolled
on the cloth roller. Since the needles are
arranged in a circle on a circular knitting
Fig 12.1: Circular knitting machine Fig 12.2: Closet view of tubular fabric

machine, the fabric is a tubular. It is usually
slit open when used.
Normally, circular knitting also adopts the
same knitting principles as the flat bed
machines. The circular machine starts to
knit when the CAM systems on the
needle beds (cylinder and dial) move
along the surface quite similar to that of
the carriage on a flat bed machine. The
only difference is that the operation is
continuous as CAM system of the circular
machine does not need to stop during
knitting because there is no beginning
or end of a course.
CAM technology
Circular knitting CAM systems only
allow for unidirectional knitting. CAM
systems generate both the needle and
the sinker moment for single jersey
machines and cylinder and dial moment
for double jersey machines. The given
diagram shows both the sinker CAM
track above and the needle CAM track.
The needle track shows the typical three
stage needle displacement of (1&4) the
raising or clearing CAM, (2&3) the
lowering or stitch CAM and (5&6) the
guard CAM that returns the needle to
its entry position for the next CAM
system. The sinker track shows the
engaged position (section 7) when the
needle is clearing. The sinker
disengages in sections 8 and 9 so that
knock-over can take place and re-
engages into section 7. The moment
diagrams of the needles and sinkers are
also shown in between CAMs.
Multi system circular machine
Similar to a flatbed machine, multi-system
circular knitting is also possible. Fig 12.4
is a schematic diagram of a circular
knitting machine having eight systems.
As shown in figure, it is clear that every
CAM system is knitting at the same time
and each of CAM system is having its
own supply of yarn for its own course.
So, when the machine runs, all eight
systems move together and hence eight
courses of fabric are in knitting at the same
time. In other words, at the end of one
revolution of the CAM system, eight
courses of fabric are completed. Similarly,
if there is more CAM systems around the
machine, there will be more fabric courses
being produced in a single revolution of
the machine, for example, say if there are
30 CAM systems, 30 courses of fabric
will be completed in one revolution of the
CAM system.
As compared to a flatbed machine with a
circular machine, the CAM systems of a
circular machine always operate at their
maximum speed. Also, circular machines
always have much more CAM systems
than flat bed machines. A double system
machine with 100-inch needle bed
produces about 45 courses per minute and
a 30-inch, 90-feed circular machine
produces about 2,700 courses per minute.
Further,incircularknittingmachine,needle
action is a result of the relative motion
between the CAM plates and the needle
butt. The same needle action will be
achieved whether the CAM plate is
moving across the needle butt or the
needle butt is moving across the CAM
plate. So basically, there are two types of
circular machines distinguished by the
rotation of the machine.
I. CAM box revolving machine
II. Cylinder revolving machine
If the CAM plates are moving across the
needle butts, the needle bed or the cylinder
will be stationary keeping the needle butts
in place while the CAM box carries the
CAM plates, yarn feeders with their yarn
packages are all rotating around the
machine. This type of machine is called
CAM box revolving machine.
On the other hand, if the needle butts are
moving across the CAM plates, the CAMFig 12.3: CAM system
It may be noted that the number of
systems around the machine is limited
by the circumference of the needle
cylinder. Usually all the space on the
circumference is issued up for placing
CAM systems. The actual number of
CAM systems depends on the cylinder
diametre and the dimensions (width) of
the CAM boxes. For example, a 30-inch
diametre machine may have 72 to 90
CAM systems. Since each CAM system
must have its own yarn supply and hence
a yarn feeder, such machine can be
referred as 30-inch, 90-Feed machine.
From above figure, further, it can be seen
that whether there are eight systems or
80 systems, the space taken up by the
machine will not be changed.
Fig 12.4: Multi system circular machine
Package
for cam
system 1
Cam Box 1
Cylinder

boxes will be stationary keeping the
camplates in place. The needle bed will
then have to move across the CAM boxes
with the needle butts in the needle tricks.
For a circular machine, the needle bed is
cylinder and then it rotates and that will
be the only moving part with the CAM
boxes, yarn feeders and yarn packages all
stationary. This type of machine is called
cylinder revolving machine.
It would be clear that cylinder revolving
machine is simpler in construction and
consumes less power than CAM box
revolving machine since there are less
moving components. As a matter of fact,
most of the circular machines are cylinder
revolving type. Only those machines such
as the garment length machines are CAM
box revolving because of their complexity.
Those are machines with 6-18 feeds
producing complex knitting structures
which cannot be accomplished if the
machine is cylinder revolving.
Circular knitting machine is naturally the
choice for the volume production. Since it
is ideal for volume production, there are
purposely built circular machines. For
example, plain knit fabric is always in
Reference: Weft knitting – Introduction
by Dr TY Lo, Institute of Textiles &
Clothing, Hong Kong
demand and large quantities. Circular with
justone set of needles in the cylinder is
available for plain knit only.All other knit
structures requiring the second set of
needles will be impossible but just
producing plain fabric will be able to keep
it occupied all the time
discussing about warp knitting.)

VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles
Technology from DKTE’s Textile and Engineering
Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur),
Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma in Export
Management (Apparel Export) from the Indian
Institute of Export Management, and Garment
Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT,
Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an Assistant
Professor in Department of Fashion Technology,
NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his thirteenth input from
the series of articles in Knitting Views)

Another interesting segment of the
knitting industry is the warp knitting.
Warp knitting is defined as a loop forming
process in which the yarn is fed into
knitting zone, parallel to the fabric
selvedge. Warp knitted fabrics are a
product of a technology process carried
out on warp knitting machines.
The history of warp knitting is closely
associated with two names, William Lee
and Karl Mayer. In 1589 William Lee
applied for patent of his first machine for
making knitted articles, in that way he laid
the foundations for mechanical
manufacturing and making the technical
base to develop warp knitting technology.
In 1947, the insightful entrepreneur and
mechanic, Karl Mayer showed off first
warp knitting loom. The machine was
compiled two guide bars, and with bearded
needles, attained a speed of 200 rpm. It
marked the starting of technical era in
pioneering leaps in the field of
warp knitting.
fromweft-knitandtheirmachinery.Inwarp
knitting, each needle loops have its own
thread, means there is one warp for one
wale, and it also differs in the way in which
the yarn is fed to the needles. Further, the
source of yarn on a warp-knitting machine
is a warp beam containing a very large
number of parallel yarns, similar to a warp
beamonaloom.Sometimes,morethanone
warp is needed, depending upon the
fabric design.
stitches on the face of the fabric appear
vertically, but at a slight angle; and the
stitches on the back appear horizontally
as floats at a slight angle.
These floats called laps, or under laps, is a
distinguishing identification of warp knits.
Warp knitting may be flat or tubular and
can be produced in many varieties of
patterns. It can yield cloth with a
dimensional stability almost equal to that
of woven fabric. Yet, a modern 28-gauge
machine can produce a cloth 168 inches
wide at a rate of 1,000 courses per minute
that is 4,700,000 stitches per minute.
Warp and weft knitting are similar fabric
manufacturing processes as both utilise
needles to form and intermesh loops. As
the name implies, the loop formation is
warp wise, i.e., vertically upward. Unlike,
weft knitting, most of the warp knitting
machine is open width/flat knitting.
Generally, warp knitting is done by
machine, whereas weft knitting is done by
both hand and machine.
Formation of warp knit fabrics
Warp-knit fabrics and the machinery used
to produce them are substantially different
In weft knitting, a single yarn end may be
fed to all the needles and knitting
progresses around, or across the machine
to produce the weft knitted fabrics for any
number of courses and wales.
In warp knitting, however, each needle is
supplied with a yarn (or yarns) and all the
needles knit at the same time producing a
complete course at once so the total
number of individual yarns is equal to the
total stitches in a row.The needles produce
parallel rows of loops simultaneously that
are interlocked in a zigzag pattern, as
shown in fig 13.5. In this way, the warp
knittedfabricisformedbyknittingthewarp
yarns on the adjacent needles course by
course and intermesh the loops with the
neighbouring yarns to form fabric. The
Advantages of warp knit fabric
Dimensional stability
• In general, warp knitted fabric are more
stable than weft knitted fabric. By
modifying its structure (by weft
insertion), the warp knitted can be as
good as woven fabric
Fabric tightness
• The warp knitted fabrics are thinner than
double knitted fabrics and the loops are
smaller than double knitted fabric
Fabricappearance
• Most regular warp knitted fabrics give
a nice, clean and balanced loop on
surface. Normally the technical face and
back for warp knitted are different
13.4: Warp knit fabric (face)
13.2: Basic weft knit (a) and warp knit
(b) loop
The subsequent
loops formed
from one thread
are placed in the
same course
The subsequent
loops formed from
one thread are
placed in the
subsequent courses
13.3: Weft and warp knitted structure
Fig 13.1: Warp knitted fabric
13.5: Warp knit fabric (back)

Basics of Kniting by Vasant Kothari

VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles Technology from
DKTE’s Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University,
Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma in Export
Management (Apparel Export) from the Indian Institute of Export
Management, and Garment Export and Merchandising Management
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor
in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his
fourteenth input from the series of articles in Knitting Views)
Warp knitting is defined as a stitch
forming process in which the yarns
are supplied to the knitting zone parallel
to the selvedge of the fabric, i.e. in the
direction of the wales. In warp knitting,
every knitting needle is supplied with at
least one separate yarn. In order to
connect the stitches to form a fabric, the
yarns are deflected laterally between the
needles. In this manner a knitting needle
often draws the new yarn loop through
the knitted loop formed by another end of
yarn in the previous knitting cycle.
A simple warp knitted loop structure is
shown in fig 14.1 – 14.3. As compared to
weft knitting in warp knitting also, the
vertical line of loops (i.e. wales) and the
horizontal line of loops (i.e. course), the
loop portion (i.e. overlap) and the
diagonal floats of yarns (i.e. underlap) are
seen in fig 14.3.
The warp knitted fabric structure has
dissimilar appearance on the technical face
and technical back side as shown in figure
14.1 and 14.2. Practically all warp-knitted
fabrics can be identified and distinguished
from weft-knitted materials by careful
examination of the face and back of the
fabric, usually with the aid of a pick glass.
The face of the fabric has rather clearly
defined knit stitches generally running
vertically (in the lengthwise direction), but
slightly angled from side to side. At the
back side of the fabric, the diagonal line of
yarns (i.e. underlaps) run right and left
throughout in a zigzag manner. These
Fig 14.3: Overlap and underlap in
warp knitted fabric
Fig 14.2: Warp knit fabric structure (Back)Fig 14.1: Warp knit fabric structure (Face)
Fig 14.4: Formation of warp knitted fabric
underlaps play an important role in
influencing the pattern effects. The length
or extent of these underlap floats and their
direction of running cause a variety of
design possibilities in warp knitting. The
recognition of laps in a knitted fabric is
the most important distinguishing feature
identifying warp knits.

Warp knitted laps
Loops are termed ‘laps’ in warp knitting
because the warp guides lap their yarn
around the needles in order to form the
loop structure. A warp knitted structure is
made up of two parts. The first is the stitch
itself, which is formed by wrapping the
yarn around the needle and drawing it
through the previously knitted loop. This
wrapping of the yarn is called an overlap.
The diagram shows the path taken by the
eyelet of one yarn guide travelling through
the needle line, making a lateral overlap
(shog) and making a return swing. This
movement wraps the yarn around the
needle ready for the knock-over
displacement. The second part of stitch
formation is the length of yarn linking
together the stitches and this is termed the
underlap, which is formed by the lateral
movement of the yarns across the needles.
1)Overlaponly
In overlap, the guide bar only feed yarn to
the same needle all the time. The result is
that each needle knits a chain of stitches.
Example: 1-0/01, known as pillar stitch.A
pillar stitch is not a fabric, but is commonly
used with other lapping movements to
form a fabric.
2)Underlaponly
Underlapalonecannotformintoafabricand
is commonly used with other lapping
movements. If a guide bar only made
underlaps in a multi-guide structure, this
guidebariscalledinlaybarandthewarpare
calledinlayyarn,whichneverformintoloops
but only “tie-in” at the back of the fabric.
3)Overlapwithunderlap
When overlap and underlap are worked
together, two types of fabrics can be
formed. The first one, as shown in fig 14.8-
14.10, when overlap and underlap are
moving in the same direction, an open lap
fabric will be formed. The second one, as
shown in fig 14.11 – 14.13, when overlap
and underlap are moving in opposite
direction, closed lap will be produced.
Fig 14.5 a: Subsequent courses
Fig 14.5 b: Same needle, wale
Fig 14.5 c: Subsequent courses and
subsequent wales
Fig 14.6: Guide
bar movement
Fig 14.7: Overlapping
and underlapping
Fig 14.8: Open lap
Fig 14.9:
Open lap
Fig 14.10: Open lap
Fig 14.11: Closed lap
Point paper diagram: Each point shows
a needle in a course; each row shows a
different course
Basic combination of overlap
and underlaps
All warp knit fabric structures are
composed of both overlap and underlap:
4)Neitheroverlapnorunderlap
This seems to be warp float in the fabric.
The guide bars give no lateral movements
for a few courses in the repeat, laying the
warps straight in the fabric. For a multi
guide bar fabric, it is used to hide colour
warps at the back for a colour pattern.
Fig 14.12:
Closed lap
Fig 14.13: Closed lap
Characteristics of warp
knitted fabrics
• Extremely versatile in pattern effects
with yarn
• Rigid to elastic
• Cannot be raveled
• Good air and water permeability
• Good crease resistance
• Good drapability
• Good dimensional stability
• Good strength
discussing about warp knitting machines)

The history of warp knitting machine is closely associated
with two names – William Lee and Karl Mayer. Unlike weft
knitting machines, most of the warp knitting machines is open
width/ flat type. As the name implies, loop formation is warp
wise i.e. parallel to fabric selvedge. In warp knitting, fabric is
madebyformingloopsfromyarnscomingfromwarpbeam,which
run in the direction of fabric formation. Every needle is fed by
separate yarn for loop formation. In order to connect the loops
into a fabric, the yarns are shifted (shogged) between the needles.
In this manner the needle draws the new loop through the loop
formed by another yarn in the previous knitting cycle. This
unique feature of the loop continuity in upward direction makes
the warp knitting fabrics more special with respect to their
characteristics, production and applications. Warp knitting
machines produce the widest range of fabric types and qualities
of any fabric forming technology.
Though the machine initiation has started very long back, in the
middle of 20th century only the major developments in the
manufacture of warp knitting machines has taken place. The
warp knitting machines have gained their importance due to
advent of manmade fibres such as nylon, polypropylene,
polyester, acrylic, etc. Today, there is a vast range of machine
sizes, types and configurations, ranging from 10 cm-wide crochet
machine to a 5 mtr-wide geotextiles machine are available in the
market. Modern warp knitting machines are engineered to operate
at high knitting speeds (upto 3,000 cycles/min) and these
machines may produce in excess of 5 sq mtr/min. Consequently,
it is difficult to encapsulate such a range within a simple
description. The given figure shows a typical knitting machine
producing fabric for apparel.
The main machine frame is constructed from sturdy cast steel or
welded vertical side frames held together and stabilised by a
large welded steel box section transverse girder. The needle bar
and yarn guides are mounted transversely above box section
girder in middle of the machine and run virtually full width of
machine.Machinewidthsrangefrom1mtrto5or6mtrdepending
on type and end-use of fabric.
The yarn supply may be carried on warp beams situated above
the knitting elements on beam control systems mounted on the
side frames. Alternatively the beams may be mounted on A-
frames behind the machine to permit greater beam capacities, or
machine may be supplied from individual yarn packages mounted
in creels behind machine.
The fabric is taken away downwards and to the front of the
machine to a take-up roller, or it may travel under a walkway for
the operator, to be taken-up on a bulk fabric roller that is remote
from the machine.
Basics of knitting
Warp Knitting Machines
VASANT R KOTHARI has done
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s
working as an Assistant Professor in
Department of Fashion Technology,
NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his fifteenth
input from the series of articles in
Knitting Views)

