CAPE UNIT 1- MODULE 1- SETTLEMENTS
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Settlements have traditionally located based on various physical and economic factors. Physically, early settlements were often located near water sources like rivers for drinking, farming, and transport. They also sought shelter, defensive positions, and fertile land. Economically, settlements grew where important resources could be accessed, like food, building materials, fuel, and later minerals and other industries. As populations increased, nodal points at river confluences or mountain passes became important settlement sites. Over time, settlements have taken on various functions and hierarchies based on their population, services, and sphere of influence.
CAPE UNIT 1- MODULE 1- SETTLEMENTS
- 1. O.Johnson Unit 1 Settlement Processes 6th Form Geography Mr. Johnson Introduction The change in human lifestyle from nomadic hunter/gatherers to sedentary cultivators was of great significance. The domestication and cultivation of plants and animals led to a food surplus so that some persons could do other tasks and specialize. The earliest settlements were located along rivers/springs and often near fertile alluvial/volcanic soils. Settlements are generally dependent on some type of economic activity to support their populations: from agricultural-based dominated skyscrapers. Settlements vary in size and function over a continuum from the single isolated dwelling to the largest city. Urban and Rural There are many differences in the way in which countries define rural and urban. In general, the criteria for the distinguishing rural from urban are population size and density and the availability of certain services. Economic Rural settlements have traditionally been defined as places where most of the workforce are farmers or are engaged in other primary activities (mining and forestry). In contrast, most of the workforce in urban areas are employed in secondary and service industries Services The provision of services, such as schools, hospitals, shops, public transport and banks, is usually limited, at times absent in rural areas.
- 2. O.Johnson Land use In rural areas, settlements are widely spaced with open land between adjacent villages. Within each village there may be individual farms as well as residential areas and possibly small-scale industry. In urban areas, settlements are often packed closely together and within towns there is a greater mixture of land use with the residential, services and open space provisions. Social Rural settlements, especially those in more remote areas, tend to have more inhabitants in the over 65 age group, whereas the highest proportion in urban areas lies within the economically active age group.
- 3. O.Johnson Functions of settlements The function of a settlement to its economic and social development and refers to its main activities. These can be grouped into a number of headings, such as residential, recreational, retail, government, entertainment and industrial. Some settlements have one predominant function. This was particularly the case when settlements were first established. Some towns performed important defensive functions, others were ports and others were important route centres for further exploration of a country (such as the gateway cities of Canada e.g. Calgary and Edmonton). Most settlements now are multi-functional, which means that they perform a range of different functions, however some may be more important than others to a particular settlement. For instance a tourist town will perform all sorts of functions, but its main ones are concentrated towards the tourists. Many settlements around the world have found that their functions have change over time Classification of settlement based on function
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- 5. O.Johnson Pattern and Morphology of settlements Geographers have become increasingly interested in the morphology of settlements. Some of the main type of settlement patterns are below. Isolated This refers to an individual building, usually found in an area of extreme physically difficulty where the natural resources are insufficient to maintain more than a few inhabitants e.g. the Amazon rainforests where tribes live in communal home called Maloca, Dispersed Settlement is described as dispersed where there is a scatter of individual farms and houses across an area; there are no nucleation presents, or they are so small consist only of two or three building forming a hamlet. Nucleated Nucleated settlement is common in many rural parts of the world where buildings have been grouped together for economic, social or defensive purposes. Some villages in Britain grew up around and at T- junctions, as is the case of many villages in India. Many border villages in Britain, hilltop settlements around the Mediterranean Sea, and kampongs in Malaysia became nucleated for defensive reasons. Loose-Knit These are similar to nucleated settlements except that the buildings are more spread out, possibly due to space taken up by individual farms which are still found within the village itself. Linear or ribbon Where the building are strung out along a main line of communication or along a confined river valley, the settlement is described as linear.
- 6. O.Johnson Rural settlement types Most studies of rural settlement types were devised in the context of specific regions- Europe, North America, China- and attempts to produce a general typology are very complex. However, most classifications are based on the relative location of individual buildings and there is a basic distinction between nucleated and dispersed settlements. In between these extremes there are semi compact and hamleted settlements. Nucleated settlements are compact and built up area close. In Jamaica, nucleated rural settlements were formed by freed slaves who were either given access to, or settled on land in close proximity to the plantations where some continued to work. In Trindad and Tobago nucleated rural settlements were also formed by East Indians who, on completion of indentured service, were either granted or allowed to purchase blocks of Crown Land instead of a return passage to India. They established their own villages. In semi compacted settlements, there is fragmentation of nucleated settlements. In hamleted settlements there is fragmentation into several units with basic service only. Hamlets are small settlement. Sometimes 5 or 6 houses. The nearest settlement is a good distance away. Dispersed settlements are characterized by isolated households or farms and are found typically, in rugged upland areas. Freed African dispersed themselves in the uplands of Jamaica and in the interior of Guyana where runaway slaves had also settled. The four main types of rural settlements are: Compact/nucleated/clustered, semi compacted, hamleted and dispersed. Settlement Hierarchy
- 7. O.Johnson Settlements can be described as being part of the urban hierarchy. Where they stand on the hierarchy depends on Three main variables/factors , the main ones population the number of services/functions its sphere of influence. Population The most obvious way of deciding where a settlement ranks on the urban hierarchy is by using the population of that settlement. The larger the population, the higher the settlement is placed on the hierarchy. In the UK, the largest city in terms of population is London, which most people would agree is the most important settlement in the country and so deserves to be placed on the top of the urban hierarchy for the UK. Services Services are things such as retailers (shops), professionals (doctors, lawyers etc), entertainment, government functions and leisure. The theory goes that the larger a settlement is, and therefore the higher it is on the urban hierarchy, the more services and functions it will have. In general in the UK, this is the case. London is the settlement at the top of the urban hierarchy, and it has the greatest numbers of services and functions of any settlement in the country. For instance, it has the major N.B. as you go up the hierarchy, there becomes a lot less of that type of settlement. For example there are huge numbers of isolated farmhouses and hamlets. There are less villages and small towns and so on. Therefore the frequency decreases
- 8. O.Johnson international airports, it is the seat of our national government, it has the widest range of shops, including very specialist ones, and it has the most renowned professional services. This is because its population is large enough to support all of the services. A small village may on the other hand only have the population to support a pub, post office, village store and perhaps a small garage. The number of services (functions) that a settlement provides normally relates to the number of people living there Sphere of influence The sphere of influence of a settlement describes the area that is served by a settlement, for a particular function. Its sphere of influence for different functions may cover vastly different areas. For instance a supermarket may attract people from a 20-mile radius, whilst a leisure activity, such as going to the theatre may attract them from far further away. The larger a settlement is the greater its sphere of influence is likely to be, as it has a wider range of services and functions to attract people to go there. There are two major ideas to consider when looking at the sphere of influence of a shop of service. These are called the range and threshold population of a good.
- 9. O.Johnson The range of a good or service describes the maximum distance that someone would be willing to travel to obtain that good or service. A newspaper shop has a small range because people will not travel far to use them. A cinema has a much wider range as people are prepared to travel much further to go to it. The threshold population of a good or service is the minimum number of people needed to allow that shop or service to be successful. The more specialist a shop is the larger its threshold population is. A newsagent will have a small threshold, where as a supermarket like Tesco's needs a much larger population before it can consider opening a store. As aforementioned the larger a settlement is the greater its sphere of influence is likely to be, as it has a wider range of services and functions to attract people to go there. Physical and Human Factors affecting Location of Rural Settlements
- 10. O.Johnson Factors affecting the location of Rural Settlements There are a huge number of factors that have to be considered when trying to locate a new settlement. These can be grouped into four broad headings: climatic, economic, physical and traditional. The diagram above should give you an idea of how each one plays a part in the location of a settlement. Site and Situation of Early Settlements Site The Site of a settlement describes the physical nature of where it is located. Factors such as water supply, building materials, quality of soil, climate, shelter and defence were all considered when settlements were first established. For instance the site of Sydney, in Australia, initially took advantage of the excellent natural harbour and surrounding fertile farmland. Paris was established at a point where an island allowed an easier passage across the river Seine as well as providing defence, fishing, transport, and drinking water.
- 11. O.Johnson Situation The situation of a settlement is the description of the settlement in relation to the other settlements and physical features around it. The situation of a settlement is the most important in determining whether it grows to become a large city or stays as a small town or village. In the UK, Birmingham is an example of a city with an excellent situation. It is located central to the country, with excellent links by road to the North and South to London. As cities begin to fulfill different functions their importance can increase or decrease. Their situation plays an important part in deciding which of these will occur. Physical Factors affecting the location or rural settlements 1. Water supply- a nearby guaranteed supply was essential as water is needed daily throughout the year and is heavy to carry any distance. In earlier times, rivers were sufficiently clean to give a safe, permanent supply. A close supply of fresh water was vital for drinking, cooking and washing. Wet-points or water seeking points refer to any site that has access to water, usually through being beside a river. Towns would either grow up along the river or clustered near the point at which the river enters the sea. Examples of wet point sites include the towns and villages of the Welsh valleys, which tend to extend along the flat valley floor, rather than up the steep valley sides. In lowland Britain, many early villages were located along the spring line at the foot of a chalk
- 12. O.Johnson or limestone escarpment. In regions where rainfall is limited or unreliable, people settled where the water table was near to the surface (a desert oasis) enable shallow swells to be dug A Desert Oasis in Peru ( Huacachina)
- 13. O.Johnson Flood avoidance Elsewhere, the problem may have been too much water. In English Fenlands, and on coastal marshes, villages were being built on mounds which formed natural islands (Ely). Other settlements were built on river terraces which were above the flood level. Settlements were also located on dry land that avoided diseases associated with stagnant water. Such sites are known as dry-point or water avoiding sites. 2. Relief Settlements are also located on flat land where it makes transportation much easier and farming the land much easier than if the land was is sloped. Flat, low lying land such as the north German plain was easier to build on than steeper, higher ground such as the Alps.
- 14. O.Johnson 3. Shelter and Aspect Aspect and shelter are two of the most important factors that were used when deciding where to locate a settlement. Aspect relates to the direction in which the land faces. In the Northern Hemisphere the best slopes to locate on are those that face south, as they will receive the most sunshine, and therefore be best for agriculture. This can be seen clearly in many of the valleys of the Alps, where settlements have located on the south-facing slopes. Shelter is also very important, particularly from the cold northerly winds and prevailing southwesterly winds in the UK and the trade winds blowing into the Caribbean. Britain, south facing slopes offer favored settlement sites because they are protected from cold, northerly winds and receive maximum insolation (Torquay). The early settlements at Spanish town in Jamaica and St Joseph in Trinidad had inland locations. Protection was also needed from the prevailing winds and settlements were located on the leeward coasts of the islands when there was shelter from the trade winds.
- 15. O.Johnson Another good example of settlements being sheltered by their natural surroundings are the many spring-line settlements found along the base of the chalk escarpments of the North and South Downs. These settlements would also have benefited from the good water source and fertile farmland nearby. 4. Defence In medieval times defence was one of the most important factors influencing the site of a settlement. The relief (shape) of the land often proved to be the best form of defence. Edinburgh castle sits on the top of a glacial crag, in an almost perfect position to defend itself, with very little chance for the attackers. In Italy, there are many walled hill-top villages, whilst the Maoris in New Zealand built their settlements (called Pa's) on the top of steep hills to prevent being attacked.
- 16. O.Johnson Edinburgh Castle in Scotland: The other common natural feature used for defence is water, and in particular rivers. Both Shrewsbury and Durham are very good examples of where a meander of the river has formed an area of land bounded by water on three sides. This provided both cities with excellent defences, as they only had a thin neck of land to defend. Protection against surrounding tribes was often essential.
- 17. O.Johnson Jericho, built over 10 000 years ago (about 8350BC), is the oldest city known to have had walls. In Britain, the two best types of defensive site were those surrounded on three sides by water or built upon high ground with commanding views over the surrounding countryside Durham: settlement within a meander loop Economic factors affecting the location of rural settlements 1. Resources: The idea of resources covers a huge number of different things. For early settlers the most important resources were fuel, building materials and food. Settlements grew in areas where wood was plentiful, stone easily accessible and good soil allowed agriculture to be developed. Since those early days of settlement many different resources have become the focal points for the growth of urban areas. Some of these are listed below: Mining: The coal mines of South Wales, Tin mines of Cornwall and large mining projects as seen at Carajas in Northern Brazil, have all encouraged the rapid growth of settlements aimed at housing the workers and providing them with all that they require. The location of the Bauxite mining plants in Jamaica also attracted settlements. The location of Windalco in Kirkvine Manchester has attracted several people the surrounding communities. It even causes
- 18. O.Johnson a boom in the population of Mandeville. Even though it’s no longer in operation these persons still reside in these areas. Food: The ideal location was in an area that was suitable for both the rearing of animals and the growing of crops-such as the scarps and vales of South East England. Locating on a fertile land was also important. The land must be fertile in order to grow crops and also to support the population. The farming area of East Anglia is one example of how small settlements will locate in areas conducive to good agriculture Oil: Settlements in Alaska and the Middle East have grown rapidly on the back of the oil industry. Precious metals: Settlements in South Africa have grown after the discovery of large deposits of precious metals such as gold. The most famous settlement to grow due to finding gold is San Francisco, after the gold rush to California in 1849. Building Materials were heavy and bulky to move and as transport was poorly developed, it was important to build settlements close to a supply of stone, wood and or/clay. Fuel Supply Even tropical areas need fuel for cooking purposes as well as for warmth during colder nights. In most early settlements, firewood was the main source- and still is many of the least economically developed areas such as the Sahel 2. Nodal Points sites where several valleys meet were often occupied by settlements which became route centers. Confluence towns are found where two rivers join (Khartoum at the junction of the White Nile and The Blue Nile, St Louis at the junction of the Mississippi and the Misssouri).