Types of warp knitting machines
The classification of warp knitting machines is based on a number
of factors such as
• The type of the needles used
• Numbers of guide bars
• Machine speed
• Machine complexity
All three types of needle can be used on warp knitting machines.
The needle are not independent for their action, but are mounted
on a common needle bar. Number of needles bars as well as their
width also takes part in classifying the warp knitting machines.
Increase in number of guides bars increases the machine
complexity; there by reduce the speed, which also influences
machine classification.
In general, warp knitting machines are divided into two
classifications: Tricot and Raschel, each of which uses a different
configuration of knitting elements and is suitable for producing
different types of fabric structure.
Both Tricot and Raschel may be made with either single needle
bar or double needle bar. Conventionally, it was usual to
differentiate between Tricot and Raschel by the needle used in
each machine type. Tricot machines were equipped with bearded
needles while Raschel machines only used latch needles. With
the production of modern warp knitting machines, the compound
needle replaces both the bearded and latch needles.
Tricot machine Raschel machine
Bearded needle or compound needles are used Latch needles are commonly used
Normally finer gauge – 28-32 needles per inch Coarser gauge – 8-16 needles per inch
Machines are suitable for finer filament Machines are suitable for spun yarn, coarser filament or coarser,
decorative staple spun yarn
Less number of guide bars (2 to 4) More number of guide bars (6-48)
Less numbers of warp beams are required More number of warp beams are required
Sinkers control the fabric throughout the knitting cycle Sinkers only ensures that the fabric stays down when the needle rise
Warp beams are positioned at back of the machine Warp beams are positioned at top of the machine
The angle between needle and fabric take down is 90° The angle between needle and fabric take down is 160°
Can produce simple fabrics Can product complicated fabrics as well
Machine speed is high Machine speed is less
Knitting tension is lower Knitting tension is higher
Width of the machine is more Width of machine is less
Produces light weight fabric Produces heavy weight fabric
Less versatile machine More versatile machine
Tricot fabric is more resilient, better drape, higher Raschel fabric is less resilient, poor drape, lower bursting strength,
bursting strength, better dimensional stability. and poor dimensional stability. Hard hand, uneven and loose
Soft hand and even opaque and tight
However, an accurate differentiate can be made by regarding
type of sinkers with which machine is equipped and the role
they play in the loop formation. The sinkers used for Tricot
knitting machines controls the fabric throughout knitting cycle.
Whereas in Raschel knitting machines, the sinkers are only used
to ensure that the fabric stays down when the needles rise.
Both Tricot and Raschel machines use multi-guide bars. Though
maximum number of warp beams and guide bars are four with
conventional Tricot machines, majority of Tricot machines use
only two guide bars.And in case of Raschel machines maximum
48 guide bars are possible
Below table shows the major differences between Tricot and Raschel machines
(In the next session, we would be discussing about Tricot machine)
Basic structure of a single bar knitting machine

Tricot fabrics represent the largest
portion of yardage produced in the
warp-knit category. The word “tricot”
comes from the French word “tricoter,”
which means to knit. The tricot
production began between 1775 to 1780
with the invention of the warp loom by
an Englishman named Crane. The tricot
knitting machine is a flat machine made
in various widths, some producing fabric
over 200 inches wide (5 mtr). These
machines are characterised as fine-gauge
machines ranging from 14 to 36 gauge
(needles per inch), with the most popular
being 28 gauge for intimate apparel and
22 to 26 for outerwear.
VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles Technology from DKTE’s Textile and
Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also
done Diploma in Export Management (Apparel Export) from the Indian Institute of Export
Management, and Garment Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore.
Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT,
Bangalore. (This is his sixteenth input from the series of articles in Knitting Views)
Tricot machine
Fig 16.1 shows the cross sectional view of
tricot warp knitting machine. The figure
exhibits the position of warp beams, the
number of guide bars, etc. The machine
has one or more warp beams mounted
aboveit.Normally,thewarpbeamsintricot
machines are placed at the back side of
the machine and the fabric is taken at the
front of the machine. The fabric is removed
from the needles at approximately 90°. The
tricot machine uses a single set of spring
needle to produce the fabric. The knitting
zone of the tricot knitting machine
comprises all the important elements such
as needle bar, sinker bar, presser bar, guide
bar as shown in fig 16.2. Each of the
different elements is driven separately and
independently from the machine bed
trough cam.
Each set of yarns from a warp beam is fed
to a row of needles arranged across the
width of the machine and is controlled by
yarn guides set in a guide bar that is also
laid across the machine. Since one guide
bar is used for each set of warp yarns, the
number of warp beams determines the
number of guide bars employed.
Consequently, the terms of one bar tricot,
two-bar tricot, etc., indicate the number of
guidebarsusedtoproducethefabric.Tricot
machinesarecommonlyequippedwithfrom

two to four yarn guide bars. The greater
the number of bars, the greater the design
flexibility.The movement of the guide bars
is controlled by chains with links of various
heights. As the guide bar is raised and
moved sidewise, it lays the warp yarns in
their respective needles hooks to form a
course of loops simultaneously when the
needles are drawn down through the loops
of the preceding course.
Atricot knitting machine operating rapidly,
at 1,000 cycles per minute, can produce
1,000 courses each minute. Modern tricot
knitting produces fabric at rates of speed
considerably higher than woven cloths or
any other type of knitted cloth. The use of
electronics to control patterning instead
of linked chain systems has also resulted
in higher speeds through precise control.
The result of these improvements is
greater reliability, minimum defects, low
energy consumption, low heat emission,
lownoiselevels,agoodprice:Performance
ratio, and, of course, higher speeds.
Although tricot-machine speed is faster
and the rate of production is higher than
any other method, it does not
automatically follow that costs of
production are lower for two reasons:
Tricot requires more uniform and,
therefore, higher-cost yarns and
preparation of carefully controlled
precision warp beams is required. Because
weft knits can use less-costly yarns and
are fed to the knitting machine directly
from cones or spools, their prices are
competitive with that of warp knits.
Improvements through innovation have
also occurred in the control of yam from
the warp beam through let-off and
knitting. Digital control of the yams during
let-off and positive feeding, results in a
high degree of consistency and accuracy.
Runner lengths can be precisely controlled
during the entire run of the warp.
Electronics for control of the yams for each
guide bar, patterning, take-up, and defect
analysis have greatly expanded the range
of fabrics that can be made on even the
most basic of machines. User-friendliness
of the process controller on the machine
has become a key part of warp knitting.
open. As shown in fig 16.4, the guide
bar swings from the front of the
machine to the back of the machine
taking the yarn through the gap
between two adjacent needles. The
needle, sinker and presser remain idle
in this position.
C) The overlap and return swing: The
guide’s swing for the overlap and
swing to the front of the machine
immediately. The hooks and the
tongues start to descend with the
tongues descending more slowly, thus
closing the hook.
D) The rise: Fig 16.6 shows the second
swing in the cycle taking the yarn
between adjacent needles back to the
front of the machine. At this time the
needle bar moves upwards to place the
overlap below the open beard on the
shank of the needle. The newly fed yarn
slips from the hook portion to the
needle stem.
Fig 16.1: Cross section of tricot machine
Loop formation on tricot
machine
The different stages of loop formation
using bearded needle is as shown in fig
16.3 - 16.9 are as follows. Only one guide
bar has been considered for easy
understanding. The knitting action for one
knitting cycle is carried out by combined
operation of bearded needle, presser,
sinker and guide.
A) Rest position: It is a start of the knitting
cycle. As shown in figure 16.3, the
needles have risen to two/three of their
full height from knock-over. The
sinkers are in forward position, holding
the previously formed loops. The
presser is withdrawn.
B) Guide bar swing: With the sinkers
forward holding down the fabric, the
hooks and tongues rise, with the hook
rising faster, until the head of the latter
is level with the guide holes and is
Fig 16.2: Tricot machine knitting elements
Fig 16.3:
Rest position
Fig 16.4:
Guide bar swing
Modern tricot knitting
produces fabric at rates
of speed considerably
higher than woven cloths
or any other type of
knitted cloth. The use of
electronics to control
patterning instead of
linked chain systems
has also resulted in
higher speeds through
precise control.
E) Pressing: Fig 16.7 shows that the
needle start moving downward and the

yarn is trapped in the hook of the
needle. The presser bar moving
forward to close all the needles.
F) Landing: The sinkers start to withdraw
as the needles descend so that the old
loop is landed onto the closed hook.
Thus the landing is occurred.
G) Knock over: As shown in fig 16.9 the
sinkers start to withdraw as the needles
descend so that the old loop is landed
onto the closed hook and then knocked
over as it descends below the sinker
belly.At this point the under lap occurs
before the needles begin their upward
rise and sinker move forward to hold
down the fabric.
The machine type in this series of
diagrams is a tricot machine and on this
type of machine there is no continuous
knock-over surface. The belly' of the sinker
provides support to the fabric by
preventing the under laps from moving
downwards. For this reason it is not a
good idea to knit fabrics with few under
laps such as net or lace on a tricot machine.
They are much better knitted on a Raschel
machine with a continuous knock-over
trick plate.'
Tricot fabrics
The fabric produced on a tricot machine is
called tricot. The simplest fabric is made
on a single guide bar machine, and is called
tricot jersey. Tricot fabrics are often
described by the number of yarn guide
bars used to make the fabric, such as two-
bar fabrics or three-bar fabrics. Although
tricot knitting machines have a small
number of yarn guide bars, they can make
a variety of fabrics. Tricot fabrics are
produced in a wide range of fabric weight
types, surface textures, and designs and
are used in an equally wide range of
products. Typical uses for these fabrics,
in addition to the popular types used for
lingerie, include fabric types for
loungewear, waitresses' and medical
uniforms, and backing for bonded fabrics,
blouses and dresses, men's shirting,
slacks, and automobile upholstery fabric.
With the use of heavier yarns, fabrics for
upholstery (automotive and furniture) can
be made. Omitting some yarns at
intermittent places can result in a mesh
effect or open effect in tricot fabrics for
novelty lingerie or curtains. Laid-in yarns
Fig 16.5: The overlap
and return swing
Fig 16.6: The rise
Fig 16.7: Pressing Fig 16.8: Landing
can provide unique design and physical
properties.
Tricot fabrics have many good
attributes. They are porous and permit
passage of water vapour and air for
body comfort. They also offer bulk
without undue weight. Tricot fabrics are
soft, wrinkle resistant, and have good
drapability. They have controllable
elasticity, and they do not run or fray.
Tricot construction contributes to good
abrasion resistance and high bursting
and tearing strength. Other factors that
contribute to the fabric’s strength are
the fibre and yarn structure
Fig 16.9:
Knocking over
Fig 16.10: Cycle of movement of bearded
needles (1) Sinkers, (2) Guides placed in
guide bars, (3) and bearded needles
presser (4)
discussing about Raschel machine.

Raschel machines were developed by
Wilhelm Brafuss, it is named after the
famous French Actress, Raschel Flex.
Until the mid-fifties, the raschel industry
tended to be small, employing slow,
cumbersome but versatile coarse-gauge
universal raschels. The development of
modern specific-purpose raschels dates
from 1956, when a 12 guide bar raschel
machine led to the rise of the raschel
lace industry.
The raschel knit ranks in importance of
production with tricot, but it surpasses it
VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles Technology from DKTE’s Textile and
Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also
done Diploma in Export Management (Apparel Export) from the Indian Institute of Export
Management, and Garment Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore.
Presently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT,
Bangalore. (This is his seventeenth input from the series of articles in Knitting Views).
in variety of products, which range from
veilings and laces to power nets for
foundation garments to such pile fabrics
as carpets. The raschel knit is made with
latched needles rather than the bearded
type used or tricot, Milanese, and simplex.
The raschel fabrics can usually be
distinguished from tricot fabrics in that
raschel construction are made with heavy
yarns and usually have an intricate, lace
like pattern, whereas tricot constructions
are made with fine yarns and are either flat
or have a simple geometric pattern.
Raschel machine
Fig 17.1 shows the cross sectional view of
raschel warp knitting machine. The figure
shows the arrangements of various warp
knittingelementsoftheknittingzone,supply
beams,takedowndeviceanddrive.Raschel
machinesgaugeisexpressedinthestandard
E gauge (needles per inch). There is a wide
gauge range, from E 1 to E 32. The finest
gauge single bed raschel is E 40. It can knit
lightweight foundation and swimwear at
speeds between 1,900 and 2,200 rpm in a
yarncountofapproximately80dtex.

The warp supply beams
of the raschel machines
are placed above the
machine. This enables
easy accessible at the
front for fabric inspection
and the back for the
mechanical attention to
the knitting elements.
The warp supply beams of the raschel
machines are placed above the machine.
This enables easy accessible at the front
for fabric inspection and the back for the
mechanical attention to the knitting
elements.Theguidebarsarenumberedfrom
the front towards the back of the machine.
More number of supply beams can be
accommodated in raschel knitting so that
atleastfour32inchdiametersbeamsorlarge
numbers of small diameter pattern beams
areengaged.Largernumberofwarpbeams
necessitates larger number of guide bars
with raschel machine. Raschel fabrics are
knitted on machines having two to forty-
eight guide bars, which accounts for the
wide variety of fabrics. Programming the
large number of guide bars can be very
complexandexpensive.Thewarpsheetsare
taken through tension rails, which are the
tension compensating devices.
Fig 17.2: Knitting elements of raschel machine
Fig 17.1: Cross sectional view of raschel
knitting machine
The fabric is drawn downwards from the
needles, almost parallel to the needle bar,
at an angle of 120-160 degrees, by a series
of take-down rollers. The warp beams are
arranged above the needle bar, centred
over the rocker shaft, so that warp sheets
pass down to the guide bars on either
side of it.
Loop formation on raschel
machine
Fig. 17.2 shows the main elements
involved in the loop formation of a latch
needle raschel machine. The various
figures from 17.3 to 17.8 show the
sequence of events in one knitting cycle.
In order to have perfect wrapping of yarn
within the hook position, the latch
needles in raschel are longer as compare
to latch needles in weft knitting.
Holding down: In the holding down
position as shown in fig 17.3 the needle
head is just in line with the loop edge of the
trick plate. The guide bars are at the front
of the machine, completing their under lap
shog.Thesinkerbarmovesforwardtohold
the fabrics down whilst the needle bar
starts to rise from knock-over.
Clearing: In clearing position, as shown
in Fig 17.4, the needle bar rises to its full
height; the old overlaps slip down onto
the stems after opening the latches,
which are prevented from flicking closed
by latch wires. The sinker bar then starts
to withdraw to allow the guide bars
to overlap.
Overlap: The sinker bar starts to withdraw
and the guide bars swing to the back of
the machine and then shog for the overlap.
Fig. 17.3:
Holding down
Fig. 17.4: Clearing
Returning swing:As the guide bars swing
to the front, as shown in Fig 17.6 the warp
threads wrap into the needle hooks.
Latch closing: The needle bar descends
so that the old overlaps contact and close
the latches, trapping the new overlaps
inside. The sinker bar now starts to
move forward.
Fig. 17.5: Overlap Fig. 17.6:
Returning swing
Fig. 17.7: Latch
closing
Fig. 17.8: Knocking
over
Knocking-over and underlap: As the
needle bar continues to descend further,
its head passes below the surface of the
trick-plate, drawing the new overlap
through the old overlap which is cast-off.

The trick plate supports the old loop and
the sinker advance towards the trick-plate,
the under lap shog of the guide bar starts.
Fig 17.10 shows the holding down
position (1). The sinkers hold the fabric
down. Needle bar rises to its full height.
Old overlaps slip down onto the stems.
Overlap (2), return swing, latch closing.
And knock-over (3) and underlap.
Fig 17.11 shows the two courses (one
machine revolution) needs three swings
of guide bars. In this case there is an
alternate action of the beds. Bed which is
not active will keeps the fabric down
instead of the sinkers.
Raschel fabrics
Raschelfabrics,liketricotfabrics,arewarp-
knit fabrics, and, therefore, share many of
their characteristics. The principle of
knitting in tricot knits is identical to the
principle of knitting in raschel knits. The
significant differences between tricot and
raschel are that raschel knitting machinery
utilises latch needles rather than spring
beard needles and has anywhere from four
to more than 50 yarn guide bars. The large
number of yarn guide bars in raschel
knitting provides the potential for great
variation in raschel knit fabric. Sometimes
more than one needle bar is used.
Fig 17.9: Raschel machine with
a) One bed and b) Two beds
Fig 17.10: Working diagrams of single
bed raschel
Raschel knitting systems
can produce fabrics
ranging from fine lace like
material to heavy blankets
and even carpets. Each of
these, of course, is done
on different gauges of
raschel machines.
Raschel machines are extremely versatile.
It can knit every type of yarn made of
any kind of fibre, including metallic and
glass, and in any form, whether staple or
filament, standard or novelty. This
versatility naturally extends the possible
characteristics and properties of the
fabrics produced.
Raschel knitting systems can produce
fabrics ranging from fine lace like material
to heavy blankets and even carpets. Each
of these, of course, is done on different
gauges of raschel machines. These
knitting systems are capable of producing
fabrics with interesting surface effects,
almost to the point of being three-
dimensional. Raschel knits do not stretch
significantly and are often bulky;
consequently, they are often used as an
unlined material for coats, jackets, straight
skirts and dress
Fig 17.11: Working diagrams of double bed
raschel
discussing about compound needle
warp knitting machine.)

VASANT R KOTHARI has done Master’s in Textiles Technology from DKTE’s Textile and Engineering
Institute, Ichalkaranji (Shivaji University, Kolhapur), Maharashtra. He has also done Diploma in
Export Management (Apparel Export) from the Indian Institute of Export Management, and Garment
Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as an
Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his eighteenth
input from the series of articles in Knitting Views).
Compound needle warp knitting
machine was introduced in 1946,
the two guides bar British-built tricot
machine with its tubular compound
needles became, the pacemaker of the
industry, with its speed of 1,000 courses
per minute being more than twice that
of contemporary bearded needle
machines. It also incorporated many
new features such as double eccentric
element drive, positive warp let-off, light
spring warp tension rails, and carefully-
balanced machine parts. However, it
required precise setting-up, its pattern
scope was limited, and needles and other
parts were expensive.
Now, the compound needle is employed
in most high-speed warp knitting
machines, excluding double needle bar
raschels. Its short, simple action enables
3,300 courses per minute to be achieved
without the problems of metal fatigue
and loop distortion associated with latch
and bearded needles. The open stem
needle is simpler, cheaper and more
adaptable than the FNF tube needle,
having individually replaceable hook
members and a wider open hook.
The designs of the other elements are
similar to those in conventional

machines except that the tricot sinkers
have flat bellies because the
compound needle does not require
assistance in landing the old overlap.
The hook members are individually
mounted in their bar whilst the
tongues are set in leads that are
mounted in the tongue bar.
Loop formation on compound
needle warp knitting machine
The diagrams (1.7 to 1.9) illustrate a
tricot machine with compound needles.
The sequence of events is almost
exactly the same as for the bearded
needle with the exception that the
overlap lays the yarn into the open hook
and not onto the beard, and the
compound needle is closed by relative
displacement between the needle and the
closing element.
1. Needles rise (phase 1), hooks 1 faster
than tongues 2. Guide bar swings
2. The overlap and return swing.
Tongues descent more slowly and
thus close the hooks
3. Landing and knock-over
Distinguishing between tricot
and raschel fabrics
Tricot-knit fabrics and raschel-knit
fabrics, as previously indicated, are both
warp-knit materials produced on the
same knitting principle. Distinguishing
whether a particular fabric was
produced on a raschel machine or a
tricot machine can frequently be
determined by the following guidelines:
(a) Fabrics having heavy yarns, intricate
designs, complex "open spacing" (as in
lace), and surface effect patterns are
usually raschel constructions; (b)
Fabrics with fine yarns, without design
or with simple geometric design, are
usually tricot fabrics.
Many warpknit fabrics can be easily
classified as tricot or raschel by
applying these guidelines. Very often,
however, fabrics fall somewhere
between the two criteria, and it is not
possible to distinguish between them
without detailed and complex analysis
of the fabric
Fig: 18.1
Fig: 18.2
Fig: 18.3
Fig: 18.4
Tricot fabric
Raschel fabric
In the next session, we would
be discussing about yarn
requirement for knitting

Excellent comfort properties of knitted fabrics have made
their entry into allsegmentstoday.Butwiththetechnological
advancement in manufacturing of cloths and the awareness of
consumers to quality, the expectations in knit goods too have
gone high. However, knit goods are known for their high structural
sensitiveness to deformation during manufacturing process or at
their end use.The improvement of knit structure needs better
understanding of mechanics of loop formation, fluidity of knit
structures and their influence on quality of knit fabrics. The quality
of hosiery yarn has to be considered with due weightage to these
aspects.Iftheyarenotaddressed,probablysatisfyingthecustomer
at global level may become difficult.
Theyarncharacteristicshaveamajorinfluenceontheperformance
of knitting as well as on the appearance of finished fabric.
Improvements in the performance of knitting industry demand
improvements in the knitting machines as well as optimisation of
yarn properties. Various hosiery yarns are manufactured using
the range of fibres available to suit different end uses. In India,
majority of the knitted products are made from cotton yarn.
Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his nineteenth
input from the series of articles in Knitting Views)

Yarn requirement in weft knitting
Normally,thepurchaseofyarnisbasedonthegeneralparameterslike
count, U%, imperfections, strength and elongation and TPM. Most
of the knitters in SMEs test only the count for setting the GSM of the
fabric. The practice in the industry in assessment of hosiery yarn
quality is on the lines with the established norms for weaving or for
general understanding of yarn grade rather than anything specific to
knitting,exceptwaxing.Theknitfabricsandtheirprocessrequirements
aredefinitelymuchdifferentfromweaving.
The following are the important yarn parameters which need to
be considered for knitting:
1. Yarn count and machine gauge
Theyarncounttobeusedonthecircularknittingmachinedepends
mainlyuponpitchormachinegauge. Foranygivenmachinegauge
itcanliewithinalargerrange,becauseonthesamemachinedifferent
yarn count can be used, depending on the knitted structure, the
desired fabric appearance and the fabric properties.
2. Yarn twist
Twist in hosiery yarn should be less. Still in few cases, yarn of
higher twist being preferred on the ground that it performs well
in knitting in terms of lesser yarn breakages. The purpose of
using low twist yarn is to achieve this smooth curvature to loops
and high resiliency to fabric.
3. Uniformity
For obtaining smooth curvature to loop and its uniformity, the
yarn should be uniform in thickness and imperfections should be
minimum. The thin place in yarn receives more twist resulting in
compact structure i.e. high torsional rigidity or sharp bends in
loopwhilethickplacereceiveslesstwistandformsalargecurvature
at loop. The co-efficient of friction at thin places might be higher
due to increased twist, which might be further aggravated by
probable low wax pick-up. This variation in bending, twisting and
surface friction can vary tension in yarn during loop formation.
4. Co-efficient of friction
Waxing to cotton hosiery yarns is common. Co-efficient of yarn
friction can be reduce by improvement in quality of wax.
Machine gauge Relanit Ne Single jersey Fleecy Ne Fine rib Ne Interlock Ne JacquardNe
needles/ inch
08 ** 7/2-14/2 ** 19.0/2-12 ** **
10 ** 9.5/2-8.5 ** 12.0-18.0 16.5/2-12 14/2-18/2
12 ** 10.5/2-10 2.5-9.5 14.0-20.0 21.5/2-14 20/2-23/2
14 ** 14.0/2-12 3.5-12.0 16.5-23.5 12.0-16.5 13.0-18.0
16 ** 12.0-19.0 6.0-16.5 23.5-35.5 16.5-21.5 16.5-21.5
18 10.5-23.5 14.0-23.5 7.0-18.0 29.5-47.5 21.5-23.5 18.0-23.5
20 14.0-26.0 18.0-26.0 8.5-20.0 41.5-53.0 23.5-29.5 21.5-26.0
22 16.5-29.5 21.5-29.5 10.5-23.5 47.5-59.0 28.5-35.5 23.5-28.5
24 19.0-35.5 23.5-35.5 14.0-26.0 53.0-71.0 33.0-41.5 26.0-33.0
26 21.5-41.5 26.0-41.5 16.5-29.5 ** 35.5-47.5 **
28 23.5-47.5 29.5-47.5 19.0-35.5 ** 41.5-53.0 **
30 29.5-59.0 35.5-59.0 21-5-41.5 ** 47.5-59.0 **
Table 1:Yarn count and machine gauge
5. Flexural rigidity
Flexural rigidity is the resistance of the yarn to bending. Formation
of loop involves torsional, flexural and tensile deformations. The
flexural rigidity is the result of fibre properties and yarn structure
which influences knitting tension and loop dimension. Torsional
properties of spun yarns depend on torsional, tensile and bending
properties of staple fibres, twist in yarn, thickness of yarn,
compactness and strain energy stored in yarn. The loop
dimensions can, therefore, vary when yarns of different torsional
rigidity are mixed or if the yarn has continuous variation in its
torsional rigidity.
6. Tenacity and breaking extension
Tenacity is specific stress at rupture and breaking extension is the
extension registered at the highest strength. In contrast to weaving
the tenacity of knitting yarn is secondary, as the loading placed
on the yarn during knitting is lower than weaving. In staple fibre
yarns the strength is mainly proportional to the level of twist
inserted. Higher twist leads to harder or firmer yarns. This is not
desired in knitwear, which one requires a soft twisted yarn.
Extension in yarn is necessary, so that it can resist bending
strains or neutralise them by getting extended in such a way that
it does not break. The extension of staple yarn is inversely
proportional to their twist level. As compared to filament yarns,
the extension of staple fibre yarns considerably lower.
7. Yarn hairiness
Excessive yarn hairiness causes excessive yarn friction between
yarn and metal, which hinders proper loop formation and
particularly with cotton yarn, generates lots of fly. It spoils the
fabric appearance and causes excessive pilling. It also gives the
improper dyeing.
8. Elasticity
Elasticity is often confused with extension or extensibility of a
yarn or a fabric. In order to prevent, or keep a permanent yarn
deformation within acceptable tolerance while producing a
circular knit fabric, the yarn should not be strained beyond its
elastic limits.

Tenacity increases with increase in twist. The finer the yarn, the
greater is the twist required to bring tenacity to its peak level.
Higher the twist, greater the elongation for a given load. Twist
reduces the frictional drag of yarn, the greater the twist the
lower the co-efficient of friction and hence less drag on yarn. It
is better to have twistless filament in knitting for certain end
properties, like feel, hand and drape.
It is also common practice to use some kind of lubricant like wax
or oil during warp preparation. Excessive amount of waxing or
oiling may increases the co-efficient of friction. Normally 0.5 – 2
per cent waxing is recommended. Staple yarns are used to a very
limited extent in tricot knitting. However, it is used to a greater
extent in raschel trade. Only good cottons with proper twist and
gassed and lubricated can be used for tricot knitting.
Important of yarn properties for warp knitting
• Work of rupture : Should be high
• Elongation : Should be good
• Tenacity: Minimum value should be determined by
requirements of the wrapping process
• Bending and flexural rigidity : Should be low
• Torsional rigidity : Should be low
• Resiliency:Greatertheresiliencythemoreresistancetorupture
Lycra for knitting
Lycra is a brand name of polyurethane or spandex fibre. The
speciality of this fibre is the very high extensibility, upto 400 per
cent. As this fibre is very expensive as compare to other fibres
and garments with 100 per cent are not much popular. That’s a
reason why a certain percentage (1 per cent – 10 per cent) of
lycra is used with other fibre in order to make stretchable fabric
or garment.
Lycra is available in two forms
• Naked filament (generally not skin friendly)
• Filament wrapped with other skin friendly fibres (most popular)
Because of extensibility and surface characteristics, special yarn
feeders are needed for feeding the Lycra in knitting machine.
The special lycra feeders (elastane roller) provides a 100 per
cent positive yarn infeed of lycra yarn on circular knitting
machines to ensure ease of operation on different circular
knitting machines
Basic factors Importance
Ultimate mechanical characteristics of yarns Little importance
Friction yarn/yarn Little importance
Friction yarn/metal Great importance
Yarn bending behaviour Great importance
Yarn elasticity Little importance
Yarn unevenness Importance
Yarn faults Importance
Yarn toughness Little importance
Machine setting Great importance
Yarn abrasion Importance
Table 2: The basic factors and their
importanceinknitting
Yarn requirement in warp knitting
Unlike weft knitting, in warp knitting, a wide range of yarns are
used. Today warp knitting is not only done with rayon, nylon
and polyester yarn but has expanded to industrial fibres such
as carbon, glass, metals, aramide, polypropylene, polyurethane
and polyolefins.
The two main types of yarn are supplied to the warp knitting
machine in warp sheet form are
• Continuous filament yarn
• Staple fibre yarns
• Includes the fancy yarns or
• Yarn made from blends of fibres
Continuous filaments yarns are very popular in warp knitting as
it is regular and uniform, can easily pass through the knitting
elements which are precision set closely.As the speed of knitting
is high, the rate of lint formation will also be high because of
yarn to metal friction. Lint is the big problem in knitting as it will
obstruct the free running of the yarn through knitting elements.
Filament yarns do not form lints which are common in staple
fibre yarns. Mechanical properties such as tenacity, elasticity,
flexural rigidity, bending modulus are more uniform in continuous
filament yarn than staple fibre yarns. Uniform continuity, knot
free yarn and pliability of continuous filament yarn afford easy
lapping and loop formation actions.
The number of filaments and the denier of each filament also affect
the warp knitting performance. The diameter of 30 denier
monofilament is much larger than that of the multifilament yarn
having10filamentseachthreedenier. Atthesametime,amultifilament
strand up to certain deniers, is much more flexible and pliable than
themonofilamentofequivalentdenier.Inordertoreducetherigidities
to low value, the yarn strand is assembled from a large number of
low denier filament. Nylon yarns consisting of seven and eight
filamentsaresuitableforouterwearfabrics,10to13filamentsbeing
suitable for underwear fabrics while 34 filaments yarns give
supplenesstothefabricalongwithgoodmoistureabsorbingcapacity
with excellent opacity and subdued luster.
Twist is an important variable in yarn which affects the quality
and working of knitting. In warp knitting, the twist of continuous
filament yarns ranges between 0 – 7 tpi. For special crepe yarns
it may be reach a high value of 50 – 60. Twist also effects the
tenacity and the elastic properties of yarn.
In the next session, we would be discussing
about knitting fabric quality parameters
Lycra feeder
with cover