- 19. O.Johnson Settlements on sites that command routes through hills or mountains are known as Gap towns. 3. Bridging-Points- Just as water is very important for drinking, fishing, irrigation and navigation, so the ability to cross the rivers is also very important. Many towns and cities have built up at points where it was easiest to cross a large river. Settlements have tended to grow where routes had to cross rivers, initially where the river was shallow enough to be forded and later where the site was suitable for a bridge to be built. Of great significance for trade and transport was the lowest bridging-point before a river entered the sea. Under British rule, trade with the mother country was extremely important and a settlement at Bridgetown in Barbados was founded at an Amerindian bridging point over an arm of the sea. One of the best examples is Paris in France. The original town was based on the tiny Ile dela Cite, which is an island in the middle of the River Seine. This island meant they could build two small bridges across the river rather than one large one.
- 20. O.Johnson The new settlement also benefited from all the other advantages associated with being beside a river, as well as becoming a route centre due it being one of the only places to cross the river Harbours – Sheltered sea inlets and river estuaries provided suitable sites for the establishment of coastal fishing ports, such as Newquay in Cornwall; later, deep-water harbours were required as ships became larger ( The great lakes in Southampton and Singapore. Port sites were almost important on many major navigable rivers (Montreal on the St Lawrence) and large lakes (The great lakes in North America). Whereas most of the factors listed above were natural, today the choice of a site for a new settlement is more likely to be political, social and economical.
- 21. O.Johnson The effects of changes in rural settlements in MDCs There are many changes that are taking place in rural settlements in Britain. A distinction can be made between rural settlements that are close to urban areas and those that are in remote locations. The former is easily accessible by public or private transportation. The remote locations are further away and is beyond commuting range. The effects of changes in accessible rural settlements The population in the rural areas that are nearer to urban centers are increasing. Rural areas accounted for about 19% of the population in 2005 and while such areas, as a whole, have been growing, about 61% of this growth has been experienced in accessible rural areas. That is one of the most evident change. One of the effects is that more services will be offered to sustain the increasing population. More shops, supermarkets, schools, restaurants, public houses and spaces will be built to accommodate the increasing population. There are also improved roads. This can also mean that jobs can be provided to the original inhabitants of the community. Overspill towns were also created. An overspill town is a town built or expanded to house excess population. These were built to accommodate new arrivals seeking work in the nearby city and those who were forced to leave due to various redevelopment schemes. The development of the new houses or housing scheme had a direct impact on the environment. In order for these developments to take place lands and open space must be cleared. One of the negative effect of the population change is that large farmlands and open spaces are destroyed. In some areas new towns were also built. The deforestation can contribute to the larger problem of global warming. One of the main reason why persons moved in these accessible rural areas is that they could easily commute to the large cities and urban centers to work and access the other services the city has to provide. Even though persons can commute via public transportation majority of these persons own a car. Some families have two cars. One effect this can have is congested traffic. Since most of the population owns a car, this can result in congested traffic going into the city and in the newly expanded communities.
- 22. O.Johnson There is also the problem of pollution. Noise pollution can emanate from the congested traffic. Since there is also a large ownership of cars, the exhaust/fumes coming from the vehicles can result in air pollution. This problem can also occur with public transportation. However it is much clearer with private transportation as most household own a car or two. Majority of the persons who resides in these areas are commuters. Majority of the residents commute to work in the city during the day. The community may be deserted during the day as these commuters are absent. It is possible that there is no social cohesion among residents. They are sometime called dormitory villages. Another problem can exist as the original community is swamped by new comers. There is division between the local people and the new comers as the culture, beliefs and many other things can differ. As there is mass migration into these areas the original inhabitants will be outnumbered. The local people may believe that community life is lost. The population of the rural accessible area not only increase in size but also vary in composition. Majority of the new inhabitants are in the economically active age group. There is the development of light industry such as high technology and food processing with good salaries. Some firms move out of the city and relocated in these suburbanized type villages. Labor is accessible as there is a lot of persons residing in these areas. Most of them are highly educated so they can take up jobs in these light industries. Therefore the employment structure or economic base is also changed. This area was probably dominated by primary based activities. Effects of changes in Remote areas The remote areas or extreme rural areas are beyond commuting range. Here the population size is declining. As aforementioned one of the most obvious change of these areas is that population size is decreasing. The younger generation have moved out in searching for better opportunities in the cities and the more accessible rural settlement. This affects the population structure of these areas. The population consists mainly elders who born and lived all their life locally. Older persons from the city also move into these areas searching for greener spacers and tranquility. Majority of the population now consists of older persons.
- 23. O.Johnson As the population decreases so is the number of services. Since the majority of the young residents move out there are not enough people to keep some services viable. The cost of providing services to remote areas is high, and there is often insufficient demand to keep the local shop or village school open. With fewer inhabitants to use public transport, bus services may decline or stop altogether, forcing people to move to more accessible areas. There is a change in some of these remote villages. There is an increase in the popularity for second homes. Some villages in national parks and other areas of attractive scenery in upland or coastal areas are being changed by the increased popularity of holiday or second homes. The more wealthy urban dwellers, seeking relaxation away from the stress of their local working and living environment, buy vacant properties in villages. The positive side of this is that these developments may bring trade to the local shop. This means that local shops and businesses will be supported. In addition the quality of some building is improved. While the development of second homes may be beneficial the local inhabitants can no longer afford the inflated house prices, and many properties may stand empty for much of the year.
- 24. O.Johnson Urban Primacy and Zipf’s Rank size rule City size and Hierarchies In all countries, small cities are more numerous than large. In large countries with a long urban history, the size hierarchy is said to follow the rank-size rule. Zipf’s Rank Size rule examines the relationship between the sizes of towns in a country. The rule states that the size of settlement is inversely proportional to their rank. Settlements are ranked in descending order of population size, with the largest city place first. The assumption is that the second-ranked city will have a population one-half that of the first ranked, the third-ranked city a population one-third of the first ranked city, the fourth-ranked one quarter of the largest city and so on. The ranked size rule is expressed by the formula: Pn= PI / N (or R) Where Pn= the population of the city PI= the population of the largest (primate city) N or (R)= the rank-size of the city
- 25. O.Johnson For example the largest city has a population of 1 000 000, then The second largest city will be 1 000 000/2 I.e is 500 000 The third largest city will be 1 000 000/3 i.e 333 333 The fourth largest city will be 1 000 000/4 i.e 250 000 Urban primacy In developing countries, Zipf’s Rank Size rule hardly applies, as a combination of socio-cultural and historical factors result in the dominance of one very large urban area. It is often the administrative center and main port that dominates commercial activity of the entire country. This city is referred to as the primate city and is more than twice as large as the next largest town. Primacy also occurs in developed country, for example London which is six times larger than the next largest city in England; and Paris which is ten times larger than the next largest city in France. The table below shows the largest towns in Jamaica illustrates Jefferson law of the Primate City. Kingston is nearly four times as large as the next largest town, and all other towns are smaller than Zipf’s rule would predict. In fact the spatial and economic primacy becomes even more severe if the location of the three largest cities is considered. They in fact form a continuous urban corridor to the west of Kingston, therefore fully one third of the country’s population live in this conurbation. This concentration of population in a few urban centers is typical of developing countries, where continued disparities exist between rural and urban areas. Jamaica is just 57 percent urbanized and migration from declining rural areas would continue to exaggerate this primacy Urbanization is the process whereby an increasing percentage of the population in a country lives in urban settlements. Urban growth is the actual increase in size and total population of urban areas. According to the United Nations: Around 5 billion people are expected to live in urban areas by 2030. This will be about 60% of a world population 0f 8.1 billion. At present about 75% of the population of developed countries live in urban
- 26. O.Johnson areas. This figure should rise to 83% by 2030. This compares with 40% of the population of developing countries living in urban areas today. This will increase to 56% by 2030. Causes of rising urban populations Rapid urban growth is the result of three factors: Natural increase- the excess of births over deaths in most urban areas, particularly in developing countries. Rural-urban migration- The perceived higher quality of life in urban areas as opposed to rural areas has resulted in high rate of migration from the country side to towns and cities. This has been at a very high rate in developing countries since the 1950s. Reclassification – rural villages that have expanded rapidly to become towns are reclassified as urban areas. In such cases long-standing residents who will have previously seen classed as rural dwellers because their settlements have expanded in size. The two most important factor in urban growth are natural increase and in migration. Push and pull factors A variety of push factors in the country side has encouraged out-migration. There are not enough job opportunities available in rural areas. This results in unemployment. The poor wages and conditions of rural employment There are not enough services such as schools, health facilities and recreational activities in rural areas. Most tertiary based institutions are usually located in the urban areas of a country for e.g. Jamaica. The social conditions in rural areas are poor. In some rural areas, the conditions of infrastructure ( electricity, water, sanitation and roads are often lacking Agriculture is declining in rural areas in many countries and there is an expansion of the service and manufacturing industry in the urban areas. The idea of farming is not generally attractive to young people so there is a tendency to move to urban areas.
- 27. O.Johnson A variety of pull factors in the urban areas has encouraged in in-migration. People are attracted to urban areas because they feel that life in town and cities will provide at least some of the following: A much wider range of jobs and a greater likelihood of employment. The manufacturing and service sector jobs are often located in urban areas. Call centers are expanding in the Caribbean now and majority of them are located in urban areas where there is a large educated labor force. After finishing university in Jamaica, most of the graduates stay in Kingston as there is a higher chance of getting a job there. Therefore many people move to towns and cities in search of employment. Urban areas also have better educational opportunities. Most secondary and tertiary level educational facilities are to be found in towns and cities. In Jamaica some of the top tertiary institutions are located in Kingston for e.g. UWI, UTECH, MICO and EDNA. After students graduate secondary school they move to Kingston to attend these schools. Urban areas generally have better healthcare facilities than rural areas. Indeed, some rural areas have no healthcare facilities at all. Urban areas provide more opportunities for entertainment than rural areas. In urban areas one may find nightclubs, fancy restaurants, sports facilities, shopping malls and many other opportunities for entertainment and recreation. These are particularly attractive for young people. A wider range of consumer services such as food markets and different kinds of shops. Proper infrastructure- roads, water, electricity etc The scale of rural-urban migration in developing countries is not surprising given the great concentrations of wealth and economic activity in the cities compared with the countryside. For example Caracas accounts for 75% of all the manufacturing industry in Venezuela. Because of urbanization cities across the world are rapidly increasing. Some cities for e.g. Barcelona and Milan have more than one million people and are termed million cities. Some cities which have populations
- 28. O.Johnson of 10 million or more. These are termed megacities. Tokyo, Mexico city, Sao Paulo, New York, Mumbai, Los Angeles and Kolkata are all mega cities. Eight (8) percent of the world’s population live in megacities. BenefitsofUrbanization Some of the benefits of urbanization include: Convenience: A wide range of goods and services are conveniently located in the same area. Many businesses prefer to be located in urban areas in order to have access to potential customers, employees and other businesses which supply them with inputs. Efficiency: Services such as piped water, electricity, telecommunications and even garbage collection can be provided more efficiently in urban areas Majority of the urban residents are in the economically active age group. This results in a large labour supply for industries. Call centers are expanding in the Caribbean regions and they are primarily located in urban areas due to this large labour force. Large urban areas are more likely to attract new businesses. This is because cities have better facilities and a more highly skilled workforce than smaller settlement. Problems of urbanization Shortage of land for building In many cities, there is a shortage of land for building. As a result, cities often spread out onto the surrounding areas. This is known as “urban sprawl”. A good example of urban sprawl has occurred in Jamaica as the capital, Kingston, has spread outward into the surrounding areas such as St. Andrew and Portmore. Urban sprawl is the uncontrolled spread of urban development into surrounding lands (farmlands, green spaces)
- 29. O.Johnson Traffic congestion Since many people travel to cities for work or school, there may be very heavy traffic on the roads leading into these areas on mornings. Traffic is also quite heavy on afternoons as people make their way home from work or school. There may be traffic congestion during these periods as the road networks are often incapable of handling such a heavy flow of traffic. A lot of persons commute from surrounding areas e.g. Portmore and Spanish town into Kingston. In addition some commuters live as far away as May Pen and Mandeville. The road network in Kingston cannot cope with the large volume of traffic and this results in congestion. It is visible in the early mornings and late evenings. Traffic congestion is common in the urban areas of most countries. It is more pronounce in developing countries as there is usually one dominant urban area (primate city). Traffic in Kingston Jamaica High levels of unemployment New arrivals to a city far outnumber the jobs available and so high unemployment rates result. As manufacturing industry is limited, full-time occupations are concentrated in service industries such as police, the army and the civil service. . Additionally, some migrants are unskilled and therefore can’t find jobs. Some of these persons create jobs and are a part of the informal sector. Informal jobs may