Assistant Professor in Department of Fashion Technology, NIFT, Bangalore. (This is his twentieth
Knit fabric quality is decided by few physical parameters namely:
• Fabric weight • Fabric width • Dimensional stability
• Spirality • Bowing & skewness
Fabric weight
Fabric weight refers to the relative weight of fabric, not the
absolute weight. Fabric weight is an important factor for
international selling and buying of knitted fabric. The weight of
a fabric can be expressed in two ways, either as the ‘weight per
unit area’ or the ‘weight per unit length’. Weight per unit area
may be expressed as the weight of a particular size piece, such as
grams per square meter or ounces per square yard. The most
widely used method of expressing knitting fabric weight is grams
per square meter (GSM). GSM is a very important parameter
specified for a certain quality of knitted fabric. The production
of knitted fabric is also calculated in weight.
The "weight" of a knitted fabric is primarily depended on two
factors, namely the loop length and the yarn count. The effect of
loop length is simple to express: If yarn count remains constant,
then loop length will be more resulting in reducing the weight
per unit area of the fabric.
In knitting unit greige fabrics are produced but the actual GSM
should be considered only after dyeing. Few points are
considered while setting GSM of greige which include enzyme
level, colour and suided or non suided. GSM of the knitted fabric
can be controlled by stitch length adjustment and by altering
the position of tension pulley. Stitch length is inversely
proportional to GSM and if pulley moves towards the positive
directive then the knitted fabric GSM will decrease and in the
reverse direction fabric GSM will increase. This also depends on
the machine type.
There are two formulas for calculating the GSM of a knitted
fabric. i.e.
Buyer always gives the specifications of GSM of knitted fabric and
the fabric manufacturer need to keep the GSM as per the expected
value with normal tolerance of -5 per cent to +10 per cent.
Fabric width
Fabric yield is greatly affected by cuttable fabric width. Cuttable
fabric width is the width of fabric minus the selvage edges which
are not usable due to print margin, framing pin holes, bare,
uncoated or, otherwise, untreated surface portions of the base
fabric.At the time of inspection the “cuttable” width is normally
measured at the beginning, middle and end of each roll.
The fabric width makes high influence on the marker making
efficiency. Just 1 cm variation to the expected width would be a
big loss. So, it is very important to have a constant width of the
fabric. Normally knitted fabrics are wider than woven fabrics.
GSM =
Course per inch x Stitch length x 39.37 x 39.37 x Tex
(1000 x 1000)
Course per inch x Wales per inch x Stitch length(mm)
(English count (Ne))
x 0.9155GSM =

visually displeasing in coloured, patterned fabrics such as plaids
and horizontal stripes rather than in solid colours because the
contrast makes the distortion more prominent. These defects
may cause sewing problems in such fabrics and draping
problems in finished products. In some cases, a specified amount
of skew is needed, for example, to prevent trouser leg twisting.
Matching plaids from distorted patterns may create serious
problems for the garment manufacturer. Wavy or sharp breaks in
the bow line are more detrimental to the appearance of small
parts of a garment than a gradual slope from a straight line.
Skewness: Normally in knitted fabric courses and wales should
be at right angle to each other. Skew occurs when wales are
displaced from their vertical position then it is called as wale
skew. It also occurs when courses are displaced from their
horizontal position then it is called as course skew.
Rolls having a measurement greater than the specified purchased
cuttable width are allowed maximum tolerance of +3 per cent for
knits. Fabric width can be calculated by the following formula:
Where,
Stitch length is in cm
D = Machine diameter
G = Machine Gauge and
Kw = 38 (for dry relaxed state)
= 41 (for wet relaxed state)
= 42.2 (for finished relaxed state)
Dimensional stability
Dimensionalstabilityisabilityofamaterialtomaintainitsessential
or original dimensions while being used for its intended purpose
and shrinkage is the contraction in the dimension of the fabric
due to usage. Most of the fabrics are shrunk only after cutting
the fabric for garment manufacturing. Fabric shrinkage plays
major role in pattern making and spreading. One need to make
sure that fabric having equal shrinkage percentages must be laid
together. Further, a same marker cannot be used for fabrics with
different shrinkage levels.
Normally, maximum shrinkage upto 5 per cent will be accepted as
long as shrinkage factor is build into the garment. The shrinkage
should not affect the appearance or fit of the garments. Shrinkage
of traditional knitwear is to be assessed after a relaxation shrinkage
treatment, immediately drying them after hand wash treatment.
Spirality
Spirality is particularly serious problem for single jersey knitted
fabrics due to their asymmetrical loop formation and it creates
big problems at the garment manufacturing stage. Some of the
practical problems arising out of the loop spirality in knitted
garments are: Displacement or shifting of seams, mismatched
patterns and sewing difficulties. Spirality can be defined as a
fabric condition resulting when the knitted wales and courses
are angularly displaced from that ideal perpendicular angle. This
displacement of the courses and wales can be expressed as a
percentage or as an angle measurement in degrees. Spirality
depends on feed density, machine cut, and loop shape, but the
magnitude of spirality can be offset by the selection of yarn
twist direction. For knitted fabric the spirality should be max 3
degrees after washing.
Skewness & bowing
Bow and skew, is created when the pattern is distorted across
the width of the fabric. Bow or skew can be induced during
knitting fabric manufacturing, dyeing, tentering, finishing, or
other operations where a potential exists for uneven distribution
of tensions across the fabric width. Bow and skew are more
Fabric width =
Course length x Stitch length
Kw
Fabric width =
p x d x G x Stitch length
Kw
If skew per cent is less than 2 then it is acceptable and if it is more
than 2 per cent then it is rejected. Few buyers also accept the
skewness upto 3 per cent in case of solid fabric but in case of
yarn dyes the maximum tolerance limit is 2 per cent only. Knitting
fabric that meets the above tolerances in rigid form is graded as
first quality. However, if the same knitted fabric undergoes wet
processing resulting in a skew movement of greater than
acceptable level, the fabric is considered second quality.
Bowing: When the filling yarns lye in an arc across the width of
the fabric. The pattern in the middle of the fabric is ahead or
behind the sides. Bow is defined as the greatest distance,
measured parallel to the selvages, between a filling or course
yarn, stripe, or dominant line and a straight line perpendicular to
the selvedges.
If bow per cent is less than 2 then it is acceptable and if it is more
than 2 per cent then it is rejected.
For example, a solid knit fabric 60" in width having a bow
extending from one side to the center would be allowed to have
amaximumbowof1.2"
Fabric skewness
AB=Width
BC
AB
Skew % = x 100%
Fabric bow
AB=Width
C
AB
Bow % = x 100%
about knitting fabrics defects

S. no. Defects Description Major causes
1 Holes or cracks Broken yarn forms the holes of different sizes • High tension in yarn
during loop formation • Bad needle
• Too high take down tension
• Improper setting between dial and cylinder
• Improper yarn feeding
• Yarn defects like, neps, slubs, thick place
• Improper knots in yarn
2 Cloth fall out Cloth fall out is an area consisting of drop • Yarn break without immediate connections
stitches lying side by side • Occurs after drop stitch
3 Tuck or double Unintentional tuck loops or floats. Shows • Bad knitting
stitches thick places or small beads in the fabric • Non knitted loops
• Too tight loops
• Insufficient sliding ability of yarn
• Too small needle clearance
• Dial setting to high
• Insufficient fabric take up
4 Drop stitches Drop stitches appear as holes, or missing • Too stiff yarn
(Runners) stitches • Insufficient yarn tension
• Improper setting of yarn feeder
• Insufficient fabric take off
• Defective needles
5 Bunching up Fabric appears as band • Thick place in yarn
• Fabric take up too weak
• Too tight fabric
6 Vertical stripe Vertical stripe are visible as longitudinal • Bent needles
gaps in fabric. The gap between adjacent • Heavily running needle
wales is irregular and the closed appearance • Damaged needle latch
of the fabricis broken up in an • Damaged needle hook
unsightly manner • Damaged dial or hook
7 Horizontal stripe Horizontal stripes are because of • Irregularities in the yarn
or barre unevenness in the courses. It traverses • Yarn feeder badly set
horizontally and repeats them regularly • Variation in yarn tension
or irregularly • High yarn tension
• Jerky impulse from fabric take up
• Mixing of the yarn lots
• Package hardness variation
8 Skew Straight courses but not perpendicular to • Mainly because of improper take down and spreader
the wales • At stenter, piece ends not being joined course to course
Fabric defects are one of the reason defects found in garment.
Today there is increase in demand for good quality knitted
fabric as today’s consumer is more aware of “Non-quality”
problems, particularly in knitted fabric. In order to avoid fabric
rejection and creating brand image, it is important to produce
fabrics of high quality, constantly. A defect of the knitted fabric
is an abnormality which spoils the aesthetic looks i.e. the clean
and uniform appearance of the fabric and affects the performance
parameters. There are various types of defects which occur in
the knitted fabrics of all types caused by a variety of reasons.
Category of defects: Knitted fabric defects can be categorised
as defects due to yarn, knitting elements, machine setting and
dyeing and printing.
Basics of knitting
Yarn related defects:Yarn related defects normally appear in the
horizontal direction in the knitted fabric.
Knitting elements related defects: Defects appearing in the
vertical direction in the knitted fabrics are normally caused
because of bad knitting elements.
Machinesettingsrelateddefects: Defectsthoseappearrandomly
in the knitted fabrics are mainly due to the wrong knitting machine
settings and that of the machine parts.
Dyeing and printing related defects: The dyeing related defects
are appearing in the fabric mainly because of faulty dyeing and
printing processes
Defects in knitted fabrics
Management from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as the Joint Director NIFT, Bhopal. (This is his 21st

S. no. Defects Description Major causes
9 Streakiness Streaks in the knitted fabrics appear as; • Faulty winding of the yarn packages.
irregularly spaced and sized, thin horizontal lines • Yarn running out of the belt on the pulley
10 Snarls Snarls appear on the fabric surface in the • High twist in the yarn
form of big loops of yarn getting twisted
due to the high twist in the yarn
11 Spirality Spirality appears in the form of a twisted • High T.P.I. of the hosiery yarn
garment after washing. The seams on both the • Uneven fabric tension on the knitting machine
sides of the garment displace from their position • Unequal rate of fabric feed on the stenter, calender &
and appear on the front and back of the garment compactor machines
12 Needle lines Needle lines are prominent vertical lines • Bent latches, needle hooks and needle stems
along the length of the fabric which are easily • Wrong needle selection
visible in the grey as well as finished fabric
13 Broken Ends Broken ends appear as equidistant prominent • High yarn tension
horizontal lines along the width of the fabric • Yarn exhausted on the cones
tube when a yarn breaks or is exhausted
14 Fabric press off Fabric press off appears as a big or small hole • End breakage on feeders with all needles knitting
in the fabric caused due to the interruption of • Yarn feeder remaining in lifted up position due to
which the loop forming process as a result of the yarn doesn’t get fed in the hooks of the needles
the yarn breakage or closed needle hooks
15 Surface hairiness Surface hairiness appears in the form of • Abrasion due to the contact with rough surfaces
and piling excess superfluous fibres, on the surface • Due to the abrasive tumbling action
of the knitted fabrics, which have either • Fabric friction in the tumble dryer
been reprocessed, or tumble dried • Rough dyeing process and abrasive machine surfaces
reprocessing of the fabric
16 Bowing Bowing appears as rows of courses or yarn • Uneven distribution of tensions across the fabric width
dyed stripes forming a bow shape along while dyeing or finishing the fabric
the fabric width • Tilted dial
• Nip pressure not constant
• Fabric not level in takedown rollers
17 Dyeing patches Dyeing patches appear, as random irregular • Inadequate scouring of the grey fabric
patches on the surface of dyed fabrics • Improper levelling agent
• Correct pH value not maintained
• Abrupt dyeing machine stoppage
• The fabric entanglement in the dyeing machine
18 Softener marks Softener marks appear as distinct irregular patches in • Softener not being uniformly dissolved in water
the dried fabric after the application of softener
19 Stains Stains appear as spots or patches of grease • Dyeing machine not cleaned
oil or dyes of different colour, in a neat and • Grease and oil stains from the unguarded moving
clean finished fabric surface machine parts like; gears shafts driving pulleys and
trolley wheels etc.
• Fabric touching the floors and other soiled places
during transportation, in the trolleys
• Handling of the fabric with soiled hands and stepping
onto the stored fabric with dirty feet or shoes on
20 Shade variation Variation in the depth of shade between the • Mixing of the fabrics of two different lots
roll to roll and from place to place in the • Variation in the process parameters i.e. time,
same roll of fabric temperature & speed etc. from one fabric roll, to the other
• Fabrics with GSM variation
• Due to the unevenstretching
• Unequal fabric overfeed per cent
21 Folding marks Fold marks appear as distinct pressure • High pressure of the fabric during take down
marks along the length of the fabric • Too much pressure of the feeding rolls of the calendar
and compactor
22 Crease marks Crease marks appear in the knitted fabric, as • Damp fabric moving at high speed in twisted form, in
dark haphazard broken or continuous lines the hydro extractor
23 High shrinkage The original intended measurements of the • High stresses and strains exerted on the fabric, during
garment go, haywire, during storage or knitting, dyeing & processing and the fabric not being
after the very first wash allowed to relax properly, thereafter
• Due to the fabric being subject to high tension, during
the knitting, dyeing and the finishing processes
24 GSM variation The fabric will appear to have a visible • Overfeed and width wise stretching of the dyed fabric,
variation in the density, from roll to roll or on the stenter, calendar & compactor machines
within the same roll of, the same dye lot • Roll to roll variation in the fabric stitch length
25 Fabric width Different rolls of the same fabric lot, having • Grey fabric of the same lot, knitted on different makes
variation difference in the finished width of the fabric of knitting machines, having varying number of needles
in the cylinder
• Roll to roll difference, in the dyed fabric stretched
width, while feeding the fabric on the stenter, calander
& compactor
In the next session, we would be discussing about testing of knitting fabrics

Management from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as the Joint Director NIFT, Bhopal. (This is his 22nd
Fabric testing is the most important for
textile production, distribution, and
consumption. During testing, the variation
of a fibre, yarn or fabric i.e. length, colour,
fineness, strength, dimensions, loops per
inch, cover factor, is detected properly.
Continuous testing of the fabric results into
enhanced and efficient output of the
production. By fabric testing one can
evaluate and ensure the quality of the
garments to be used by the end users. It is
also important to note that all standards
and regulations encapsulated for the fabric
testing have one or both of the following
aims: Safety and quality. While quality is
related majorly for general consumer
satisfaction, safety is an important aspect
as products not meeting regulations can
jeopardise the health of the consumer.
In order to check the quality, the knitted
fabrics are also need to undergo the
physical testing like other fabrics.
However, the types of the test carried out
for knitting fabrics, upto some extents;
differ from the test conventionally done
for woven fabrics as the structures and
end uses of knitted fabrics are different to
those of woven fabrics.
Normally, following tests are carried out
for knitting fabrics:
• Pilling
• Extension
• Thickness
• Air permeability
• Abrasion resistance
• Fabric weight
• Bursting strength
The tests are carried out as per theASTM/
ISO/BIS and as detailed laid down in the
standards manuals of respective
organisation. Again, most of the tests are
same for both woven and knitted fabrics
and hence not discussed here. As far as
knitting fabric is concern, the most
important tests are fabric weight and
bursting strength test.
Fabric weight
Fabric weight refers to the relative weight
of fabric, not the absolute weight. Fabric
weight is an important factor for selling
and buying of knitted fabric. The weight
of a fabric can be expressed in two ways,
either as the ‘weight per unit area’ or the
‘weight per unit length’; the former is self-
explanatory but the latter requires a little
explanation because the weight of a unit

length of fabric will obviously be affected
by its width. That’s a reason why weight
per unit area is widely used to express the
fabric weight in textile industry.
Weight per unit area may be expressed as
the weight of a particular size piece, such
as grams per square metre or ounces per
square yard.Although any suitable means
of expressions can be used, the most
widely used method for knitted fabrics for
expressing fabric weight is grams per
square metre (GSM). The GSM of fabric is
offabricwhichisalsoimportantforatextile
engineer for understanding and
production of fabric.
The instrument used to determine the
GSM of the knitted fabrics is called the
sample cutter for GSM, as shown in Fig. 1.
It is a device which accurately cuts the
circularfabricspecimensof100sqcmfrom
a fabric. The knitted fabric to be cut is
placed between the sample cutter and a
special cutting board.
When the safety catch is released, light
downward pressure on the hand wheel
brings the multiple blades into contact with
the material. It has normally four blades
that cut the fabric when the hand wheel is
rotated with the help of applying light
pressure on it. The design and precision
manufacture of the instrument ensures the
specimensfabricsareperfectlycircularand
have smooth edges.
The operator cuts the sample specimen
which is 100th part of a metre. Then the
specimen is weighed on a digital balance
with 0.01GSM sensitivity, as shown in Fig.
2. The GSM of the fabric can be obtained
by multiplying the observed value by 100.
The same result can also be obtained
directly from the reading on the balance.
1. Handle wheel (Handle)
2. Diamond studded locking mechanism
(Safety catch)
3. Special rubberised cutting pad (Mat)
4. Stainless steel plate for fixing blade
5. Screw for fixing blade
6. Screw for fixing the stainless steel plate
7. Cut specimen
8. Main body
9. Special guide bush
The diaphragm is expanded by fluid
pressure which is applied to a circular
region of the fabric specimen to the point
of rapture. The specimen is firmly held
round the edge of this circular region by a
pneumatic clamping device. When the
pressure is applied, the specimen deforms
together with the diaphragm.
The bursting strength corresponds to
the maximum pressure supported by the
specimen before failure. So, the bursting
strength is the difference between the
total pressure required to rapture the
specimen and the pressure required to
inflate the diaphragm
Fig. 1: Fabric GSM tester
Fig. 2: GSM cutter with digital weighing scale
Bursting strength test
Bursting strength testers for fabric are
used as a multi directional tensile test to
identify failure in the direction of least
resistance for evaluating physical strength
and fibre bond in a fabric. Woven fabrics
are set of two yarns, viz. warp and weft, so
all the tensile test are carried out in two
direction. But in case of knitted fabric,
which can be made by one set of yarn, it is
not feasible to do the tensile testing on
one or two direction, so multi directional
testing is done.
Bursting test method describes the
measurements of the resistance of textile
fabrics to bursting using a hydraulic or
pneumatic diaphragm bursting tester. The
fabric bursting tester is designed for
measuring the bursting strength of fabric
materials subjected to an increasing
hydrostatic pressure. A fabric specimen is
clamped over an expandable diaphragm.
discussing about knitting calculations
Fig. 3: Fabric bursting tester