- 30. O.Johnson include street trading (selling food or drinks), selling clothes, shoe cleaning and local crafts ( making furniture). The high unemployment rate in Kingston has forced many residents to create their own jobs resulting in a growth in the informal sector. Downtown Kingston Jamaica where vendors are selling food and clothes Crime The migration of unskilled and unemployed persons may contribute to high levels of crime. In some parts of Kingston for example at stop lights, it is not uncommon to find young boys doing odd jobs. They are forced to do these jobs as a result of their poverty stricken situations when they should be in school and many times they end up joining gangs and perform criminal activities. Pollution There are different sources of pollution emanating from urban areas. The exhausts from motor vehicles, the dusts from construction sites and the fumes coming from factories in urban areas result in air pollution. The noise coming from night time entertainment, continuous flow from traffic and from construction work creates noise pollution. There are also cases of water pollution. In some communities in Kingston Jamaica there is improper disposal of domestic waste. Kingston is drained by some 21 gullies. Residents dump the garbage in
- 31. O.Johnson the gully when it is dry. After some heavy rains all the garbage is washed into the Kingston Harbour where it pollutes it. The sewage produced by Kingston is dumped in the Kingston Harbour. This sewage is normally treated before it is dumped. However, due to the fact that the sewage treatment plants are unable to treat all the sewage produced by the increasing number of persons who live in Kingston, the untreated sewage is being dumped in the Harbour resulting in pollution of the water Gully in Kingston. Poor housing conditions Due to the fact that some persons who migrate to Kingston are unskilled and are unemployed, they are forced to land (vacant lots) illegally. Very often houses made by squatters are built with inferior materials (board, zinc) and lack basic amenities such as running water and electricity. These areas may eventually deteriorate in to slums, which are both unsightly and unhealthy to live in. Case study: Calcutta Bustees Although over 100 000 people live and sleep on Calcutta’s streets, one in three inhabitants of the city lives in a bustee. These dwellings are built from wattle, with tiled roofs and mud floors- materials that are not particularly effective in combating the heavy monsoon rains. The houses packed closely together are separated by narrow alleys. Inside there is often only one room, no bigger than an average British bathroom
- 32. O.Johnson A picture of Basanti Slum Calcutta India Case study: Rio de Janeiro Favelas A Favela is a wildflower that grew on the steep morros or hillsides, which surround and are found within Rio de Janeiro. Today these same morros are covered in favelas or shanty settlements. A Favela is officially defined as a residential area where 60 or more families live in accommodation that lacks basic amenities. The favelados, the inhabitants are squatters who have no legal right to the land they live on. They live in houses constructed from any materials available- wood,corrugated iron and even cardboard. Some houses may have two rooms, one for living in and the other for sleeping. There is no running water water, sewerage or electricity, and very few local jobs, schools health facilities or forms of public transport. The land upon which the favelas are built is too steep for small houses. Often there is only one water pump for hundreds of people. When it rains, mudslides and flash floods occur on the unstable slopes. These can carry way the flimsy houses (over 200 people were killed in this way in February 1988). Favela
- 33. O.Johnson Lack of services Many urban areas in LDCs do not have access to water. In some areas water is only available for a part of each day. Sanitation is also poor, as many do not have access to toilets and proper sanitation facilities. Case study: Dharavi slum Water is a big problem for Mumbai's population; standpipes come on at 5:30am for 2 hours as water is rationed. These standpipes are shared between many people. Rubbish is everywhere and most areas lack sanitation and excrement and rats are found on the street. 500 people share one public latrine. Pollution and Health Drinking water is often contaminated with sewage which may give rise to outbreaks of cholera, typhoid and dysentery. The uncollected rubbish is an ideal breeding- ground for disease. Many children have worms and suffer from malnutrition as their diet lacks fresh vegetables, protein, calories and vitamins. Local industry is rarely subjected to pollution controls and so discharge waste products into the air which may cause respiratory diseases, and/ or into water supplies. The constant struggle for survival often causes stress-related illnesses. It is not surprising that in these rapidly growing urban areas infant mortality is high and life expectancy is low.
- 34. O.Johnson Case study Dharavi slum India In the slum people have to live with many problems. People have to go to the toilet in the streets and there are open sewers. Children play amongst sewage waste and doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of typhoid and other related disease Dharavi India
- 35. O.Johnson Problems of Urbanization in MDCs 1) Poor Housing Development of old and poor quality housing in inner cities (adjacent to the CBD) with some dilapidated and abandoned buildings. Many old buildings in poor condition with some basic amenities lacking. Ghettos may form in cities with high migrant populations 2) Pollution Air quality is low and there is environmental pollution. Air and noise pollution is common in the heavy traffic congestion of the inner city. 3) Traffic congestion Traffic congestion is similar in LDCs 4) Social Problems There is a high concentration of ethnic minorities and low income families in inner city areas where unemployment is high. Crime is also a problem among the youth gangs that control many areas within the inner cities. Drug use is also a problem. 5) High Unemployment Decline in manufacturing industries has led to high unemployment. New industries have been established on the edges of cities where land is available at a lower cost. The problem is worsened by new globalizing trends in industry such as outsourcing (contracting to a supplier) and offshoring (the transfer of functions to another country). Many labour intensive jobs are outsourced to low wage countries and it is believed that increased unemployment among the unskilled. 6) Urban redevelopment in some cities has also resulted in the exclusion of the original inhabitants who cannot afford the cost of housing in these areas for example London’s Docklands. Many close knit communities have been destroyed to make way for the new industries and luxury accommodation.
- 36. O.Johnson Causes and consequences of sub-urbanization, counter urbanization, re-urbanization or gentrification in MDCS In MDCs, a longer period of urbanization, transportation changes and technology have allowed the decentralization processes of suburbanization and counter-urbanization to reverse the historical trends of moving to large urban areas. The movement represents a shift down the hierarchy. In both processes people move out of the cities. Suburbanization Suburbanization is the movement of people out of inner city areas of the city to edges. Growth of fringe areas is more rapid than in the core. Increasing affluence, improvements in transportation, the development of housing estates and a desire to escape the deteriorating neighborhoods in the city, have all fuelled this movement. It results in the development of suburbs an extension of the built up areas and a lifestyle involving daily commuting to work in the cities. Causes of suburbanization Technology- improvements in technology such as computer technology which means that people can work from home (not restricted to the city) by using computer technology. Recent developments in communication technology, such as the spread of broadband services, the growth of e-mail and the advent of practical home video conferencing, have enabled more people to work from home rather than commuting Transportation- Improvements in public transportation- cars and trains, people can live in other areas and can still quickly and easily maintain contact with place of work in the city. Developments in railways, bus routes and roads are the main improvements that make suburbanization more practical. The development of the London Underground and other such mass-transit systems have been crucial in this respect. The construction of the interstate high way system in USA was responsible for the suburban development. Greater personal means of transportation. Most people own a car and could easy well commute.
- 37. O.Johnson Push factors- operating in the city – There are several push factors operating in the city. Some of the problems include: overcrowding, traffic problems, noise air pollution from traffic, urban blight, high crime rates, restricted land area for expansion, housing available, high cost of housing and commercial space Pull factors- operating in the smaller settlements-less crowded conditions, more pleasant/greener surroundings, less noise and air pollution, lower crime rate, larger land area for expansion, lower cost of housing and commercial space and less traffic congestion. Shift from manufacturing to services and better wages, services not tied to original location factors but are more foot-loose Land price is cheaper in suburban areas and this is also attracted to business and jobs. Effects of suburbanization One of the main impact of suburbanization is environmental degradation. As people and industry move into the suburbs large acres of land are cleared to facilitate residential development. The once untouched and attracted green space of the suburbs are being destroyed. Traffic congestion is also an issue. Majority of who live in suburbs have their own car. The roadways are not able to manage the large volume of traffic as people commute to the city for work or business. Roads are becoming increasingly congested, journeys are taking longer. Seventy percent (70%) of residents in suburiton England own a car and the roads often have large number of park cars. Since majority of people are car owners there is problem or air pollution. Air pollution come from the exhausts of motor vehicles. Residents living in the suburbs have no choice but to make long commutes by car to get to work, contributing to air pollution. There is an increase in the service in suburban areas. As the population increases services will have to be develop to accommodate them. The wealthy people will demand recreational facilities such as gulf courses and gyms. The councils can afford to develop new facilities and services in the expanding suburbs. Wealthy people also want to shop, and in Britain this has
- 38. O.Johnson created demand for retailing which has resulted in the development of retail parks at the edge of city. As jobs move out of the inner city employment opportunities increase in the suburban areas. As people move out of the city, there is an increase in empty and abandon buildings. As time goes by the aesthetic appeal of the area will decrease as the buildings will deteriorate. This can decrease inward investment There is also the suburbanization of jobs. It’s not only people who relocate to the suburbs but some jobs move out to these areas as well. Unemployment therefore increases in the city as the jobs are outsourced to the suburban areas. As jobs decline the area will go into a spiral of decline as the residents will no longer be able to maintain it. The inner city cities tended to be left with a higher proportion of low income families, people with few skills, the unemployed and recent immigrants. Suburbanization creates a polarized environment/society with inequalities. The wealthier residents live in the suburban areas while the poorer and lower class people are left behind in the city areas. The large income gap between suburb and the inner city lead to polarization and resentment. Communities are lost are split up and damaged as people migrate out to the suburbs. Suburbanization can lead to the decline of the inner city areas as skilled people and business move away. Sometimes tension can develop between the original inhabitants and the newcomers. The sense of community is lost as the local community is swamped and are outnumbered by newcomers. Suburbanisation – Surbiton Where is Surbiton? An area of South West London in the borough of Kingston Upon Thames. How has the population of Surbiton changed? 1971- 140,000 2011- 160,000 What are the reasons for growth in Surbiton? Transport links to London are excellent. The fastest trains reach London Waterloo in 18 minutes. It is close to the A3- one of the main road
- 39. O.Johnson routes into the city. Variety of good quality housing. It is a wealthy area. The area has good schools and many parks for families. Good transport links (A3) whcih allows easy access to centre of London (40% of population commute to work) Population rose by 19,000 in 40 years Lower crime rates, lower pollution levels Good state schools, parks (attracting young families) Range of housing including semi- detached and flats attracting wide range of people (socio-economic groups) What are the problems in Surbiton? Lots of people own cars (70%) and roads often have large numbers of parked cars. This causes congestion. Surbiton is in London Travel Zone 6- meaning 40% of commuters choose to drive. Positive correlation between influx of people and house prices (average selling price in April was 2X that of UK average) could lead to economic segregation City centre becomes abandoned/ derelict area Further exppansion on countryside is harmful to the environment and can cause conflict What is the average house price in Surbiton? April 2012- £406,000 What was launched in Surbiton? An improvement strategy in September 2009. It prosed widening roads, buildings a new access road to Surbiton station and having set delivery times. What is being done with regards to travel? There is currently a campaign to reclassify Surbiton Station as Travel Zone 5. Secure bicycle storage units have been installed at the station and there are plans to improve pedestrian access. Counter urbanization Counter urbanization is as the name suggests the movement in the opposite direction to urbanization. People and business move out into rural areas, to some extent, changing the nature of
- 40. O.Johnson the village to an outlying ‘suburb’ beyond the suburbs. It is facilitated by decentralized workplaces and high technology, for example, footloose computer jobs. It is also represents a desire to move closer to nature. Counter urbanization is becoming increasingly important in developed countries for a number of reasons:
- 41. O.Johnson Technology- improvements in technology such as computer technology which means that people can work from home (not restricted to the city) by using computer technology. Transportation- Improvements in public transportation- cars and trains, people can live in other areas and can still quickly and easily maintain contact with place of work in the city. Greater personal means of transportation Push factors- operating in the city-overcrowding, traffic problems, pollution, urban blight, high crime rates, restricted land area for expansion, housing available, high cost of housing and commercial space Shift from manufacturing to services and better wages, services not tied to original location factors but are more foot-loose Pull factors- operating in the smaller settlements-less crowded conditions, more pleasant/greener surroundings, larger land area for expansion, lower cost of housing and commercial space and less traffic congestion. Government policies such as those relating to the construction of new towns and new cities in Britain Effects Country villages are becoming increasingly suburbanised, they can therefore grow quickly and lose their original character and charm. Second homes are often bought in this counter-urbanisation process, often in more scenic areas of the countryside such as National Parks. In this case, people buy an additional property for use as a holiday home, but do not move there permanently. This has a negative impact on communities as houses can stand unoccupied for most of the year. House prices can be pushed up locally as migrants sell expensive city properties and earn higher city wages. The net result of this is that locals and in particular the young can be forced away as they are priced out of their own communities.
- 42. O.Johnson Supermarkets and other businesses that are attracted to suburbanised villages that result from counter-urbanisation can have a massive impact on local services. Traditional rural services start to close as the new population will be reliant on the services of the urban environment such as the supermarket. The closures of village stores and post offices have caused major problems in many rural areas. Public transport goes into decline because the new residents are car owners. This can be a major problem for village residents without their own transport, particularly the elderly. Traffic congestion increases as a large percentage of the migrants will be commuting to work traffic congestion increases. Counter-urbanisation affects the layout if rural settlements, modern housing is built on the outside of the area and industrial estates are built on large main roads leading into the settlements. This has been the case in Cramlington, where the old core of Cramlington of the old pit village has been surrounded by housing estates and industrial estates. Inner city areas are left with derelict buildings, struggling shops and a cycle of Gentrification Gentrification is the revival of an urban area that has been subject to environmental, and possibly socio-economic decline. It is the revitalisation of a part of the city that ‘has seen better days’. At the same time, there is re-urbanization, a process designed to improve the quality of inner city life for people and households in different social strata. It is an attempt to provide vibrant living space within urban cores that have fallen into decline. Gentrification is a form of this process. Previously abandoned buildings are refurbished and specialized commercial services encouraged until the area becomes a desirable location for the wealthy. It involves refurbishment and change in social composition through the displacement of the original inhabitants and immigration of the middle class households as a result many city centers have become socially exclusive.