In any manufacturing process, the calculations regarding
production, efficiency and material requirements are primary
importance. In knitting industry also calculations mainly deals
with productions, machinery requirements, raw material
requirements and the costing of the finished products, so as to
determine the competitive selling price, will mainly depend upon
the correct calculations.
Below are the most important circular knitting machines
calculations:
• Machine speed
• Number of feeds
• Speed of fabric production
• Weight of fabric produced
Machine speed
The speed of a circular machine may be expressed in three ways:
As machine revolutions per minute
• The machine revolutions per minute are only relevant to a
specific machine and machine diameter. A larger-diameter
machine or one having more patterning facilities, would be
expected to run at less revolution per minute
As circumferential speed in meters per second
• The circumferential speed in meters per second is a constant
for a range of machine diameters of the same model and can be
used to calculate the rpm for a particular machine diameter
• An average circumferential speed is about 1.5 m/sec; 2 m/sec
is ‘high speed.’
As speed factor (rpm x diameter in inches)
• The circumferential speed in meters per second is a constant
for a range of machine diameters of the same model and can be
used to calculate the rpm for a particular machine diameter
• An average circumferential speed is about 1.5 m/sec; 2 m/sec
is ‘high speed’
• Modern high-speed fabric machines can operate in factory
conditions at speeds of 1.6 to 1.7 m/sec.
• Under laboratory conditions, speeds of 2.0m/sec have been
achieved
Number of feeds
The number of feeds can be expressed as a total for a particular
cylinder diameter or as the number of feeds per inch of the
cylinder diameter, in which case the total number of feeds for
any cylinder diameter in that particular range of machinery can
then be calculated.
Production calculations
Among the various factors those are to be considered in the
manufacture of knitted fabrics, it is very important for the knitter
to calculate the productivity of a machine in order to be able to
schedule production and specify the delivery dates to the
customer. Selected examples are given in this chapter to
understand the methods of calculating production and efficiency
of machines used for weft knitting productively in weft knitting
terms refers to the length of the fabric that comes out of the
machine the width of the fabric both single and double width
and the weight of the fabrics produced in unit time.
Basicsofknitting-Productioncalculations
VASANT R KOTHARI has done
from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently,
he’s working as the Joint Director
NIFT, Jodhpur. (This is his 23rd
input
from the series of articles in
Knitting Views)

Formulas
Weight of fabric produced
Production in Kg per day @ 100 per cent efficiency =
Feeders per course x Stitches per cm x 1000
No.of working feeders x RPM x GSM x Fabric open width in mtr x 13.50Method1
Count Ne x 1852
No.ofworkingfeedersxYarnlengthperfeederperrevolution(cm)xRPMx14.85Method2
Count Ne
No.of working feeders x Yarn feed rate per feeder x 0.80Method3 mtr
min( (
Count Ne x 1000
No.ofworkingneedlesxStitchlength(mm) xRPMxNo.ofworkingfeedersx0.80Method4
Production in yards per hour @ 100 per cent efficiency =
Course per inch x 36
No of working feeders x RPM x 60Method5
Production in Kg per hour @ 100 per cent efficiency =
Count Ne x 36 x 840 x 2.2
No of working feeders x RPM x Loop length in inch x 60Method6
Production per hour @ 100 per cent efficiency =
CountNex840x1000
GaugexDiax3.14xRPMx60xStitchlength(mm) x1.0936Method7
Fabric weight per liner yard =
Count Ne x 840 x 2.2
Number of needles per inch x Stitch length in inches x Courses per inch x 1000Method8
Fabric weight per square yard =
Fabric width in inches
Weight per linear yard x 36Method9
Grams per square meter (GSM)
GSM=
1000x1000
Course per inch x Loop length (mm) x 39.37 x 39.37 x Count (Tex)Method2
GSM=
Stitch length (mm)
Ks x count (Tex)Method4
GSM=
100
Stitch density x Loop length (mm)x Count (Tex)Method1
((loop
sq cm
GSM=
Count Ne
Wales per inch x Course per inch x Stitch length (mm)Method3
x0.9155
Where,
Ks is a constant. Its value is different for different fabric structure and fabric type. Ks is calculated and estimated as below:
Production of knitted fabric may be calculated either in length,
i.e. yards or meters, or in weight, e.g. kg, per unit time. One of
the most popular methods is calculating the weight of the fabric
produced in one hour or one shift. From these figures, the
length of yarn can be calculated which is being used by the
machine in one hour and then by converting this length into
weight with the help of count given, the quantity of yarn being
consumed by machine in one hour can be calculated. This would
be the optimum production of the machine. This optimum
production can be converted into nominal production by
multiplying it with efficiency.
The following are the important parameters, which decide the
production calculations of circular weft knitting.
Machine parameters
i. Machine speed (rpm)
ii. Machine diameter (inches)
iii. Machine gauge (Needles/inch)
iv. Number of feeders
v. Machine efficiency
vi. Number of needles
Yarn and fabric parameters
i. Yarn count
ii. Stitch length/loop length
iii. Stitch density
iv. Wales per inch
v. Courses per inch
There are various methods available to calculate production of circular knitting machine

Where K = Constant factor
Fabrictype Values of Ks
Single jersey 19.55
1x1rib 24.5
Polo pique 25
Plain interlock 39.3
Fabric width (Inches) =
Wales per inch
No.of needles
Fabric width
Fabric length in yard/hour =
Courses per inch x 36
RPM x no.of feeder x 60
Length of fabric produced
Ks =
Count (Tex)
GSM x Stitch length (mm)
Yarn length/course =
Machine speed (RPM)
Yarn speed (inches/min)
Yarn length per course
Yarn length/stitch =
Number of stitches in course
Yarn length per course
Yarn length per stitch
Fabric diameter (Tubular) =
7 x Count (Ne)
Machine diameter x Machine gauge
Fabric diameter (Tubular)
Fabric thickness (SJ) = 2 x yarn diameter
Fabric thickness (DJ) = 4 x yarn diameter
Fabric thickness
Wales space = 4 x Yarn diameter
Wales space
Suitable yarn count for single jersey knitting machine
Suitable yarn count
for single jersey =
knitting machine 18
Gauge of knitting
machineGauge of knitting
machine x
Suitable yarn count
for double jersey =
knitting machine 8.4
Gauge of knitting
machineGauge of knitting
machine x
Feeder density =
Machine diameter
Number of feeders
Feeder density
Stitch density = Courses per cm x Wales per cm
Stitch density
Fabric width (cm) =
Wales per cm
Number of needles
Fabric width
Course length = Loop lenght x Number of needle per course
Course length
Loop length =
K
Count (Tex)
Loop length
(In the next session, we would be discussing about
costing of knitted fabrics)

Basics of Knitting
Management from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as the Joint Director NIFT, Jodhpur. (This is his
24th
Costing is the deciding factor of the prices and the important
thing to be followed in all important stages like purchase,
production, marketing, sales, etc., Update knowledge about
everything related to product, is essential to make perfect costing.
Costing includes all the activities like purchase of yarn, knitting,
processing and finishing of fabrics, etc. To do the costing, one
must know about all these activities thoroughly about their costs,
procedures, advantages and risk factors.
In this article, the below cost is discussed related to knitted fabric.
• Rawmaterial(Yarn)
• Manufacturing (Knitting fabric production)
• Value addition (Processing cost)
Knitting yarn prise
Yarn is the basic raw material for knitting. The garment quality is
based on the fabric quality; the fabric quality is based on the
yarn quality. Hence the garment’s quality is lying on the yarn
quality. There are two qualities of yarn. Combed and Carded.
The Combed yarn price is higher than Carded yarn.And Combed
yarn quality is superior to Carded yarn.
The thickness or weight of the yarn is a significant factor in
determining the gauge, i.e., how many stitches and rows are
required to cover a given area for a given stitch pattern. Thicker
yarns generally require thicker knitting needles, whereas thinner
yarns may be knit with thick or thin needles. Yarns for knitting
are different as compared to weaving. Generally, low twist and
waxed yarns are used for knitting. Normally, the yarns are
purchased on per kg basis.
Yarn prices vary from mill to mill due to variation in quality
standards. As the yarn prices are fluctuated often and as the
yarn is the major cost factor of knitted fabric, one has to pay
more attention in yarn quality and its cost. The rates of the yarns
are as given in the table.
For making the stripes and jacquard design fabrics, the dyed
yarns are used. The dyeing of yarns is a complex art. Knitters
generally ensure that the yarn for a project comes from a single
dye lot. Normally, the yarn dyeing rates are as follows:
• Yarn dyeing rate for light colours – `85 per kg
• Yarn dyeing rate for dark colours – `105 per kg
COSTING OF KNITTED FABRICS

Another popular type of knitted fabrics is made out of melange
yarn. Melange means mixture. Melange yarn means mixture of
different shades of fibres. Grey mélange is one of the widely
used. For Grey melange yarns, `10 to `15 to be added with above
prices of Combed yarns.And `70 to `100 to be added (according
to the depth of colours) with above prices of Combed yarns.
Two-ply yarn is much stronger than single ply, although it weighs
less than a single of the same diameter. As these yarns are made
in multi-ply (2 ply), they have 10-15 per cent more resistance
than single ply yarns. This will give more life to the garments.
The cost of 2 ply yarn is as follows:
Regarding yarn stripes, if the repeat width of stripes is below 3.5
cm, it can be knitted in normal machines. Colour yarns should be
feed in according to the stripes. As the stripes are adjusted by
the yarn feeders, it is called ‘Feeder stripes.’ In case of feeder
stripe, there is no much difference in the production cost.
Iftherepeatwidthismorethan3.5cm,thenitiscalled‘Engineering
stripes’ or ‘Autostripes’. These engineering stripes can be knitted
with special kind of machines. The knitting charges for these
engineering stripes are very higher. For single jersey the rate per
Kg could be `40-60 and for rib the cost can go upto `110- `130.
Knitting of 100 per cent cotton yarn is easy. As poly cotton
yarns are blended in fibre stage itself, so knitting of these blended
yarns is also easy. If the knitting of fabrics with different quality
of yarns together is there, then one needs to be careful of their
counts, particularly with Elastane (Lycra). Spandex, Lycra or
Elastane, is a synthetic fibre known for its exceptional elasticity.
It is stronger and more durable than rubber, its major non-
synthetic competitor. Lycra is a popular stretchy fabric used for,
mostly, a variety of clothing items.
The knitting charges per Kg with Lycra will be as follows:
• Jersey with Lycra `25/kg
• Pique with Lycra `25/kg
• Rib with Lycra `30/kg
The various factors affecting the cost of knitting are as follows:
1. The gauge
2. The GSM
3. The width
• Increase in gauge will increase in cost of knitting
• Increase in GSM means increase in count
Therefore increase in GSM or count will increase in cost of
knitting. Generally the diameter used is between 20” to 36”. So
variation in this range of diameter does not affect the cost of
knitting. But diameter above or below the range will increase the
cost of knitting.
Other factors deciding the cost of knitting fabrics are like
• Regular customer
• Regular order
• Cash payment
• Minimum order quantity
• Bulk order quantity etc.
Count Rate Rs/Kg
20s KH (Carded hosiery) 195
24s KH 200
30s KH 205
34s KH 215
40s KH 225
20s CH (Combed hosiery) 220
24sCH 225
30sCH 230
34sCH 224
40sCH 250
Count Rate Rs per Kg
20/2s CH (Combed hosiery) 224
24/2sCH 241
30/2sCH 250
40/2sCH 300
Type of knitting Rate Rs/Kg Wastage per cent
Single jersey 10 7 per cent
Pique 17 7 per cent
Interlock 20 10 per cent
1x1rib 17 10 per cent
2x2rib 20 10 per cent
Mercerised yarn is a very special quality yarn. There is a huge
difference between the mercerised yarns and normal type of
cotton yarns. Mercerised yarns are always in 2 ply, like 60/2, 80/
2, 100/2. The cost of mercerised yarn is higher than normal ply
yarn. The all above rates are for 100 per cent cotton yarn. The
rates of yarn will also vary along with the quality, type and
quantity of fibre used for the yarn.
Knitting fabric production cost
At the time of fabric knitting, there are many things to be taken
care of.Yarn counts, suitable knitting machines, machine gauge,
machine diameter, numbers of feeders, grey fabric GSM, loop
length, grey fabric diameter, etc should be well-considered before
starting knitting. The cost of various types of knitting along
with the wastage percentage is as follows:

Knitting fabric processing cost
Below are the quality expectations from finished knitted fabrics
• GSM
• Fabric width
• Shrinkage
• Dyeing
• Fabric feeling
The fabric before processing is called Greige fabric. In order to
achieve above qualities, the knitted fabric need to undergo
various chemical as well as mechanical processing.
Bleaching
There are two qualities of bleaching. One is Chlorine bleach.
Another is Peroxide bleach. Chlorine bleach is cost wise cheaper
and lesser in quality. It will have lesser whiteness. Chlorine
bleaching charge will be `12-13 kg. Chlorine contains azo
dyestuffs, it is banned in most of the countries. So the other
option is Peroxide bleach. Any bright shades like milk white,
snow white can be achieved by Peroxide bleach. Peroxide white
charges will be approximately `24-`35 per kg depending on shade
and type of process used for bleaching.
Mercerising
Due to mercerising, the knitted fabric gets not only very good
strength and improved luster; but also improved colour
absorbency. Hence the consumption of dyestuffs and processing
time are reduced. Due to this, the dyeing cost will be reduced by
15 to 20 per cent from the normal dyeing charges.
The dyeing quality will vary depending on mercerising quality.
If the mercerising is not been done properly, the dyeing quality
will be inferior. Hence it is always safer to do the mercerising and
dyeing in the same processing mill under same roof.Approximate
fabric mercerising charge is `45 to `50 per kg.
Dyeing
There are 2 qualities of dyeing mainly used for 100 per cent
cotton knitted fabric. They are reactive dyeing and discharge
dyeing. There are two methods to apply the colour on fabric.
One is Winch dyeing and another one is Soft flow dyeing.
Winch dyeing is a traditional method of dyeing. Fabric rolls
will be joined together by knotting them. During dyeing, the
fabrics will roll on winches. The dyeing process will take
different timings for different colours. Some dark colours will
take approximately eight hours. Soft flow dyeing is also called
Jet dyeing or Closed Winch dyeing. These types of machines
are used in recent years. Temperature, dyes and water capacity,
fabric capacity, timing, everything is computerised. Due to this,
the temperature is consistent. Soft flow dyeing is more expensive
than winch dyeing.
Dyeing Rate `per Kg
Light colours 40-50
Medium colours 60-75
Dark colours 80-100
Due to mercerising, the knitted fabric gets
not only very good strength and improved
luster; but also improved colour absorbency.
Hence the consumption of dyestuffs and
processing time are reduced. Due to this, the
dyeing cost will be reduced by 15 to 20 per
cent from the normal dyeing charges.
Calendering
After bleaching or dyeing or washing and after drying, the fabrics
will have wrinkles and creases. To remove these wrinkles, the
fabric is to be ironed to enable easy cutting. Technically this
ironing method is known as calendaring. This is done with steam
pressure to get smooth, glossy finish of fabric. Also this will
help the fabric to maintain its diameter. Steam calendaring charge
is `1.50 to `2.50 per kg.
Compacting
Calendaring is unable to control the shrinkage or fabric weight
(GSM). As both are important things, knitted fabric need to be
compacted with the latest compacting machines. Compactor is
designed especially for compacting 100 per cent cotton knitted
fabric like jersey, pique, interlock, rib and sinker etc. as well as
cotton blended fabric in rope form, changing the loft and
dimensional stability of the fabric and presenting it to be plaited
form. Fitted with two felt compacting units, which make it to
obtain top quality fabric, with minimised shrinking nature and a
soft fluffy hand.
Compacting charges
For tubular fabric – `8 per Kg and
For open width fabric – `14 per Kg
Raising
Two main types of raising are there, viz. Napping and Sueding.
Napping by using wire-covered rolls to "dig out" individual fibre
ends to the surface and Sueding by using abrasive-covered rolls
(sandpaper, emery cloth, etc.) to produce shorter pile surface.
Cost of raising for open width fabric is `12 per Kg.
Shearing
Use of rotary blade(s) to trim raised surfaces, particularly napped
fabrics, to a uniform height. This reduces the tendency of the
fabric surface to mat and also reduces the pilling tendency. Special
types of blades and conveyer belts can produce pattern-- effects
on the surface like velour.
Cost of shearing for open width fabric is `15 per Kg.
The main purpose of this article is to give the insight of the
costing of knitted fabric. It may be noted that the cost/price
given above is just indicative and as the prices are dynamic in
nature so it keep changing time to time
about processing of knitted fabric.