- 43. O.Johnson Effects of gentrification Urban areas become renovated, refurbished and improved at little cost to the local authorities. Affluent residents are attracted back to the central city reversing decades of out-migration. Increase in business and services such as Those selling property get greater returns. Declining communities are revived with an increase in users for libraries, schools, clinics and voluntary groups. House prices increase rapidly, pricing out less affluent local people. Rents are increased by private landlords to drive out low-cost tenants and attract higher- income tenants. Increasing social division as existing communities feel powerless to influence changes. Parking issues as more and larger vehicles attempt to park at the side of roads. Gentrification of Islington (case study) background islington is a borough in north London, with lots of Georgian and early victorian houses, which were originally occupied by wealthy residents in the late 19th century, the railways expanded and made access to the city easier, so the wealthier residents left islington and moved out to the suburbs poorer residents from central London moved into the area, which became overcrowded, and they couldn't afford to maintain the housing and the area became run down causes of middle class people buying properties in islington (in 1960s)
- 44. O.Johnson There was an increase in jobs in the service sector (e.g. in law and media) and a decrease in jobs in the manufacturing sector. people working in the service sector tended to be young, well paid and work long hours, so wanted to live close to the city centre islington was well connected to the city centre by nearby Angel underground station Houses in islington were large and attractive, and much cheaper than in wealthier areas, many of the houses were in poor state, so people could renovate them to suit their own tastes positive impacts of gentrification on islington -improved housing - wealthier residents renovated and improved many Georgian and Victorian properties (e.g. restoring original features and repainting exterior walls) -new businesses opened e.g. wine bars and restaurants, bringing money and jobs to the area. negative impacts of gentrification on islington -increased house prices - the average house price in islington increased from around £130,000 in 1996 to £430,000 in 2008. making it difficult for people on lower salaries to live in the area. many people were forced out into social housing (which accounted for nearly 50% of housing in 2008) -there is a wealth gap between the richest and poorest residents e.g. the richest 20% earn more than £60,000 a year while the poorest 20% earn less than £15,000 a year. in 2007, islington was the 8th most deprived area in England -some businesses have closed e.g. traditional pubs and convenience stores Case Study – Inner City Redevelopment – London’s Docklands In 1981 the London’s Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was set up to improve the economic, social and environmental problems that had developed in the area that was once one of
- 45. O.Johnson the world’s busiest ports. The area had been in decline since the 1950’s. This is because larger ships could no longer access the port. Unemployment soared, the back to back terraced housing fell into disrepair and there was a lack of transport and leisure facilities. The area became the first Enterprise Zones in 1981. The land was made rate free for ten years. Between 1981-1998 many changes occurred within London Docklands. For example: Employment Low rents attracted a number of hi-tech and financial firms. This includes The Limehouse ITV studios and The Guardian and Daily Telegraph newspapers. Housing Many of the former warehouses have been transformed into luxury flats. This is an example of gentrification. Low-cost housing has also been built along with the renovation of older council-owned properties. Leisure A large shopping area was constructed close to Canary Warf. A number of parks have been created where buildings once stood. More recently the Millennium Dome was built in this area. Transport London’s Docklands now has its own light railway. The Dockland Light Railway (DLR) connects with Bank and Monument underground stations. This makes travel into the City of London very easy. Although the redevelopment of London’s Docklands brought many benefits to the area there are some groups who oppose the changes. This includes some of the original inhabitants of the area who are now unable to afford to live there. The majority of the jobs in the new hi-tech industries are unsuitable for unemployed docker workers. They do not have the skills needed for jobs in these industries. Close knit-communities have been broken up. Many believe there are insufficient services for people living in the area e.g. care for the elderly. Urban Models: Burgess, Hoyt, Ullman/Harris
- 46. O.Johnson As cities have grown in area and population in the 20th century, geographers and sociologists have tried to identify and to explain variations in spatial patterns. Spatial patterns, which may show differences and similarities in land use and/ or social groupings within a city, reflect how various urban areas have evolved economically and socially (culturally) in response to changing conditions over time. While each city has its own distinct pattern or patterns, studies of other urban areas have shown that they too exhibit similar patterns. As a result, several models describing and explaining urban structure have been put forward. Urban models or models of urban morphology, investigate the spatial arrangement of functional zones (activities in an urban area). They assume spatial specialization where similar activities will locate in similar places. The three models discussed here are early attempts to understand sociological pattern in US cities: Burgesses 1924, Hoyt 1939, and Ullmann/Harris 1945, who worked mainly on North American cities. The main functional zones identified in the models are: CBD Light Manufacturing Heavy Manufacturing Lower income housing Middle income housing High income housing Burgess Model, 1924
- 47. O.Johnson Burgesses attempted to identify areas within Chicago based upon the outward expansion of the city and the socio- economic groupings of its inhabitants. It split the land use of the city into rings, starting from the center. The idea was that urban areas grow equally in all directions, with the oldest, most dense housing being found closest to center.
- 48. O.Johnson Basic assumptions Although the main aim of this model was to described residential structures and to show processes at work in a city, geographers have subsequently presumed that Burgess made certain assumptions The city was built on flat land which therefore gave equal advantages in all directions, I.e. morphological features such as river valleys were removed Transport systems were of limited significance being equally easy, rapid and cheap in every direction Land values were highest in the center of the city and declined rapidly outwards to give a zoning of urban functions and land use. The oldest buildings were in, or close to, the city center. Buildings became progressively newer towards the city boundary Cities contained a variety of well-defined socio-economic and ethnic areas. The poorer classes had to live near to the city center and places of work as they could not afford transport or expensive housing. There were no concentrations of heavy industry Zone 1 Central Business District At the core is the CBD, or Central Business District. This is the area with the highest land price, which could only be afforded by businesses. Contains the major shops and offices it is the center of commerce and entertainment, and the focus for transport routes. Main characteristics of the CBD The CBD contains the retailing outlets, the principal department stores and specialist shops with the highest turnover and requiring largest threshold populations compete for the prime sites. It contains a high proportion of the city’s main offices
- 49. O.Johnson It contains the tallest buildings in the city ( more typically in North America), mainly due to high rents which result from the competition for land. It has the greatest number and concentration of pedestrians It has the greatest volume and concentration of traffic It has the highest land values in the city Features of the CBD High/multi-storey buildings. Department stores or specialist shops, like jewellers. Shopping malls and pedestrian precincts. Cultural/historical buildings, museums and castles. Offices, finance, banks, administration, town hall (business sector). Bus and railway stations (transport centres). Multi-storey car parks. Zone 2 Inner city area (twilight zone)/ Transition zone/ Light manufacturing The transition zone (zone 2) is a mixed industrial/residential area often comprising low income residential areas or slums and ethnic ghettos. Immigrants from poorer countries flocking to a rapidly expanding city in search of work, would be forced to occupy the worst housing since they have the
- 50. O.Johnson weaker competitive position. Furthermore, ethnic immigrants tend to stick together as they form neighborhoods which speak their language and in which their culture dominates. The inhabitants tend to be of poorer social groups and first generation immigrants. The oldest housing is deteriorating into slum property or being invaded by light industry. There are deteriorated housing, abandoned buildings and factories. Zone 3: Low class residential These areas are occupied by persons who have escaped from zone 2 or by second-generation immigrants who work in nearby factories. They are compelled to live near to their place of work to reduce travelling costs and rent. In modern Britain, these zones are equated with the inner cities. . The conditions are better and this is a more stable zone than the twilight zone or zone 2. Zone 4 Medium class residential Higher quality houses including mainly semidetached housing and council estates. As people became wealthier they could afford to live further out of town in better housing. Zone 5: High class residential (commuter zone).
- 51. O.Johnson These are occupied by people who can afford the expensive properties and the high costs of commuting. It also stretches in to the countryside beyond the city. It also includes the commuter villages (suburbanized villages) beyond the city boundary. These areas include recreational facilities including parks and gulf courses. It is also called the commuter zone as the more affluent members of the community would live in the zone furthest away from the center as they could afford to commute to the city center. However, there are limits to the Burgess model: The model is now quite old and was developed before the advent of mass car ownership. New working and housing trends have emerged since the model was developed. Many people now choose to live and work outside the city on the urban fringe - a phenomenon that is not reflected in the Burgess model. Every city is different. There is no such thing as a typical city
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- 53. O.Johnson Hoyts sector Hoyt’s model was based on the mapping of eight housing variables for 142 cities in the USA. He tried to account for changes in, and the distribution of, residential patterns This is based on the circles on the Burgess model, but adds sectors of similar land The Hoyt model (below) has land use concentrated in wedges or sectors radiating out from the city center. Basic assumptions Hoyt made the same implicit assumptions as had burgess, with the addition of three new factors: Wealthy people who could afford the highest rates, choose the best sites I.e competition based on ‘ability to pay’ resolved land use conflicts Wealthy residents could afford private cars or public transport and so lived further from industry and nearer to main roads Similar land uses attracted similar land uses, concentrating a function in a particular area and repelling others. This process lead to a ‘sector’ development
- 54. O.Johnson The Central Business District As with all classic models of urban land use, the Hoyt Sector Model has at its core the central business district (CBD). Every city has one such district at its center; typically, it is the area with the high-rise buildings, banks, and large business headquarters. It is the commercial and business center of a city. The Industrial Sector Zone 2 According to this model, in regions of the city with significant industrial transportation routes (rail, barge, freight), industrial corridors will develop. The noise and pollution of these zones drive all but the poorest residents away from these areas. In Chicago, several of these industrial corridors stretched outward from the CBD along railroad lines and the Illinois-Michigan industrial canal. Low-Class Residential (Zone 3)
- 55. O.Johnson Next to the industrial zone are the lower- or working-class residential zones. People who live here tend to be factory workers and live in low-income housing. Housing is cheap due to its proximity to industry where pollution, traffic, railroads, and environmental hazards make living conditions poor. Those who live in this sector do so to reduce the cost to commute to work. One of Hoyt’s assumption was that land use will attract similar land use and repel others. Factories or the zone of industry would be concentrated along communication /transportation routes e.g. railways. This area would attract low-class housing. The lowest class housing would be closest to the industry. Here similar land uses attracted similar uses. This means that lower income residents couldn’t afford to commute to work, so they were compelled to live near factories where they work in order to reduce travelling costs and rents. Middle Class Housing (Zone 4) This residential area is a bit more desirable because it is located further from industry and pollution. People who work in the CBD have access to good transportation lines, making their commute easier High class (zone 5) Hoyt’s model also identified an elite zone, for the handful of upper-class people who live in the city.. High-class residential sectors tend to be quiet, clean, and have less traffic that the other ones. There is also a corridor that extends from the CBD to the edge of the city. It is unlikely that high-class residential housing would be found near factories or lower-class housing areas. In this way, Hoyt’s model suggests a distinct physical separation between the wealthy and the poor Hoyt mention that certain land uses also repel other land uses. The wealthier people would locate away from factories, pollution and environmental hazards. In addition the wealthier residents could afford private cars or public transport and could afford to commute in to the city center for work or businesses.
- 56. O.Johnson Ullman and Harris This model was developed in 1945 by two geographers, Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, to try and further describe a city's layout. It was brought forward that many towns and nearly all large cities do not grow around one CBD, but are formed by the progressive integration of a number of separate nuclei in the urban spatial structure Ullman and Harris retained the CBD but suggested that it was not the only centre of activity Harris and it was losing its importance in relation to the rest of the city and should be seen less as the focal point of a city and instead as a nucleus within the metropolitan area. They proposed other centers or multiple-nuclei around the city. Older centers, industrial estates and shopping centers may each have their own specialized urban functions around them. The automobile began to become increasingly more important during this time which made for greater movement of residents to the suburbs
- 57. O.Johnson However like the other models, lower income housing remained nearest light manufacturing with middle and higher income further away from the CBD. Basic assumptions Modern cities have a more complex structure than that suggested by Burgess and Hoyt. Cities did not grow from one CBD but from several independent nuclei Each nucleus ( a growth point) acts has a function different from other nuclei within that city ( In London, The city was financial; /Westminster is government and administration; The West End is retailing; and Dockland was industrial) In time, there will be an outward growth from each nucleus until they merges as one large urban center (Barnet and Croydon now farm part of greater London. These CBD's act as growth poles, meaning that the city does not just grow from one central point, but from many spread around its area.
- 58. O.Johnson If the city becomes too large and congested some functions may be dispersed to new nuclei (In Greater London, edge of city retailing take place at Brent Cross and New industry has developed close to Heathrow Airport along M25 and M4
- 59. O.Johnson The land use model which has evolved is true mainly for Brazilian cities, although it can be applied to other cities in the world, including Zomba in Malawi. The main characteristics of the model of Sao Paulo (below) are: 1. The Central Business District; contains the main businesses, shopping centres and entertainment of the urban area. 2. High status housing surrounds the CBD. This includes high-rise expensive modern apartment blocks, many with their own security guards. This pattern is the opposite to that of cities in MEDCs. Inner city districts of MEDCs date back to the factories and tenement blocks of the Industrial Revolution, whereas the area surrounding the CBD in LEDCs dates from colonial times when it housed the colony's administrators and Governor. It consequently has the infrastructure - electricity, telephones, sewerage, water, etc. not found in other parts of the urban area. 3. Surrounding the high-quality residential area is poor to medium quality housing which started out as a shanty town. It has now been provided with some basic amenities (the periferia).
- 60. O.Johnson 4. Shanty towns (spontaneous squatter settlements or favellas) are found on the steep hillsides, swamps or waste land surrounding the city. 5. Modern factories are found along main roads, sometimes with favellas in between. There are also areas on the periphery of low-cost housing funded by the government which have basic amenities. In addition there is suburban high status, low density housing for executive and professional classes.