Basics of knitting
PROCESSING OF KNITTED FABRIC
The knitted fabrics undergo a series of
different chemical processing
treatmentslikescouring,bleaching,dyeing,
softener padding and relax drying. These
processes are carried out to impart a
particular property related to that process
like scouring for absorbency, bleaching for
whiteness,dyeingtoimpartcolourtofabric
and finishing for improving softness and
handle of the fabric
The properties of the knitted fabrics are
influenced by various parameters like raw
material, yarn structure, fabric structure,
processing stages and finishing. The
process adopted affects the fabric
properties and its overall performance.
During the finishing process, internal
stresses stored during spinning, knitting
is removed and the fabrics attain an
almost fully relaxed state. By adopting
different processes and finishing
methods, different kinds of knitted fabric
in a sense of aesthetic and utility
properties can be produced from the same
unfinished fabrics. Further, the
determination of the changes in physical
and dyeing properties during different
stages of chemical processing is
important for the control of process
parameters to get the final product as per
the requirements of the buyer.
The knits goods, in contrast to the woven
cotton fabrics, are easily starched and their
loops would get distorted under the
stretching tension of the dyeing cylinders.
Special drying machines have, therefore,
been developed to dry knitwear with the
minimum of tension.
Dyeing of knitted fabrics
Jets and Winch dyeing machines are
usually used as exhaust equipment for
preparation, dyeing and finishing of
knitted fabrics. Jet dyeing is the best
Management from NIFT, Bangalore. Presently, he’s working as the Joint Director NIFT, Jodhpur. (This is his
25th
example of a machine that circulates both
the fabric and the dye bath. Jet dye
machines are excellent for knit fabrics.
Knit fabric wet processing is started with
batching or batch preparation where fabric
is weighted as per machine capacity and
the fabric is turned to inside out in case of
body fabric i.e. main fabric of garments.
Normally,singlejerseyfabricsuchasplain,
locust, pique etc. are widely used for body
fabric of garments. Interlock, rib, fleece
fabrics are also turned to inside out when
those are in unbalanced structures and
usedasbodyfabricofgarments.Thefabrics
are usually turned to keep away from the
any unaccepted incident or damage on face
side and remove edge marks, which are
created due to formation of fabric roll.
Fabrics that are processed and delivered
in tubular form are treated on becks, in
jets, or in continuous machines. Relaxation
takes place during the entire wet treatment.

Subsequently, the goods are hydro
extracted, dried in jet ribbon driers without
setting, and then calendared. Since the
product is not subjected to any setting,
the required shrink resistance must be
reached by shrinking the product
sufficiently (by maximum overfeed in
longitudinal direction, no stretching to the
limit in vertical direction) during other
finishing procedures.
Circular knits that must be delivered open-
width and be subjected to heat setting in
order to create dimensional stability and
to reduce the tendency to curl at the edges
can be dyed in rope form or open-width.
Which technique is chosen depends
primarily on the fabric properties but also
on the equipment availability.
Fabrics that are not prone to creasing can
be rope-dyed without any risk of crease
formation; additional advantages of this
method are a large fabric volume and a
soft touch. Knits that are prone to creasing
should be dyed open-width on the beam
to ensure a smooth finished product
without creases.
Any open-width dyeing must be preceded
by a reliable heat setting. Otherwise the
knitted fabric will shrink in width, which
results in colour irregularities because part
of the beam perforation becomes
uncovered. In addition, moiré effects will
occur. With beam dyeing, smooth, elegant,
but also less voluminous final qualities
are achieved.
Problems in knit dyeing
Maximum knit fabric problems are created
during preparation, dyeing and after
treatment process. Common problems of
knit dyeing are edge mark, crease mark,
pin hole, loss of fabric strength, shade
variation of batch-to-batch, uneven
dyeing (such as roll to roll shade variation,
patchy, colour spot, white spot, meter to
meter shade variation), hand feel problem,
fastness problems etc.
Precaution for edge mark and
crease mark
• In case of edge mark fabric is turned
before wet processing
• Gray fabric roll should not too tight and
should not store for a long time
• For crease marks anti-creasing
chemicals can be used
• Convenient machine speed (with fabric
compactness)
• Correct loading (no twisted rope and
knots)
• Relaxation of fabric
• Proper dyeing process (heating-cooling
rates not too rapid)
• Avoid overloading, which might cause
mechanical frictions
• Tight construction of fabric, high twisted
yarns and high GSM need to be avoided
Precaution for maintaining fabric
strength
• Contamination of sulphuric acid with
acetic acid
• Longer process with excess scouring
bleaching chemicals
• Delay of killing the enzymes
• Very high speed of machine
• Too long dyeing (corrective or repairing)
process
Shadevariationbatchtobatch
• Process parameters such as water
hardness, M:L, time, temperature,
recipe, reproducibility of dyes, dye lot,
fabric structure, GSM, fibre lot, yarn
count etc. should be same as much as
possible for minimising batch to batch
shade variation problem
Rolltorollshadevariationandpatchy
• Roll to roll shade variation produces a
variety of shade within a batch
• Avoidfabricrollproducedfromdifferent
fibre lot, yarn count, GSM, structure and
even sometime for different machines
• Avoidmixingofdifferenttypesoffabrics
• Patchy is the real uneven dyeing
• Avoid uneven absorbency, electrolytes
(salt) alkaline pH, uneven and sudden
alkali dosing, wrong dye combinations,
improper mixing of dyes, improper
neutralization after scouring-bleaching
and dyeing, fabric entanglement during
process etc.
Colour spot and white specks
• Avoid improper colour mixing
• Avoid water hardness and presence of
heavymetalsulphate,sulphides,sulphites
and alkali especially caustic soda
• Water treatment plant (WTP),
sequestering agent and proper mixing
of dyes are fundamental solution of
colour spot
• White specks are mainly yarn problem
i.e. dead or immature fibres
• Moreover contamination in water,
improper dissolve of alkali and presence
of silica based chemical before dyeing
also arise white spots
HandfeelandFuzzyappearance
• Hand feel problem can be easily reduce
by demineralisation and can improve by
the addition of softener
• Fuzzy appearance comes because of
fabric to fabric, fabric to chemicals and
fabric to machine abrasion in presence
of high temperature for a long period of
time
Fastness problems
• Fastness problems are result of
improper washing off, presence of unfix
dyes, hydrolysis of dyes, dyeing with
excessive dyes, poor fastness
properties of dyes, improper use of fixer
and softener
Jet dyeing machine
about relaxation of knitting fabrics
Flow Diagram

VASANT R KOTHARI has done his Master’s in Textiles Technology, MBA & MPhil (Management). Currently he
is doing his PhD (Management) from Jain University Bangalore. He has also done Diploma in Export Management
(Apparel Export) Garment Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore. He is having 12+
years of experience in academic as well as industry. Presently, he’s working as Joint Director of National
Institute of Fashion Technology, Jodhpur. (The Author can be contacted at www.vasantkothari.com)
It is well established that knitted fabrics of all constructions
and fibre blends are inherently more prone to shrinkage as
compared to wovens. As knitted fabrics are elastic, processing
by normal methods often stretches the fabric lengthwise, thus
increasing shrinkage in that direction. So, it is important to
"normalize"orregainthatbulkwhichinturnwillreduceshrinkage.
The term shrinkage can simply be defined as a change in the
dimensions of a fabric or garment. This dimensional change may
be in a positive (growth) or negative (shrinkage) direction for
fabric length, width, and thickness. Shrinkage can be further
defined as a dimensional change in a fabric or garment caused
by an application of a force, energy, or a change in environment
that either allows the goods to relax or forces the fabric to move
in a given direction.
In case of knitted fabric, shrinkage relates to the loss of the
length and/or width dimensions. In garment form, the shrinkage
characteristics relate not only to a change in fabric dimensions,
but also can relate to other parameters such as seam puckering,
torquing, and overall garment fit.
Practically, it is very difficult to manufacture a knitted fabric with
no shrinkage, so it becomes important for the dyer and finisher
to make an effort to remove as much shrinkage from the product
as possible. Knitted fabric also change dimensions with time,
handling and with subsequent wet treatments including
steaming, and such change can occur even after garment has
been produced and sold to the end user.
Types of shrinkage
Construction shrinkage is defined as the amount of dimensional
change in a fabric based purely on the construction variables
used to manufacture the knitted fabric.
Processing shrinkage is defined as the dimensional change
that a process adds to or removes from the construction
shrinkage of a fabric.
Elastic shrinkage is defined as a change in dimensions of a
fabric as a result of the ability of the fabric to freely relax from
tensions experienced during construction and other processing.
Residual shrinkage is the amount of shrinkage a fabric contains
plus or minus what subsequent processing stresses apply to or
remove from the fabric.
Drying shrinkage is defined as dimensional change in a fabric
when deswelling of fibre, yarn, and construction occurs in the
drying step.

Factors related with shrinkage
The major factors which associate with knitting fabric
shrinkage include:
Fibre: Cellulosic fibres, particularly cotton, are not as easily
stabilised as compare to thermoplastic synthetics, because
they cannot be heat set to attain stability. Therefore, the
relaxation of knitted fabrics made with cotton fibres requires
either mechanical and/or chemical means for stabilisation.
Yarn type: Yarns, of course, are manufactured with fibres
and exhibit the same characteristics as the fibre. Yet the
manner these fibres are oriented in a yarn will affect certain
properties of the fabric including shrinkage. Cotton singles
yarns of high twist will usually result in higher shrinkage
values as compare to yarns of lower twist levels and will
surely create greater skewing in the knitted fabric. Rotor spun
yarns do not typically produce significant different length
shrinkage values as compare to ring spun yarns, but are
usually wider and definitely exhibit less fabric and garment
torque. Plied yarns do not impact shrinkage.
Fabric construction: Different knitting fabric constructions
can have significantly different shrinkage characteristics. For
example, the performance of a single pique is different from a
jersey or interlock made from the same yarns. For example,
the “tuck” stitches in a pique tend to make the fabric wider
and less extensible than single jersey. Typically, pique fabrics
have much higher length shrinkage than width shrinkage.
Further, fabrics which are knitted tightly, or with low stitch
lengths, tend to be heavier in weight and have lower shrinkage
along with more consistent shrinkage values. Fabrics which
are knitted loosely, or with a higher stitch length, tend to be
lighter in weight, have higher shrinkage and are inconsistent
in shrinkage.
Chemical processes: Chemical processing of knitted fabric
procedures generally exhibit stress on a fabric. Continuous
processes during dyeing and preparation for drying usually
stretch the length and pull down or reduce the width,
sometimes beyond their elastic limit thereby changing the
relaxed dimensions.
Finishing procedures: Finishing procedures may reduce or
increase the dimensional stability of the knitted fabric. If
relaxation dryers, compactors, and/or cross linking agents
are used, then the residual shrinkage after wet processing
can be reduced.
Garment manufacturing techniques: Garment
manufacturing processes often increase the level of
shrinkage in a fabric. The laying down of the layers for
cutting and the physical manipulation of the panels in
sewing are examples of where shrinkage values can be
increased. In fact, garments comprised of different fabric
constructions may have some panels relax with handling in
cut-and-sew while other panels may grow.

Shrinkage control
The importance of understanding shrinkage and it causes is key
to its control and the best chance to achieve low shrinkage in
cotton knitted fabrics is to totally engineer the product from
fibre selection through all processing steps. The parameters for
success can be outlined as follows:
1. Proper product specifications and fabrication
2. Low tensions during wet processing (dyeing and extraction)
But, practically, it is not possible to manufacture a knitted fabric
with no shrinkage, so it becomes important for the dyer and
finisher to make an effort to remove as much shrinkage from the
product as possible. The maximum shrinkage must be appropriate
to reach the desired GSM, running length and width in the finished
product. In today’s modern finishing plants, various methods
are used to attempt to overcome processing shrinkage and
reduce construction shrinkage. These methods include relaxation
drying, compaction, and/or chemical processes. Relaxation drying
and compaction are examples of consolidation shrinkage.
Relaxation drying
Relaxation drying allows those excessive tensions to be released
since the fabric is dried under little or no restraints. The knitted
fabric can be relaxed by means of steam or hot water. Relaxation
drying incorporates tensionless, mechanical action at production
speeds to complete the drying of both open width and tubular
knitted fabrics.
Relaxation drying on steaming tables is widely used method for
shrinkage control. In this method, shrinkage is controlled to a
certain extent via the steam amount and the feeding speed. The
fabric is put onto the steaming table with overfeed, taken off
tensionless and then rolled up.
Relaxation dryers are based on the belt principle, where the
fabric is placed between two belts and then passed through
the drying zone. The bottom belt supports the fabric but
allows for shrinkage, while the top belt prevents any
stretching. In some cases, the bottom belt can be vibrated for
additional mechanical action. Air flow is normally directed
down and up through the fabric to give a ripple/wave effect.
Once the drying is completed under relaxed conditions, those
excessive tensions which have occurred during prior
processing have been released. If the fabric has been spread
with overfeed prior to relax drying, width shrinkage occurs
first. This may prevent the length from shrinking initially, but
as the drying progresses, both width and length shrinkage
occurs. At the exit of the relaxation dryer, the fabric width will
be inconsistent and may not be completely wrinkle-free. Thus,
calendaring or compacting is necessary to provide a uniform,
finished roll for cut and sew.
Compacting
Many knitting fabric manufacturers rely on compaction as a
means of shrinkage control. Compaction is a method whereby
the course loops are compressed upon themselves. Different
machines incorporate a variety of techniques to accomplish this.
Compacting is consists in applying chemical products or
mechanical treatments (compacting, sanforizing and stentering
machine) in order that the clothing has the minimum dimensional
alterations after being manufactured.
The compaction mechanism, along with heat and moisture, forces
the length stitches (courses) to be compacted. During
compaction, static friction is overcome by physical force.
Compaction is the use of compressive forces to shorten the
fabric to reduce the length shrinkage. This is achieved by heated
roll and shoe compactors or compressive belt systems to force
the length of the loop in a knit to become not only shorter, but
also more round in configuration thereby resulting in lower length
shrinkage values. This process is a consolidation process
resulting in “consolidation shrinkage.”
Sanforizing is more efficient method than the compacting since,
with an accurate adjustment, it grants approx 1 per cent shrinkage
in the washing. The moistened fabric must be compacted through
a rubber clothe curved by a roller.
Relaxation by steaming at the stenter feed end allows greater
control of the cloth shrinkage by means of overfeed and width
adjustment of the stenter frame. A special advantage of this
method is the constant fabric width over the entire batch, so that
the fabric can be rolled up evenly afterwards.
Chemical finishing
Chemicalcrosslinkinghasbeenthemostusedmethodforstabilizing
cotton knit apparel fabrics especially those finished in open-width
form. Compaction methods have also been effective but have
been mainly used on underwear fabrics and most tubular goods.
The advent of wet processes that impose lower tensions on fabric,
such as the evolution of relaxation dryers and the improvement of
compaction machinery including open-width, have combined to
reduce the need for or level of chemical finishing.
Chemical crosslinking affects the swelling of cotton and reduces
shrinkage by altering the normal shrinking (swelling/deswelling)
phenomena. In fact, a well-designed crosslinking system will
permanently alter the shrinkage thereby altering the relaxed
dimensions. Other benefits of a chemical finish would be a better
appearanceasrelatedtowrinklingafterwashingandtumbledrying,
lesstendencytopillorformsurfacefuzzfromrepeatedlaundering,
and improved colour retention for some dyestuffs. The
disadvantages are losses of strength and shorter wear life
about development process of knitting fabric.
Relaxation by steaming at the stenter feed end
allows greater control of the cloth shrinkage by
means of overfeed and width adjustment of the
stenter frame. A special advantage of this method is
the constant fabric width over the entire batch, so
that the fabric can be rolled up evenly afterwards.

VASANT R KOTHARI has done his Master’s in Textiles Technology, MBA & MPhil (Management). Currently he
Product development is a broad field of endeavour dealing
with the design, creation, and marketing of new products. It
involves modification of an existing product or its presentation,
or formulation of an entirely new product that satisfies newly
defined customers want or market niche. The textile industry is
one of the world’s major industries and the knitwear industry is
a substantial component of it. Knitwear garments are designed,
manufactured and sold in a wide range of countries, and is the
subject of a large amount of international trade.
Fashion changes very quickly, and continuously poses new
challenges to resources and skills. The knitwear fashion market
is also characterised by short life cycles, low predictability and
high impulse purchasing. Many brands are responding to this
by constantly introducing new collections. Because of this, the
knitwear design process is subject to severe time pressures to
develop new design ideas every time. The fashion of each season
is defined by the garments that are created for it and the sources
of inspiration used for them and new design must be able to
catch the mood of the season. For all fashion-related products,
the beginning of a new season in shops sets an unmovable
deadline for delivery of the final products. Due to the requirements
of production and the retail chains’ need to select co-ordinated
collections, the design process for a season begins approximately
one to two years before garments reach the shops.
Knittingfabricdesignisthemakingofatechnicallycomplexproduct
corresponding to aesthetic considerations – the relationship
between the appearance of a knitted structure and its structural
characteristicsissubtleandcomplex.Knittingisinherentlydifficult
to describe, as no simple and complete notation exists. The knitting
design process is shared by the designers, who plan the visual and
tactile appearance of the garments, and the technicians, who have
to realise the garment on a knitting machine.
In current industrial practice knitting fabric design is a nearly a
linear process. Two main participants share the knitting fabric
design process: Knitted fabric designers and knitting machine
technicians. These two elements need to be co-ordinated very
effectively as the knitting design and sampling process is highly
complex and there is a subtle interaction between the technical
features of knitted fabric and its visual appearance. Normally,
designers and technicians work on two or three seasons at once.
While the designers are researching a new season the technicians
sample the previous one.
The basic process of knitting fabric design development can be
classified in two different ways, viz,
1. In house design and development
2. Knitted fabric development based on specification given
by buyer

In house design and development of acceptance, as per the design, yarn and the specific machine will
be selected and sample will be prepared and after confirmation of the
order by the buyer production can be started.
Knitted fabric development based on
specification given by buyer
As figure 27.1 illustrates, the process starts with design
research, which is nothing but gathering background
information for design, including studying current and future
fashion trends and it also defines the range of possibilities
for designs within the scope of fashion and the intended
target markets. The designers normally start working on a
new season by researching the market, investigating the
coming fashion trends and selecting the yarns used for all
the garments in a season. It provides the sources of
inspiration on which designs are based, and enables
designers to relate their designs to the context of fashion.
The quality of designs depends not only on the designers’
talents but also on the quality of their design research. Only
extensive research enables designers to stay fresh and keep
up-to-date with developments.
The result of this research process is to represent mood
boards or theme boards, which present a collection of images
and sketches of possible garments which defines the range
for an upcoming season. At this point of time many
fundamental design decisions are made before anybody
thinks that design has happened.
All the selected design for upcoming seasons will be checked
by technical team to analyse the feasibility of the same or the
production. If in case design is not feasible to produce then
possibility of modification of the design will be checked.
Once design is approved then it will go to technical team to
analyse the technical specification of the design otherwise
the design will be discarded.
After finalising the technical specifications by the technical
team for the particular design manufacturer will start
developing process if the design can be made with the
available machines or the design may be discarded. In case
In this case, buyer provides the sample to the knitting fabric
manufacturer. Manufacturer then discusses the possibility to develop
the given knitted fabric design with the technician and production
team. Manufacturer will start developing process if the design can
be made with the available machines or the design may be discarded.
In case of acceptance, as per the design, yarn and the specific machine
will be selected and sample will be prepared.
Once sample is prepared then it will be checked for Design and
GSM. For dyed fabric, sample dyeing can also be done in order to
match the colour shed given by the buyer. It is also important to
check the design after dyeing because some faults are prominent
after dyeing. After, knitting and dyeing is finished then shrinkage,
fastness and spirality test can be done.
After checking, if the sample is matching all the criteria with the
buyer sample then the same can be submitted to the buyer and
wait for approval. If in case prepared sample is not matching with
the buyers sample then fabric manufacturer need to do the detailed
analysis of the fault and redevelop the sample. Once the sample is
approved and after order confirmation, manufacturer can start the
bulk production
about sourcing of knitted fabrics
Figure 27.1 Basic process of in house knitted fabric development
Figure 27.1 Basic process of knitted fabric development given by buyer

VASANT R KOTHARI has done his Master’s in Textiles Technology, MBA & MPhil (Management). Currently, he
Knitting is considered to be the second most frequently used
method of fabric construction, after weaving.Today, knitted
fabrics are used worldwide for many applications like apparel,
homefurnishing,industrialandmedicaltextiles.Itisveryimportant
to understand the aspects of sourcing of both the fabrics as the
ordering parameters are different for woven and knitted fabric.
Sourcing
Sourcing is basically procuring inventory required for the
manufacturing process or it could also refer to procuring finished
goods at the best price and of the utmost quality. Garment
manufacturers source fabrics with specific construction and
characteristics in different quantities for different end-uses.
Quality and cost are the two major factors that determine most of
buying/sourcing decisions. Other important factor which needs
to be considered while sourcing the knitted fabric is lead time
and minimum order quantity.
Knitted fabric sourcing hub
The knitting industry in India is concentrated primarily in the
unorganised sector, with only a handful of large organised
players. The knitting industry is concentrated primarily in cites
of Tirupur and Ludhiana located in Southern and Northern part
of India respectively. Tirupur accounts for nearly three- fourths
of the exports of knits and specialised in cotton knits. The city of
Ludhiana on the other hand caters majorly to the domestic
demand. Out of the total fabric production in the country 17 per
cent is the production in the knitted sector.
The major international destinations for sourcing of knitted
fabric are countries like China,Taiwan,Vietnam, etc. China is the
world's largest producer of knitted fabric. The country is home
to about 2,700 manufacturers offering a variety of knitted fabric
including single/jersey, double/interlock, rib, purl, tricot and
raschel. Taiwan is a good choice for knitted goods like fleece,
suede and velour. Though very expensive, poly wool fabrics are
imported from Italy considering its high quality. Thailand is
preferred for import of smaller lots.
Sourcing fabric from market often involves identifying new
suppliers. The most preferred means for identifying new suppliers
in domestic as well as international market is trade magazine or
directories followed by sales representatives.
Ordering specification of knitted fabric
Ordering specifications indicate all the specifications/details
about fabrics that are mentioned while sourcing fabrics. These
specifications must be clear, concise and use technical terms
that are understood by both the buyer and the supplier. A well
defined specification maybe a substitute to an actual fabric
sample or act as a supplement for better understanding.
Basics of
knitting
Sourcing of
knitted fabrics

The fabric order is a contract, so all the specifics which are
expected to be delivered should be clearly mentioned. An
important detail is to also attach a swatch of the selected
and approved yardage to the original order, so that there is
no confusion when the goods arrive if the correct fabric has
been delivered. The following details are required as ordering
specifications for knitted fabrics:
Fibrecontent
The fibre content is the breakdown, in percentages, of the
fibre types used in a fabric. The fibres are the raw materials
that make up the yarn that is then knitted into the fabric.
There are natural fibre fabrics (i.e.: 100 per cent cotton),
synthetic fibre fabrics (i.e.: 100 per cent nylon), and blended
fibre fabrics (i.e.: 90 per cent cotton/10 per cent nylon). For
blended fibre fabrics, the percentages of each fibre are by
weight, and the fibres are listed in descending order.
Fabrictype
Details regarding the type of knitting (weft or warp knitted)
should be specified. The fabric type will be determined by
the end use (T-shirts, sweaters etc). Knitted fabrics can
be produced in various designs. At the time of order for a
particular design a sample or the specification of the end
product is given to manufacturer.
Yarntype
Type of yarn whether combed or carded, should be mentioned
while ordering the knitted fabric
Yarncount
Yarn count is the liner density of the yarn which indicates the
massperunitlength.Yarncountisimportantfactorasitishelpful
infinalizingtheGSMofthefabric.Highertheyarncounthigher
the G.S.M of the fabric. Different types of yarn are used for knit
production. Generally, hosiery yarn of count 20s-40s is being
used for the manufacture of knitted fabric. Sometimes spandex
or lycra is used with the cotton in that case yarn count of cotton
is finalised with the combination of lycra.
Looplength
Loop length, measured in millimetres, is the length of yarn in
one knitted loop. It is one of the most important factors
controlling the properties of knitted fabrics. Loop length can
also be varied depending on yarn count and shade of the fabric.
The knitting industry is concentrated primarily
in cites of Tirupur and Ludhiana located in
southern and northern part of India respectively.
Tirupur accounts for nearly three- fourths of the
exports of knits and specialised in cotton knits.
The city of Ludhiana on the other hand caters
majorly to the domestic demand. Out of the total
fabric production in the country 17 per cent is
the production in the knitted sector.

GSM
GSM indicates the weight of the fabric per square meter. It is a
major identifier for knitted fabrics. Greater the GSM, heavier the
fabric. Fabric of the same GSM can be obtained by changing the
yarn count and loop length.
Knitting machine
Specifications of the machine are given by gauge, diameter of
the machine & no. of needles.
Approximately suitable count for a particular type of machine is
Ne = (Gauge) 2/18
Fabricwidth
The width of the fabric is the distance across the fabric
perpendicular to the selvages, and not including the selvage or it
is the width of a flattened tube doubled for circular knitted goods.
The width of a cut of fabric can vary up to an inch or more
depending on where it is measured. Therefore widths are often
quoted in two numbers to allow for the variance, i.e.: 35/36” or
58/60”. Fabrics manufactured in the US & Asia are measured in
inches, while fabrics from Europe and elsewhere in the world are
measured in centimeters, or in millimeters for narrow fabrics (less
than 12”/30 cm wide). Traditionally, wide fabrics are knitted or
woven in the following widths: 36”/90 cm, 45”/115 cm, 60”/150
cm, 72”/180 cm or 120”/300 cm. The wider the fabric, the better
utilisation. For apparel, 60” wide fabrics are the most desirable
for cost-effectiveness.
Fabricweight
Fabric weight is one of the ways in which fabrics are classified.
Unlike the woven fabric that is measured in length knitted fabric
is measured by its weight instead of length, because of its
dimension instability. Basically, this helps to standardise the
measurement for knits and to facilitate easy sourcing of fabric
without confusion and problems.
Other specifications
The above mentioned specifications give a brief about the
technicalities of the fabric. In addition to those, there are other
criteria that need to be communicated with the suppliers for
effective sourcing. They are:
about garment manufacturing of knitted fabrics.)
Leadtime
The lead time is the time period between when the fabric order is
placed and the goods are in-house. Lead time of the production
of the knitted fabric depends on the complexity of the knitted
structure. In India, the lead-time for manufacturing the knitted
fabric is approximately 30-45 days depending on the type of
fabric with a transit time of maximum five days. The lead-time for
imported knitted fabric is approx 15- 25 days of production and
the transit time of 15 - 22 days according to destination and
vessel frequency.
Minimumorderquantity(MOQ)
MOQ is the smallest amount of fabric that can be ordered. MOQ
is important parameter to be considered before decision on
sourcing is made because the MOQ decides the compatibility
and the supplier’s ability that must conform to the buyer
requirement.Fabricsupplierscaneitherfixonestandardminimum
amount for all types of fabrics, or they can also quote different
minimums for different fabric type. If fabrics order quantity is
less than MOQ, then supplier can either ask for the surcharge or
the price of fabric might be high.
Destination
The destination of the fabric is where the knitted fabric is needs
to be shipped. Destination plays an important role in fabric
sourcing at it contributes majorly to the transportation costs
and lead times. Sourcing small quantities of knitted fabric globally
may become a costly affair in case of long distances.
Cost
Cost is the price of the goods. Fabric prices are quoted per the
yard or per the meter. The knitted fabrics are quite different from
woven fabrics in which yarn lie in straight line resulting in rigid
structure and less elongation. So prices for knitted fabrics are
quoted in kilograms.
Sampleyardage
Sample yardage is an extremely important step in knitted fabric
selection and production process. Sample yardage involves
ordering a small amount of yardage, generally 3 to 5 yards of a
quality. These yardages are used to make the sample garments
before the final production for the approval from the buyer

VASANT R KOTHARI has done his Master’s in Textiles Technology, MBA & MPhil (Management). Currently,
he is doing his PhD (Management) from Jain University Bangalore. He has also done Diploma in Export
Management (Apparel Export) Garment Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore. He is
having 12+ years of experience in academic as well as industry. Presently, he’s working at National Institute
of Fashion Technology, Mumbai. (The Author can be contacted at www.vasantkothari.com)
Knits are an important part of every wardrobe because they
are comfortable to wear and easy to care for. Knits have
more stretch than woven and nonwoven fabrics and, more
importantly, most of the knit fabrics “recover” to their original
size and shape. Because of their elasticity, knit garments do not
require a lot of fitting and they shed wrinkles well. Knitted
garment does not have darts to create body curvature. Instead,
the elasticity of the fabric will mold over the figure. The other
difference is that the underarm/side seam is adjusted inward in
order to take up any extra gapping in the armholes.
The cut edges of most knits do not ravel, but they may run and
may have a tendency to curl. Although knits are generally easy
to sew, some require speciality threads and stitches. Knits are
versatile and can be seen in everything from the most casualwear
to the dressiest of clothing attire.They come in a variety of fabrics
that vary in texture, elasticity, fibre content, weight, and design.
Further, there is no bias in knit fabrics; the greatest stretch runs
crosswise along the course.
Fabric
Washable knits tend to shrink more often and to a greater degree
than woven fabrics. It is advisable to source extra yardage to
allow for shrinkage. The additional fabric should be equal to the
amount of shrinkage. Generally, rib knit should not be prewashed
if being used as a trim. It is also important to determine the right
side of the knitted fabric before cutting and sewing. Jersey and
tricot knits have lengthwise ribs on the right side and crosswise
loops on the wrong side. Rib and interlock fabrics are normally
reversible fabric. Most knits will curl to the right side when
stretched along the crosswise cut edge.
Choosing patterns
Patterns designed for knits generally have fewer pieces and
less shaping details, making them quick to sew. Patterns
designed for stretch knits have less ease built in than patterns
for stable knit and woven fabrics. Facings are often replaced
by ribbing, binding, or turned and stitched necklines. Zippers
are a more suitable closure than buttons and buttonholes. If
these features are not included, choose a pattern that does or
one that can be adapted for them.
The amount of ease built into the pattern design is based on the
number of inches or the percentage stretch the specific knit will
stretch.Ifthefabrichasmorestretchthanrecommended,thegarment
may fit looser. If less stretch, then the garment will fit tighter.

Cutting
Before cutting, it is important to secure pattern pieces in place
on knit fabrics in order to eliminate bunching or moving of the
knit fabric on the flat surface. Usage of proper type of pins are
recommended. Sharp pins can damage a knit’s weave. Instead,
ball point pins can be used, which are rounded at the top and
slide between the loops of the knit. During cutting of knitted
fabric one need to be careful not to stretch fabric while cutting.
A rotary cutter and mat make cutting out knits easy and
eliminates movement and distortion. It is important to learn
how to properly cut knit fabric.
There isn’t much difference between cutting knit fabric and
cutting regular woven fabric. The only thing to pay extra close
attention to is the grain line. If you cut the fabric off of the grain
line, it can make seams wonky.Always cut knit fabric on a large
flat surface, making sure it does not hang off the edge. It can
become distorted as well as stretch out of shape, causing to have
cut misshapen pieces.
Thread
For lightweight knit use extra fine polyester or polyester/cotton
thread; for medium weight knits use an all-purpose polyester or
polyester/cotton thread. Mercerized cotton thread does not have
as much stretch as synthetic thread. Using a textured nylon thread
in the bobbin to sew a plain seam makes it more elastic. Textured
nylon thread gives a nice soft edge to serged seams and can also
be used in the bobbin when working with a twin needle. Bobbin
threads need to wind slowly to prevent thread from stretching,
which can cause puckered seams in the finished garment.
Needle size
The needle has a large influence on the occurrence of loop
breaksor elastane damage. Therefore, the needles for sewing
stretch or knitted fabrics should always be as thin as possible –
the lighterand more delicate the fabric, the finer the needle. For
stretch fabrics as well as for knitted fabrics, the use of needles
with ball point is recommended. The size of the ballpoint needle
depends on the weight and type of knit fabric need to sew. In
addition, there’s a stretch needle that is recommended for use
with those super stretchy knits, such as swimwear. Ballpoint
needles have a slightly rounded tip which passes through the
looped structure of the material without laddering it.
Sewing techniques
Besides requiring different tools, knit fabrics need to be sewn
differently as well. In order to utilise positive features of knitted
fabrics in production, their typical characteristics must be
considered from a sewing technical point of view, too. Elasticity
is the key – also for the seams. Seams and seam finishes for
knits must stretch with the knits or broken stitches will occur.
If one tries to sew knit using just a regular straight stitch, the
thread will break when the fabric stretches. It is very important
to select aseam with enough stretch for the fabric because seams
must “go along” with movement and must not “block” the
elasticity of a fabric. The rule of thumb for realising elastic
seams is: The greater the thread reserves in the seam, the better
the seam elasticity.
The amount of ease built into the pattern
design is based on the number of inches
or the percentage stretch the specific
knit will stretch. If the fabric has more
stretch than recommended, the garment
may fit looser. If less stretch, then the
garment will fit tighter.
Fig: Ball point needle Fig: Ball point needle Function

The reserve, that means the amount of thread worked into a seam,
is determined by processing parameters. They determine
seamelasticity, and for sewing stretch fabrics they must be chosen
extremely carefully. Only the use of highly elastic sewing threads
makes it possible to deviate a bit from this requirement.
Selecting the right stitch type is decisive for thread quantity in
the seam. Under standard sewing conditions:
• The lockstitch uses 2.80 mtr of thread
• The double chain stitch uses 4.8 mtr of thread
• The 4-thread overedge stitch uses 17.10 mtr thread
based on a seam length of 1 mtr.
This clearly shows that an unfavourable stitch type does not
provide a sufficient quantity of thread, so that the seams will
break with very little tension. A classic example here is the
cording seam. It is often not made with a 2-needle interlockstitch
(stitch type 402), but rather with a lockstitch (stitch type 301)
when the manufacturer does not own the required special sewing
machines. The lockstitch, however, cannot provide ample thread
reserve for sufficiently elastic cording seams (especially at areas
such as the knees, which are exposed to a lot of movement), not
even with an extremely low thread tension.
Since knit fabric doesn’t ravel, seam finishes are optional.
However, if the cut edges curl, serge the seam or sew two rows
of stitching ¼ inch apart and trim close to the second stitching
line.Awide zigzag stitch or one of the utility or over lock stitches
found on most machines will also work to finish the edges. For
best results with the over lock stitch, trim seam to ¼ if needed,
and use the proper over lock foot for the machine to guide the
raw edges along as the stitches are formed over the edge of the
fabric. Reducing the foot pressures lightly on soft loose knits
will help prevent seams from stretching and being wavy.
The stitch density, too, has an influence on the thread reserve
and thus on seam elasticity. The greater the stitch density, the
greater the elasticity of the seam. Garments made of stretch
fabrics or knitwear are often worn next to the skin. Therefore,
the softness of the seams, which is strongly influenced by the
sewing thread utilised, is also of utmost importance.
Pressing
Knits do not require a lot of pressing during construction, another
reason that makes them quick to sew. When pressing is needed,
test on fabric scraps for the correct amount of steam, heat, and
pressure. Remember to press and not iron the fabric. To prevent
the fabric from being flattened too much, place the fabric on a
terry towel and use a press cloth
about seamless knitting)
Knit stitches on the front/right
side of a knit jersey
Purl stitches on the back/
wrong side of a knit jersey
Finding the Grainline on Knit Fabric

VASANT R KOTHARI has done his Master’s in Textiles Technology, MBA & MPhil (Management). Currently,
he is doing his PhD (Management) from Jain University Bangalore. He has also done Diploma in Export
Management (Apparel Export) Garment Export and Merchandising Management from NIFT, Bangalore. He is
having 12+ years of experience in academic as well as industry. Presently, he’s working at National Institute
of Fashion Technology, Mumbai. (The Author can be contacted at www.vasantkothari.com)
The fashion industry has in its essence aconstant need for
renewal “spirit of time” in order to survive and preserve its
delight, and appeal. In order to win the race against time and
differentiation in products, fashion design relies very much on
technologies, being seamless technology an available tool that
still remains to be unleashed. Considered as relatively new,
regarding to its application in fashion industry, seamless
technology can start from one dimension (yarn) directly into three
dimensions (ready to wear garment). According to the present
demand, seamless products can satisfy the consumers’ requisites
regarding the functionality, performance and aesthetics.
The concept of seamless knitting is as old as knitting itself. Right
after the industrial revolution, time when the knitted fabric started
to be produced with the help of full mechanic knitting machines.
From then until now, knitwear is produced on flat and circular
machines, in large amounts of knitted fabric which require further
operations such as cut and sewing. Producing seamless knitwear
in separate units, with few or none subsequent operations
concerning the apparel production, is from long time ago a quest
pursued by machine manufacturers.
Seamless garment, which does not require labour-intensive
cutting and sewing processes, knitwear can be produced in
developed countries, i.e. in the consuming regions. Or rather,
the advantage of seamless flat knitting machines can only be
fully realised by production in the consuming regions. If “popular
lines” can be produced near the end-users, closely reflecting the
changes in market trends, then the risks of excess inventory, out-
of-stock, and dead stocks can be dealt with accordingly. In
addition, the seamless flat knitting machines truthfully reproduce
the designer’s images, so high-value added products can be made
available for the market. This is why seamless technology can
be an effective means to revive the knitting industry in the
developed countries, namely, the consuming regions. It also
promotes the creation of a new “knowledge-intensive industry”
rather than “labour-intensive” ones.
Knitwear production
Knitwear can be produced using three methods:
1. Cut and sew
2. Shaping
3. Seamless
The cut and sew method involves knitting a panel of fabric,
cutting out the garment pattern and then sewing the panels, as
done while sewing a woven fabric. Cut and sew produces the
most waste as compared to other two.
Shaping, also known as body shaping, is the most common
method for producing quality knitwear with minimal waste. It
involves knitting the garment panels to the exact shape required
for construction then linking them together.
Seamless technology produces the garment three dimensionally
in one entire piece and can be designed so no further construction
processes are required. Seamless construction can be achieved on
normal or specialised industrial knitting machines, depending on
the design. As no waste is produced, seamless technology can be
popular when using expensive yarns or labour costs are high.

The WHOLEGARMENT®
flat knitting machine, developed by
Shima Seiki, has overturned the previous assumption that
“knitwear is to be made from separately knitted parts being
sewn together.” The three-dimensional stereoscopic knitting,
made possible by the world’s first SlideNeedle®, enables
“knitwear without any seams (i.e. seamless knitwear).”
Seamless garment gives a natural fit and lightweight feel to
knitwear products, which had not been possible previously, and
it also enhances elasticity and durability. Because it is seamless,
the designer’s image is recreated perfectly in the finished
product, creating beautiful silhouettes and naturally flowing
drapes. In other words, the seamless technology enables the
production of knitwear with more advanced designs. From the
producer’s point of view, the manufacturing of seamless
garment significantly reduces the cost and shortens the lead-
time, by eliminating the cutting and sewing process, thus saving
labour and time, as well as the material loss from the cutting
process. Seamless technology has brought a revolution to the
knitting industry and expanded the horizon of knitwear.
Seamless technology is an innovative concept in clothing free of
the side seams:
• Different stitch structures in different areas
• Different kind of yarns in different areas
• Better and wider range of fit
• Invisible comfort
• Freedom of movement
• Natural softness
• Light, smooth and soft to touch
• Performance features linked to combination of fibres
• Smooth, streamlined and sleek
• Custom apparel at an affordable cost
Advantages of seamless garment
Labour cost
• Due to the elimination cutting and sewing process it is obvious
to reduce more labour involvement
Yarn consumption
• Most of the fabric wastages occur at cutting stage, since this
seamless garment excludes this process fabric consumption
per garment is less, so the yarn consumption is also very low
Work space
• Involvement of sewing operation is less except few cases in the
garment production system, which leads less space requirement.
Inventory
• Cutting and sewing process require more fabric as well as yarn
inventory due the absence of this process no need of
maintaining huge inventory.
Fewer product failure
• Most of the garment failures are due to seam failure the
seamless garment doesn't have the seam, so that garment failure
is also very less
Quick samples
• Sampling is a costly as well as time consuming process,
because small portion of fabric as well accessories need to be
prepared, since this seamless garment is exemption, here
samples can be prepared quickly.
Production cost
• This leads to saving of production costs up to 40 per cent
compared to the customary garment production system
• Cut-loss the amount of scrap material that is thrown away after
cutting out each part of the garment is entirely eliminated
Just in time production
• Just-in-time production is possible with the help of seamless
technology
• Bottlenecks in the supply-chain caused by labour-intensive
cutting and sewing processes are eliminated
Streamlining the manufacturing process

• Since seamless garment can be produced one garment at a
time, the leadtime usually needed to knit each separate part of
the garment is no longer an issue
• The required number of garments can be knit at the required
time, permitting true "on-demand" production
Pricing
• Unlike a regular knitting machine, which produces yards of the
same pattern that need to be cut and sewn, the seamless
machines produce individual garments from yarn that is fed
into the machine-retails for about 10-15 per cent more, because
of the specialised equipment involved and the high demand
for such limited availability of machinery
• This benefit is worthy of a price increase, meaning certain part
of knitting/apparel category such as intimate, active wear
market can be justified due to above listed benefits since some
of its features cannot be accomplished in conventional circular
knitting or cut & sew method
Fit
• In a single garment measurement can suitable for wider range of
fitfordifferentrangeofbodyshapesbecauseofitshigherelasticity
• Seamless garments are precisely fitted to the body producing a
smother, clean look for the individual shape and produce fewer
lines under clothes to allow for a more streamline silhouette
• The softness of seamless knitwear combined with the use of
anti microbial and hydrophilic yarns create the best features
for an activewear garment
Comfort
• Generally the seam portion of any garment is not having the
same elasticity as compared to the body fabric, so the difference
in elasticity will affect the free body movement. Since the
seamless garment doesn’t have any seam in its structure this
problem has been eliminated
• There are no bulky and annoying stitches at the underarm
points, shoulders and neck lines, which may cause irritation
to the wearer, since the garment having seam free structure it
provides the soft feel only
• Wearers love seamless garments because they are forgiving,
non restrictive and are not binding. The lack of seams provides
for improved comfort as the body moves
• With an increasing demand by consumers for more comfortable
and better-looking clothing. Seams tend to pucker up, and tags
chafe against the skin. Seamless garments feature knitted in
shaping to eliminate bulky elastics and provide enhanced
comfort
• The main seamless products are underwear, outerwear,
activewear, shapewear and swimwear, all of which are highly
elastic, fine to very fine fabric, made of micro-fibres, required
to be very extensible and soft; therefore adding to comfort
Quality and durability
• Besides offering higher comfort and better fit to consumers
by eliminating seams, the innovative technique creates entire
garments with minimal intervention of cutting and sewing
processes leading to substantial savings in cost and time, higher
productivity, quick response, and just in-time production
• Seamless garments have no waistband failures, no waistband
or side seam failures and are more durable due to the high
proportion of manufactured fibres such as nylon
• The broad technical application of selective engagement and
disengagement can be adopted sensibly to produce a ready to
use customised garment thereby saving the wastage of cloth
• Seamless garments take 30 per cent to 40 per cent less time to
make than cut-and-sew versions as it minimises the traditional
labour intensive steps of cutting and sewing
• Since each garment is produced based on digitally programmed
data, item-to-item and batch-to batch quality even for repeat
orders remain consistent
Difference between WHOLEGARMENT®
and cut & sewn
A knitted garment is typically made from separate parts, such as body panels and sleeves,
which are knitted separately. These are then cut along the pattern, and finally sewn
together in a detailed sewing process. In sharp contrast, “WHOLEGARMENT®
(seamless
knitwear)” has made it possible to knit a whole garment in one piece stereoscopically on
the knitting machine using three-dimensional knitting.
Close-up views of neckline, underarm and hemline portions of seamless
knitwear shows improved comfort through the absence of seams
Because of the versatile nature of seamless
technology, there are infinite opportunities in the
market, both locally and internationally. The seamless
concept can be applied to underwear, swimwear,
control-wear, leisurewear, sleepwear, ready to wear
and active wear. The features of seamless technology
benefit the retail store and ultimately the end
consumer, who will notice a difference once they try
on a seamless garment.

Benefits to designer
• There are endless design possibilities with seamless technology,
with the variety of different stitches that can be achieved within
a single garment, for example a jersey knit can be placed side-
by-side with a mesh knit, a rib knit, a jacquard knit. This is
impossible to achieve with any other type of knitting process
• Based on the structure of the knit, the patterns and construction
of the garment cannot be matched with any other non-seamless
garment and the ability to combine textures and levels of
compression opens up endless possibilities for coloured
patterns, jacquards, ribbing and detailing
• Without seams, patterns and designs remain uninterrupted
across the entire garment: front-to-back; over-the-shoulder;
and down-the-sleeves
• True reversible knitwear can be produced without the added
weight and bulk of double-knits
• 3D shaping allows the designand silhouette of the garment to
be reproduced exactly as intended by the designer
Benefits to the manufacturer
• Bottlenecks in the supply-chain caused by labour-intensive
cutting and sewing processes are eliminated
• Cut-loss the amount of scrap material that is thrown away after
cutting out each part of the garment is entirely eliminated
• Since WHOLEGARMENT can be produced one garment at a
time, the lead time usually needed to knit each separate part
of the garment is no longer an issue.
• The required number of garments can be knit at the required
time, permitting true" on-demand" production
• Since each garment is produced based on digitally programmed
data, item-to-item and batch-to batch quality even for repeat
orders remain consistent.
Benefits to the consumer
• Superiorcomfortisachievedbydoingawaywithannoyingseams.
Thisisespeciallyeffectiveinthecaseofinfantandhypoallergenic
clothing, where seams can be a source of skin irritation
• Seams no longer interfere with the natural elasticity of knits,
allowing superior stretch and mobility
• Soft and light weight, seamless skirts and dresses drape and
flow more naturally
• Seamless one-piece construction allows stress to be distributed
evenly throughout, preventing localised pressure points which
may cause discomfort
• By knitting an entire garment with only the required amount
of yarn, seamless technology is environmentally friendly
knitwear that uses minimal natural resources
Disadvantages of seamless knitting
Although seamless garment knitting technology provides a
variety of advantages for the knitting industry, it still has several
technical issues.
1) The main problem in complete garment knitting is fabric
take up
2) Maintaining the tension of each loop (i.e., stitch) is difficult
3) Fabric design as well as garment design on jacquard is highly
difficult task
4) There is problem caused during alternate needle selection,
which makes fabrics more open and less elastic than
conventional fully-fashioned garment. This problem occurs
mainly in the welt or the cuff areas
5) Frequent changes in the knitting machine setting
6) A fault during knitting (particularly a hole or a barre’),
damages the whole garment
7) The machines used for manufacturing seamless garment are
costlier and more skilled operators are required
8) Theseamlessgarmentarecostlierascomparedtoseamedgarment
Conclusion
Because of the versatile nature of seamless technology, there
are infinite opportunities in the market, both locally and
internationally. The seamless concept can be applied to
underwear, swimwear, control-wear, leisurewear, sleepwear,
ready to wear and active wear. The features of seamless
technology benefit the retail store and ultimately the end
consumer, who will notice a difference once they try on a seamless
garment. Once the consumer wears it, it offers a high-repeat
purchase ratio. Consumers are only beginning to understand the
benefits of seamless technology
Seamless garment with yoke collar design shows how designs can be
"wrapped around" the entire sweater; previously, seams would have
broken up the continuation of the design.

Basics of Kniting by Vasant Kothari

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